LIBRARY 

OF   TIIR 

Theological    Seminary, 

PRINCETON,    N.  J. 

BT    75     .K6A    1865                                   i 
Knapp,    Georg    Christian,     175i 

-1825. 
Lectures    on    Christian 

LECTURES 


«w 


CHRISTIAN   THEOLOGY. 


BY 


GEOTIGE   CHEISTIAN  KNAPP,  B.D. 

PROFESSOX    OF   THEOLOGY    IN   THE   UN1VERSI7Y    OF   IIALI.E. 


TRANSLATED    BV 

LEONARD  WOODS,  JUN.  D.D. 

PRESIDENT    OF  B  O  W  D  O  1  N    COLLEGE,   BRUNSWICK,    MAINS. 


EIGHTH  AMERICAN  EDITION, 

REPRINTED  FROM  THE   LAST  LONDON  EDITION. 


X  E  W  -YORK: 
N.  TIBBALS  &  CO.,  lis    NASSAU    STREET. 

1  865. 


Entered  according  lo  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S45,  by  Thomas  Wardi.f,  in  the  clerk's  office  of  the 
District  Court  of  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania- 


CONTENTS. 


Translator's  Preface p.  9 

INTRODUCTION. 

*ECT.  PAOE 

1.  Of  Religion  and  Theology,  and  the  difference  be- 

tween tliein 23 

2.  Of  religion  as  the  means  of  the  moral  improve- 

ment and  perfection  of  men 27 

3.  Of  natural  and  revealed  religion      28 

4.  Is  the  knowledge  of  God  innate  ? 32 

5.  Of  the  articles  of  faith,  and  the  analogy  of  faith  33 

6.  Of  the  mysteries  of  religion 35 

7.  General  observations  on  the  use  of  the  holy  scrip- 

tures, reason,  and  tradition,  as  sources  of 
Christian  doctrines 37 

8.  Of  the  object,  dilTerent  degrees,  principal  periods, 

and  biblical  appellations  of  divine  revelation      40 

0.  Of  the  scientific  treatment  of  Christian  theology      43 

ARTICLE  I. 

THE    HOLY    SCnlPTURES    AS    THE   80UnCE   OP    OUR 
KNOWLEDOE   IN   CHRISTIAN    THEOLOOV. 

1.  Names  and  divisions  of  the  books  belonging  to 

the  holy  scriptures 47 

2.  Of  the  authenticity  or  genuineness  of  the  books 

of  the  New  Testament 47 


SECT.  rioi 

3.  Of  the  authenticity  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 

tament        48 

4.  Of  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  or  the  collec- 

tion of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  into  a 
whole 50 

5.  Of  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament,  or  the  col- 

lection of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
into  a  whole 53 

6.  Of  the  unadulterated  correctness  and  inloerityof 

the  Old  and  New  Testament  scriptures. ...      56 

7.  Of  the  truth  and  divinity  of  the  doctrines  taught 

by  Christ  and  his  apostles 57 

8.  Of  the  inspiration  of  the  scriptures  of  the  Old 

and  New  Testament,  or  the  higher  divine  in- 
fluence enjoyed  by  the  sacred  writers    ....      09 

9.  Historical  observations  comparine  the  concep- 

tions and  expressions  of  the  ancient  world 
*      respecting  immediate  divine  influence  ..    ..      60 

10.  Of  the  various  theories  res[wrting  the  manner 

and  the  desrees  of  inspiration 08 

11.  Of  some  of  the  principal  attributes  of  the  holy 

scriptures     71 

12.  Of  the  use  of  the  Bible  as  the  source  of  the  doc- 

trines of  revelation 74 

13.  Of  the  reading  of  the  holy  scriptures     78 


BOOK   I.— DOCTRINE   OF    GOD. 


PART  I. 

THE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES  OF  GOD. 

ARTICLE  II. 

THE  EXISTENCE  AND   THE  NOTION    OF   OOD. 
■ECT.  PAGE 

U.  Of  the  notion  of  God     85 

15.  Of  the  proofs  of  the  divine  existence     80 

IC    Of  the  unity  of  God 90 

17    Of  the  scriptural  names  of  God 93 

ARTICLE  III. 

THE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBLTES  OK  OOD. 

IS.  Introduction  to  the  doctrine  respecting  the  na- 
ture and  attributes  of  God    94 

19.  Of  the  spirituality  of  God 9S 


SECT.  PAOl 

20.  Of  the  eternity  and  immutability  of  God     ..    ..  99 

21.  The  omnipotence  of  God      101 

22.  Of  the  omniscience  of  God ..  103 

23.  Of  the  omnipresence  of  God       105 

24.  The  wisdom  of  God 108 

25.  Introductory  remarks  respecting  the  nature  and 

perfections  of  the  divine  will     109 

26.  Of  the  freedom,  immutability,  and  edicacy  of  the 

divine  will HI 

27.  General  remarks  on  the  moral  attributes  of  the 

divine  will 113 

28.  Of  the  veracity  and  the  goodness  of  God      ..    ..  114 

29.  Of  the  holiness  of  God 116 

30.  Of  the  justice  of  God      117 

31.  Of  the  justice  of  God  (continued) HO 

S3.  Of  the  decrees  of  God  (AppendU) IH 

3 


CONTENTS. 


ARTICLE  I< 

DOCTBIKB    or   FATHER,   iOIl,  AS  >    HOLY    OllOST. 
IBCT.  TAOB 

33.  Introductory  remarks 130 

CHAP.  I. 

BIBLICAL   DOCTRINE   OF    THE   TnlSITT. 

34.  li  this  doctrine  taught  In  the  Old  Testament  1     131 

35.  Of  those  teils  in  the  New  Testament  in  which 

Fiihcr,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  are  mentioned 

in  connection      133 

30.  Of  those  texts  In  which  the  Father,  Bon,  and 
Hilly  Gho§t  are  separately  nienlioneil.  and  in 
whkh  thuir  nature  and  mutual  relation  are 
taught 135 

87.  Of  the  texts  in  which  Jlvine  names  are  given 

to  Christ 136 

SS.  Of  the  texts  in  H'hich  divine  attributes  and 
works  %re  nsrribed  to  Christ,  and  in  which 
divine  honour  is  required  for  him 13S 

39.  Of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  his  personality       ..    ..    140 

40.  Of  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit 142 

CHAP.  II. 

HISTORY  OF  THE   DOCTRINE  OF  THE  TRIMTV. 

41.  Are  there  in  Jewish  or  heathen  writings  any 

traces  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  which 
were  not  derived  from  Christian  sources  1  ..     144 

42.  History  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  during  the 

second  and  third  centuries,  before  the  Nicene 
Council 149 

43.  History  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  during 

the   fourth  century,  and  of  the   distinctions 
estahliiihed  at  the  Nicene  Council,  and  since' 

adopted  in  the  orthodox  church 152 

4-1.  History  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  since  the 

lime  of  the  Refurmation       159 


PART  11. 

,  THE  WORKS  OF  GOD. 


ARTICLE  V. 

OF  THE  CREATION    OF   THE   WORLD. 

43.  Of  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  It'orld,"  and  of 

synonymous  wordu 161 

4<S.  WImt  we  mean  wiien  we  speak  of  the  creation 
of  the  vorld ;  the  prouf  (if  a  creation ;  the 
material  from  whirh  it  was  made;  with  a 
sketch  iif  the  various  opinions  enterlained 
on  this  siihjecl 103 

47.  The    doctrine    and    language    of  the    Bilillcal 

writers  respecting  the  creation   In  general, 
and  how  they  are  to  lie  understood 1G6 

48.  The  work  of  creation  twofold  j  difTerent  classes 

of  creatures;  our  knowledge  of  them;  and 
of  (iod  in  the  creation  of  the  world  ;  the  bust 

world      109 

40.  Of  the  Mosaic  account  of  llie  creation;  its  ob- 
ject; and  the  various  liypotlieses  adopted  to 
ex|ilaiu  it      171 

60.  Explanation  oftlie  Mosaic  history  of  the  creation    170 


ARTICLE  VL 

CREATIOX    AKD   ORIGINAL   CONDITION    OF   MAN. 
SECT.  PAOg 

51.  Of  the  nature  of  man,  especially  of  the  soul  of 

man,  and  of  his  destination 180 

52.  Of  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  origin  of  the  hu- 

man race 184 

53.  Of  the  image  of  God  in  which  man  was  created     169 

54.  Of  the  primitive  state  of  man  ;  his  mental  and 

moral  perfections      19*^ 

55.  Of  the  primitive  slate  of  man  ;  his  bodily  excel- 

lences, and  speech 195 

56.  Of  the  primitive  state  of  man  ;  his  external  ad- 

vantages ;  and  the  notion  of  a  gulden  age  . .     197 

57.  Of  the  propagation  of  the  human  race 200 

ARTICLE  VII. 

THE    DOCTRINE   RESPECTINR    ANOELS. 

58.  Of  the  importance  of  the  doctrine  concerning 

angels,  and  some  introductory  historical  re- 
marks      203 

59.  Of  the  appellations  of  nngels  ;  their  nature  ; 

proofs  of  their  existence  ;  their  creation  and 
original  state  ;  and  the  classes  into  which 
they  are  divided       207 

CHAP.   I. 

THE   DOCTRINE   OF  THE    HOLY   ANGELS. 

60.  Of  the  present  state  and  employment  of  holy 

angels 20B 

61.  Of  ihe  classes  of  good  angels ;  their  names  ;  and 

tlie  worship  rendered  them 213 

CHAP.   II. 

THE   FALLEN    ANGELS,    OR     EVIL   SPIRITS. 

62.  Of  the  existence  of  evil  spirits,  and  their  apos- 

tasy  215 

63.  Of  tlie  nature  and  attributes   of  evil  spirits; 

llieir  present  and  future  condition ;  their 
number,  classes,  and  names 219 

64.  Ofthe  employments  and  Ihe  effects  of  evil  spirits    223 

APPENDIX. 

POWER   OF   SATAN    OVKR   THE    III'MAN    BODY    AND   THE. 
MATERIAL   WORLD. 

05.  Of  the  bodily  possessions  recorded  in  the  New 

Testament 226 

66.  Of  magic  and  spectres 231 

ARTICLE  VIIL 

THE    DOCTRINE   RE8PECTIN0   DIVINE    rROVIDKNCE. 

67.  What  is  meant  by  the  providence  of  O.hI,  and 

historical  remarks  respecting  this  dm  irine  1    S3S 

68.  Of  the  proof  of  the  doctrine  of  divine   provl. 

denci-,  and  of  the  divisions  under  which  it 

has  been  treated        S38 

69.  Of  the  preservation  of  Ihe  exislenco  and  of  the 

powers  of  created  beings  and  things     ..     ..     911 
70    Of  the  government  of  God      t4S 

71.  The  government  of  God  in  relation  to  the  free- 

dom of  man,  and  to  the  evil  existing  In  the 
world     347 

72.  Of  the  nature  and  attribiites  of  Divine  Provi- 

dence      333 


CONTENTS, 


BOOK  II.— THE  DOCTRINE  OF  MAN. 


PART  I. 

STATE    INTO   WHICH    MAN    IS    BROUGHT    BY 
THE    FALL. 


ARTICLE  IX. 


OF  SIN,  AND  THB    Pl<KI8HMENT   OF  SIK. 


73.  Wtint  is  meant  by  gin ;  the  different  words  used 
in  the  Bible  to  denote  sin,  and  the  meaning 
of  them 269 

T4.  What  does  reason,  without  the  nse  of  th«  Bible, 
teach  us  respecting  the  sinful  state  of  man, 
and  the  origin  of  itf  And  how  far  do  the 
results  of  reason  on  this  subject  agree  with 
the  Bible  ■» 261 

75.  Mosaic  account  of  the  sin  of  our  first  parents  . .    2Cfi 

76.  Of  the  imputation  of  the  sin  of  our  first  parents    273 

77.  In  what  the  natural  depravity  of  man  consists  ; 

its  appellations  in  the  Bible  ;  when  it  has 
its  principal  seat  in  man;  and  how  its  ex- 
istence may  be  proved  from  the  holy  scrip- 
tures        27/ 

78.  Of  the  nature  and  attributes  of  this  corruption  ; 

its  propagation  ;  its  punishableneps  ;  also  of 
the  origin  of  sinful  desires  among  men,  and 
their  punishableness       284 

79  Of  the  representations  of  the  ancient  church- 
fathers  resprclin?  human  depravity,  and  the 
manner  in  whiih  the  ecclesiastical  phrase- 
ology on  this  subject  and  the  various  forma 
of  doctrine  were  gradually  developed    . .    . . 


289 


80.  Resulis  of  the  foregoing  discussion  respecting 
tlie  doctrine  of  natural  depravity,  and  ob- 
servations on  the  mode  of  teacUing  this  doc- 


293 


PART  n. 

STATE    INTO   WHICH    MAN   IS    BROUGHT   B"> 
THE    REDEMPTION. 


ARTICLE  X. 
or   JESUS   CHRIST. 

CHAP.  I. 

OF  THE  DIVINE  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  nESTOBATION  0» 
MEN,  IN  A  GENERAL  VIEW;  THE  EXPECTATIONS,  PnE- 
DICTIONS,  AND  TYI'ES  OF  THE  MESSIAH,  AND  THEIE 
FULFILMENT   IN   JESbS    OF   NAZARETH. 

SECT.  •"**■ 

88.  Of  the   institutions  established  by  God  for  the 

moral  recovery  and  the  salv-ition  of  the 
human  race,  in  a  general  view  ;  the  scrip- 
tural doctrines  and  representations  on  this 
subject;  as  a  general  introduction  to  what 
follows 3" 

89.  Formation  and  development  of  the  idea  of  Mes- 

siah among  the  ancient  and  modern  Jews 
their  opinions  respecting  him;  and  the  proof 
that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah 331 

90.  Of  the  principles  on  which  we  are  to  interpret 

the  literal  and  figurative  predictions  rorfc 
tained  in  the  Old  Testament  respeclini;  the 
Messiah,  and  the  new  institute  founded  by 
him 

91.  Of  the  successive  degrees  of  the  revelations  and 

predictions  contained  in  the  Old  Testament 
respecting  the  Messiah 


81.  Explanation  of  the  idea  which  is  commonly 
connected  in  theology  with  the  expression 
"Actual  Sins,"  and  of  the  diflerent  degrees 
ofsin     297 

88.  Divisions  of  sin  in  respect  to  the  law,  to  the 
Itnowledie  and  purpose  of  him  who  commits 
It,  and  to  the  action  itself     . .      2y9 

83.  Of  some  other  divisions  of  sin,  and  sins  of  par- 
ticipation        303 

64.  Of  the  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  or  the 

sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost 305 

85.  Of  the  state  into  which  men  are  brought  by  the 
commission  o!  sin,  and  the  dilTerent  kinds 
and  names  of  it 308 

80  What  punishment  ir,  and  what  is  the  object  of 
it ;  how  the  diviie  punishments  are  named 
in  the  Bible,  and  what  we  are  there  taught 
respecting  their  nature;  also  the  various  di- 
visions of  the  divinj  punishments    311 

87,  Same  remarks  on  positive  divine  punishments    314 


325 


328 


CHAP.  II. 

HISTORY   OF   JESUS    IN   HIS    TWO   STATES   OF  HUMILIATIOE 
AND   EXALTATION. 

te.  The  scriptural  representation  of  the  two  prin- 
cipal periods  in  the  life  of  lesus ;  the  scrip- 
tural names  of  these  periods ;  the  proof  texls ; 
and  some  conclusions "l 

93.  Of  the  origin,  conception,  birth,  and  youth  of 

Jesus  ;  his  true  humanity,  and  the  excel- 
lences of  it  "^ 

94.  Of  the   doctrine   of  Jesus,  and   his   office   as 

teacher 377 

95.  Of  the  hardships  and  sufferings  of  Jesus      ..    ..    341 
90.  Of  Christ's  descent  into  hell      ^^ 

97.  History  of  Christ  considered  as  a  man,  in  his 

state  of  exaltation **"' 

98.  Wherein  the  heavenly  glory  or  majesty  of  Chris^ 

as  a  man,  consists  ;  and  the  scriptural  idea 

of  this  kingdom  and  dominion  of  Christ. .    . .    >5« 

99.  Remarks  on  the  form   and  sense  of  the  scrip- 

tural representation  respecting  the  kingdom 
of  God  and  of  Christ ;  and  on  the  sit-nifu  atioM 
of  the  phrase,  to  sit  on  the  right  hand  of  God, 
as  applied  to  Christ 331 

a2 


CONTEXTS. 


CHAP.  III. 

DOCTBINE  OF  THE  PERSON   OF  CHBIST. 


100.  The   higher  nature  of  Christ,  and    how  it  is 

proved 355 

101.  Of  the  connection  between  the  deity  and  huma- 

nity of  Christ  according  to  what  tlie  Uilile 
directly  teaches,  and  the  consequences  which 
may  be  deduced  from  its  inutructiuns     ..    ..    357 

10!r.  Historical  observations  pxplan^lorv  of  the  origin 
and  proeressive  develfipment  of  the  eccle- 
siastical system  respecting  the  person  and 
the  two  natures  of  Christ,  until  the  eighth 
century 361 

103.  Historical  oliservations  continued;  the  ancient 
terminology  respecting  this  dontrine  ex- 
plained   306 

1(M.  A  brief  exhibition  of  the  ecclesiastical  systeiit 
respecting  the  person  and  the  two  natures 
of  Christ ;  an  explanation  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical phraseology  now  in  use  in  the  doctrine 
de  eommunieatione  idiomatum  J  and  a  critical 
Judgment  ujion  the  same      360 

Cn.VP.  IV. 

THE   WORK    or   CIIRtST,    AND    WHAT   HAS    BEEN 
EFFECTED   BV   IT. 

105.  Scriptural  names  and  descriptions  of  the  works 

of  Chri-'t,  and  their  salutary  effects;  also, 
the  names  of  Christ  as  the  Saviour  of  the 
world     372 

106.  What  is  considered  In  the  scriptures  as  properly 

belont'ina  to  the  work  which  Christ  pur- 
f  iruied  for  the  pood  of  men  ;  explanation  of 
the  word  "redemption,"  as  used  in  the 
0  Bible  ;  and  what  is  the  most  convenient  and 
natural  onler  and  connection  for  exhibiting 
the  doctrine  of  the  entire  merits  of  Christ    ..    374 

107.  Of  the  method  formerly  adopted  of  considering 

the  work  of  Christ  as  consisting  of  the  pro- 
Dhetic,  priestly,  and  kingly  offices 377 


PART   I.    OF   CH.\P.    IV. 

On  redfmptlon  frnm  the  pnniahmetit  nf  rin;  or,  the 
^tontmtnt  of  Christ,  and  the  Jurlincation  of  Men 
before  Oud,—the  Con$equenee  of  the  Atonement. 

108.  Of  the  various  opinions  respecting  the  forgive- 

neif  by  God,  and  the  conditions  on  which 
foriiiveiicBs  mny  be  granted  ;  iind  an  applica- 
tion of  this  to  the  scriptural  dorlrine  of  the 
atonement 380 

109.  Scriptural  dortrina  respecting  the  ntcettitt/  of 

the  forgiveness  of  sin;  what  is  meant  hy 
forgiveness,  pardon,  Juiititlrnllon ;  and  the 
■rrlptural  terms  hy  whiih  they  arc  desig- 
nated       3S5 

110.  Illustrallon    of  the    scriptural   statement,  that 

men  owe  it  to  Christ  alone  that  Ood  Justiflet 
them  or  forgives  their  sins SS8 

111.  Of  the  lufftrinfi  and  death  of  Christ  ;  how  far 

we  are  indeliled  to  iheui  fnr  our  Jiistinration 
or  pardon  ;  tojeiher  with  observnllons  on 
some  .of  the  principal  Rilrlhutrs  (affectinns) 
of  the  death  of  Christ      SOO 

lit.  Of  the  influence  which  the  res'irrection  of  Christ, 
and  his  subsequent  exallaiinn  and  inter- 
cession, have  upon  our  forgiveness  or  Justifi- 
cation      3M 


113.  The  scripture  doctrine  nf  pardon  or  jilstificatioii 

throiicli  Christ, as  an  universal  ixuii  unmerited 
favour  of  God ' 337 

114.  Of  the  various  theories  respecting  the  nature  and 

manner  of  ihe  atonement  of  Christ  ;  and  a 
notice  of  some  of  the  inost  important  works 
on  atonement  and  justification 400 

115.  Of  the  active  obedience  of  Christ 405 


PART    II.    OF    CHAP.    IV. 

On  Redemption  from  the  Potcer  or  Dominion  of  Jia, 

110.  Of  the  importance  of  this  doctrine;  its  con 
formity  with  scripture,  and  the  manner  in 
which  we  are  freed  from  sin  through  Christ    408 

117.  Of  the  deliverance  from  the  power  and  dominion 
of  sin,  for  which  we  are  iiidebleil,  under  di- 
vine assistance,  to  the  instruction  and  ex- 
ample of  Christ 410 


PART   III.    OF   CHAP.    IV. 

On  the  present  and  future  eonsequeneee  of  the  vurk 
of  Christ. 

119.  Scriptural  titles  of  the  salvation  procured  hy 
Chri?!  for  men;  its  general  nature;  the  doc- 
trine of  the  New  Testament  respecting  the 
abdiltiiin  of  the  Old  Testament  dispensation 
by  Christianity,  and  the  advantages  resulting 
from  it  tu  the  world 412 

119.  The  happiness  which  Christians  obtain  in  this 

life  from  Christ 415 

120.  The  happiness  which  Christians  obtain  through 

Christ  in  th:  future  life 418 

ARTICLE  XI. 

DOCTRINa  OF  THE  CONDITIONS  OF  SALVATION. 

121.  Of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  faith,  as  the  only 

condition  of  salvation,  together  with  remarks 
respecting  the  salvation  of  the  heathen  and 
of  infants     4Q0 

122.  Of  the  various  significations  of  the  word  "  failh" 

as  used  in  Ihe  Bible  ;  some  of  the  prinr i|>al 
passages  rolaling  to  faith;  the  parts  of  which 
faith  18  made  up;  and  some  of  the  most  ini> 
portant  theological  divisions  of  faith      ..    ..    423 

123.  Of  the  different  objects  of  Christian  doctrine  to 

which  faith  refers;  and  the  relation  of  faith 

to  the  same 4J7 

121.  Of  the  connection  of  the  parts  of  which  faith  is 
coni[Hised  ;  Ihe  characteristics  and  degrees 
of  failh  ;  and  the  conditions  on  which  it  is 
saving 431 

125.  Of  the  nature  of  Christian  good  works  or  virtues ; 

ine  relation  in  which  lliey  stand  to  sahatinn  ; 
and  their  meritoriousnest 433 

126.  Explanation  of  the  terms  which  are  used  in  the 

scriptures  to  denote  both  Ihe  pxlrrnal  pro- 
fession of  Christianity  (fides  externa)  and 
Internal  moral  Iniproveiiient  and  sanctiff- 
cation     fSV 

127.  Ptatrment  of  the  doctrine  of  moral  reformation; 

its  comiiienceinent  1  on  putting  off  repent- 
ance, and  on  late  conversions 443 

128.  Remarks  on  Ihe  false  opinions  and  perversions 

concerning  the  doctrine  of  repentance,  which 
have  been  gradually  adopted  in  the  Christian 
cburcb 447 


CONTENTS. 


ARTICLE  XII. 

THB    OPEHATIONS    OF    GRACE;     OR    THE     DIVINE    IVSTITI"- 
TIOSB   FOB   PROMOTING   REPENTANCE   AND    FAITH. 

SECT.  PAGE 

129  Rxplanatinn  nf  the  terms  "grace,"  "operafinnii 
of  erace,'"  "iiio;iiis  of  grace,"  and  othtf 
phrases  employed  in  theology  on  this  sub- 
ject; and  the  connection  of  this  doctrine  with 
the  preceding     449 

130.  What  are  the  operations  of  divine  grace  for  pro- 

moting the  repentance  and  salvation  of  those 
who  live  in  Christian  lands  ;  and  what  means 
does  God  employ  In  exerting  these  influences 
on  their  hearts  1 451 

131.  now  is  the  divine  origin  of  these  gracious  renew- 

inj  influences  proved  from  the  holy  scrip- 
tures 1  and  remarks  in  explanation  of  the 
scriptural  phraseology  on  this  subject    . .     . .    454 

132.  A  sketch  of  some  of  the  principal  theories  re- 

specting the  operations  of  divine  grace,  and 
the  freedom  (or  ability)  of  man  in  spiritual 
things  ;  and  the  controversies  on  this  subject 
in  the  Christian  Church 458 

133.  Exhibition  of  the  modern  theory  respecting  the 

divinity  of  the  operations  of  grace,  and  the 
power  of  the  word  of  God 462 

APPENDIX. 
Of  prayer  as  a  means  of  grace 467 

ARTICLE  Xin. 

THE  DOCTRINE    OF  THE    CHRISTIAN    SOCIETY   OR 
CHURCH. 

134.  What  Is  meant  by  the  Christian  church  ;  its  ob- 

ji'ct ;  its  names;  and  the  divisions  of  the 
church  common  in  theology 469 

135.  Attributes  of  the  Christian  church ;  the  ecclesi- 

astical terms  commonly  employed  to  desig- 
nate them,  and  their  signification    472 

136.  Of  the  head  of  the  Christian  church  ;  and  of  the 

institutions  established  to  maintain  and  ex- 
tend it,  especially  through  the  office  of  public 
teaching       475 

ARTICLE  XIV. 

the  two  sacraments— baptism  and  the 
lord's  supper. 

137.  The  sacraments  in  general 479 

CHAP.  I. 

THE   DOCTRINE   OF   CHRISTIAN   BAPTISM. 

138.  Names,    institution,   and    origin    of    Christian 

b.Tplism;  with  observations  on  John  the 
Baptist  and  the  Jewish  baptism  of  prose- 
lyte  483 

139.  Ilovr  and  by  whom  baptism  is  to  be  adminis- 

tered ;  and  respecting  the  optional  and  un- 
essential things  attending  the  observance  of 
this  rite 485 

140.  Object,  uses,  and  efl°ect8  of  Christian  baptism   ..    468 

141.  The  necessity  of  baptism,  and  whether  it  may  be 

repeated 491 

14S.  The  baptism  of  InfanU 4M 


CHAP.  11. 

THE   DOCTRINE  OF  THE   LORD'S   SUPPER. 
SECT.  PAOt 

143.  The  names  of  the  Lord's  Supper;  and  the  oc- 

casion and  objects  of  its  institution 490 

144.  The  distiiiciion  between  what  is  esspntial  and 

unessential  in  the  celebriitioti  of  the  ordi- 
nance of  the  Supper       500 

145.  The  uses  and  efficacy  of  the  Lord's  Supper;  and 

inferences  from  these 505 

146.  The  various  opinions  and  forms  of  doctrine  re- 

specting the  presence  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  bisifiricaiiy 
explained,  and  also  a  critique  respecting  them    503 

ARTICLE  XV. 

ON  DEATH,  AND  THE  CONTINUANCE  AND  DESTINY  OF 
MEN  AFTER  DEATH  ;  OR  THE  DOCTRINE  BESPECTINO 
THE    LAST  THINGS. 

147.  Death 514 

148.  The  Christian  doctrine  of  the  continuance  of  the 

human  soul,  and  its  state  after  death     . .    . .    510 

149.  Historical   illustrations  of  the  various  opinions 

which  have  prevailed  in  ancient  and  modern 
times  respecting  the  continuance  of  the  soul 
after  death  ;  and  the  proofs  drawn  from  rea> 

son  in  favour  of  it 5111 

J50.  Some  of  the  most  important  of  the  various 
opinions  respecting  the  place  of  departed 
souls,  and  their  condition  there 523 

151.  What  is  understood  by  the  resurrection  of  the 

dead;  the  meaning  of  the  word  "resurrec- 
tion ;"  and  what  is  taught  respecting  it  by 
the  Jews      527 

152.  The  Christian  doctrine  respecting  the  resurrec- 

tion of  the  body 531 

153.  Doctrine  of  the  New  Testament  respecting  the 

nature  of  the  body  which  we  shall  receive  at 
the  resurrection  ;  and  the  opinions  of  theolo- 
gians on  this  point    534 

154.  The  last  appearing  of  Christ  before  the  end  of  the 

world ;  the  various  opinions  on  this  subject ; 
also  respecting  the  Millennial  kinpdom,  and 
the  universal  conversion  of  Jews  and  Gentiles    538 

155.  The  general  judgment,  and  the  end  of  the  pre- 

sent constitution  of  the  world    541 

156.  The  punishmentsofhell,or€ternalcondemnation    545 

157.  Duration  of  future  punishments  ;  reasons  forand 

against  their  eternal  duration 549 

158.  Result  drawn  from  comparing  and  examining 

the  ditferent  arguinerils  for  and  asiinst  the 
eternal  duration  of  future  punishment;  and 
a  sketch  of  the  history  of  this  doctrine   ..    ..    559 

OR   ETERNAL  BLESSEDNESS. 

159.  Introduction  to  this  doctrine;  and  explanation 

of  the  scriptural  phraseology   with   regard 

to  it M* 

160.  What  do  reason  and  scripture  teach,  and  lead  us 

to  expect,  in  a  general  view,  as  to  the  real 
nature  of  future  blessedness      AM 


TEANSLATOR'S    PREFACE. 


AM  happy  in  being  able  to 
present  to  the  friends  of  bibli- 
cal theologry  the  translation  of 
Dr.  Knapp's  Lectures.  The 
prevailing  preference  of  the 
method  adopted  by  this  author 
above  other  methods  of  pur- 
suing theological  study,  leads  me  to 
hope  that  this  work  will  be  an  accept- 
able offering  to  the  public.  It  was  the 
ultimate  object  of  that  eminent  servant 
of  Christ  who  composed  these  lectures, 
to  promote  vital  piety  and  practical  religion 
even  by  his  more  theoretical  writings.  If  the 
translation  of  these  lectures  may  conduce  to  the 
same  end,  the  translator  will  feel  abundantly 
rewarded  for  his  labour. 

On  opening  a  book  we  naturally  feel  a  desire 
to  know  something  of  the  author;  and  if  he 
treats  on  controverted  points,  to  know  on  what 
principles  he  wrote,  and  with  whom  he  stood 
connected.  I  shall  endeavour  to  satisfy  this  cu- 
riosity, hy  giving  some  account  of  the  school  of 
Biblical  Theology  in  Germany,  to  which  our 
author  belonged,  together  with  an  outline  of  his 
life  and  character.  I  cannot  expect,  however, 
within  the  narrow  limits  of  a  preface,  to  do  full 
justice  to  either  of  these  subjects. 

The  school  of  Biblical  Theology  was  esta- 
blished by  Spener  at  Halle,  in  1694,  for  the 
avowed  purpose  of  having  theology  taught  in  a 
different  manner  from  that  common  in  the  Ger- 
man universities.  Spener  states  that  it  was  usual 
for  persons  to  spend  five  or  six  years  at  the  uni- 
versities without  hearing,  or  caring  to  hear,  a 
single  book,  chapter,  or  verse  of  the  Bible  ex- 
plained. In  tlie  few  cases  where  exegetical 
lectures  were  commenced  by  such  teachers  as 
Olearius  and  Carpzov,  they  were  soon  aban- 
doned. The  Bible  was  perhaps  less  used  before 
the  lime  of  Spener  in  Protestant  universities  than 
it  had  been,  under  penalty  of  excommunication, 
by  pious  Catholics  before  the  Reformation.  In 
place  of  the  Scriptures,  the  different  symbols 
established  by  the  Protestant  church  were  taught 
and  studied.  The  minutest  distinctions  esta- 
blished by  them  were  contended  for  with  the 
greatest  zeal,  and  the  least  deviation  from  them 
was  pronounced  heresy  as  decidedly  as  if  they 
had  been  given  by  inspiration  of  God,  and  was 
2 


punished  accordingly  with  the  greatest  severity 
The  spirit  of  Protestantism  seemed  to  hav» 
thrown  off  the  hierarchal  yoke,  only  to  assume 
another  and  perhaps  a  more  degmding  form  of 
bondage.  In  explaining  and  defending  these 
symbols,  the  Aristotelian  dialectics  were  em- 
ployed, and  in  the  use  of  them  the  students  were 
thoroughly  exercised.  As  to  the  practical  effect 
which  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  should  have 
upon  their  own  hearts,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  should  exhibit  them  for  the  benefit  of  others, 
nothing  was  said  to  them  by  their  teachers. 
Thus  disciplined,  they  went  forth  to  repeat  from 
the  pulpit  what  they  had  learned  at  the  university, 
and  fought  over  their  idle  battles,  in  which  their 
own  learning  and  skill  were  carefully  displayed, 
to  the  neglect  of  every  thing  which  might  arouse 
the  careless,  persuade  the  doubting,  or  satisfy 
the  deep  desires  and  assuage  the  sorrows  of  the 
heart.  , 

This  was  a  state  of  things  which  Spener  de-  i 
plored.  Others  before  him,  especially  pious  lay- 
men, had  noticed  these  evils,  but  had  withdrawn, 
like  the  mystics  of  a  former  period,  and  sought 
in  private  contemplation  that  satisfaction  of  their 
spiritual  wants  which  they  could  not  obtain  from 
the  learned  jargon  of  the  pulpit;  or  if,  like  An- 
drese  and  Arndt,  they  had  lifted  up  a  voice  of 
remonstrance  against  the  prevailing  disorders,  it 
had  been  drowned  in  the  noise  of  angry  pole- 
mics. But  the  reputation  and  influence  of  Spener 
were  too  great  to  allow  his  remonstrances  to 
pass  unnoticed.  Without  aiming  at  the  name, 
he  performed  the  work  of  a  reformer.  In  the 
unpretending  form  of  a  preface  to  an  edition  of 
Arndi's  Sermons,  he  published  in  1075  his  Fia 
Desideria,  in  which  he  urged  the  necessity  of 
amending  the  prevailing  mode  of  instruction 
and  preaching.  It  was  his  great  object  to  divert 
attention  from  the  syn>bols,  and  direct  it  to  the 
scriptures.  He  wished  every  student  to  derive 
his  system  for  himself  directly  frotn  the  Bible; 
and  to  feel  and  enjoy  the  truths  thus  learned, 
rather  than  contend  about  them;  and  especially 
he  wished  the  teachers  in  the  universities,  and 
the  preachers  in  the  desk,  abandoning  for  ever 
their  foolish  questions  and  subtle  dialectics,  to 
labour  to  promote  the  solid  instruction  and  iho 
true  piety  of  those  committed  to  their  charge. 
This  was  the  object  which  more  and  more  eu 


10 


PREFACE. 


gxoased  his  attention,  as  he  saw  more  of  the  I 
deadening^  influence  of  scholastic  theology;  and 
he  at  length  pursued  it  with  such  zeal  that 
he  awakened  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  those 
who  loved  the  letter  more  than  the  spirit,  the 
form  of  gfidliness  more  than  its  power.  After 
removing  from  place  to  place,  and  being  at 
length  driven  from  Dresden  by  the  violence  of  1 
the  opposition  against  him,  he  found  refuge  and 
rest  in  I3erlin.  He  there  exerted  his  influence 
with  Frederick  III.  to  procure  the  establishment 
of  a  new  university  at  Halle.  For  various  rea- 
sons, political  and  religious,  his  proposal  was 
adopted,  and  to  Spener  was  committed  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Theological  Faculty.  He 
selected  for  this  purpose  Anton,  Breithaupt,  and 
Franke,  men  of  congenial  spirit  with  himself, 
who  had  visited  him  in  Berlin,  imbibed  his 
views,  and  were  then  labouring  in  diflVrent 
places,  and  under  great  discouragements,  to 
promote  the  revival  of  scriptural  knowledge  and 
practical  Christianity.  They  were  now  united 
in  the  new  university  at  Halle;  and  though  de- 
nounced by  the  theologians  of  the  sister  univer- 
sities, and  especially  those  of  Wittemberg,  as 
pietists,  innovators,  and  heretics,  they  were  not 
to  be  hindered  from  appointing  a  new  course  of 
studies,  nor  from  pursuing  a  new  method  in 
teaching. 

The  establishment  of  the  Theological  Faculty 
at  Halle  forms  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  theo- 
logical science  ;  and  to  those  who  founded  and 
composed  it,  especially  to  Spener  and  Franke, 
are  Protestants  indebted  for  the  revival  and  per- 
petuation of  the  spirit  of  the  Refi>rmation.  They 
entered  a  new  protest  against  the  reign  of  eccle- 
sia'itical  authority,  and  asserted  anew  the  right 
of  Christians  in  matters  of  faith.  That  we  are 
free  to  judge  for  ourselves  as  to  what  we  shall 
believe,  in  opposition  to  the  decretals  of  Popes 
or  Councils,  whether  Catholic  or  Protestant ; 
that  the  holy  scriptures  are  the  pure  source 
whence  we  must  draw  our  religious  knowledge, 
and  not  symbols,  confessions,  or  systems  framed 
and  established  by  men;  and  that  the  doctrines 
of  the  Bible  are  to  be  used,  by  the  learned  as 
well  as  the  unlearned,  to  promote  holiness  of 
heart  and  life,  rather  than  merely  as  objects  of 
speculation, — these  were  the  great  principles 
upon  which  Luther  and  Melancthon,  Spener 
and  Franke,  alike  proceeded. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  the  founders  of  this 
school  classed  with  those  narrow-minded  and 
bigoted  enthusiasts  who  regard  learning  and 
science  with  hatred  and  contempt,  and  presume 
upon  a  miraculous  illumination,  superseding  the 
necessity  of  studying  divine  truth.  But  to  this 
class  Spener  and  Franke  did  not  belong;  and 
decided  as  was  the  stand  which  they  took 
against  the  scholastic  learning  of  the  times  in 
which  they  lived,  they  were  far  from  falling 


into  the  opposite  and  equally  dangerous  erttreme. 
Their  principles  resptriing  the  study  of  theo- 
logy are  so  often  misstated  that  1  feel  induced, 
after  a  perusal  of  some  of  their  own  writii.gs, 
to  exhibit  them  here  more  at  length. 

I.  They  believed  that  God  had  revealed  him- 
self directly  to  men,  and  that  this  revelation  is 
contained  in  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament, which  are  the  only  source  of  our  reli- 
gious knowledge,  to  the  exclusion  of  those  pre- 
tended revelations  of  which  theosophy  boasts. 
To  obtain  the  meaning  of  these  scriptures  they 
made  therefore  the  first  duty  of  the  theological 
student.  In  seripluris  theologus  nascilur,  was 
their  constant  maxim.  They  did  not,  like  their 
contemporaries  in  the  other  universities,  suffer 
the  student  to  rely  indolently  on  the  tradilionary 
interpretation  of  the  word  of  God,  nor  to  adduce, 
without  examination,  exactly  the  same  proof- 
texts,  neither  more  nor  less,  as  had  been  used 
in  every  preceding  system;  nor  did  they  suffer 
him  to  expect,  like  some  ancient  and  modern 
visionaries,  that  a  culpable  ignorance  would  be 
removed  by  supernatural  illumination.  On  the 
contrary,  they  insisted  upon  the  importance  of 
his  becoming  acquainted  with  the  original  lan- 
guages in  which  the  holy  scriptures  were  writ- 
ten, and  diligently  using  the  whole  apparatus 
of  hermeneutical  helps,  (then  indeed  compara- 
tively small,)  in  order  to'ascertain  the  very  sense 
in  the  mind  of  the  inspired  writer. 

H.  By  these  means,  however,  important  as 
they  are,  the  student  attains  only  to  what  they 
called  a  natural,  human,  and  litiral  knowledge, 
in  distinction  from  a  spiritual  and  diviuv  percep- 
tion of  the  doctrines  of  revelation.  The  sacred 
writers  did  not  invent  new  words  and  expressions 
to  designate  the  new  relations  to  God  into  which 
men  were  brought  by  Christianity,  and  the  feel- 
ings belonging  to  those  relations;  but  rather 
employed  language  used  to  designate  relations 
and  feelings  previously  known,  analogous  to 
those  intended.  To  every  man,  therefore,  their 
language,  even  with  respect  to  the  peculiar 
slates  of  which  the  Christian  is  conscious,  con- 
veys a  general  meaning — viz.,  the  notion  of 
something  in  the  thing  intended,  answering  to 
something  in  the  analogous  relation  or  feeling 
from  which  the  representation  is  taken.  But 
what  is  the  very  thing,  among  the  many  things 
in  this  new  relation,  which  would  justifv  the 
metaphor, — what  is  the  very  thing  intended  by 
the  evangelist  or  the  apostle  in  the  use  of  it,  can 
he  understood  only  by  one  who  has  in  reality 
been  brought  into  this  new  relation,  and  expe- 
rienced the  feelings  belonging  to  it.  To  be  more 
definite:  the  new  relation  instituted  by  Chris- 
tianity is  most  frequently  denoted  in  the  sacred 
writings  by  the  words  snnnfiip,  adoption,  nnd 
those  of  a  similar  import,  which  clearly  convey 
to  every  reader  a  general  notion  of  what  this 


PREFACE. 


11 


new  relation  is;  and  this  general  notion  is  the 
Uteral  knowledge  of  the  subject  which  the  na- 
tural man  may  possess.  But  there  are  many 
things  in  the  human  relation  of  a  son  to  a  father 
which  might  be  the  foundation  of  the  metaphor 
employed.  Resemblance,  imitation,  obedience, 
love,  or  actual  descent  and  possession  of  the 
same  nature,  and  many  other  things  which 
might  be  mentioned,  would  furnish  a  proper 
foundation  for  the  metaphor  of  snnship  and 
adnpltoii.  And  so  these  have  all  been  made  bv 
different  commentators  the  point  of  analogy  be- 
tween this  common  and  this  Christian  relation. 
But  what  is  the  very  thing  in  this  new  relation 
which  the  evangelists  and  apostles  had  in  view 
when  they  called  it  somhip,  he  only  can  under- 
Btand  who,  by  believing  in  Christ,  has  had  the 
power  given  him  to  become  a  son  nf  God.  And 
even  he  will  understand  it  better  in  proportion 
to  the  depth  and  liveliness  of  his  Christian  ex- 
perience, and  then  only  attain  to  its  full  import 
when,  in  the  world  of  glory,  what  is  here  begun 
in  him  shall  be  perfected.  This  is  the  spiritual 
perception  spoken  of,  arising  from  the  personal 
experience  of  the  things  signified  in  the  holy 
scriptures;  and  this  experience  results  from 
faith,  which  receives  the  doctrines  of  revelation 
in  their  sanctifying  and  enlightening  power. 
Faith,  therefore,  has  the  same  relation  to  divine 
things  iliat  sense  has  to  natural  things  ;  and  it  is 
equally  true  in  one  case  as  in  the  other,  that 
sense  or  experience  is  the  only  foundation  of 
knowledge, — sensus  est  principiiim  eo^noscendi. 
This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  Spener  and 
Franke  when  they  say  so  often  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  is  indispensable  to  the  study  of  theology. 
That  this  personal  experience,  or  feeling  percep- 
tion, must  precede  all  true  knowledge  of  the 
things  of  revelation, — in  other  words,  that  the 
doctrines  of  the  Bible  must  be  felt,  in  order  to 
be  truly  understood,  have  root  in  the  heart  before 
they  can  be  rightly  apprehended  by  the  under- 
standing,— tliough  often  deemed  an  exploded 
proposition,  and  in  the  ears  of  many  perfectly 
paradoxical,  is  yet  as  philosophically  just  as  it 
is  conformed  to  scripture.  This  view  cannot 
be  better  expressed  than  in  the  following  re- 
markable words  of  Pascal : — "  Les  verites  di- 
vines sont  infiniment  au-dessus  de  la  nature. 
Dieu  seul  pent  les  mettre  dans  I'ame.  II  a 
voulu  qu'ils  entrent  du  cceur  dans  I'esprit,  et 
non  pas  de  I'esprit  dans  le  cceur.  Par  cette 
raison,  s'il  faut  connaitre  les  choses  humaines, 
pour  pouvoir  les  aimer,  il  faut  aimer  les  choses 
divines,  pour  pouvoir  les  connaitre^  "Divine 
things  are  infinitely  above  nature,  and  God  only 
can  place  them  in  the  soul.  He  has  designed 
that  they  should  pass  from  the  heart  into  the 
head,  and  not  from  the  head  into  the  heart; 
and  so,  as  it  is  necessary  to  know  human 
things  in  order  to  love  them,  it  is  necessary  to 


love  divine  things  in  order  to  icnow  them.*'  Let 
not  the  student,  then,  who  would  penetraf*  into 
the  real  meaning  of  the  sacred  text,  rely  upon 
the  Grammar  and  the  Lexicon,  upon  Commen- 
taries and  Institutes  of  Interpretation,  which 
cannot  lead  beyond  the  letier.  Jll  true  knjw- 
ledge  of  the  scripture  must  proceed  from  the  life 
of  faith  ;  we  must  believe  in  order  to  experience, 
and  experience  in  order  to  understand.  Such  ig 
the  import  of  the  following  words  of  Anselmus, 
which  have  been  chosen  by  Schleiermacher,  one 
of  the  profoundest  theologians  in  Germany,  for 
his  motto,  and  which  deserve  to  be  engraven  on 
the  memory  of  every  student  in  theology  :— 
"  Non  enim  qua^ro  intelligere  ut  credam,  sed 
credo  ut  intelligam.  Nam  qui  non  crediderit, 
non  experietur,  et  qui  expertus  non  fuerit,  non 
intelliget." 

III.  When  the  literal  sense  of  scripture  has 
been  ascertained  by  grammatical  and  historical 
interpretation,  and  when  the  hidden  meaning  of 
the  sacred  hieroglyphics  has  been  unlocked  by 
a  believing  experience  of  the  things  signified, 
then  are  the  materials  provided  for  theological 
science;  as  yet,  however,  confused  and  disor- 
ganized. With  these  insulated  experiences,  and 
the  direct  processes  of  the  spiritual  life,  many 
would  have  us  remain  contented,  and  are  jealous 
of  the  reflective  and  systematizing  acts  of  the 
mind.     This  is  the  mistake  of  the  .^ft/stici  im- 
puri,  and  of  many  sincerely  pious,  but  less  en- 
lightened Christians  in  modern  times.     They 
justly  ascribe  much  of  the  coldness,  contention, 
and  heresy  that  has  disturbed  and  corrupted  the 
church,  to  the  influence  of  speculative  reason, 
and  would  gladly  exclude  it  wholly  from  the 
province  of  faith.     But  they  overlook  the  im- 
perfections of  religion  when  it  exists  merely  as 
feeling,  and  the  darkness,  confusion,  and  extra 
vagance  which  result  from  the  want  of  strict 
science  in  the  doctrines  of  Christianity.    These 
evils  are  not  merely  incidental  to  simple  faith, 
but  almost  inseparable  from  it;   for  wh.it  can 
prevent  that  exaggeration  of  its  particular  ob- 
jects, to  which  feeling  always  tends,  and  give 
to  eacb  its  due  importance,  but  that  view  of  the 
whole  which  science  alone  can  furnish  ?   These 
evils  were  not  overlooked  by  Spener;  and  he 
contended   for  the  proper  use  of  system   and 
science  in  religion  with  a  zeal  only  inferior  to 
that  with   which   he  contended    against   their 
abuse.     He  held  the  just  medium  between  the 
pious  enthusiast  and  the  cold  speculator;  and 
wished  that  the  system  might  proceed  from  a 
living  faith  and  be  pervaded  by  it,  and  that  faith 
might  be  regulated  and  rectified  by  thorough 
system;  and  he  thus  aimed  to  secure  to  Chris- 
tianity, what  it  may  justly  claim,  *he  whole  man; 
the  powers  of  the  understanding  and  the  feeling* 
of  the  heart. 
The  effort  to  attain  to  an  insight  into  the  in 


It 


PREFACE. 


ternal  conntclion  of  the  various  objects  of  our 
experience,  to  attain  to  the  one  principle  under 
which  ihe  phenomena  we  witness  may  be  class- 
ed,— the  effort,  in  short,  which  lies  at  the  foun- 
dation of  science  in  every  department,  is  one  of 
the  original  and  hijiher  elToris  or  instincts  of  the 
human  soul ;  and  though  in  some  periods,  and 
in  individual  minds,  it  is  less  predominant,  at 
other  times,  and  in  other  minds,  it  is  wholly 
irrepressible.  Its  utility  in  reducing  to  order 
tiie  (iisfonnecled  elements  of  human  knowledge, 
and  in  constructing  from  them  an  organized 
whole,  cannot  be  questioned  ;  and  why  should 
not  this  systematizing,  organific  instinct  of  the 
mind  be  suffered  to  employ  itself  upon  the  no- 
bler elements  of  religious  knowledge,  scattered 
over  the  page  of  revelation  and  of  experience, 
collecting  and  classifying  them,  and  from  them 
constructing  an  harmonious  system  of  religious 
truth  ? 

Here  it  must  be  remarked,  that  a  believing 
experience  is  equally  essential  to  a  truly  scien- 
titic  combination  of  all  the  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity as  to  an  adequate  understanding  of  each 
particular  one.  In  every  scientific  system,  the 
parts  should  have  a  real  relation  to  one  great 
object,  for  which  the  whole  is  constructed  ;  and 
if  we  would  have  it  a  living,  and  not  a  lifeless 
organization,  we  must  have  this  great  object 
within  (juraehes.  The  name  of  scietice  cannot 
justly  be  applied  to  a  mere  artificial  collocation 
of  particulars,  wanting  internal  unity,  and  desti- 
tute of  a  pervading  soul.  Hence  it  may  be  safely 
atlirmed,  that  true  theological  science  is  possible 
only  on  condition  of  personal  Christian  expe- 
rience; this  alone  can  furnish  the  last  end,  the 
point  of  unity,  the  living  spirit  of  the  whole. 
Where  this  docs  not  exist,  combining  the  re- 
sults of  the  mere  philological  siudy  of  the  Bible 
furnishes  at  best  a  piece  of  lifeless  mechanism, 
whi-re  the  parts  cohere,  as  the  cards  in  the  pup- 
pet, and  not  as  the  limbs  in  the  body.  It  was 
from  the  exegetical  school  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
from  the  feet  of  the  philologist  Lucian,  that  the 
hen-siarch  Arius  proceeded;  and  his  error  arose, 
in  a  great  measure,  from  his  making  the  Bible 
prammalically  interpreted,  separately  from  the 
liifjit  of  experience,  the  foundation  of  theology.* 
'I'he  elements  of  theological  science  should  not, 
therefore,  be  drawn  solely  from  the  written  page 
of  revelation;  tiie  contents  of  this  page  must  be 
first  transferred  to  the  tablets  of  the  heart;  these 
inward  tablets  must  then  be  studied,  and  strictly 
compared  with  liie  outward  letter;  and  from  this 
faithful  and  living  transcript,  corresponding 
with  the  original  revelation,  and  from  this  reve- 
lation thus  transferred  to  the  heart,  the  elements 
of  the  system  must  be  derived.  The  direction 
nere  given,  to  make  the  results  of  Christian  ex- 


*  \'ide  Neandcr,  Allgem.  Kirchengeschichto,  b. 
ii.  Abth.  2,  f  770. 


perience,  derived  from  and  regulated  by  the 
written  word,  rather  than  the  mere  fruits  of  the 
exegetical  study  of  the  Bible,  the  elements  of 
theological  science,  is,  I  believe,  in  tiie  spirit 
of  the  founders  of  this  school  of  biblical  and 
practical  Christianity.  Theological  study  ib 
happily  turning  more  and  more  to  the  inward 
scroll  of  experience  ;  and  instances  might  easily 
be  mentioned,  did  my  limits  permit,  in  which 
the  established  ecclesiastical  system  has  been 
rectified,  by  being  made  to  answer  more  entirely 
to  the  demands  of  pious  feeling.*  When  Chris- 
tian faith  shall  receive  and  hold  the  pure  and 
unadulterated  truths  of  revelation,  and  Christian 
theology  shall  wholly  correspond  to  Christian 
faith,  then  will  the  science  of  Christianity  attain 
its  highest  perfection. 

IV.  The  system  of  truth  which  was  adopted 
by  the  founders  of  this  school  agreed  substan- 
tially with  that  of  theircontemporaries,  although 
the  eagle-eyed  malignity  of  Deulschmann  of 
Wiltemberg  espied  no  less  than  two  hundred 
and  sixty  heresies  in  a  single  writing  of  Spener. 
The  latter,  however,  and  his  associates,  professed 
to  hold  the  doctrines  contiiined  in  the  established 
symbols,  and  differed  from  the  theologians  of 
the  other  universities  only  with  respect  to  the 
grounds  on  which  they  believed  them,  and  the 
ends  for  which  they  employed  them.  W'hile 
their  contemporaries  believed  in  these  doctrines 
because  they  were  contained  in  the  symbols,  the 
theologians  of  Halle  believed  them  because, 
after  independent  investigation,  they  found  them 
contained  in  the  word  of  God,  and  confirmed  by 
their  own  experience.  And  while  their  con- 
temporaries employed  these  doctrines  for  no 
other  purposes  than  speculation  and  contention, 
they  insisted  that  Ihe  doctrines  (f  revelation  should 
he  taught  in  the  universities,  as  well  as  exhibited 
in  the  pulpit,  with  the  ultimate  desii^n  if  promot' 
in<x  personal  piety.  This  was  their  fourth  gene- 
ral principle  respecting  the  study  of  theology, 
and  that  which  procured  for  their  school  the 
honourable  distinction  of  a  school  of  practical 
tlu'ology.  They  regarded  it  as  almost  certain 
that  students  in  theology  would  treat  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  as  pul)lic  teachers  very 
much  as  they  had  been  accustomed  to  hear  them 
treated  at  tlie  university, — that  if  they  had  been 
tauijht  theology  in  a  scholastic  method,  they 
would  probably  fall  into  the  same  method  in 
preaciiing.  Such  had  really  been  the  effect  of 
the  speculative  turn  given  to  theological  instruc- 
tion. Students  of  thccdogy  had  come  from  the 
university  expert  and  disputatious  metaphysi- 
cians, rather  than  evangelical  pastors,  well 
qualified  by  their  own  experience  of  divine  truth 
to  inipart  it  with  sincerity  and  earnestness  to 
others;  and  the  piety  of  the  church  wanting  its 

*  Vide  i^chleiermnrhor,  in  the  last  article  in  hii 
"  Zeitschrlft,''  a.  2^,  and  especially  s.  2<J9 — 304. 


PREFACE. 


ll 


proper  nutriment,  the  simple  truth  of  the  gospel 
had  long  been  declining.  The  first  theologians 
at  Halle  sought  to  remedy  these  evils  at  their 
very  source,  to  apply  the  doctrines  of  salvation 
to  their  own  case,  and  keep  their  own  hearts 
alive  to  the  practical  influence  of  revealed  truth  ; 
and  then  to  induce  their  hearers  to  abstain  from 
useless  questions,  and  see  to  it  that  they  them- 
selves were  builded  upon  that  foundation,  which 
it  would  be  their  duty  to  point  out  to  others,  and 
to  show  them  how  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible 
should  be  exhibited  in  order  to  answer  the  ends 
for  which  they  were  given — the  conviction  and 
conversion  of  sinners,  and  the  consolation  and 
encouragement  of  believers.  It  was  in  pursu- 
ance of  these  objects  that  Franke  delivered  his 
"  Lectiones  Parffineticse,"  which  were  followed 
by  more  real  and  lasting  benefit  than  any  other 
part  of  his  academical  labours.  They  were  first 
delivered  by  him  in  his  own  study,  and  after- 
wards in  the  public  hall  of  the  theological  fa- 
culty, one  hour  a  week — viz.,  from  10  to  11 
o'clock  on  Thursday,  when  other  exercises  were 
suspended,  that  all  the  students  in  the  theologi- 
cal department  might  be  at  liberty  to  attend. 
In  the  preface  to  the  first  collection  of  these 
lectures,  Franke  gives  the  following  account  of 
them  : — "  I  have  not  been  accustomed  to  follow 
any  particular  method  in  these  lectures,  but 
have  made  it  my  rule  to  say  on  each  occasion 
what  I  saw  then  to  be  most  necessary  to  the 
students  in  theology,  either  to  promote  their 
thorough  conversion  and  Christian  walk,  or  the 
wise  and  orderly  prosecution  of  their  studies, 
that  they  might  be  at  length  sent  forth  as  faith- 
ful, wise,  and  useful  labourers  in  the  vineyard 
of  the  Lord,  each  according  to  the  gift  granted 
to  him  by  God." 

Such  were  the  principles  of  the  founders  of 
the  university  at  Halle  respecting  the  study  of 
theology,  and  it  deserves  to  be  remarked  that 
on  these  principles,  and  these  alone,  theology  is 
a  distinct  and  independent  science.  On  these 
principles,  it  is  the  science  of  truths  revealed  by 
God  and  received  by  faith,  and  is  thus,  in  a  two- 
fold sense,  divint — viz.,  as  to  the  on'ginnl  smirce 
of  its  truths,  and  the  nr^an  through  which  they 
are  transmitted  to  the  reflecting  mind  ;  that  faith 
which  the  Holy  Spirit  produces  in  the  heart. 
It  is  in  this  way  distinguished  from  all  human 
sciences ;  not  that  the  scientific  effort  of  the 
mind  (the  effort  to  bring  connexion  and  unity 
into  our  various  experiences)  is  different  in  the 
two  cases,  for  this  is  not  supposed  ;  but  that  the 
materials  about  which  this  scientific  effort  is 
employed  are  different  in  theology  and  in  human 
sciences.  This  is  a  distinction  which  the  im- 
mortal Bacon  acknowledfjes  in  a  passage  which 
deserves  careful  consideration  at  the  present 
time : — "  Scientia  aquarum  similis  est ;  aquarum 
alic  descendunt  coelitus,  alise  emanant  e  terra. 


Etiam  scienliarum  primaria  partitiosumendaegt 
ex  foniibus  suis;  horum  alii  in  alto  siti  sunt; 
alii  hie  infra.  Omnis  enim  scientia  duplicem 
sortitur  informationem.  Una  inspiratur  divini- 
tus;  aliter  oritur  a  sensu.  Partiemur  igitur 
scientiam  in  theologiamet  philosophiam.  TIk-o- 
logiam  hie  intelligimus  inspirutam,  non  natura- 
lem."*  By  this  division  of  the  sciences  accord- 
ing to  their  sources,  a  perfect  independence  of 
all  others  is  secured  to  theology.  The  believer 
in  revelation  draws  the  doctrines  of  his  creed 
from  a  higher  source,  and  so  holds  them  with 
perfect  certainly,  without  waiting  for  the  results 
which  may  be  attained  in  the  lower  sph(  re  of 
philosophy.  Indeed,  he  considers  them  not  only 
as  true,  but  as  the  test  and  standard  of  all  truth, 
and  so  he  looks  without  fear  fr  the  si.ibility  of 
his  faith  upon  the  highest  advances  of  light  and 
knowledge.  Are  any  discoveries  alleged,  or 
any  hypotheses  maintained  in  opposition  to  the 
truths  of  revealed  religion,  he  presupposes  the 
latter  to  be  true,  and  concludes  that  the  former, 
however  plausibly  supported,  are  false.  In  short, 
he  acknowledges  the  correctness  of  the  piinci- 
ples  of  science  and  philosophy  only  so  far  aa 
they  admit  a  source  and  order  of  truth  above 
their  measure;  and  the  validity  of  their  results 
only  so  far  as  they  illustrate  and  confirm,  or  at 
least  are  consistent  with,  the  doctrines  and  tacts 
of  revelation.  This  is  indeed  an  elevated  stand, 
but  one  which  the  believer  in  revelation  is  en- 
titJ.ed  to  assume,  and  has  always  been  able  to 
maintain.  Where  is  the  declaration  of  Scripture 
which  has  been  fairly  disproved  by  philosophy, 
or  by  any  of  the  sciences,  most  of  which  have 
begun  to  exist  since  the  Bible  was  written  ?  On 
the  other  hand,  how  universally  have  the  theo- 
ries and  alleged  discoveries,  which  were  sup- 
posed to  invalidate  the  Scriptures,  proved  in  the 
end  false  and  imaginary.  From  every  attack 
of  an  infidel  philosophy  the  truth  of  revelation 
has  come  off  triumphant,  justifying  the  confi- 
dence of  those  who  implicitly  receive  it.  and 
putting  to  shame  the  exultation  of  unbelievers. 
So  far  from  brintjing  up  the  rear,  the  science  of 
revelation  has  led  the  van  in  this  general  march 
of  knowledge  and  improvement,  and  has  in  many 
cases  from  the  first  held  forth  truths  which  phi- 
losophy afterwards  adopted  when  it  became 
more  enlightened."}" 

How  unworthy,  then,  of  the  diffnity  and  inde- 
pendence of  the  true  theoloijian  is  the  procedure 
of  some  of  the  modern  professors  of  iheolntfical 
science,  who  are  ready  to  relinquish  the  clearest 
doctrines  of  the  Bible  on  the  first  semblance  of 
discrepancy  between  them  and  a  philosophy 
which  acknowledores  no  revelation.     There  are 


•  De  di<rnit.  et  augm.  Scientia.  !.  iii.  cnp.  1. 

t  Consider — e.  g..  the  doctrine  o{  crral inn  from 
nothinir.  long  a  doctrine  of  theology,  but  only  lately 
of  philosophy. 

B 


14 


PREFACE. 


many  styled  theologians  who  do  not  hesitate 
tu  cibandon  such  truths  as  the  creation  of  the 
world,  the  fall  of  man,  native  corruption,  vica- 
rious atonement,  future  resurrection,  heaven  and 
hel!.  on  the  first  llourish  of  arms  from  the  corps 
of  infidel  (IHtllattli.  But  they  fortjet  that  geo- 
loiry.  aiitliropoloory,  and  the  kindred  sciences, 
wiiich  they  seem  to  consider  infallible,  are  from 
tlif-ir  very  nature  as  experimeutal,  incomplete, 
and  cumulative,  continually  leaving  earlier  re- 
suits  behind.  They  forget  that  there  are  other 
h;.  jK^itheses  equally  sii|>ported  which  tend  to 
cmifirm  revelation,  and  that  what  God  has  spo- 
ken— the  firm  prophetic  and  apostolic  word — is 
not  subject  to  human  revision.  By  their  gra- 
tuitous concessions  to  philosophy  and  science, 
they  deprive  Christian  theology  of  its  proper 
elements,  and  Christian  faith  of  the  ground  of 
its  reliance.  They  make  the  great  truths  upon 
which  the  heart  must  rest  for  consolation  and 
hope,  dependent  upon  the  advances  of  the  expe- 
rimental sciences.  We  are  thus  left  to  drift 
about  on  this  dangerous  sea,  while  the  holy 
heights  to  which  we  once  lifted  our  eyes,  and 
beheld  them  kindled  with  the  revealed  glory  of 
heaven  to  guide  us  on  our  passage  thither,  now 
burn  only  with  the  u)jcertaiii  fires  of  this  modern 
illumination.  These  are,  indeed,  unhappy  con- 
sequences, but  we  are  told  they  are  inevitable. 
Theologians,  it  is  said,  have  no  choice  left  them, 
and  must  adopt  the  splendid  results  which  are 
every  day  disclosed  in  all  departments  of  know- 
ledge; and  if  they  would  not  suffer  theology  to 
fall  into  contempt,  must  admit  somecom|)romise 
between  its  antiquated  doctrines  and  the  rai)id 
progress  of  light.  To  eifi  ct  this  compromise  is 
the  ofnce  assigned  to  modern  iiatiunalism  by 
one  of  its  ablest  apologists.  Rationalism,  says 
Bret-chneider,*  designs  to  restore  the  interrupt- 
ed haruiony  between  theology  and  human  sci- 
ences, and  is  the  necessary  product  of  the  scien- 
tific cultivation  of  modern  times.  But  whence 
the  neeessily  of  this  compromise]  It  is  a  ne- 
Cf-ssity  with  which  the  believer  in  revelation 
can  never  be  pressed,  and  w  hich  certninly  was 
was  not  fflt  by  theologians  of  the  old  stamp. 
They  had  not  asserted  their  inrlependenceof  the 
pope  and  the  Hchricjlmen  only  to  yield  it  again 
to  the  empiric;  and  as  to  the  advantages  of  this 
compromise,  what  has  really  been  accomplished 
by  this  fiir-famed  rationalism  after  all  its  pro- 
mises 1  II  professed  friendship  for  Christianity, 
but  has  proved  its  deadly  foe;  standing  within 
the  pale  of  the  church,  it  has  been  in  league 
with  the  enemy  without,  and  has  rea<lily  adopt- 
etl  every  ihinir  which  infidelity  could  <'n<ri'iuler, 
anil  as  studiously  rejected  every  thing  which  true 
philosophy  has  done  to  confirm  the  truths  of  re- 
▼elation.     It  promised   to  save  theology   from 


*  Vide  hi*  "  Sendschreiben,"  s.  78. 


contempt;  and  how  has  this  promise  been  per* 
formed  1  In  the  days  of  JSpener,  theology  was 
the  queen  of  sciences,  so  acknowledged  by  the 
mouth  of  Bacon,  Leibnitz,  Haller,  and  others, 
their  chosen  orachs.  She  wore  the  insignia  of 
divinity,  and  "  filled  her  odorous  lamp"  at  the 
very  original  fountain  of  light;  but,  in  an  evil 
hour,  she  took  this  flattering  rationalism  to  her 
bosom.  Now,  stripped  of  every  mark  of  divi- 
nity, cut  off  from  her  native  sources  of  light,  and 
thrust  out  into  the  dark,  this  foolish  virgin  is 
cotn|)elled  to  say  to  her  sister  sciences,  "Give 
me  of  your  oil,  for  my  lamp  has  gone  out." 

The  establishment  of  the  school  of  theology 
at  Halle  forms,  as  was  above  remarked,  an  epoch 
in  the  history  of  this  science.  It  gave  an  im- 
pulse whicli  is  still  felt  both  for  good  and  for  evil, 
and  which  will  probably  be  still  felt  for  many 
ages  to  come.  'I'o  the  direct  influence  of  this 
school,  considered  as  reviving  and  perpetuating 
the  spirit  of  the  Reformation,  may  be  attributed 
all  the  favourable  results  of  free  and  unshackled 
inquiry  in  matters  of  faith.  To  its  indirect  in- 
fluence— to  the  abuse  of  the  principles  upon 
which  it  was  established — must  be  ascribed 
those  unprecedented  evils  which  iiave  been 
lately  inflicted  upon  the  German  church.  In  one 
way  or  another,  this  school  stands  connected 
with  those  great  diverging  tendencies,  whosa 
violent  conflict  have  made  the  last  period  of 
theological  development  more  interesting  and 
important  than  any  which  have  preceded,  'i^he 
principles  of  Spener,  made  effective  by  the  la- 
bours of  his  faculty  at  Halle,  are  the  secret 
leaven  which  has  wrought  all  this  commotion  in 
the  once  lifeless  mass  of  orthodoxy.  It  would 
he  highly  interesting  to  follow  down  the  history 
of  this  school,  and  trace  minutely  the  salutary 
influence  of  its  principles,  as  far  as  they  have 
been  observed,  and  the  evils  resulting  from  the 
abuse  of  them.  My  narrow  limits,  however, 
will  permit  me  only  to  describe  very  briefly  the 
issues  of  these  principles  in  pictnm  on  the  one 
hand,  and  raliimnlhvi  on  the  other,  and  to  show 
in  what  points  these  two  opposing  directions 
deviate  from  tlip  just  medium  of  this  Protestant 
school  of  biblical  and  practical  theology,  to 
whicli  they  both  claim  to  belong. 

We  have  seen,  that  according  to  the  principles 
of  this  sehonl,y>i»7A  and  science,  ntiTij  and  •^vw- 
<tij,  are  made  essential  to  the  theologian.  And 
in  the  early  teachers  of  this  school,  and  some 
of  their  immediate  successors,  we  have  fine  ex- 
amples of  the  jnst  balance  and  mutual  influence 
of  piety  and  learniiiff.  'I'heir  piety  was  retrular, 
enlightened,  and  uniform,  through  the  influence 
of  their  knowledge  of  religious  tiuth;  while 
their  knowledcre  was  humble,  vital,  and  sound, 
through  the  influence  of  faith  and  piety.  But 
one  acquainted  with  the  imperfection  of  human 
nature,  and  with  the  history  of  the  church,  coul 


PREFACE. 


15 


hardly  expect  that  this  happy  combination 
would  long  continue.  Piety,  which  has  its  seat 
in  the  feelings,  has  ever  tended  to  shun  the 
restraints  and  regulations  which  reflection  and 
system  impose;  and  speculation  has  beenequally 
prone  to  dissociate  itself  from  piety,  and  to 
abandon  the  Word  of  God  and  Christian  faith 
as  the  only  foundation  of  religious  knowledge. 
At  an  early  period  of  the  church,  we  see  the 
practical  and  theoretical  spirit  in  violent  oppo- 
sition, under  the  peculiar  forms  and  names  of 
montanism  and  gnoalicisin.  At  a  later  period  in 
the  western  church,  the  elements  of  rttartj  and 
yiwaij  were  again  separated  and  in  conflict, 
assuming  the  new  type  of  mysticism  and  scholas- 
ticism. And  in  the  period  now  under  conside- 
ration, the  same  contention  again  exists,  under 
the  still  difli'erent  aspect  of  ascetic  pietism  and 
rationalism.  The  practical  tendency  of  the 
founders  of  this  school,  being  unaccompanied 
in  some  of  their  successors  by  the  theoretical 
tendency,  degenerated  into  a  dark,  ascetic, 
bigoted  pietism.  Their  theoretical  tendency, 
being  in  others  of  their  successors  separated 
from  the  practical, — the  head  divorced  from  the 
heart,  degenerated  into  that  cold  and  malignant 
form  of  speculation  known  by  the  name  of  ra- 
tionalism. 

Tlie  first  instance  in  the  latter  period  in  which 
we  discover  the  incipient  alienation  of  the  prac- 
tical from  the  theoretical  direction  of  mind,  is 
the  opposition  which  arose  at  Halle  to  the  phi- 
losophy of  Wolf.  It  was  very  natural  for  theo- 
logians to  feel,  that  Wolf  allowed  too  much 
scope  to  speculative  reason  when  he  attemjited 
to  demonstrate  the  highest  problems  of  meta- 
physics, the  existence  of  God,  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  the  freedom  of  the  will,  &c.,  with 
mathematical  precision  and  certainty.  And  in 
condemning  these  assumptions  of  reason  re- 
specting matters  of  faith,  the  theologians  of 
Halle  only  anticipated  the  sentence  which  Kant 
and  his  followers  afterwards  pronounced  upon 
the  dogmatism  of  the  earlier  philosophy.  The 
jealousy  in  guarding  the  province  of  faith  against 
the  invasions  of  speculative  reason  thus  excited, 
was  heightened  by  the  writings  of  the  English 
and  French  deists  and  free-thinkers,  then  begin- 
ning to  be  known  and  circulated  in  Germany. 
Upon  these  writings  they  looked  with  abhor- 
rence ;  and  at  length  the  thought  naturally  arose, 
that  if  such  were  the  results  of  pljilosophy,  it 
was  the  foe  of  religion,  and  should  be  wholly 
discarded.  But  when  they  arrived  at  this  partial 
and  rash  conclusion,  and  acted  according  to  it, 
they  fell  into  the  excesses  with  which  the  same 
mistake  has  always  been  attended.  From  the 
neglect  and  contempt  of  scientific  cultivation, 
their  views  of  divine  truth  soon  became  super- 
ficial. Their  piety  became  more  and  more  a 
matter  of  mere  feeling,  and,  wanting  the  re- 


straints of  reflection,  degenerated  into  wild  en- 
thusiasm, or  dark,  severe,  and  ostenlalioua 
bigotry.  These  results  have  almost  invariably 
followed  an  undue  jealousy  of  learning  in  mat- 
ters of  faith,  and  teach,  in  a  language  too  loud 
and  distinct  to  be  disregarded,  the  importance 
of  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  systematic  the- 
ology. Too  much  practical  religion  we  cannot 
have;  but  that  the  highest  purity  and  safety  of 
the  church  demand  more  attention  than  is  usu- 
ally paid  in  this  country  to  the  science  of  the 
Christian  religion,  can  hardly  be  questioned. 
It  should  be  remembered,  that  it  was  upon  this 
degenerate  and  corrupt  pietism,  which  began  to 
infect  the  body  of  the  church  when  the  science 
of  religion  was  neglected,  that  the  corrosive 
poison  of  infidelity  first  seized  and  fed.  Had 
the  ardent  and  practical  piely  of  all  the  succes- 
sors of  the  first  teachers  at  Halle  been  associated 
with  the  theoretical  spirit,  as  it  was  in  Freyling- 
hausen,  Baumgarten,  and  a  few  others,  infidelity 
could  never  have  made  such  ravages  in  the 
church. 

Far  more  fatal,  however,  is  the  other  of  the 
above-named  divergences  from  the  principles  of 
tlie  biblical  school  of  theology.  Speculation  od 
the  subject  of  religion,  where  living  faith  is  not 
associated  with  it,  is  attended  with  a  twofold 
danger.  The  true  spiritual  understanding  of  the 
truths  of  religion  being  dependent  upon  the 
principle  of  faith,  where  this  does  not  exist,  error 
in  doctrine  is  almost  inevitable.  But,  what  is 
more  important  to  be  considered,  the  only  anti- 
dote to  the  pride  and  blindness  of  natural  reason 
is  the  corrective,  sanctifying  influence  of  faith 
as  a  living  principle  in  the  heart.  Where  reason 
is  unhumbled,  and  its  disorders  are  unrectified 
by  the  pervading  influence  of  true  piety,  its  ex- 
ercise on  the  subjects  of  religion  cannot  be  salu 
tary,  or  even  svife.  The  unbeliever  is  therefore 
doubly  disqualified  for  forming  a  right  judgment 
upon  the  particular  doctrines  of  religion,  and  for 
combining  them  into  a  correct  system  ;  he  wants 
that  experience  by  which  alone  he  can  truly  un- 
derstand them,  and  that  humility  and  reverence 
for  the  deep  things  of  God,  which  is  the  only 
spirit  of  inquiry  congenial  with  the  truths  of  the 
gospel. 

The  nature  and  efiects  of  rationalism,  the 
great  object  of  which  is,  to  deny  that  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  Christian  faith  are  the  only  and 
essential  foundation  of  religious  science,  and  to 
proclaim  the  reason  of  man  as  the  source  and 
arbiter  of  the  truths  of  religion,  has  been  already 
briefly  described.  A  few  words  in  addition,  re- 
specting its  relation  to  this  protestant  school  of 
theology,  will  be  sufllcient  for  my  present  object. 
It  is  well  known  that  rationalists  profess  to  act 
in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  protestant- 
ism, when  they  carry  their  freedom  of  investi- 
gation even  to  the  point  of  denying  alike  the 


16 


PREFACE. 


fact  and  the  possibility  of  revelation.     But  this 
freedom  is  entirely  diflTerent  from  that  for  which 
the  prolestants  contended.     In  perforn)ing^  tlieir 
work  as  prolestants,  they  assumed  both  the  fact 
and  authority  of  revelation.     They  had,  indeed, 
in  the  legitimate  use  of  reason,  well  investigated 
these  points,  and  did  not  receive  the  Scriptures 
as  the  word  of  God  without  conclusive  evidence. 
But  ihey  contended  only  for  entire  freedom  from 
ecclesiastical  authority  in  determining  what  the 
Scriptures,  admitted  to  be  a  revelation  from  God, 
really  taught  to  men.     They  asserted  the  right 
of  the  Christian  believer  to  derive  the  truths  of 
Christianity  from  revelation  itself,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  authority  of  any  uninspired  men; 
but  by  no  means  the  right  of  any  man  to  receive 
or  reject  at  option  the  fact  or  the  authority  of  a 
revelation.  This  right,  by  whomsoever  claimed, 
is  not  the  right  which  Luther  or  Spener  advo- 
cated.    In  performing  their  work  as  reformers, 
they  thus  assumed  the  principles  which  ration- 
alists deny.     They  came  forward  appealing  to 
the  testimony  of  Christ,  of  prophets  and  apos- 
tles, against  the  errors  and  abuses  of  the  church. 
Rationalists  claim  fellowship  with  them,  while 
they  question  and  deny  the  validity  of  this  very 
ttstimony.     The  proteslants  did  not  undertake 
to  lay  another  foundation  than  that  which  is  laid; 
and  wished  only  to  prove  the  work  of  every  man 
who  builds  thereon.     But  rationalists  strike  at 
the  foundation  itself;  they  set  aside  the  whole 
historic  basis  of  Christianity,  and  would  sub- 
stitute for  the  unerring  word  of  God  and  Chris- 
tian faith,  wliich  are  t!ie  same  in  every  age,  the 
fallible,  unsanctified,  and  changing  reiison  of 
man.     Tho  prolestants  were  refarmers  only,  but 
rationalists  are  imvtvaturs  and    refolufionizcrs, 
aiming  to  overturn  the  whole  Christian  system. 
The  proteslants,  in  short,  protested  against  the 
errors  of  the  Romish  church  ;  rationalists,  against 
the  truth  of  the  gospel.     It  must  be  obvious, 
then,  that  rationalism  can  claim  but  little  kin- 
dred with  the  true  s])irit  of  protestantism,  and 
bears  a  much  nearer  afTMiity  lo  that  wild,  revo- 
lutionary, infidel  spirit,  which  arose  a«   nearly 
the  same  lime  in  France,  and  swept  over  the 
face  of  Kurope. 

It  would  be  a  misiake  also  to  suppose,  that 
rationalism,  like  the  Alexandrine  Gnosis,  or  the 
scholasticism  of  the  middle  ages,  is  objection- 
able only  in  the  excess  to  which  it  carries  spe- 
culation on  subjects  of  faith.  This  excess  is 
indeed  contrary  to  the  maxims  which  we  have 
been  considering,  which  require  a  just  ])ropor- 
tion  between  faith  and  knowledge.  It  is  not  so 
much,  however,  the  qnnniit;/  as  the  (jtinllty  of 
•peculation,  which  constitutes  the  malignity  of 
rationalism.  It  is  speculation  without  the  cor- 
rective influence  of  a  sanctified  heart;  it  is  rea- 
son in  all  its  natural  pride  and  darkness,  un- 
humbled  and  unenlightened  by  divine  influence; 


it  is  science  wanting  that  heavenly  charitas* 
cujus  vitrlio,  says  Bacon,  tempernt  ^ientiunit 
eamque  salubirrimam  ffficit,  and  without  wliich, 
omnis  scientta  iitalii^nitm  quid  habet  vcnenosunt- 
(jtte,  Jiuiuimx  fi/mptumatiljus  pletitssimum;  it  is 
this  character  and  quality  of  speculative  reason, 
and  not  its  mere  excess,  which  makes  rational- 
ism the  terror  and  abhorrence  of  religion. 

These  diverging  tendencies  had  already  b^ 
come  distinct  wlien  our  author  appeared  upon 
the  stage,  and  the  theologians  of  Halle  were 
then  divided  into  different  schools,  according  as 
they  adhered  more  closely  to  the  principles  of 
Spener  and  Franke,  or  fell  in  either  with  the 
more  ascetic  or  the  more  free  and  liberal  princi- 
ples then  prevailing.  His  father  had  been  elect- 
ed in  1737  to  the  theological  faculty  at  Halle, 
and  was  associated  with  (he  younger  Franke  in 
the  direction  of  those  institutes  of  learning  and 
charity  w  hich  are  generally  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Orphan  House.  He  had  seen  the  exam- 
ple, and  heard  the  instructions,  of  the  I'ounders 
of  the  university,  and  was  one  of  the  few  wlio 
had  walked  in  their  footsteps.  He  laboured, 
though  with  a  mildness  and  moderation  which 
won  the  praises  even  of  his  opponents,  to  pro- 
mote practical  Christianity,  in  opposition  to  the 
bold  and  reckless  speculations  of  some  of  his 
colleagues.  His  only  son,  the  author  of  these 
lectures,  George  Christian  Knapp,  was  born  in 
the  Orphan  House  at  Glaucha  in  Halle  on  the 
17th  of  Sept.,  1753,  and  received  his  early  educa- 
tion in  the  Royal  P8?dagogium,oneof  the  cluster 
of  institutes  there  established  by  Franke.*  In  a 
iirief  account  which  he  himself  has  given  of  his 
early  life,  he  mentions  a  fact  not  a  little  credit- 
able to  the  personal  character  of  his  father. 
"  Nee  tamen  acquievit  pater,"  says  he,  "  in  pub- 
lica  ilia,  qua  in  scholis  fruebar  institutione ;  sed 
ubi  vacuus  a  negoiiis  erat,  ipse  me  insiituit;  et 
quid  in  schola  profecissem  percunctantio  cogno 
vit,  variis  que  exercilationibus,  ingenium  exci- 
tare  et  judicium  aciiere  studiiit." 

He  entered  the  university  at  Halle,  Sept.  1770, 
in  the  17th  year  of  his  age,  and  there  attended 
the  lectures  of  Spinier,  ihe  first  herald  of  the 
false  illumination  then  breaking  upon  the  worla, 
and  of  Noesselt,  G'runer,  and  others,  who  were 
one  in  feeling  and  action  with  Semler.  During 
the  first  year  of  his  course,  he  sustained  a  great 
loss  in  the  death  of  his  father.  But  in  pursuance 
of  his  counsels,  and  in  the  very  spirit  of  those 
early  teachers  at  Halle  whom  he  had  been 
taught  from  his  youth  to  venerate,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  original  Seripturrs; 
and  made  it  his  great  object  to  become  thorough- 
ly acquviiuted  with  the  language,  the  facts,  and 
the  doctrines  of  the  liible.  \Vilh  what  unusual 
success  he  prosecuted  these  exegelical  studies, 

*  For  an  account  of  these  institutes,  vide  Biblical 
Repusitory,  vol.  i.  No.  I   p.  30. 


PREFACE. 


1' 


maybe  inferred  from  his  programm,  "Ad  Vatici- 
nium  Jacobi,"  Genesis,  xlix.  1 — 27,  and  from 
his  disputation,  "  De  Versione  Alexandrina," 
both  contained  in  his  "  Scripta  Varii  Argumen- 
ti ;"  and  also  from  his  translation  of  the  Ps«hns, 
all  of  which  were  composed  and  published, 
either  during  his  pupilage  at  Halle,  or  shortly 
after  its  completion. 

While  at  the  university  he  also  pursued  the 
study  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  classics  with  great 
zeal.  Of  the  value  of  this  study  to  the  theolo- 
gian there  can  be  little  doubt.  It  not  only  pre- 
pares him  to  understand  the  language,  and  relish 
the  beauties  of  the  sacred  classics,  but  furnishes 
him  with  those  analogies  of  feeling  and  opinion 
which  are  highly  important  in  the  illustration  of 
revealed  truth.  The  writings  of  Dr.  Knapp  are 
everywhere  enriched  by  the  various  illustrations 
of  scriptural  ideas,  which  he  draws  from  Grecian 
and  Roman  literature. 

He  completed  his  studies  at  Halle,  in  April, 
1774 ;  and  after  an  absence  of  a  few  months, 
which  he  spent  in  study  at  Gottingen,  in  visit- 
ing the  most  celebrated  cities  in  Germany,  and 
forming  acquaintances  with  the  most  distin- 
guished men,  he  returned,  and  in  1775  began  to 
lecture  upon  Cicero,  and  also  upon  the  New 
Testament,  and  some  of  the  more  difficult  por- 
tions of  the  Old.  He  was  at  that  time  in  feeble 
health,  and  probably  could  hardly  have  believed 
that  he  should  be  continued  half  a  century  in 
the  employment  which  he  then  commenced. 
The  unusual  approbation  with  which  he  was 
heard  in  these  courses  obtained  for  him  the 
appointment,  first  of  Professor  Extraordinary 
(1777),  and  then  of  Professor  Ordinary  (in  1782). 
In  addition  to  his  exegetical  courses,  he  now 
lectured  on  church  history  and  Jewish  and 
Christian  antiquities.  But  he  was  not,  like  the 
great  majority  of  the  professors  in  the  German 
universities,  employed  merely  in  academical 
labours.  On  ihedeath  of  Freylinghausen  (17S5), 
he  and  Niemeyer  were  appointed  Directors  of 
Franke's  Institutes,  and  continued  jointly  to 
superintend  these  noble  and  extensive  establish- 
ments for  more  than  forty  years.  In  the  division 
of  dulies,  the  oversight  of  the  Bible  and  riis- 
sionaiy  establishment  fell  to  Dr.  Knapp,  and 
he  was  thus  brought  into  connection  with  the 
Moravian  brethren. 

It  was  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year  in 
which  he  received  this  appointment, "and  after 
-e  had  often  lectured  on  subsidiary  branches, 
that  he  commenced  the  composition  of  the  lec- 
tures on  theology  now  presented  to  the  public. 
As  hfi  continued  his  regular  courses  in  exegesis 
and  history,  was  occupied  partly  in  the  concerns 
of  the  institutes,  and  was  moreover  often  inter- 
rupt(;d  in  his  studies  by  severe  illness,  he  did 
not  complete  them  before  the  summer  of  1789, 
when  he  firyt  read  them  before  a  class  of  ISG. 


After  this  time  he  continued  to  lecture  on  theo- 
logy (though  latterly  in  shorter  courses)  until 
near  his  death,  and  always  to  numerous  audi- 
tories. 

But  while  his  life  passed  away  in  these  pur- 
suits so  congenial  to  his  taste,  he  was  not  freed 
from  those  pains  and  sorrows  which  are  the 
common  lot  of  man.  His  peaceful  professional 
career  was  frequently  interrupted  by  the  poli- 
tical disorders  of  the  times,  and  the  repealed 
occupation  of  Halle  by  foreign  troops.  His  do- 
mestic peace  was  also  invaded  by  the  long-con- 
tinued illness  of  his  wife,  and  by  the  violent 
sickness  with  which  he  himself  was  often  at- 
tacked, and  the  constant  infirmity  under  which 
he  laboured.  These  evils,  however,  great  as 
they  might  be,  must  have  appeared  trivial  in 
comparison  with  those  witii  which  he  saw  the 
church  afflicted.  He  was  called  to  behold  new 
principles,  which  he  regarded  as  false  and  dan- 
gerous, rapidly  supplanting  those  in  which  he 
had  been  educated,  and  to  which,  from  his  own 
conviction,  he  was  attached.  He  was  compelled 
to  hear  the  truths  which  he  held  most  sacred 
and  precious  treated  with  profane  levity.  He 
found  himself,  at  last,  the  only  decided  advocate 
of  evangelical  religion  among  the  professors  at 
Halle,  and  exposed  to  ridicule  and  contempt  for 
teaching  the  very  doctrines  in  which  Spener 
and  Franke  had  most  gloried.  These  were  trials 
under  which  his  natural  firmness  and  composure 
must  have  failed  him,  and  in  which  he  could  be 
supported  only  by  a  pious  confidence  in  God. 
He  cherished  this  confidence,  and  through  its 
influence  remained  unmoved  during  times  of 
un|)aralleled  darkness  and  danger.  Nor  was  his 
confidence  niisplaced.  Towards  the  close  of  his 
life  the  prospect  seemed  to  brighten.  The  beilcr 
limes  which  Spener  thought  so  near,  but  which 
had  been  long  delayed,  seemed  again  approach- 
ing, and  it  was  not  diflicult  to  discern  the  signs 
of  a  new  epoch  at  hand.  On  the  third  centennial 
festival  in  commemoration  of  the  Reformation, 
which  occurred  in  the  year  1817,  the  slumber- 
ing spirit  of  the  evangelical  churches  was 
;uvakened.  In  a  programm  which  our  author 
delivered  on  that  occasion,  and  which  is  inserted 
in  his  "Scripta  Varii  Argumenti,"  he  poured 
forth  his  pious  supplications  in  behalf  of  the 
German  church  and  his  beloved  university  in  a 
strain  (  f  unusual  eloquence.  From  that  time 
he  had  the  joy  of  beholding  the  cause  which  he 
held  most  dear  gradually  gaining  ground.  Ilia 
own  rejiutation,  too,  increased  with  his  declining 
years.  And  among  the  most  cheerful  passages 
in  his  life,  is  that  which  occurred  just  before  il» 
close.  On  the  first  of  May,  1825,  he  had  been 
fifty  Ye:irs  connected  with  the  theological  faculty 
of  the  university,  and,  according  to  an  established 
custom,  a  jubilee  festival  was  then  held  in  his 
honour ;  and  many  were  the  marks  of  personal 
b2 


18 


PREFACE. 


affection  and  esteem,  as  well  as  the  civic  and 
academic  honours,  then  heaped  upon  the  vene- 
rable and  happy  jubilar. 

Not  long  after  this,  while  he  was  continuing 
his  summer  course  of  theology,  he  was  seized 
with  a  violent  illness,  from  which  he  never  re- 
eovered.  He  died  in  peace  and  Christian  con- 
fidence, on"the  1 1th  day  of  October,  18"25,  in  the 
73d  year  of  his  age.  According  to  his  particular 
direction,  his  remains  were  interred  privately, 
early  on  the  third  morning  after  his  decease,  in 
his  family  tomb,  by  the  side  of  his  wife,  who 
had  died  eight  years  before.  He  requested,  with 
that  genuine  modesty  for  which  he  was  always 
distinguished,  that  in  the  public  notices  of  his 
death  noiliing  siiould  be  said  to  his  honour,  and 
that  it  should  o»ly  be  witnessed  of  him  that  he 
lived  by  faith  in  the  words,  "I  know  that  my 
Redeemer  livcth." 

Few  are  the  men  whose  lives  are  so  uniform, 
happy,  and  useful.  Born  and  educated  in  tiie 
midst  of  those  noble  institutes  which  stand  a 
living  monument  of  the  faith  of  their  founder — 
blessed  with  the  example  and  instructions  of  a 
father,  high  in  office  and  eminent  for  excellence 
and  learning, — the  inheritor  of  his  virtues,  and 
called  afterwards  by  Providence  to  succeed  him 
both  as  director  of  Franke's  Institutes  and  as 
theological  professor, — richly  provided  with  the 
means  of  improvement,  and  freed  from  the  em- 
barrassments with  which  the  acquisition  of 
learning  is  often  attended, — received  with  fa- 
vour at  the  very  commencement  of  his  profes- 
sional duties,  and  through  all  the  variations  of 
public  opinion  and  feeling  thronged  by  pupils 
who  loved  and  revered  him, — encircled  in  his 
family  with  children  and  friends',  by  whom  he 
was  fondly  cherished, — in  his  old  age  permitted 
to  witness  the  brightening  prospects  of  the  cause 
which  was  nearest  his  heart,  and  honoured  with 
every  mark  of  public  confidence  and  esteem ; — 
he  was  indeed  signally  favoured  of  God.  He 
was  faithful  in  the  trust  committed  to  him,  and 
found  G'ld  faithful  to  his  promises.  His  labour 
was  not  in  vain  in  the  Lord  ;  he  was  blessed 
during  his  life,  and  in  death  his  remembrance 
does  not  perish.  "Wherever  the  news  shall 
reach,"  says  Niemeyer,  his  colleague  and  eulo- 
gist, •' that  this  gifted  teacher  is  for  ever  re- 
moved from  the  sphere  of  his  labours,  there  will 
witnesses  arise  who  will  acknowledge  how  much 
they  owe  to  his  instructions  ;  and  even  beyond 
the  sea  his  memory  will  be  cherished  and  his 
name  not  forjrotten." 

I  shall  close  these  prefatory  remarks  with  a 
general  view  of  the  character  of  Dr.  Knapp,  and 
with  some  more  particular  inforrnalion  respect- 
ing the  Lectures  now  oflTcred  to  the  public. 

His  bodily  constitution  was  frail  and  sickly, 
even  from  his  childhc^d.  He  had  a  complica- 
tion of  disorders,  which  would  have  consigned 


one  less  zealous  for  a  life  of  usefulness,  and  leas 
resolute  in  adopting  and  pursuing  the  means 
necessary  to  attain  it,  to  an  indolent  and  unpro- 
fitable existence,  or  to  an  early  grave.  That 
sickness  and  bodily  infirmity  had  not  this  efl'ect 
upon  him,  must  be  attributed  to  the  exact  course 
of  discipline  which  he  pursued.  In  all  things  ho 
practised  the  most  rigid  temperance,  and  daily 
took  bodily  exercise  in  the  open  air,  measured 
almost  by  the  minute,  and  uninterrupted  by  any 
severity  of  weather.  »'  We  could  iiardly  have 
thought,"  says  Niemeyer,  in  his  funeral  address, 
'♦  when  we  saw  him,  weak  and  exhausted,  con- 
tending with  the  rude  elements,  supported  by 
his  pilgrim  staff,  that  hi?  frail  earthly  tabernacle 
could  endure  so  long."  Such  was  the  effect, 
however,  of  the  rigid  discipline  which  he  main- 
tained, that  he  reached  an  advanced  age,  in  the 
midst  of  arduous  public  duties,  in  which  he  was 
rarely  interrupted,  and  died  at  length  without 
having  kept  his  bed  for  a  single  day — an  exam- 
ple worthy  of  the  consideration  of  the  irresolute 
hypochondriac  who  broods  over  his  ailings,  and 
lives  a  burden  to  himself  and  those  about  him. 

In  his  personal  character  he  was  rather  amia- 
ble than  commanding.  He  possessed  in  an 
unusual  degree  that  mildness,  benignity,  and 
gentleness  of  disposition  which  wins  affection, 
and  that  integrity,  guilelessness,  and  perfect 
simplicity  of  heart  which  secures  confidence. 
In  his  intercourse  with  others  he  was  unassum- 
ing, and  entirely  free  from -suspicion  and  jea- 
lousy. He  was  distinguished  for  I'unctuality 
in  the  fulfilment  of  all  his  engagements,  and 
was  one  of  the  few  men  who  do  every  part  of 
duty  in  its  proper  time  and  place.  His  personal 
faults  were  those  which  almost  invariably  ac- 
company the  excellent  attributes  of  character  for 
which  he  was  distinguished — a  detrree  of  timid- 
ity, too  great  desire  to  please,  and  tear  to  offend, 
and  plial)ility  in  trying  emergencies,  where  the 
highest  degree  of  energy  is  re(juired. 

As  to  the  relii;ious  character  of  Dr.  Knapp, 
the  evidence  in  favour  of  his  strictly  evangelical 
piety  is  clear  and  decisive.  There  is  no  jiroof  of 
any  sudden  alteration  in  his  views  and  feelings 
on  the  subject  of  personal  religion,  and  there  are 
no  means,  therefore,  of  asceriaininti  the  precise 
period  when  his  spiritual  life  commenced.  His 
is  one  of  the  thousand  cases  in  which  early  pa- 
rental instruction,  by  exciting  the  religious  sen- 
sibilities of  the  soul,  prepares  the  way,  through 
the  divine  blessing,  for  the  higher  life  of  faith. 
The  influenceofthesc  early  parental  instructions, 
in  restraining  from  hardening  vices,  and  in  awa- 
kening the  moral  impulses  of  the  soul,  cannot 
be  better  described  than  by  his  own  words:— 
•'  Vitffi  morumque  praecepta,  qua;  raihi  puero  et 
juveni  a.  b.  parente  graviter  quidem,  sed  tamen 
peramanter,  inculcabantur,  crebra»que  exhorta- 
\  tiones  ad   studiuin  pietatis  in  Deum  ac  veri 


PREFACE. 


1» 


rectique  ainorem,  menti  meae  tarn  alte  infixae 
haeserunt,  ut  eanim  memoria  nunquam  deleri 
poterit.  Nam  post  ejus  obiturn  quoque,  si  forte 
adessent  peccandi  illecebraj,  quibus  tentari  ju- 
venilis felas  solet,  statim  ejus  imago  animo  meo. 
obversabatur,  simulque  in  memoriam  revocabam 
cohortationesomnemqueinstitutioiiem  paternam, 
qua  juvenilis  animus  mature  erat  imbutus.  Hac 
cura  ac  diliirentia  parentum  effectum  est  uniee, 
ut  varia  pericula  atque  incitamenta  ad  peccan- 
dum,  quibus  multos  lequalium,  optimae  spei  ju- 
venis,  in  academia  praisertim,  succuinbere  vidi, 
fcliciter  superarem." 

The  good  eft'ect  of  these  pious  counsels  was 
in  some  degree  counteracted  for  a  time  by  the 
extremely  dangerous  circumstances  in  which  he 
was  placed  at  the  university,  and  especially  by 
the  instructions  of  the  neological  professors, 
which  were  as  unfavourable  to  vital  piety  as 
they  were  to  sound  doctrine.  He  was  naturally 
somewhat  afftcted  by  the  spirit  of  the  times, 
though  he  was  never  carried  so  far  as  to  lose  his 
confidence  in  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  or 
to  join  with  the  scoffers  by  whom  he  was  sur- 
rounded in  deriding  things  sacred.  Through 
the  blessing  of  God  he  was  sj)eedily  recovered 
from  this  temporary  aberration,  and  became 
more  and  more  in  earnest  about  his  salvation. 
About  tlie  time  he  was  chosen  ordinary  profes- 
sor, lie  began  to  keep  a  diary,  on  the  first  leaf 
of  which  he  wrote  as  follows: — "I  have  re- 
solved to-day,  with  the  help  of  God,  to  write 
someliiing  from  time  to  time  respecting  my  spi- 
ritual condition.  It  is  my  hope  that  by  this 
means  I  shall  render  myself  more  observant  of 
my  whole  character  and  conduct  than,  as  I  must 
confess  to  my  shame,  I  have  hitherto  been.  If 
by  the  grace  of  God  I  succeed  in  this,  bli,  how 
shall  I  bless  this  day!"  It  was  not,  however, 
until  eight  or  ten  years  after  this  period  that  he 
gave  that  clear  evidence  of  evangelical  piety 
which  he  exhibited  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
life.  In  1794  he  became  more  decided  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  prevailing  unbelief,  and  in  the  love 
and  defence  of  truth  ;  and  it  is  at  this  period  that 
one  of  bis  eulogists*  dates  his  conversion.  The 
fact,  however,  probably  was,  that  at  the  time 
specified  the  inward  life  of  God  in  his  soul, 
before  hidden,  and  by  adverse  influences  almost 
extinct,  became  more  evident  and  vigorous.  As 
the  ways  of  God  in  leading  men  to  Christ  are 
often  secret  and  unknown,  so  too  is  the  operation 
of  the  Spirit  dwelling  in  believers.  Its  presence 
is  often  undiscovered;  and  while  it  secretly 
works  the  mortification  of  sinful  nature  and  con- 
formity to  Christ,  the  believer  himself  may  be 
ujiconscious  of  the  inward  mystery  of  grace; 
and  to  others  certainly  it  is  wholly  impercepti- 
ble. 

•  Dr.  Scheibel,  of  Breslau. 


The  question  vihen  his  spiritual  life  com- 
menced is,  however,  of  little  interest  compared 
with  the  question,  how  it  was  exhibited, — what 
were  its  principal  character ixlics?  It  has  been  al- 
ready remarked,  that  in  place  of  the  enlightened 
and  scriptural  piety  of  the  first  teachers  of  theo- 
logy at  Halle,  some  of  their  successors  exhibited 
a  gloomy,  exclusive,  pharisaical  religion,  the 
principal  marks  of  which  were  an  ostentatious 
display  of  sanctity,  and  total  abstine.rce  from  the 
innocent  enjoyments  of  life.  Very  far  from  this 
was  the  character  of  Knapp's  piety.  With  the 
deep  feeling  of  his  own  unworlhiness  he  always 
associated  the  genuine  evangelical  enjoyment 
arising  from  the  consciousness  of  the  Divine 
forgiveness  and  favour.  This  consciousness 
diffused  a  peace  and  composure  within  which 
influenced  his  external  deportment,  and  made 
his  religion  attractive  to  beholders.  Mot  was 
the  piety  of  Knapp  of  that  high-toned  mystical 
cast  which  appears  in  many  of  the  speculative 
theologians  of  modern  Germany.  So  intense  is 
the  process  of  sublimation  to  which  they  some- 
times subject  their  religious  feelings,  that  the 
solid  substance  of  their  piety  seems  the  while 
to  be  quite  evaporated.  To  any  thing  like  this, 
Knapp  was  wholly  indisposed  by  the  natural 
plainness  and  simplicity  of  his  character. 
Among  the  most  prominent  characteristics  of 
that  piety  which  he  exhibited  is  the  sense  of 
unworthiness,  and  of  dependence  on  the  grace 
of  God.  When  on  the  day  of  his  jubilee  his 
merits  were  largely  recounted,  he  frequently 
spoke  (f  what  he  had  omitted  to  do,  and  was 
prone  to  confess  himself  an  unprofitable  servant. 
He  gratefully  ascribed  his  success  in  whatever 
he  undertook  to  the  blessing  of  God,  and  espe- 
cially acknowledged  him  as  the  author  of  every 
good  thought,  word,  and  work.  His  piety  was 
in  a  high  degree  active,-  he  was  unwearied  in 
his  efforts  to  promote  the  prosperity  and  en- 
larofement  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  By  his 
practical  writings  he  contributed  much  to  revive 
the  declining  flame  of  piety  in  the  German 
church,  and  by  his  exertions  in  behalf  of  mis- 
sions to  spread  the  gospel  over  the  earth.  In 
the  severe  pains  and  heavy  afflictions  which  he 
was  called  to  endure,  he  honoured  religion  by 
his  quiet  submission  to  the  will  of  God.  His 
private  walk  was  strictly  conformed  to  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  gospel;  and  to  all  with  whom  he 
was  associated  it  was  evident  that  his  conver- 
sation was  in  heaven;  and  this  it  was  which 
gave  to  his  explanations  of  the  Bible,  his  lec- 
tures on  theology,  and  all  his  religious  instruc- 
tions, an  energy  and  effect  unknown  in  the  la- 
bours of  those  whose  lives  do  not  bear  witness 
to  their  sincerity. 

But  we  are  here  concerned  with  Dr.  Knapf 
principally  as  a  teacher  and  theological  profes 
sor.    For  this  ofl^ce  he  was  eminently  qualified, 


w 


PREFACE. 


both  by  the  natural  endowments  of  his  mind 
and  by  his  acquisitions.  His  thoughts  on  tlie 
different  subjects  to  which  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion were  plain,  natural,  and  solid.  His  know- 
ledge was  deep  and  thorough;  and  he  always 
cautioned  his  pupils  against  whatever  was 
showy  or  superficial  in  their  attainments,  as 
tending  to  foster  that  pride  of  learning  which 
from  his  very  soul  he  abhorred.  To  know  a 
little  well,  rather  than  a  great  deal  imperfectly, 
was  his  invariable  direction.  The  clearness  and 
distinctness  of  his  concepliims  rendered  his  style 
uncommonly  lucid  and  perspicuous.  His  hear- 
ers were  never  left  in  doubt  as  to  his  meaning 
by  any  vagjenesa  or  indefiniteness  in  his  ex- 
pressions. These  were  the  qualities  which 
made  him  so  higtily  popular  as  a  teacher.  Al- 
tktjugii  he  by  no  means  fell  in  with  the  prevail- 
ing tdste  of  theological  study,  his  lecture-room 
was  always  thronged.  Students  who  are  really 
in  pursuit  of  the  truth  prefer  to  follow  the  slow, 
but  certain  steps  of  a  teacher,  who  proceeds 
in  the  orderly  demonstrative  method,  rather 
than  of  one  who  is  hasty  and  headlong  in  his 
decisions.  No  teacher  was  ever  more  popular 
in  Germany  than  Baumgarten,  and  none  ever 
more  logical,  or  painfully  slow  and  moderate  in 
his  delivery.  In  judiiing  of  the  opinions  of 
others,  Knapp  was  distinguished  (or  fairness  and 
eandmir.  He  allowed  the  full  weiijht  of  their 
arguments;  and  while  he  never  spared  that  pro- 
f.uie  trifling  and  contempt  with  which  the  doc- 
trines of  religion  were  treated  by  many  of  his 
contemporaries,  he  did  not  assume  to  condemn 
those  who  differed  from  him  merely  in  opinion. 
Through  the  exercise  of  this  Christian  candour 
and  charity,  he  was  enabled  to  live  in  perfect 
harmony  with  colleagues  whose  system  of  be- 
lief and  manner  of  instruction  were  directly  op- 
posite to  his  own. 

The  Lectures  on  Theology  now  offered  to  the 
public  were  composed,  as  has  been  already  re- 
lnark»'d,  between  the  years  17H5  and  '89,  and 
first  publicly  read  during  the  latter  year.  Al- 
though often  repeated  after  that  time,  and  at 
each  rfadin<f  corr^'ctpd  in  minor  particulars, 
they  remaiiD-d,  in  all  their  essential  features,  the 
same  as  when  first  written.  Tliis  will  appear 
less  strange,  when  it  is  consiilpred  that  the  au- 
thor came  to  the  rotnposition  of  them  well  versed 
in  all  the  branches  of  8ubsidi;try  theology.  Hut 
there  is  another  reason,  wliirh  will  perfectly 
account  for  tiie  stability  of  Ivnapp's  the(dogical 
system,  durinij  a  period  distinguislied  above  all 
others  for  rajiid  fluctuations  f)f  opirnon,  ami  the 
rise  and  fall  of  philosophic  >l  th»*ories.  //  wnx 
built  iin  Ihf  sure  fnundat inn  if  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
»nd  therefore  fell  not,  thou^fb  the  rains  descend- 
ed, and  the  floods  came,  and  the  winds  blew. 
He  assumed  at  the  rery  outsft  of  his  theological 
'course,  the  principle,  thai  lead  where  the}/  may. 


the  decisions  nf  inspiration  are  to  be  fearlcsfty 
followed.  In  the  truth  of  this  principle  lie  be- 
came more  and  more  confirmed,  the  more  he 
saw  of  the  uncertainty,  pride,  and  blindness  of 
human  reason,  in  the  speculations  of  contempo- 
rary philosophers.  And  most  of  the  few  changes 
which  he  made  in  his  lectures  were  owing  to 
the  stricter  application  of  this  essential  principle 
in  cases  where  he  had  before  hesitated  to  apply 
it,  under  the  influence  of  the  very  difTerent  prin- 
ciples respecting  the  word  of  God  which  he  had 
learned  in  the  school  of  Semler.  In  his  earlier 
statements  respecting  the  doctrines  of  the  Tri- 
nity, demoniacal  possessions,  the  prophecies 
relating  to  the  Messiah,  the  endlessness  of  future 
punishments,  &c.,  as  they  are  given  by  his 
German  editor  Thilo,  he  was  more  conformed  to 
the  loose  and  arbitrary  principles  of  his  neolo- 
gian  associates,  than  in  his  later  statements, 
which  the  reader  will  find  in  the  following  pages. 

In  the  composition  of  these  lectures.  Dr.  K  napp 
followed  strictly  the  principles  of  the  school  of 
Spener  and  Franke.  The  Holy  Scriptures  and 
Christian  experience  were  the  source  from  which 
he  derived  the  elements  of  his  system.  He  en- 
deavoured to  illustrate  the  doctrines  of  revelation 
by  analogies  from  classical  writers,  by  showing 
to  what  ideas  in  the  human  mind  they  corre- 
spond, and  what  wants  of  our  nature  they  are 
intended  to  meet,  and  by  giving  a  history  of  the 
opinions  entertained,  and  the  various  learned 
distinctions  adopted  respecting  them  in  ancient 
and  modern  times.  He  then  endeavoured  to 
combine  these  doctrines,  thus  illustrated,  into  a 
thorough  system.  The  philosophy  which  he 
adopted,  and  by  which  he  was  influenced  as  far 
as  by  any,  is  that  popular  eclectic  system  which 
prevailed  between  the  downfall  of  Wolf  and  the 
ascendency  of  Kant.  But  he  was  especially 
faithful  to  the  requisition,  that  \.\\e.  practical  tffcei 
of  the  doctrines  of  revelation  should  be  ever  kept 
in  view  by  theological  teachers.  Under  each 
of  the  important  doctrines  he  gave  directions 
respecting  the  best  mode  of  presenting  them  in 
po|)uiar  discourse;  and  these  directions  consti- 
tute a  very  considerable  part  of  the  value  of  this 
work. 

I  will  only  add  a  word  respecting  the  transla- 
tion of  these  Lectures.  I  undertook  it  at  the 
commencement  of  my  theological  studies,  at  the 
suggestion  and  with  the  api)robation  of  my  in- 
structers,  and  soon  completed  a  hasty  translation 
of  most  of  the  Articles.  In  correcting  the  copy 
and  preparinu  it  for  the  press,  I  felt  myself 
tempted  to  relieve  the  tediousness  of  simple  re- 
vision by  entering  upon  the  wide  field  of  theo- 
lonical  investigation  to  which  I  was  pointed  by 
the  references  of  the  author,  and  for  which  lh» 
library  in  this  seminary  furnishes  ample  means. 
This  was  in  many  cases  necessary  to  enable  me 
to  inderstand  fully  the  meaning  of  the  author 


PREFACE. 


91 


These  collateral  studies  have  occasioned  an  un- 
expecteo  delay  in  the  publication  of  this  work, 
though  I  hope  tiiey  will  contribute  to  render  it 
more  complete.  I  have  endeavoured  to  bring 
down  the  literature  of  the  more  important  Arti- 
cles to  the  present  time,  and  in  doing  this  have 
made  use  of  the  excellent  Manual  of  Hahn  of 
Leipsic,  and  of  Bretschneider's  "  Dogmatik." 
I  have  frequently  introduced  important  passages 
from  authors  referred  to  by  Knapp,  but  not  ac- 
cessible to  readers  in  general.  In  some  cases 
in  which  Knapp  differs  from  the  opinion  com- 
monly received  by  theologians  in  this  country, 
as  in  the  doctrine  of  decrees;  or  in  which  his 
statements  have  been  corrected  or  mended  by 
later  investigations,  as  in  some  portions  of  the 
history  of  the  Trinity;  I  have  either  stated  the 
opposite  opinion,  with  the  reasons  for  it,  or  re- 
ferred to  authors  where  different  statements  can 
be  found.  It  must  not  be  inferred,  however, 
that  whenever  this  is  not  done,  the  author's 
opinions  are  considered  to  be  unexceptionable. 
It  should  be  distinctly  stated,  that  neither  the 
translator  nor  the  gentlemen  by  whose  advice 
this  work  was  undertaken,  are  vouchers  for  the 
exact  truth  of  all  its  doctrines.  Of  its  general 
correctness  they  are  well  satisfied,  and  this  is 
all  for  which  they  are  respons  L  e 
The  additions  made  by  the  translator  are  in- 


cluded in  brackets,  and  are  sometimes  printed 
uniformly  with  the  text,  though  more  generally 
thrown  into  notes;  they  are  in  most  cajes, 
though  not  always,  designated  by  the  abbrevia- 
tion Tr. 

The  translation  which  I  have  given  will  be 
found,  if  compared  with  the  original,  to  be  some- 
what free.  I  have  endeavoured  to  express  the 
meaningof  the  author,  as  he  himself  would  have 
expressed  it  in  English,  rather  than  to  follow 
the  German,  to  the  violation  of  the  purity  of  our 
own  language.  The  imperfect  state  of  the  ori- 
ginal text  justifies  a  greater  freedom  of  version 
than  would  otiierwise  be  a.io«»able.  These 
lectures  were  published  after  the  death  of  their 
author,  without  any  alteration,  from  manuscripts 
which  he  had  never  prepiiteii  t'^r  llie  press. 
Many  passages  are  therefore  quite  incomplete, 
and  could  be  intelligibly  rendered  only  by  a 
copious  paraphrase. 

I  embrace  this  opportunity  to  express  my 
thanks  to  the  gentlemen  who  have  rendered  me 
assistance;  and  especially  to  my  honoured 
father,  to  whose  careful  revision  much  of  the 
correctness  of  this  work  is  to  be  attributed. 
Leonard  Woods,  Jun. 

Theological  Seminary.  Andover, 
Sept.  26,  1331. 


INTRODUCTION. 


INTRODUCTION. 


SECTION  I. 

CF    RELIGION  AND  THEOLOGY;    AND    THE    DIFFER- 
ENCE   BETWEEN    THEAI. 

I.  Of  Religion. 

ELIGION,  understood  sub- 
'  jeclively,  and  in  the  widest 
sense,  is  commonly  defined, 
revcretice  for  God,  or  piety  to 
hin\.  The  objection  which 
Stiiudlinand  some  other  mod- 
ernwriters  have  urged  against 
inition  is  not  important  enough 
ire  us  to  abandon  it.  We  say 
who  performs  what  he  acknow- 
to  he  agreeable  to  the  will  of 
lat  he  reverences  God,  or  is  pious, 
(colere  deum,  cultus  dei.)  Thus  Kant  defines 
religion  to  be,  the  acknowledgvient  of  our  duties 
as  divine  commands.  It  is  clear  that  two  things 
are  essential  to  piety  to  God — viz.,  (1)  The 
knowledge  of  God,  as  to  his  nature,  attributes, 
&c.;  of  his  relation  to  men,  and  his  disposition 
towards  them;  and  also  of  his  will.  ('2)  Affec- 
tions and  conduct  correspondent  with  this  know- 
ledge; or  the  application  of  this  knowledge. 
The  science  of  religion,  then,  is  that  science 
which  comprises  every  thing  relative  to  the 
knowledge  and  reverence  of  God.  The  hu- 
man understanding  is  employed  about  the  for- 
mer, which  is  called  the  theoretic  part  of  reli- 
gion, (yvw3c;,  rtt'srtj,  to  Tttativiiv.)  The  hu- 
man will  is  employed  about  the  latter,  which  is 
called  xhe  practical  part  of  religion,  (ra  tpya,  ro 
jtoiftv.)  These  two  parts  must  coexist.  One 
is  equally  essential  with  the  other.  They  are, 
»nerefore,  always  connected  in  the  discourses  of 
Christ  and  the  writings  of  the  apostles.  Vide 
John,  xiii.  17;  Titus,  i.  1;  Jas.  i.  22 — 27. 
Vide  Morus,  p.  2,  biblica  nomina  religionis, 
^63oi  0fov,  X.  f.  X. 

The  correctness  of  this  knowledge  of  God  is 
very  important  in  regard  to  our  conduct.  The 
human  mind  is  coinpelled  to  conceive  of  God  as 
the  great  ideal  of  moral  perfection,  and  conse- 
quently, to  make  him  the  pattern  for  imitation. 
False  notions,  therefore,  respecting  his  nature, 
attributes,  and  commands,  are  in  the  highest 
degree  injurious  to  morality. 

But  religion  is  often  used  in  a  more  limited 
sense,  denoting  either  the  theoretic  or  the  prac- 
tical part  merely.     And  in  either  of  these  re- 


spects a  man  is  called  religious.  Religion  is  a 
name  which  is  also  very  frequently  given  to  the 
external  ritesof  divine  service.  And  thus  a  man 
who  lives  devoutly,  frequents  public  worship, 
and  observes  the  ordinances,  is  called  a  religious 
man.  But  this  is  a  perversion  of  the  word, 
which  has  bad  consequences.  Vide  Morus,  8.2, 
not.  extra. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  religion  subjeC' 
lively — i.  e.,  in  respect  to  those  who  possess  it. 
But, 

{b)  The  word  religion  is  often  used  objectively, 
to  designate  the  whole  sum  tf  doctrines  respecting 
God  and  his  will.  But  since  the  notions  of  men 
respecting  God,  and  accordingly  their  piety  to 
him,  are  very  different,  religion  frequently  sig- 
nifies in  common  language  the  manner  in  which 
God  is  regarded,  according  to  these  preconceived 
opinions.  Thus  we  speak  of  the  Christian, 
heathen,  and  Mahommedan  religion — i.  e.,  the 
manner  in  which  God  is  regarded  according  to 
the  ideas  of  Christians,  heathen,  and  Mahomme- 
dans.  We  also  speak  of  changing,  professing, 
denying,  embracing,  renouncing  one's  religion, 
using  religion  in  the  same  sense. 

Note. — The  Latin  word  religio  is  derived  from 
the  old  word  religere,  and  from  the  derivative  re- 
ligen^,  synonymous  with  diligens,  careful,  strict. 
Cic.  De  Nat.  Deor.  II.  28,  and  GcU.  Noct.  Att. 
IV.  9.  It  signifies,  literally,  strictness,  punctual 
care,  conscientiousness.  Those  who  exhibited 
zeal  and  earnestness  in  the  service  of  God,  as  the 
most  important  concern,  were  therefore  called 
xar'  i^oxrv,  religiosi;  and  their  conduct  was 
called  religio  (the  name  of  the  Deity  being  fre- 
quently annexed)  dei,  or  erga  deum.  The  word 
religio,  however,  and  especially  the  plural  rc/i- 
gioncs,  was  most  commonly  used  in  reference  to 
external  worship,  rites,  and  ceremonies.  Vide 
.Jerusalem,  Betrachtungen  iiber  die  Wahrheiten 
der  Relisiion,  Th.  I.  Vide  especially,  die  achte 
Betrachtung. 

II.  Of  Theohgij. 

Theology  is  properly  \6yoi  rttpi  Qtov,  (like 
(liTpoXoyia,)  and  this  is  either  narralio  de  deo, 
or  docirina  de  deo.  The  most  ancient  heathen 
Greeks  used  it  in  the  first  sense.  Those  who 
wrote  the  history  of  the  gods,  their  works  (e.  g., 
cosmogony)  and  exploits,  in  short,  the  mytho- 
ligists,  were  called  ^f6>.oyia.  Pherecydes  of 
Scyros,  who  wrote  a  work  entitled  JxoXoyi'o,  was 
C  25 


S6 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


the  first  who  was  so  called.  Homer  and  Hesiod, 
too,  were  theologians  in  this  sense.  Moses  is 
said  by  I'hilo  ^toXoy*i»s  when  he  gives  the  his- 
tory of  tlie  creation.  Tiie  fathers  of  the  church 
use  the  same  word,  sonittimes  in  reference  to 
the  doctrine  concerning  CJod  as  a  part  of  all  re- 
ligion, and  sometimes  in  reference  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  divine  nature  of  Christ,  in  opposition 
to  oixo^o^ia,  the  doctrine  of  his  human  nature. 
^V hence  the  phrase,  ^foWoyilv  Xpiorov  or  n»fv- 
fia  oyioi — i.  e.,  to  acknowledge  Christ  or  the 
Holy  Spirit  as  God.  Vide  Suicer,  Thes.  Eccles. 
in  verb. 

But  in  the  twelfth  century,  Peter  Abelard 
began  to  employ  this  word  to  denote,  particu- 
larly learned  and  scientific  instruction  in  reli- 
gion. He  wrote  a  system  which  he  called  /Aco- 
logia;  in  which  respect  he  was  followfd  by 
most  of  the  schoolmen.  Tliis  use  was  preserved 
by  most  of  the  succeeding  theologians.  In  the 
seventeenth  century,  many  in  the  protestant 
church  varied  from  it,  and  gave  the  name  ihco- 
lo<ria  to  any  knowledge  respecting  God  and 
divine  things,  using  the  word  in  its  etymologi- 
cal sense.  So  Musaeus,  Baier,  and  others.  But 
in  later  times,  Mosheim,  Semler,  and  others, 
have  endeavoured  to  revive  the  ancient  use  of 
the  schoolmen.  Accordingly,  when  ihcoloi^y 
is  taken  in  abntracto,  as  synonymous  with  divt- 
»ii7^,  we  understand  by  it  learned  or  scienlijic 
inalrudiun  rcipectintr  God,  sttbtiliur  modus  dis- 
ttndi  doctrinam  de  dec.      jMorus,  p.  11. 

In  general,  therefore,  theology  is  the  know- 
ledge of  God  carried  to  the  highest  degree  of 
perfection  in  respect  to  correctness,  clearness, 
and  evidence  of  which  it  is  susceptible  in  this 
world.  And  a  theologian  or  divine  is  one  who 
not  only  understands  himself  the  doctrines  of 
religion,  but  is  able  thoroughly  to  explain,  prove, 
and  defend  them,  and  tearh  them  to  others. 

There  is  nothing  in    itself  objectionable   in 
using  theuloi^y  and  divinity  (Goiiesgelehrsam- ! 
keit)  as  synonymous.     But,  as  Morus  observes, ' 
p.  1 1,  s.  1,  it  is  inconvenient,  to  say  the  least,  to  I 
oppose  theology  to  religion,  and  to  imderstand 
by  tlie  latter,  as  many   modern  writers  do,  a 
knowledge  of  God   which  is  not  learned  and 
scientific.  Theology  is  employed  about  religion, 
and  has  the  iruthsof  religion  foritsobject.    The- 
ology, then,  should  not  be  opposed  to  relii^ion,- 
but  thtiiloirical   instruction  and   the  ihfohx^ical 
knowledge  of  religion,  to  xUe  popular  or  ctilic/ieli' 
«/// instruction  and  knowledge  of  religion.    'I'he 
latter  is  suited  to  men  at  large;  the  former,  only 
to  the  learned,  or  those  wishing  to  become  so. 

\Vhal  we  call  divinity  was  frequently  called 
by  the  fathers  yvwitj,  who  accordingly  called 
divine*  •^luiTtxoi.  Morus,  p.  II,  n.  2.  Divinity 
is  also  called  Ihcolo^in  sc/iolimlira,  because  it  is 
designed  for  the  school,  or  for  learned  instruc- 
tion ;   also,  thcologia  aeruai/iulica,  or  aeadaniea, 


in  opposition  to  popularis  and  enlcchetiea,  reli- 
gious instruction  suited  to  the  comprehension 
of  common  people.  In  the  latter,  the  language 
of  the  school  and  of  the  science  must  be  avoided; 
but  it  cannot  be  in  the  former  without  the  sacri- 
fice of  thoroughness  and  distinctness.  The 
terminology  of  this  science  and  the  mode  of 
treating  it  have  always  been  influenced  by  the 
prevailing  character  of  the  age,  and  the  current 
philosophy.  Vide  s.  9.  In  the  present  state  of 
the  church  a  systematic  knowledge  of  religion 
is  indispensable  even  to  the  popular  teacher. 
Morus,  p.  12,  s.  2,  and  Pra?f.  ad  Mori  Epit. 
especially  p.  xiv.  seq.  He  needs  it,  as  an  edu- 
cated man,  for  the  establishment  and  confirma- 
tion of  his  own  faith,  and  for  the  instruction  of 
others.  He  should  only  be  careful  to  avoid  the 
systematic  or  scientific  tone  in  the  instruction 
of  the  common  people  and  of  the  young,  and  to 
speak  in  an  intelligible,  catechetical,  and  popu- 
lar manner.  The  various  abuses  of  the  scien- 
tific language  of  theology  do  not  disprove  its 
utility,  or  decide  against  its  proper  use.  Vide 
Steinbart,  Griinde  fiirdie  giinzliche  Abschaffung 
der  Schulsprache  in  der  Theologie,  1T7G,  8vo; 
and  the  answer,  Brackmann,  Apologie  der 
theologischen  Systemsprache ;  Braunschweig, 
177S,  8vo. 

Theoloirical  OT  scientific  religion  consists,  as 
well  Ti?.  popular  religion,  of  two  principal  parts: 
viz.  (1)  TAeMcorer/cpor/,  or  theoretic  theology, 
(Glaubenslehre,)  because  it  proposes  dogmas, 
^fujp/juara,  theses,  propo%iiiones  de  religione^ 
which  are  discovered  and  established  by  reflec- 
tion and  investigation.  Vide  Morus,  Pra^f.  p.  v. 
seq.  It  is  also  called  tlicolof^ia  doi^utatica,  (dog- 
matik.)  For  the  explanation  of  this  term,  let 
it  be  observed  that  6oy^a  has  various  significa- 
tions— viz.,  a  resolve,  decree,  determination,  or- 
dinance f  then,  in  the  philosophic  sense,  (n)  an 
opinion  which  we  have  respecting  any  doctrine 
or  principle,  Col.  ii.  14;  (A)  the  principle  or  dot' 
trine  (doctrina)  itself.  Hence  Pliny  expresses 
it  hy  placilHm,  and  Cicero  by  dicrthim;  as,  de- 
crrla  philosojthorum,  Acad.  II.  9.  Many  of  the 
old  fathers,  as  Origen,  Basil,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
employed  h6;fia.  in  this  sense — viz.,  to  desig- 
nate not  merely  an  opinion  respecting  certain 
principles  and  theoretic  doctrines;  hut  these 
principles  and  doctrines  themselves.  Used  in  the 
former  sense,  theohiria  dogmalicn  is  properly 
theohtiria  historica,  a  relation  or  exhibition  of  the 
opinions  of  theologians  respecting  particular 
doctrines.  So,  for  the  most  part,  it  was  used 
in  the  Honiish  church.  Thus  we  have  Petavii 
iipusde  nooMATiBUS  Iheoloirnnim — i.  e.,  concern- 
ing thn  opinions  of  the  fathers,  fee.  In  this 
sense,  too,  it  was  commonly  employed  hy  pro- 
testants  until  the  commencement  of  the  eigh 
teenth  century.  Employed  in  the  latter  sense, 
thtolo'^ta  doj^matica  is  the  same  as  'heorelU,  ia 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


f» 


«pposii'c>n  to  praelt'cal  or  moral  theology.  In 
tlie  same  way,  Seneca,  Ep.  95,  and  others  of  the 
ancient  stoics,  divided  philosophy  into  theoretic 
(doarmatica)  and  practical  (paraenetica).  This 
name  of  the  theoretic  part  of  theology  was  intro- 
duced into  the  protestant  church  principally  by 
Pfaff  and  Buddeus,  who,  in  1721 — 23,  published 
their  manuals  under  the  title,  Theoh^ia  dogma- 
tica  el  moralis.  Vide  Stange,  Synimicta,  I.  156. 
(2)  r//e  pr«<://ca/ par/,  morals,  ethics.  This  was 
formerly  always  united,  even  in  scientific  in- 
struction, with  the  theoretic  part  of  religion.  So 
it  was  in  Melancthon,  (Loc.  Theol.,)  in  Chem- 
nitz, and  in  all  the  systems  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  These  two  connected  sciences  were 
called  ikeoltigia  thetica,  and  the  doctrines  con- 
tained in  them,  theses,  in  opposition  to  iheologia 
antithetica,*  nr pnlemica,  (critical  theology.)  Ca- 
lixtus  of  Helmstadt,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
was  the  first  who  undertook  to  separate  (/oc/rnirz/ 
from  mural  theology  in  scientific  instruction. 
Since  his  time  this  division  has  remained. 

Cf.  Morus,  Epitome  Theologiae  Christianae, 
p.  1—3,  s.  1—4. 

SECTION  II. 

OF    RELIGION,    AS    THE     MEANS    OF    THE    MORAL 
IMPROVEMENT    AND    PERFECTION    OF    MEN. 

1.  It  is  an  established  point  that  men  can 
become  morally  better  than  they  actually  are. 
Each  individual  must  acknowledge  that  he  him- 
self can  become  morally  better  than  he  actually 
is.  He  thus  confesses  that  there  is  a  possibility, 
an  internal  capacity  (Aniage)  in  his  nature  for 
becoming  better  than  he  is.  Now  this  capacity 
of  human  nature  for  moral  advancement  is  an 
incontrovertible  proof  that  man  is  designed  for 
a  higher  moral  perfection  than  he  commonly 
possesses  or  attains;  for,  from  the  internal 
capacity  which  we  perceive  in  a  thing  we  al- 
ways must  determine  its  destination.  From  the 
nature  of  the  seed,  we  conclude  that  it  was  de- 
siijned  to  develope  the  germ;  from  the  nature 
and  properties  of  the  foot,  that  it  was  desisfned 
for  walking,  &c.  It  is  exactly  the  same  in  re- 
spect to  the  whole  intellectual  constitution. 
Man  was  designed  for  all  that  for  which  he  has 
an  originil  capacity,  and  God  can  require  of 
him  no  less  perfection  than  that  for  which  he 
has  desio-ned  hiin. 

Xnte. — The  true  destination  of  man,  as  a  rea- 
sonable beinir,  is,  ever  protrressive  ?>t(>ral  perfec- 
tion [holiness,  as  the  Hible  calls  it,)  amf  the 
hnppin's^  proporlinnately  ennneeted  with  it.    The 


•  Refutation  (antithetik)  is  called  in  the  Scrip- 
tures iKry^^^'-c,  2  Tim.  iii.  16;  Tit.  i.  9.  Hence  the 
phrase  Iheoh^ia  elencticn,  Ixfj-xT/xH.  (elcnktik.) 
which  Turrelin  uses.  Friedmann  I3echmann,a 
theologian  of  Jena,  in  the  seventiu'nth  century, 
first  used  the  phrase,  Ihcnhgiu  polcm  m,  and  wrote 
a  book  under  that  title.  Stange,  ubi  supra,  p.  161. 


moral  feeling  by  which  we  determine  w^hat  is 
right  or  wrong,  morally  good  or  evil,  is  essen- 
tially founded  in  our  very  natures.  Every  thing 
which  opposes  the  Pfreat  end  of  man,  or  inter- 
feres with  his  higher  destination,  is  morally 
evil ;  and  every  thing  which  promotes  this  des- 
tination, or  leads  to  this  end,  is  morally  good. 
Vide  infra,  sec.  51.  II. 

2.  Many,  however,  do  not  attain  that  moral 
perfection  for  which  they  were  designed  by  God 
in  the  constitution  which  he  has  given  them. 
In  all  men,  without  exception,  in  their  natural 
state,  we  find  bodily  appetite  predominant,  and 
far  more  strong  than  moral  principle.  Men  are 
either  deficient  in  the  power  requisite  to  govern 
their  appetites,  and  to  perform  what  is  good,  or 
they  do  not  properly  employ  the  power  which 
they  possess.  In  either  case  the  result  is  the 
same;  for  if  the  powers  which  man  possesses 
sleep  unemployed,  a  new  power  is  necessary  to 
move,  animate,  and  strengthen  them. 

3.  But  man  must  be  able  to  attain  to  that  for 
which  God  has  designed  him.  His  destination, 
as  learned  from  his  constitution,  is  to  increase 
continually  in  moral  perfection.  He  must  then 
be  able  to  attain  to  this  end.  But  man  has  not 
the  power  in  himself  of  increasing  in  moral 
worth ;  he  must  consequently  obtain  it  else- 
where. God  must  have  appointed  a  means,  the 
employment  of  which  has  an  efficacy  in  promot- 
ing the  moral  improvement  of  men,  since  he 
cannot  be  supposed  to  have  designed  them  for 
an  end  which  is  absolutely  unattainable. 

4.  It  might  seem,  perhaps,  that  this  means 
should  be  sought  in  a  merely  philosophical 
knowledge  and  belief  of  the  duties  which  natu- 
ral law  prescribes,  or  in  the  clear  and  lively 
perception  of  moral  truths.  Many  have  held 
that  man  could  in  this  way  be  made  morally 
perfect  and  virtuous  without  religious  motives. 
When  men,  they  say,  are  convinced  of  the  ne- 
cessity of  obedience  to  the  precepts  of  natural 
law,  and  believe  that  rewards  and  happiness  are 
inseparably  connected  with  obedience,  they  will 
find  this  conviction,  and  this  hope  of  the  reward 
which  virtue  always  l)estows,  sufficient  to  impel 
and  empower  them  to  the  practice  of  goodness. 

This  theory  mitrht  be  true  in  application  to  a 
being  purely  rational,  such  as  man  is  not.  But 
it  is  wholly  untrue  in  application  to  a  being 
composed,  as  we  are,  of  reason  and  sense.  This 
I  philosophical  reward  of  virtue,  and  consequently, 
i  this  merely  philosophical  conviction,  are  insuf- 
ficient to  prompt  the  more  noble  viriues.  such 
as  the  sacrifice  of  one's  own  interest  to  the 
happiness  and  advantage  of  others. 

Experience,  too,  speaks  clearly  against  the 
sufficiency  of  this  means.  It  teaches  that  the 
fullest  conviction  of  duty  is  far  fmm  givinor  men 
the  power  to  overcome  their  sinlul  inclinations 
and  desires.   Let  every  one  question  himself  on 


29 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


this  particular.  Let  him  carefully  examine  one 
single  day  of  his  life.  Besides,  does  it  appear 
thai  the  great  multitude  of  the  philosophical 
teachers  of  morals,  in  Christian  and  heathen 
lands,  at  present  and  formerly,  are  actually 
better  and  more  virtuous,  with  all  their  clear 
light  and  conviction,  than  the  great  mass  of 
other  men  1  Vide  Flatt,  Magazin  fur  Dogm.  und 
Moral.  >St.  I.  s.  240.  f.  Tiibing.  1796. 

As  this  means,  considered  separately,  is  in- 
sufficient, it  cannot  be  the  only  one  appointed 
by  God.  For  God  cannot  be  supposed  to  have 
indicated  to  men  an  insufficient  means.  The 
knowledge  and  belief  of  the  requisitions  of  na- 
tural law  and  of  moral  truths  are,  in  themselves, 
very  good  and  necessary.  But  from  what  has 
been  said,  it  follows  that  some  quickening  power 
is  needed  to  give  this  knowledge  an  influence 
upon  the  human  will,  and  a  power  to  overcome 
the  appetites  of  our  animal  nature. 

5.  This  power  to  overcome  moral  evil,  and  to 
perform  what  is  morally  good,  is  to  be  sought 
and  found  only  in  religion,  or  in  our  relation  to 
God^  or  in  belief  in  God  as  our  supreme  govern- 
or, lawgiver,  and  judge.  This  power  operates 
by  means  of  that  lively  conviction  and  assurance 
which  religion  imparts  respecting  the  will  of 
the  supreme  lawgiver,  and  the  reward  of  virtue 
and  punishment  of  vice,  depending  upon  him. 
We  neither  possess,  nor  are  acquainted  with, 
any  stronger  power  than  this  for  promoting  the 
moral  perfection  of  the  human  race.  This,  then, 
must  be  the  divinely  appointed  means,  in  the 
use  of  which  men  may  obtain  the  strength  which 
they  need. 

In  respect  to  religion,  wc  find  that  the  whole 
human  race  proceed  in  one  and  the  same  path. 
Some,  indeed,  deviate  from  it  for  a  time,  but, 
in  adverse  circumstances,  in  those  hours  when 
they  need  consolation  for  themselves  and  others, 
they  soon  feel  the  necessity  of  returning.  It 
must,  then,  be  according  to  the  nature  of  man,  of 
which  (J>)d  is  the  author,  to  proceed  in  this  path. 

Let  not  the  great  variety  of  religions  which 
frequently  stand  in  opposition  to  one  another, 
be  objected  against  us.  Subtracting  from  all 
these  ditferent  religions  whatever  in  them  is 
fake  or  ineidenfal,  there  will  always  be  left  the 
idea  of  piety  to  God,  and  of  a  righteous  retribu- 
tion to  be  expected  from  him,  as  supreme  law- 
giver and  judge.  This  idea  appears  among  all 
])eopJe  and  nations,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to 
exercise  their  reason.  It  is,  indeed,  very  dilTer- 
ently  modified  and  developed,  according  to  the 
dilference  of  the  circun\^tance8  and  of  the  intel- 
lectual ami  moral  capacity  of  each.  But,  as  to 
all  which  is  essential,  the  whole  human  race  are 
agreed.  And  it  is  just  this  essential  part  of  re- 
ligion which  is  the  very  best  spring  of  real  or 
supposed  virtues,  and  therefire  the  means  ap- 
]X>inted  by  God  for  the  moral  improvement  of 


men.  And  since  religion  is  appointed  to  mat 
as  the  means  of  fulfilling  his  destiny,  it  must 
have /ru/A  for  its  foundation;  for  it  cannot  be 
supposed  that  God  would  deceive  man  by  the 
appointment  of  a  false  and  unsuitable  means. 
Cf.  Morus,  s.  4,  et  passim. 

SECTION  III. 

OF    NATURAL    AND    REVEALED    RELIGION. 

The  knowledge  of  God,  his  moral  govern 
ment  over  the  world,  and  his  will,  can  he  ob 
tained  in  two  ways.  First,  by  means  oi nature 
Vide  Morus,  p.  3,  4.  s.  5,  6.  This  is  a  source 
of  knowledge  which  even  the  htathen  possess, 
and  for  the  neglect  of  which  even  they  have  nc 
excuse,  Rom.  i.  20.  Secondly,  by  means  of  an 
immediate  OT  direct  revelation  from  God.  Vide 
Morus,  p.  7,  seq.  In  reference  to  this  twofold 
source  of  knowledge,  religion  has  been  divided 
into  natural  and  revealed.  This  distinction  is 
made  by  Paul,  Rom.  ii.  12,  seq.,  coll.  i.  19,  seq. 
He  calls  the  direct  divine  revelation  vd^joj;  and 
those  who  do  not  enjoy  it,  and  know  God  mere- 
ly from  nature,  aio^ot  and  vo^ov  fif]  t;^oiTfj.  Cf. 
Ps.  xix.  1 — 6.  Here  belongs  Acts,  xiv.  IG,  seq., 
coll.  xvii.  26,  seq. 

But  when  nature  is  spoken  of  as  a  source  of 
the  knowledge  of  God,  external  nature  alone  is 
not  meant,  as  is  often  supposed ;  but  also  our 
internal,  moral  nature,  our  moral  conscioustiesa. 
Every  man  capable  of  reflection  finds  (1)  one 
source  of  the  knowledge  of  God  in  surrounding 
nature,  which,  when  he  reflects  upon  it,  invites 
and  conducts  him  to  a  knowledge  of  its  author, 
Ps.  xix.  1 — Ii;  Rom.  i.  20;  Acts,  xiv.  17;  coll. 
xvii.  24,  seq.  He  finds  (2)  another  source  of 
the  knowledge  of  God  in  himself,  in  his  oivn  con- 
science, which  distinctly  acquaints  him  with  a 
supreme  and  invisible  judge  of  his  thoughts  and 
actions,  Rom.  ii.  12 — 16;  Acts,  xvii.  27 — 31. 

The  following  remarks  may  serve  to  illustrate 
this  division : — 

1.  We  have  before  proved  that  the  strong 
belief  and  assurance  of  the  will  of  God,  the 
supreme  lawgiver,  and  of  a  retribution  to  be 
expected  from  him  as  governor  and  judge,  are 
the  means  of  our  moral  perfection.  Vide  s.  2, 
No.  5.  We  might  hence  conclude  that  God 
would  give  certainty  to  both  of  these  particu- 
lars by  a  direct  revelation.  The  results  to  which 
natural  religion  leads  the  few  who  have  o|>por- 
tiinity  and  ability  to  understand  it  in  its  best 
state,  are  indeed  important,  in  themselves  con- 
sidered. Yet  even  the  natural  knowledge  of 
(Jod  of  this  purer  kind,  leaves  men  in  perplexing 
donbl  on  many  very  important  points,  a<s  soon 
as  they  begin  rightly  to  feel  their  wants.  It 
cannot,  therefore,  afford  them  all  that  assistance 
whicli  they  need  for  their  moral  improvement 
and  perfection.     What  Pliny  said  (Hist.  N^U 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


29 


XXX.  1)  of  his  own  and  earlier  times  still  holds 
true — ad  religivnern  niaximc  eliamvum  caligat 
huinanum  genus.  Gesneri  Clir.  Plin.  757.  5, 
of.  760,  not.  We  should  therefore  naturally 
expect  that  God  would  supply  these  defects  in 
natural  religion  by  means  of  direct  revelation. 

We  must  not,  however,  found  our  belief  in  a 
direct  revelation  upon  an  a  priori  demonstration. 
'I'he  simple  question  is.  Has  a  revelation  actually 
been  made?  This  is  a  question  of  fact,  the  an- 
swer to  which  must,  of  course,  be  sought  from 
history.  That  a  revel.ition  has  not  been  made, 
or  is  hot  possible,  can  by  no  means  be  proved  « 
priori.  If  the  fact  can  be  historically  proved, 
all  reasoning  to  the  contrary  amounts  to  nothing. 
Now,  Christians  believe  that  the  holy  scriptures 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  are  the  records 
of  the  true  divine  revelation.  In  the  article  on 
,lhe  holy  scriptures  we  shall  inquire  whether  this 
opinion  is  historically  true.  In  the  remarks 
which  here  follow  we  shall  discuss  some  sub- 
jects by  way  of  introduction  to  this  inquiry.  Cf. 
Jani,  Versuch  einer  Beantwortung  der  Frage : 
Ob  eine  allgemeine  reine  Vernunftreligion  in 
dieser  Welt  moglich,  und  von  der  Uinschaffung 
flder  AbschaiTung  der  christlichen  Religion  zu 
erwarten  sey  ]     Berlin,  1804,  8vo. 

2.  All  history  shows  that  men  have  deeply 
telt  the  necessity  of  a  direct  revelation.  Those 
institiitors  of  religion  who  have  pretended  that 
their  whole  system  was  revealed  from  heaven 
and  positively  prescribed,  have  always  been  the 
best  received,  and  have  succeeded  best  in  their 
object.  Some  pretended,  deceitfully,  that  they 
were  the  confidants  of  God;  others  doubtless 
believed  themselves  to  be  such,  and  supposed 
that  God  spake  and  taught  by  their  instrumen- 
tality. It  does  not  concern  our  present  purpose 
to  determine  whether  they  were  in  the  right  or 
wrong,  hut  only  how  it  happened  that  their 
claims  were  so  readily  and  willingly  admitted 
by  their  hearers.  It  was  because  they  answered 
the  wishes  and  expectations,  and  satisfied  the 
wants,  of  the  multittjde. 

Besides,  nothing  but  positive  injunction  and 
prohibition  produces  a  deep  and  lasting  impres- 
sion on  the  great  mass  of  mankind.  The  voice 
of  natural  law  alone  is  altogether  too  feeble  to 
control  the  most  numerous  class  of  society.  Na- 
tural law  does  not  sufficiently  compel  the  atten- 
tion of  men  when  left  to  themselves.  And  even 
if  they  should  reflect  upon  it,  they  would  find  it 
destitute,  in  many  cases,  of  that  evidence  and 
certainty  which  quiets  the  mind.  They  will  find, 
therefore,  positive  commands,  which  give  them 
this  certainty  after  which  they  long,  in  the 
highest  degree  welcome.  The  conviction  of 
having  the  authority  and  direct  command  of  God 
f^r  any  course  of  conduct  has  more  efl'ect  than 
the  strongest  arguments  on  the  duly  and  end  of 
aan  which  the  greatest  sage  oould  offer.  For  but 


few  are  capable  of  understanding  the  grounds 
of  moral  reasoning;  and  they  will  often  at  least 
suspect  that  the  truth  may  be  ditTerent  from 
their  system,  and  perhaps  will  discover  solid 
objections  to  their  own  views.  But  one  who  is 
firmly  convinced  that  God  has  directly  com- 
manded a  certain  course  of  conduct,  will  obey 
the  requisition,  although  he  may  not  understand 
the  reason  and  internal  necessity  of  it;  he  will 
comply  with  the  requisition  because  it  cornea 
from  God,  and  therefore  must  be  right  and  good. 
Ivxperience,  too,  teaches  that  a  merely  natural 
religion  is  not  suited  to  be  the  religion  of  the 
peo|)le  at  large.  It  has  far  too  little  evidence  and 
power,  and  soon  becomes  corrupt,  even  among 
civilized  nations.  Let  a  merely  natural  religion, 
independent  of  authority,  once  become  the  reli 
gion  of  the  great  mass  of  mankind,  and  social 
order  and  morality  are  at  an  end. 

Since  the  necessity  of  a  direct  revelation  is 
feltso  universally,  the  bestowmentof  it  by  God, 
in  condescension  to  our  wants,  cannot  appear  to 
the  unprejudiced  inquirer  either  inconsistent  or 
incredible.  We  shall  hereafter  inquire  whether 
there  is  one,  among  all  the  pretended  revelations, 
which  is  really  of  divine  origin.  This  is  a 
question  of  fact.  In  the  mean  time,  so  much 
we  may  boldly  assert,  that  the  scriptures  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  have  a  decided  prefer- 
ence to  the  sacred  booksof  all  other  nations  and 
religions.  The  best  among  these  is  the  Koran, 
to  which  our  scriptures  are  certainly  superior. 
We  may  therefore  establish  tliis  as  an  axiom: 
if  a  divine  revelation  has  ever  been  committed  to 
u-riting,  it  is  contained  in  our  holy  scriptures. 

3.  All  will  admit  that  God  has,  as  a  matter 
of  fuct,  made  use  of  the  doctrines  contained  in 
the  holy  scriptures,  and  of  the  holy  scriptures 
themselves,  in  the  benevolent  work  in  which  he 
is  engaged  of  extending  the  knowledge  of  truth, 
and  of  difiusing  over  the  earth  ju>t  ideas  respect- 
ing his  character  and  our  destination.  Many  of 
the  truths  contained  in  these  books  are,  indeed, 
perfectly  discoverable  and  demonstrable  from 
nature.  But  these  same  truths  were  discovered 
sooner,  and  were  difTused  more  ra|)idly,  than 
they  would  otherwise  have  been,  by  means  of 
these  books,  possessing,  as  they  do,  the  autho- 
rity of  a  divine  revelation.  This  is  proved  by 
the  example  of  nations  unacquainted  with  these 
books  and  the  doctrines  contained  in  them. 
How  ignorant  and  unenlightened  on  religious 
subjects  were  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Ro- 
mans, in  the  midst  of  all  their  intellectual  cul- 
tivation! The  peculiar  pyvilege  of  the  Israel- 
ites— that  which  made  them,  in  an  eminent 
sense,  the  people  of  God — is  represented  by 
Moses  and  the  pro|)hets  tobe  this:  that  God  had 
taught  them  his  word,  his  statutes,  and  judg- 
ments, as  he  had  not  taught  any  other  people  at 
that  time,  Deut.  iv.  7,  8 :  Ps  cxlvii.  19,  SO. 
c-3 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


So  the  New  Testament  everywhere;  as  Rom.  Vide  Psalm  xix.,  where  ver.  1 — 6  treat  of  the 
iii.  2;  coll.  ix.  4;  and  i.  19,  32;  which  shows  knowledjre  of  God  derived  from  nature;  ver. 
how  the  lijrht  of  nature  given  lo  the  heathen  7 — 11,  of  that  derived  from  revelation.  Cf.  Acts, 
had  been  misimproved  by  them.  i  xiv.  17;  Rom.  i.  19,  seq.;  coll.  ii.  ]-2,  seq. 

The  studious  and  learned  among  the  Greeks  5.  It  pleased  God,  as  the  Bible  represents,  to 
and  Romans  retained  almost  the  sole  possession  give  men,  from  time  to  time,  such  direct  iiistruc- 
of  all  that  was  valuable  in  tiie  schools  and  in  tion  as  they  needed.  He  taught  them  in  this 
tlie  writings  of  the  enlightened  philosophers,  j  way  many  tilings  which  they  might  never  have 
Resting,  as  their  doctrines  did,  upon  long,  arti-  ;  discovered  of  themselves,  and  which  they  would 
ficial,  speculative,  and  abstruse  reasonings,  they  j  not,  at  best,  have  discovered  for  a  longtime;  and 
accomplished  very  little  for  the  religious  and  '  many  things  in  which,  perhaps,  they  had  already 
moral  improvement  of  the  most  numerous  class  j  erred.      Hy  this  immedial*e  revelation    he  ccn- 


of  society  ;  though  this  class  stood  most  in  need 
of  instruction.  Add  to  this  the  observation,  that 
it  is  easier  to  find  proofs  for  a  truth  when  once 
discovered  than  to  discover  the  truth  itself  in 
the  first  instance.  The  nations  of  Europe  and 
other  parts  of  the  world  were  destitute  of  just 
ideas  of  religion  before  they  embraced  Christi- 
anity; but  no  sooner  had  they  learned  the  truths 
of  religion  from  Christianity  than  they  began  to 
prove  and  establish  them  by  reason,  which  they 
could  now  do  in  a  more  convincing  manner  than 
any  of  their  predecessors  could  have  done  with- 
out the  light  of  revelation.  Hurne  said,  very 
justly,  that  the  true  philosophy  respecting  God 
was  only  eighteen  hundred  years  old.  Respect- 
ing the  partial  dilTusion  of  divine  revelation, 
vide  s,  1-21.  Cf.  Morus,  s.  8,  seq.  p.  4— G. 
Vide  Reimarus,  Abhandlung  von  den  vornehm- 
sten  Wahrheitendernatiirlichen  Religion;  Zieg- 
ler,  Theol.  Abhand.  Num.  I.,  viber  Naturalis- 
mus  nnd  positive  Religion,  Giitt.  1791,  8vo; 
and  Siaudlin,  Ideenzueiner  Kritik  des  Systems 
der  christlichen  Religion,  (Jolt.  1791,  8vo. 

4.  But  although  natural  religion  must  appear, 
from  what  has  been  said,  to  be  defective  and 
imperfect,  it  should  not  be  despised  or  under- 
valued. Notwithstanding  all  its  imperfections, 
it  is,  in  itself  considered,  a  true  religion.  As 
Paul  teaches  us,  Rom.  i.  20,  we  acquire  even 
from  nature  a  knowledge  of  the  invisilile  things 
of  God.     In   ver.    19   of  the  same  chapter,  he 

says,  God  has  rercrt/cr/ himself  even  in  nature 

i.  e.,  in  the  wise  constitution  which  he,  as  Cre- 
ator, has  given  to  our  minds  and  to  ttip  external 
world.  Vide  supra,  No.  1.  Through  this  wise 
constitution,  according  to  the  express  testimony 
of  sr-ri()lure,  (iod  addresses  himself  to  all  men. 


firmed,  illustrated,  and  perfected  that  revelation 
of  himself,  as  the  invisible  creator,  preserver, 
and  judge,  which  he  had  already  made  in  the 
external  world,  and  in  the  conscience  of  man. 
By  this  immediate  revelation,  he  thus  causes 
the  revelation  of  himself  in  nature,  which  is 
commonly  too  little  regarded,  and  often  wholly 
neglected,  (Rom.  i.  21;  Acts,  xiv.  Itj.)  to  be 
come  intelligible,  impressive,  useful,  and  wel 
come  to  man.     Ps.  xix.  7 — 14. 

Instruction  given  by  God  to  men  on  subjects 
of  which  they  are  ignorant  and  incaj)able  of  dis- 
covering the  truth  by  reasoning,  is  called  positive 
(arbitraria)  imtruction;  by  which  is  meant  sim- 
pl}',  that  we  cannot  show  the  necessity  of  the 
truth  revealed  by  the  principles  of  our  own  rea 
son,  and  not  that  God  proceeds  capriciously  and 
unreasonably  in  this  case,  which  is  not  suppos- 
able.  Morus,  p.  7,  s.  1.  When  God  thus  im- 
parts to  men  the  knowledge  of  those  religious 
truths  of  which  they  are  and  must  remain  igno- 
rant if  left  to  their  own  reason,  he  is  said  in  the 
scriptures  to  reveal  the  mi/atery  of  his  will,  the 
deep  things  (f  the  Deity.     Morus,  p.  8,  s.  3. 

But  rcvelatiim  (^aifpoctf,  urtoxa'?.vi^(j)  rs  used, 
even  in  the  Bible,  in  a  wider,  and  in  a  more 
limited  sense.  Morus,  p.  9,  s.  4.  (1)  In  the 
wider  sense  it  is  the  annunciation  of  sucn  truths 
as  were,  indeed,  unknown  to  men,  but  at  the 
same  time  within  the  reach  of  their  minds. 
Thus  fat'fpovv  is  used  in  respect  to  the  know- 
ledge of  God  derived  from  nature,  (Rom.  i.  19,) 
and  artoxaxinrnv,  Phil.  iii.  15.  (2)  In  the  nar- 
rower sense,  it  is  instruction  respectino-  things 
which  are  not  only  unknown,  but  undiscover- 
able  by  the  human  mind.  (.*?)  In  the  narrow 
est  sense,  it  is  divine  instruction  on  the  truths 


from  withotit  and  from  within.  He  is  not  far  of  religion  concerning  the  salvation  of  men, 
from  any  one  of  them,  and  leaves  himself  with-  j  which  neither  have  been,  nor  can  be.  taught  by 
out  a  witnessin  none.  Acts,  xvii.  27;  coll.  xiv. 17.  !  natural  religion,  and  which  cannot  he  derived 

Genuine  and  pure  natural  religion  can  there-  [  from  reasoning  on  the  nature  of  things, 
fore  never  contradict  revealed  religion.  Such  a  I  Revealed  religion,  then,  is  not  opposed,  but 
rontradiclion  woulc^  prove  clearly  that  the  reli-  added,  to  natural  religion.  It  repeats,  confirms, 
gion  pretending  to  be  revealed  was  not  so  in  '.  and  illustrates  many  of  the  precepts  of  natural 
reality.  God  cannot  contradict  himself,  nor  religion,  and  at  the  same  time  brings  tc  light 
exiiihit  himself  in  one  light  in  nature,  and  in  an  much  that  was  before  unknown, 
entirely  .lifferent  light  in  revelation.  The  know-  All  this  admits  of  an  easy  application  to  tho 
ledge  of  (Jod  acquired  from  nature  is  recom-  Christian  religion.  Although  the  doctrines  of 
mended  and  honounbly  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  ,  the  Christian  religion  must  not  be  contradictory 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGV. 


SI 


to  reason,  thpy  need  not  bo  precisely  the  same 
as  the  doctrines  of  natural  religion,  as  many  at 
the  present  day  contend.  Although  the  Chris- 
tian religion  is  perfectly  reasonable,  it  is  still  a 
posilice  reliiiion,  because  it  rests  on  positive  in- 
struction. That  it  is  a  revealed  religion  cannot 
be  doubted,  as  long  as  the  yet  uninvalidated 
miracles  of  Jesus,  and  other  'proofs,  are  sure 
evidence  of  his  immediate  divine  mission.  To 
exhibit  the  great  and  peculiar  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity as  constituting  a  system  of  revealed  truth, 
is  the  objfct  of  the  present  work. 

Kole. — It  is  false  to  conclude,  that  because 
positive  religion  must  be  consistent  with  reason, 
it  can  contain  only  such  truths  as  are  deducible 
from  reason.  Positive  religion  must  indeed  em- 
brace such  doctrines,  and  such  only,  as  we  are 
capable  of  understanding,  and  as  correspond 
with  the  laws  of  our  minds.  But  from  this  it 
does  not  follow  that  it  can  embrace  only  such 
truths  as  unaided  reason  clearly  teaches.  The 
works  and  the  will  of  God  contain  mysteries 
which  men  are  incompetent,  of  themselves,  to 
explore.  Vide  Ernesti,  Opuscula,  Vindiciee 
arbitrii  divini  in  constituenda  religione. 

The  positive  part  of  religion  promotes  the 
moral  part  of  it,  as  much  as  religion  in  general 
promotes  morality. 

The  positive  part  of  religion  is  that  which 
contains  the  instructions  which  God  has  given 
us  respecting  those  subjects  in  religion  which 
are  not  demonstrable,  or  which  cannot  be  rea- 
soned out  and  made  evident  by  argument.  Posi- 
tive doctrines  require  belief  and  assent;  hut  they 
do  not  require  an  acknowledgment  or  proof  of 
their  essential  truth  from  principles  of  reason. 
The  doctrines  that  there  is  a  God,  and  that  he 
loves  men,  and  the  other  doctrines  of  natural 
religion,  are  not  positive;  but  the  doctrine  that 
God  has  revealed  himself  to  us  through  Jesus 
Christ,  in  and  through  whom  he  will  bless  us, 
is  positive;  for  it  cannot  be  proved  from  the 
common  principles  of  reason. 

What  is  positive  (^positiviim,  ^ffixor)  is  that 
qund  ponilur,  sive  dvetur  sic  esse  ,•  non  quod  dc- 
vumstrutur  geomeirice.  The  following  is  the 
origin  of  this  term: — The  Greeks  say,  rouovi 
ridivai — i.  e.,  prxscribcre,  prxcipcre ;  for  a  law 
is  laid  down  and  imposed,  and  notdemonstrated. 
This  phraseology  was  transferred  to  doctrines 
(dogmata)  which  were  prescribed  or  established 
without  being  improved. 

6.  Any  one  who  would  attain  to  a  settled 
assurance  of  the  divine  origin  of  the  Christian 
religirn  must  begin  his  examination  with  the 
moral  system  of  Jesus.  He  will  find,  on  an 
unprejudiced  inquiry,  that  this  system  is  more 
exalted  and  reasonable, and  more  decidedly  use- 
ful, than  any  other  system  of  morals.  But  when 
be  comes  to  put  it  into  practice,  he  will  soon 
hnd  ihat  he  is  no  more  able  to  obey  its  require- 


ments, although  he  acknowledges  their  excel- 
lence, than  he  is  to  obey  the  recjuirements  of  a 
merely  philosnphical  system  of  morals.  Vide  s.  2, 
No.  4.  In  short,  he  will  experience  the  same 
dilFiculties  which  Paul  did  ;  and  find  the  account, 
Romans,  vii.  7 — 25,  copied  as  it  were  from  his 
own  soul. 

How,  then,  can  we,  who  are  so  weak,  attain 
the  strength  which  is  requisite  for  the  practice 
of  virtue?  Jesus  and  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  everywhere  answer,  By  believing  on 
the  person  and  whole  doctrine  of  Jesus  Christ ,-  and 
in  no  other  way.  But  those  only  really  believe 
on  him  who  are  convinced  that  he  is  the  very 
person  which  the  Bible  represents  him,  and 
which  he  iiimself  everywhere  claims  to  be. 
Now  the  Bible  represents  him  as  a  direct 
messenger  from  God  to  men;  as  the  greatest 
among  all  who  have  been  sent  by  heaven  to 
earth;  as  the  Saviour, — the  Christ.  If  we  are 
convinced  of  this,  we  shall  (a)  believe  that 
Christ  and  his  doctrines  are  the  means  appointed 
by  God  for  the  moral  improvement  and  happi- 
ness of  men;  and  shall  (6)  make  use  of  these 
means  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  given, 
and  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  Christ.  Doing 
this,  we  shall  not  want  strength  to  practise  the 
moral  system  of  Jesus. 

We  see  here  what  an  intimate  and  necessary 
connection  there  is  between  Christian  morals 
and  Christian  doctrines,  or  theology,  and  what 
a  mistake  it  is  to  separate  them.  Christian 
morals  are  supported  by  Christian  doctrines. 
Christian  theology  teaches  us  where  we  can  ob- 
tain the  strength  which  we  need  in  order  to  obey 
the  moral  precepts  of  Christianity.  Whoever, 
then,  preaches  the  morals  without  the  doctrines 
of  Christianity, preaches  not  thegospelofChrist, 
and  preaches  Christ  in  vain.  When  any  are 
convinced  that  Christ  is  a  messenger  sent  from 
God,  and  their  moral  lawgiver  and  judge,  but 
are  at  the  same  time  conscious  that  they  are 
unable  to  obey  his  moral  requirements,  their 
duty  obviously  is  to  follow  the  directions  which 
he  has  given  them,  and  to  proceed  in  the  man- 
ner which  he  has  prescribed,  in  order  to  attain 
to  a  full  certainty  that  he  and  his  doctrine  are 
the  means  appointed  by  Gud  for  the  real  moral 
perfection  and  consequent  salvation  of  men. 
Vide  John,  vii.  17;  xiv.  6.  Now  these  direc- 
tions are  fully  exhibited  in  Christian  theology. 

Koic. — The  division  of  religion  into  natural 
and  revealed  is  entirely  rejected  by  Socinus, 
Ferguson,  Gruner,  and  some  other  theologians. 
Vide  Gruner,  Theol.  Dogm.  p.  9,  and  Diss. 
cenaura  divisionis  religionis  et  theolr^gite  in  na- 
turalem  et  revelata.ii,  Hal.  1770.  These  main- 
tain that  we  owe  all  our  knowledge  of  God, 
originally,  to  divine  revelation,  such  as  our  first 
parents  received  in  paradise,  and  thenre  trans- 
mitted to  their  descendants.    They  deny  that 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


we  have  any  knowledge  of  God,  which,  as  to 
Its  origin,  is  natural. 

The  scriptures  do  indeed  teach  that  God  re- 
vealed himself  to  men  even  in  the  earliest  ages 
of  the  world;  and  much  of  this  original  revela- 
tion has  doubtless  been  transmitted  from  age  to 
age  until  tlie  present  time.  But  still  this  di- 
vision is  not  to  he  rejected.  For  («)  many  reli- 
gious truths  which  have  been  revealed  are  dis- 
coverable, and  have  actually  been  discovered, 
by  reason  and  the  light  of  nature.  In  this  di- 
vision, then,  we  have  respect,  not  to  the  actual 
source  of  our  knowledge  of  these  truths,  but  to 
the  gruund  on  which  we  rest  our  knowledge  of 
them.  (6j  The  elements  only  of  many  revealed 
truths  were  communicated  to  our  first  parents. 
Men  were  left  to  examine,  in  the  diligent  use 
of  their  powers,  the  grounds  of  the  revelation 
given  them  ;  to  build  higher  upon  the  founda- 
tion already  laid  ;  and  to  deduce  the  proper 
consequences  from  what  had  been  already 
taught.  They  obtained  this  additional  know- 
ledge by  the  study  and  contemplation  of  na- 
ture ;  and  why  may  not  this  religious  science, 
thus  derived  from  nature,  be  called  natural 
rctigiiin  ? 

SECTION  IV. 

IS    THE    KNOWLEDGE     OF    GOD    INNATE  1 

The  natural  knowledge  of  God  has  been  di- 
vided, especially  by  the  ancients,  into  innate 
(insita,  congenita,  t/ii}>iToj)  and  acquired,  (ac- 
quisita,  «7tixT>;roj.)  The  acquired  knowledire 
of  God  is  til, it  which  we  obtain  by  the  use  of 
reason  and  by  the  observation  and  study  of  the 
world.  By  the  innate  knowledge  of  God  the 
ancients  understood  an  idea  of  God  actually 
innate  in  all  men,  brought  directly  into  the 
world  with  them,  and  obtained  neither  by  in- 
struction nor  refl.'ction.  Pythagoras,  the  Pla- 
tonists,  and  many  ancient  philosophers,  believed 
in  these  innate  ideas,  (anitecptx  animn  notiunes.) 
Vide  Cic.  De  Nat.  Deor.  I.  11,  seq.;  Seneca, 
Epist.  117.  This  opinion  was  connected  by 
Plato  with  his  theory  respecting  the  existence 
of  the  human  soul  before  its  union  with  the 
body.  He  taught  tl«t  all  our  ideas  previously 
existed  in  our  minds;  and  that  learning  was 
Only  the  recollection  of  what  belonged  to  our 
former  condition.  Des  Carles  also  advocated 
this  innate  knowledge;  and  many  theologians 
considered  it  as  a  remnant  of  the  Divine  image 
in  man. 

This  opinion  doubtless  arose  from  the  known 
fact,  that  tiie  belief  of  the  Divine  exist<>nce  al- 
ways precedes  the  knowledge  of  any  theoretic 
|)roof  of  it.  The  conclusion  then  was,  that  be- 
cause men  do  not  derive  their  belief  in  (lod 
from  speculation,  the  idea  of  God  must  be  iniuite. 

But  the  mind  possesses  no  such  innate  ideas. 
It  obtains  all  its  ideas  by  the  use  of  its  natural 


faculties.  Vide  Locke,  Essay  on  Human  ITn. 
derstanding.  The  soul  may  be  compared  in 
this  respect,  according  to  Aristotle,  to  an  un- 
written leaf,  (tabula  rasa,)  upon  which  any 
thing  of  which  it  is  naturally  susceptible  may 
be  written.  The  mistake  on  this  subject  origi- 
nates in  this  way  :  The  belief  in  the  existence, 
nature,  and  attrioutes  of  God  does  not  depend 
upon  speculation,  of  which  but  few  men  are 
capable  ;  the  idea  of  God  is  not  admitted  to  be 
true,  because  it  is  proved  by  theoretic,  specula- 
tive reason,  but  rather  because  it  perfectly  agrees 
with  the  principles  of  moral  reason,  with  moral 
consciousness,  or  conscience ;  and  because  it  is 
demanded  by  these  principles,  as  has  been 
abundantly  shown  by  Kant,  Kritik  der  reinen 
Vernunft,  and  elsewhere.  This  is  the  reason 
that  the  belief  in  the  Divine  existence  always 
precedes  the  knowledge  of  any  theoretic  proof 
of  it.  Speculative  reasoning  must  be  awakened 
and  improved  before  we  shall  begin  to  inquire 
for  the  theoretic  proof  of  the  truths  already 
made  known  to  us  by  practical  reason,  or  con- 
science. 

Experience,  too,  stands  in  the  way  of  the  be- 
lief that  the  idea  of  God  is  innate.  The  most 
uncultivated  men,  those  in  whom  practical  rea- 
son has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  exercised  and 
develf)ped,  have  no  idea  of  God  and  religion, 
and  of  course  no  words  standing  for  these  ideas. 
Vide  Robinson,  History  of  America;  Steller, 
Besclireibung  von  Kamtschalka,  s.  2G8  ;  Olden- 
dorp,  Geschichte  der  Mission  auf  den  Carai- 
bischen  Insein,  s.  64.  The  same  has  been 
found  true  of  individuals  who  have  grown  up 
in  tlie  woods,  entirely  separated  from  the  society 
of  their  fellow-men. 

If  the  innate  knowledge  of  God  means  what 
MnsaMis,  Buddeus,  and  others,  understood  by 
it,  a  natural  capacity  of  the  mind,  (potentia  priv 
pinqna,)  by  means  of  which  the  knowledge  of 
God  is  easily  attained,  then,  indeed,  we  |)ossess 
such  innate  knowledge.  This  natural  capacity 
consists  in  the  practical  reason,  which  begins  to 
act  before  the  other  powers  of  the  mind.  This 
natural  capacity,  however,  is  very  improj)erly 
called  cogiiitin  insita. 

Some  have  endeavoured  to  prove  this  innate 
knowledge  fror  the  writings  of  Paul.  Bui 
they  mistake  his  meaning.  The  doctrine  of 
Paul,  contained  in  the  two  passajjes  referred  to, 
entirely  agrees  with  the  theory  just  stated. 

1.  Rom.  ii.  11,  15.  The  subject  of  this  pas- 
sage is  the  moral  sensf  ot  fcelin'^wWwh  appears 
in  all  men,  even  in  childhood,  as  soon  indeed 
as  the  practical  reason  is  developed.  This 
feeling  renders  it  impossible  for  men,  whethw 
extremely  barbarous  or  hiirhly  cultivated,  when 
free  from  prejtidice  and  passion.  Id  withhold 
approbation  of  right  and  admiration  of  virtue. 
But  this  mural  feeling,  as  was  remarked  above 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ftinds  in  close  connection  with  the  idea  of  God, 
and  leads  directly  to  it.  Paul  says  that  even 
the  heathen  (^-q  vofxov  txovTti)  have  this  feeling 
They,  indeed,  have  no  direct  revelation  (vo^oi/) ; 
but  they  Icnow  from  their  own  nature  ((fvoft) 
that  the  same  things  are  right  and  wrong  which 
revelation  declares  to  be  so,  and  they  act  accord- 
ingly. In  ver.  27  he  presents  the  same  con- 
trast, and  in  ver.  15  he  explains  his  meaning. 
They  show  (^ivSeUwvrai)  by  their  judgments 
and  actions  that  the  precepts  of  the  law  (to  tpyov 
roi)  vofiov,  what  the  moral  law  commands  to  be 
done  or  avoided)  are  written  upon  their  hearts. 

This  last  expression  is  frequently  cited  in 
proof  of  innate  knowledge;  but  it  denotes 
merely  an  acquaintance  with  a  subject  so  fixed 
and  thorough  that  it  cannot  be  obscured  or  ob- 
literated from  the  mind.  So,  Heb.  viii.  10,  God 
wrote  his  commands  in  the  hearts  of  the  Israel- 
ites; and  Cic.  Acad.  IV^.  I,  Bts  in  animo  sua 
inseulptas  habere.  Vide  ^\  elstein,  ad  h.  1. 
"Their  conscience  condemns  them  when  they 
do  wrong,  and  acquits  them  when  they  do  right. 
They  cannot,  therefore,  be  destitute  of  the  cer- 
tain knowledge  of  right  and  wrong." 

2.  Rom.  i.  19,  26.  The  doctrine  advanced  is, 
that  the  heathen  are  as  liable  to  punishment, 
when  they  transgress  the  law  of  nature,  as  the 
Jews  when  they  transgress  the  precepts  of  re- 
velation :  for  the  knowledge  of  God  {ro  yiuiorov 
tov  ®iov  for  yviLatj  0fov)  is  attainable  even  by 
the  heathen.  It  is  evident  even  to  them,  (<}>»- 
vtpov  iativ  iv  avroii  for  avrotj;)  for  God  has  re- 
vealed it  to  them — i.  e.,  has  given  them  the 
means  of  attaining  it  in  the  natural  world.  So 
that  even  they  (passing  to  the  last  clause  in 
ver.  20)  cannot  excuse  themsehes  with  the  plea 
of  ignorance,  (ftj  ro  t Jj-ai  avrovj  avano'Koyr^rovi.) 
The  words  ra  ■yof) ^f tor>;j  are  paren- 
thetical, and  explanatory  of  the  declaration  that 
God  had  revealed  himself  to  the  heathen,  ver. 
19.  They  show  in  what  manner  this  revelation 
was  made.  The  attributes  of  God,  in  tliein- 
selves  invisible  and  inscrutable,  (aoparu  avrov,) 
his  omnipotence  and  other  divine  jjerfections 
(>fior;;?),  can  be  discovered,  since  the  creation 
of  the  world,  (drto  xrtafwj  zd^uov,  while  the  world 
stands,  cf.  Luke,  xi.  50,)  by  tiie  observation  of 
the  things  that  are  made,  (.totjjuaai,  by  reflection 
upon  the  works  of  God.)  The  knowledge  here 
spoken  of  is,  therefore,  acquired  knowledge,  (cog- 
nitio  accjuisita.) 

The  first  of  these  passages  treats,  then,  of  tlie 
moral  sensn  which  the  heathen,  the  civilized, 
and  the  savage,  alike  possess.  The  second  treats 
of  the  knowledge  of  God  acquired  from  the  crea- 
tion; such  knowledge  as  the  enlightened  hea- 
then philosophers  had  obtained  by  the  study  of 
the  natural  world  ;  for  with  these  had  Paul,  and 
his  readers  at  Rome,  at  that  time,to  deal,and  of 
these,  therefore,  he  here  principally  speaks. 


SECTION  V. 

OF   THE    ARTICLES  OK  FAITH  ;    AND  THE  ANAL06T 
OF    FAITH. 

1 .  Of  the  Divisions  tf  the  Ditctrines. 

The  particular  parts  which  compose  the  sya 
tem  of  theoretic  religion  are  called  doctrines  of 
faith,  (arliculi  fidei,  capita  fidei  Christiana; :) 
also,  loci,  from  the  sections  and  rubrics  into 
which  they  are  collected  ;  whence  the  phrase 
loci  theologici.  The  whole  sum  of  the  truths 
of  theoretic  or  doctrinal  religion,  exhibited  in 
their  proper  order  and  connection,  constitutes  a 
system  of  doctrines,  or  a  system  of  theoretic 
theology.     The  articles  of  faith  are  divided — 

1,  Into  pure  and  mixed,  in  respect  to  the 
ground  upon  which  our  knowledge  of  them  rests. 
Pure,  are  those  truths  which  we  learn  wholly 
from  the  holy  scriptures  ;  mixed,  are  those  which 
we  not  only  learn  from  the  scriptures,  but  which 
we  can  discover  and  demonstrate  by  reason. 
Morus,  p.  10,  ad  finem. 

2.  Into  fundamental  OT  essential,  and  unessential 
or  less  essential,  in  respect  to  their  internal  im- 
portance, and  their  connection  with  the  whole 
system  of  Christian  truth.  Vide  Morus,  p.  12^ 
s.  3,  4.  Tliis  division  has  been  rendered  more 
accurate  by  the  controversies  which  have  arisen 
in  relation  to  the  different  doctrines  of  theology. 
The  fundamental  doctrines  are  those  without 
which  the  system  taught  in  the  Bible  is  un- 
founded, and  with  which  it  must  stand  or  fall. 
Such  are  the  doctrines  enumerated  by  Morus, 
p.  H.  They  may  also  be  defined  to  be  those 
which  cannot  be  denied  or  contested  without 
subverting  the  ground  of  Christian  faith  and 
hope.  The  wHC.vse;i//n/ doctrines  are  those  which 
do  not  concern  the  vitals  of  religion,  and  which 
we  are  not  required  to  believe  in  order  to  sal- 
vation. Vide  s.  4.  The  fundampntal  doctrine* 
are  subdivided  into  primary  and  suondary. 

We  subjoin  the  following  remarks  to  this  im- 
portant division  of  the  doctrines  into  essential 
and  unessential : — 

(rt)  This  division  was  first  distinctly  stated 
in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  by 
Nie.  Hunniiis.  It  was  afterwards  adopted  by 
Calovius,  Musaeus,  Baier,  and  others. 

(6)  The  term  fundawcntal  is  taken  from 
1  Cor.  iii.  10.  11.  Paid  here  compares  himself 
and  other  Christian  teachers  to  arcbitects  ;  th» 
Christian  community  to  a  building;  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  to  the  materials  for  build- 
ing. The  elementary  truths  of  Christianity, 
which  Paul  and  other  teachers  preached  at  the 
establishment  of  churches,  are  here  called  the 
fmndation,  in  opposition  to  the  suprrstrudure, 
which  some  other  one  at  Corinth  had  built  upon 
this  foundation,  (ijtoixo6ou{i,  and  ver.  6.  7.)  Cf. 
Eph.  ii.  20,  where  the  same  comparison  is  fo'iD*'.. 


u 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Paul  calls  the  inslriicticn  which  he  had  given 
in  the  elements  of  Christianity,  yaxa,  1  Cor. 
iii.  2;  Heb.  v.  1*2;  also,  Xoyoj  r^j  "jj;t^5  f°^ 
Xpiarou,  Heb.  vi.  1.  Fundamtntul  doctrines, 
then,  in  tiie  sunse  of  Paul,  are  those  elementary 
truths  which  should  be  communicated  to  such 
as  wish  to  understand  and  embrace  the  Christian 
religion.  These  elementary  doctrines,  as  well 
as  the  higher  truths  suited  to  those  who  are 
more  advanced,  should  all  be  related  and  never 
opposed  to  the  great  doctrines  respecting  Christ 
as  the  saviour  of  the  world.     1  Cor.  iii.  II. 

It  is  not,  in  reality,  a  diiricult  thing  to  deter- 
n.ine  what  doctrines  the  apostles  regarded  as 
essential  to  Ciiristianity,  since  they  themselves 
have  so  often  and  so  distinctly  informed  us. 
We  only  need  to  pursue  the  historical  method ; 
and  to  follow  the  same  principles  as  when  we 
inquire  what  doctrines  were  considered  essential 
by  the  founder  and  first  teachers  of  the  Mahom- 
medan  or  any  other  positive  religion.  The  the- 
ologians of  different  sects  have,  however,  been 
always  at  variance  on  this  subject.  They  look 
at  the  doctrines  of  religion  from  points  of  view 
entirely  different  from  that  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian teachers,  and,  of  course,  differ  widely  from 
the  latter  in  their  estimate  of  these  doctrines. 
How,  for  example,  can  a  tlieologian  who  denies 
that  Christ  is,  what  he  is  declared  to  be  in 
every  page  of  the  New  Testament,  a  messenger 
sent  from  fiod,  agree  in  opinion  with  the  first 
Christian  teachers  respecting  him,  his  doctrine, 
and  the  essentials  of  his  religion!  Now  the 
theologian  w'hose  belief  on  this  point  does  not 
accord  with  that  of  the  apostles,  is  bound  in 
honour  to  say  so.  He  ourfht  not  to  pervert  their 
language  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  his  own  system. 
Many  decide  on  philosophical  principles  what 
the  religion  of  Christ  and  the  object  of  his  mis- 
sion should  be,  and  then  interpret  the  scriptures 
according  to  their  preconceived  opinions. 

If  we  would  determine  what  doctrines  were 
regarded  by  the  apostles  as  essential  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  were  preached  by  them  as  such  to 
Jews  and  (ientiles,  we  must  consult  those  jjas- 
sages  in  which  Christ  and  his  disciples  inten- 
tionally introduce  the  elementary  truths  in  which 
all  were  instructed.  Such  passages  are  those 
in  Acts,  which  describe  the  fMinding  of  new 
churches  by  the  apostles,  that  in  Matt,  xxviii., 
which  contains  the  coumiission  given  by  Christ 
to  his  disciples;  and  those  in  which  the  writers 
distinctly  profess  1o  give  the  fundamental  doc- 
trines of  Christianrty.  Cf.  1  Cor.;  iii.  1  Thess. 
i.  B — 10  ;  Hell.  vi.  1,  seq.  The  following  doc- 
trines are  in  this  way  ascertained  to  be  funda- 
mental. 

1.  The  doctrine  of  the  divine  unity,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  polytheism,  and  other  connected 
errors  of  the  heathen  world.  This  one  God, 
revealed  as  Father,  Soc  lad  Holy  Ghost-,  was 


represented  by  the  apostVs  as  the  author,  ppv 
server,  and  governor  of  ill  things. 

2.  The  doctrine  respecting  Jesus,  (a)  He  is 
the  Messiah,  the  Saviour,  (2wr>;p)  the  So.v  op 
God,  predicted  by  the  prophets,  and  attested  by 
miracles.  In  this  character  he  possesses  an 
authority  to  which  no  other  prophet  could  pre- 
tend. This  is  a  point  upon  which  Christ  and 
the  apostles  always  insist,  as  the  peculiar  and 
distinctive  doctrine  of  Christianity,  iCor.  iii.  11. 
And  no  teacher  of  religion  who  sets  aside  this 
authority  of  Christ  can  be  called  a  CJiristian 
teacher,  however  true  and  useful  liis  instructions 
may  be  in  other  respects.  This  doctrine,  that 
Jesus  is  the  Christ,  is,  as  Paul  says,  the  founda- 
tion upon  which  all  the  other  great  truths  of 
Christianity  are  built.  Vide  Siorr,  Ueber  den 
Geist  des  Christenthums,  in  Flatt's  Majazin  fur 
Dogmatik  und  Moral,  St.  I.  s.  103,  f.Tub.  1T!)6. 
(A)  He  became  man, died,  and  rose  again.  He 
is  now  gone  into  the  heavens,  where  he  is  ex- 
alted over  all,  and  enjoys  that  divine  glory  which 
is  Ills  due,  and  whence  he  will  come  on  a  future 
day  to  be  our  judge,  (c)  He  not  only  gave  us 
ample  instruction  respecting  our  duty,  but  pro- 
cured ns  forgiveness  with  God,  and  freedom  from 
the  punishment  of  sin  through  h'\s  suffirings  And 
death  (alua),  the  remembrance  of  which  is  so- 
lemnly renewed  in  the  Lord's  supper.  These 
truths  respecting  Christ  are  always  represented 
as  fundamental. 

3.  The  doctrine  of  the  depravity  and  moral 
degeneracy  of  man  is  always  pres'.ipposed  and 
frecjuently  stated  in  the  strongest  terms. 

4.  The  doctrine  of  a  special  divine  instruc- 
tion and  guidance,  (,-trfvua  ayioy,  ;^a,muaT'a 
rti.n'uaroj.)  These  were  afforded  in  various 
ways,  naturally  and  supernaturally,  to  Chris- 
tians of  that  period,  and  promised  to  those  who 
should  follow. 

5.  The  doctrines  of  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  of  future  retribution,  and  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead.  The  latter  doctrine  was 
taucjht  in  opposition  to  the  heathen  and  to  the 
Sadducees. 

f).  The  doctrine  of  the  destination  of  man. 
This  is  holiness,  and  the  happiness  proportion- 
ately connected  with  it.  He  only  who  has  ex- 
perienced a  true  change  of  heart,  and  who  lives 
according  to  the  precepts  of  Christ,  can  share 
in  the  rights  and  blessings  which  belong  to 
Christians  in  this  life,  and  the  life  to  come. 

7.  The  doctrine  of  gratuitous  forgiveness 
Men  cannot  merit  forgiveness  and  salvation  by 
obedience,  either  to  the  civil  or  ecclesiastical 
law  of  Moses,  or  to  the  universal  moral  law, 
although  obedience  to  the  latter  is  their  indis- 
pensable duty.  Paul  argues  this  point  against 
the  Jews,  who  held  the  opposite  opinion;  he 
also  shows  that  the  law  of  Mose*  is  no  lonpci 
obligatory  upon  Christians. 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


9.  The  doctrine  of  baptism.  By  this  ordi- 
nance Cliristiaii  ri^lits  are  imparted  and  assured 
to  all  who  are  admitied  into  the  Christian 
cliurch. 

These  are  tiie  fundamental  doctrines  which 
were  taiitrht  by  the  apostles. 

Avte. — The  whole  Mosaic  dispensation,  as  all 
will  admit,  rested  on  the  principles  of  theocracy. 
But  it  is  equally  clear  from  the  New  Testament, 
that  the  new  or  Christian  dispensation  rests 
on  principles  of  theocracy  and  Christocracy. 
Christ  is  not  merely  a  teacher,  now  deceased, 
like  Socrates  and  Plato,  and  other  saores  of  an- 
tiiiuily,  who  live  indeed  in  remembrance,  but 
who  now  no  longer  exert  a  personal  influence 
u|ion  men.  He  is  now,  as  he  was  formerly, 
and  will  always  continue  to  be,  a  true  and  living 
king  (xvptoi)   and  judge,  (xptrjjj    ^uJi'twv  xa.i 

Christianity,  then,  in  the  purely  scriptural 
view  of  it,  is  no  more  an  institute  for  mere  in- 
struction than  the  ancient  Mosaic  dispensation. 
It  does  not  rest  its  precepts  upon  the  weight  of 
the  reasons  by  which  they  might  be  supported. 
It  is  a  divinely  constituted  gui'trnmcnt,  in  which 
Christ  is  king,  legislator,  and  judge.  To  his 
will,  in  furtherance  of  their  improvement  and 
blessedness  in  time  and  in  eternity,  the  hearts 
of  men  should  he  united.  To  his  authority,  as 
lawgiver  and  king,  God  has  given  abundant  tes- 
timony. His  will  and  command  are  therefore 
the  only  ground  which  the  Bible  offers  for  the 
unconditional  obedience  to  him  which  it  requires 
of  all  the  subjects  of  his  rule.  Christ  does  not 
indeed  omit,  as  our  teacher,  to  give  us  reasons 
for  his  precepts;  but,  at  the  same  time,  as  our 
Lord  and  judge,  he  requires  obedience  to  his 
"imple  authority.  These  views  might  be  proved 
TTom  the  writings  of  the  apostles  and  the  dis- 
jourses  of  Jesus.     Vide  Matt,  v.,  seq. 

II.   Of  the  Analogy  of  Faith  and  of  Scripture. 

The  anuhgy  of  faith  is  the  connection  which 
subsists  between  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
religion  and  the  relation,  arising  from  this  con- 
nection, of  these  doctrines  to  one  another  and 
to  the  whole  system.  Intimately  connected 
with  this  is  the  analogy  of  Scripture,  which  is 
the  connection  and  agreement  which  subsists 
between  all  the  truths  contained  in  the  holy 
scriptures.  The  analogy  of  scripture  lies  at  the 
foundation  of  the  analogy  of  faith',  since  the 
scriptures  are  the  ground  of  the  doctrines  of 
faith.  This  agreement  should  subsist  in  every 
system  ;  the  parts  should  conspire  harmoniously 
to  one  end.  The  propositions  should  be  con- 
nected together  into  a  complete  whole,  without 
chasms;  and  follow,  one  after  another,  in  natu- 
ral order,  without  contradiction.  But  this  is 
en:inently  important  in  the  Christian  system. 

The  phrase  anaiogi/  of  faith  is  borrowed  from 


Rom.  xii.  6.  But  there  dr'a>.oyio  rrj  ril^stn^  is 
the  propf)rtion  or  degree  of  theuretical  and  prac- 
tical faith  or  Christianity  ;  like  ^irfov  Ttlartuiy 
ver.  3.  The  meaning  is.  Chrisiians  should  de» 
vote  the  different  degiees  of  knowledge  and 
experience  in  religion  which  they  may  possess 
to  the  general  good  of  the  church.  Those,  for 
example,  possessing  the  gift  of  prophecy,  should 
be  content  with  this  gift,  and  employ  it,  accord- 
ing to  the  best  of  their  ability,  for  the  good  of 
others. 

But  although  this  term,  as  used  in  this  pas- 
sage, has  a  dilTerent  sense  from  that  attached  to 
it  by  theological  writers,  the  thing  itself  which 
they  mean  to  designate  by  it  is  just  and  import- 
ant. The  analogy  of  faith,  as  they  use  it, 
implies, 

1.  That  no  one  doctrine  of  faith  may  contra- 
dict the  other  doctrines  of  the  system  ;  and  that 
all  must  conspire  to  promote  the  one  great  end 
— themf)nil  imiirovement  and  perfection  of  men. 
The  doctrine  of  the  divine  justice,  for  example, 
must  be  explained  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  con- 
sistent with  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  goodness, 
and  as  to  be  promotive,  and  not  destructive,  of 
the  improvamenl  of  men.     Vide  Morus.  s.  6. 

2.  That  the  doctrines  of  faith  should  mutually 
explain  and  illustrate  each  other,  and  be  drawn 
from  one  another  by  fair  conclusion.  Any  doc- 
trines may  belong  to  the  system  of  faith  which 
may  be  derived,  by  just  consequence,  from  the 
holy  scriptures,  although  not  contained  in  them 
in  so  manv  words  ;  and  all  the  doctrines  should 
be  carefully  preserved  in  the  relations  which 
they  bear  to  each  other.  When  isolated  and 
viewed  by  itself,  alone,  a  doctrine  is  apt  to  ap- 
pear in  a  false  light.  This  is  the  case  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  divine  attributes,  and  with  much 
of  the  doctrine  respecting  Christ. 

3.  That  the  particular  doctrines  of  the  system 
should  be  exhibited  in  a  natural  connection,  in 
a  proper  place,  and  a  regular  order.  No  one 
determinate  method  can  be  prescribed  ;  and  yet 
some  fixed  plan  should  be  followed  through 
the  whole,  and  into  ail  the  particulars.  The 
doctrines  in  which  other  doctrines  are  presup- 
posed should  not  hold  the  first  place.  It  would 
be  absurd,  for  example,  to  begin  a  system  with 
the  doctrine  respecting  death,  the  Lord's  supper, 
or  baptism,  since  these  doctrines  presuppose 
others,  without  which  they  cannot  be  understood 
and  thoroughly  explained.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  14,  s.  5 

SECTION  VL 

OF    THE    MYSTERIES    OF    RELIGION. 

L  The  Greek  ^ivnrrfi^ov  is  commonly  rendered 
mystery.  It  answers  to  the  Hebrew  inoc,  and 
sio-nifies  in  general  anything  concealed,  hidden, 
tin/mown.  In  the  New  Testament  it  generally 
signifies  doctrines  which  are  concealed  from  men, 


36 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


either  because  they  were  never  before  published,  I 
(in  which  sense  every  unlinown  doctrine  is 
mysterious,)  or  because  they  surpass  human  i 
comprehension.  Some  doctrines  are  said  to  be 
mysterious  for  both  of  these  reasons,  hut  more 
frequently  doctrines  which  are  simply  u;»/.w>u*m 
are  called  hy  this  name.  MuTr>;ptoi'  signifies, 
therefnre,  in  its  biblical  use,  (1)  Christianity  in 
iu  whole  extent,  because  it  was  unknown  before 
Its  publication — e.  g.  uvrjTjjpwt-  jtiiTfuj,  1  Tim. 
iii.  9;  ("2)  Particular  trulhs  of  the  Christian 
revelation — p.  g.  1  Cor.  iv.  1 ;  xv.  51,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  writings  of  Paul ;  (3)  The  doctrine 
that  the  divine  grace  in  Christ  extends,  without 
distinction,  to  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews,  because 
this  doctrine  was  so  new  to  the  Jews,  and  so 
foreign  to  their  feelings — e.  g.  Eph.  i.  i) ;  iii.  3; 
Coll.  V.  G,  seq.  &c. 

2.  The  word  mystery  is  now  commonly  used 
in  theology  in  a  more  limited  sense.  Here  it 
signifies  a  doctrine  revealed  in  the  holy  scrip- 
tures, the  ntdde  of  which  is  inscrutable  to  the 
human  understanding.  A  doctrine,  in  order  to 
be  a  mystery  in  the  theological  sense,  must  be 
shown  to  be  («)  a  doctrine  really  contained  in 
the  holy  scriptures;  and  (/^)  a  doctrine  of  such 
a  nature  as  to  traiuscend  though  not  contradict 
the  powers  of  the  human  understanding.  Of 
tins  nature  are  the  doctrines  respecting  F'ather, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost — the  union  of  two  natures 
in  Christ — the  atonement,  &.c. 

To  the  above  definitions  we  subjoin  the  fol- 
lowing observations  : — 

(1)  Whether  such  religions  mysteries  are 
really  contained  in  the  holy  scriptures  can  be 
determined  only  by  the  principles  of  hermeneu- 
tics.  The  mysteries  which,  through  ignorance 
of  the  oriiginal  languages  of  the  Bible,  were 
supposed  to  be  contained  in  many  texts,  disap- 
pear on  a  fair  interpretation.  They  were  greatly 
multiplied  by  the  fathers  of  the  church,  since 
my'^teries  were  in  great  request  in  their  day, 
and  in  high  esteem  even  among  the  heathen; 
they  were  accordingly  attributed  in  great  abun- 
dance to  the  Christian  system.  There  is  ground, 
therefore,  for  the  caution  given  by  Morus,  p.  41, 
8.  3-2,  n.  3,  not  to  seek  to  increase  the  number 
of  mysteries.  But  this  caution  is  unnecessary 
at  the  present  day.  when  many  theologians,  in 
consr'quencp  of  their  philosophical  objections 
against  mysteries,  banish  them  wholly  from 
their  theories  ;  and,  not  content  with  this,  seem 
bent  to  exclude  them,  by  a  violent  interpretation, 
even  from  the  holy  scriptures. 

(2)  Since  we  are  unable  to  decide,  before- 
hand, what  a  divine  revelation  will  contain,  we 
should  not  undertake  to  say  that  it  must  ncerx- 
tartly  contain  mysteries.  Mystery  is  not,  in 
'tself  considered,  an  w.i( n/»V// mark  and  requisite 
•f  reve^atioD    But,  on  the  other  hand,  we  should 


not  undertake  to  say  beforehand  that  a  rcTelation 
cannot  contain  mysteries.  Whether  the  reve- 
lation which  God  has  given  us  contains  myste- 
ries or  not  is  a  question  o(  fact ;  and  in  such 
questions,  demonstrations  a  priori  have  no  place. 
f3)  The  great  ohject  of  divine  revelation  18 
the  promotion  of  the  moral  improvement  of  men. 
Those  dark  and  unintelligible  doctrines,  w  hich 
are  either  themselves  subversive  of  this  end,  or 
are  wholly  disconnected  with  the  practical  truths 
which  tend  to  promote  it,  do  not  belong,  we  may 
be  sure,  to  the  system  of  revealed  religion.  But 
of  such  a  character  are  not  the  mysteries  of  the 
Christian  religion!  They  stand  throughout  in 
so  close  a  connection  with  the  most  clear  and 
practical  trulhs,  that  removing  them  would  ren- 
der these  truths  very  dilferent  from  what  they 
are  exhibited  to  be  in  the  holy  scriptures.  The 
mystery  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  iSpirit,  for  ex- 
ample, stands  in  close  connection  with  what  we 
are  taught  respecting  Christ,  and  respecting  our 
duties  and  relations  to  God  ;  and  to  remove  this 
mystery  would  render  our  duties  and  relations 
to  God  essentially  different  from  what  they  are 
represented  in  the  New  Testament.  'ITiis  sug- 
gests the  important  rule:  to  eunsidert/ie  mystc 
rien  of  the  Christian  religion  not  as  solitary  and 
isolated,  but  an  contieclcd  with  the  other  truths  re- 
veakd  in  the  holy  scriptures. 

(4)  The  reason  of  the  mystery  and  obscurity 
which  covers  many  of  the  doctrines  revealed  in 
the  Bible  is,  that  the  great  first  principles  upon 
which  these  doctrines  rest  lie  beyond  the  circle 
of  our  vision,  in  the  .sphere  (f  spirit,  with  which 
we  have  only  a  very  imperfect  acquaintance. 
This  is  the  case  with  the  mysteries  of  the  work 
of  redemption, — God  and  man  united  in  one 
person, — God  reconciled  with  man  through  the 
innocent  death  of  his  own  Son,  &c.  Could  we 
rise  above  the  sphere  of  sense,  and  understand 
ihe  great  principles  upon  which  these  doctrines 
rest,  we  should  doubtless  find  them  clear,  con- 
sistent, and  connected,  and  lose  all  our  suspi- 
cions concerning  them.  Even  among  the  objects 
of  our  senses  there  are  many  things  of  which  we 
cannot  see  the  reason,  and  yet  cannot  doubt  the 
reality.  How  many  more,  then,  in  the  world  of 
spirits,  which  is  almost  inaccessible  to  us  in  our 
present  state  ! 

(5)  Since  these  objects  lie  so  wholly  beyond 
the  conceptions  of  our  minds,  confined  as  they 
are  within  the  horizon  of  sense;  the  human  ur>- 
derstanding,  in  its  present  circumstances,  should 
abstain  from  anxious  inquiry  after  their  internnl 
and  essential  nature.  On  these  subjects  it  be- 
comes  us  to  be  modest,  and  to  remain  contented 
with  the  information  which  the  holy  scripture* 
have  given  us.  A  prou<l  and  inquisitive  spirit, 
on  subjects  like  these,  always  leads  to  hurtful 
results.     We  are  taught  by  the  Bible,  that  we 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


n 


can  never  fully  comprehend  the  objects  which 
he  beyond  the  circle  of  our  bodilj'  vision,  and 
that  yet  we  must  believe  in  them,  notwithstand- 
ing all  objections,  as  far  as  they  are  found  by 
experience  to  be  effectual  means  of  promoting  our 
holiness  or  moral  improvement.  We  must  be- 
lieve in  Christ,  as  Redeemer  and  Saviour;  in 
God,  as  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit;  and  we 
must  make  a  practical  use  of  these  doctrines  for 
the  end  and  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  Christ, 
however  unable  we  may  be  to  understand  their 
grounds  and  internal  connection. 

(('))  Religion,  as  we  may  conclude  from  all 
that  has  been  said,  is  a  necessary  result  from  the 
principles  of  human  reason.  It  therefore  rests 
upon  a  faith,  which  is  grounded  on  these  prin- 
ciples of  reason;  otherwise  it  would  be  super- 
stition. The  great  inquiry,  then,  on  this  subject, 
is,  whether  this  faitli  is  rational,  conformed  to 
the  laws  of  our  thinking  nature,  and  such  that 
we  can  justify  it  to  ourselves  and  others.  And 
this  fdith  will  be  rational,  if  it  is  not  contradic- 
tory to  reason  and  morals.  If  it  be  contradic- 
tory to  either  of  these,  we  can  neither  justify  it 
to  ourselves  nor  find  grounds  on  which  to  com- 
mend it  to  others.  This  faith,  then,  may  be  ra- 
tional,  whether  the  doctrines  to  be  believed  are 
comprehensible  or  not.  This  is  a  point  not  at  all 
essential  to  the  reasonableness  of  faith  ;  because 
the  objects  of  this  religious  faith  belonij  to  the 
spiritual  world,  and  are,  therefore,  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  case,  incomprehensible  to  man. 
The  cnmprehensibleness  of  the  doctrines  of  reli- 
gion cannot  therefore  be  made  the  criterion  by 
which  their  truth  is  to  be  determined,  as  has  been 
done  erroneously  by  many  modern  philosophers 
and  theologians.  Proceeding  on  the  principle, 
that  every  thing  in  the  doctrines  of  religion  which 
was  incomprehensible  must  be  explained  away  or 
rejected,  they  came  at  last,  in  order  to  be  con- 
sistent with  themselves,  to  renounce  all  religion, 
natural  as  well  as  revealed  ;  or.  at  best,  to  leave 
only  the  name  of  it  behind.  The  nature  of  God 
is,  and  must  ever  remain,  wholly  incoinprehen- 
sible.  We  know  not  what  he  is  in  liimself,  nor 
the  manner  in  which  he  acts.  And  we  may  say 
the  same  even  with  respect  to  our  own  souls.  If 
we  consider  this,  we  shall  easily  see  that  we 
mu<t  either  give  up  \.\\q  comprehensibkness o^ \\\e 
doctrines  of  religion  as  the  criterion  of  theirtruth, 
or  wholly  renounce  religion.  As  we  have  in- 
timated above,  religion  is  a  product  of  our  moral 
nature.  It  is  eminently  a  concern  of  the  lieaH  ,• 
and  we  believe  in  its  truths  because  they  influ- 
fnce  our  hearts.  If  we  withheld  our  assent  to 
.he  truths  of  religion  till  we  could  comprehend 
them,  we  should  never  believe;  but.  as  human 
nature  is  constituted,  we  firmly  believe,  not  be- 
cause we  fully  understand,  but  because  we  deep- 
ly feel. 

Cf.  Morus,  p.  41,  42  ;  s.  32,  33. 


SECTION  VII. 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  USE  OF  THE 
SCRIPTURES,  REASON,  AND  TRADITION,  AS 
SOURCES  OF    CHRISTIAN    DOCTRINES. 

I.  Of  the  Use  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 

The  Bible  is  the  proper  source  of  our  know- 
ledge of  those  truths  of  religion  which  Christians 
receive  as  revealed.  The  New  Testament  is  Uie 
more  immediate  source  of  the  Christian  system  ; 
not  exclusively,  however,  of  the  Old  Testament, 
to  which  constant  reference  is  made,  and  which 
is  always  presupposed,  in  the  New. 

If  any  teacher  who  lived  before  our  own  times 
left  written  monuments  behind,  these  are  the 
surest  sources  from  which  v.c  can  luam  what  his 
opinions  and  doctrines  were.  If  he  himself 
wrote  nothing,  the  writings  of  his  disciples  and 
familiar  friends  are  our  best  authority.  Out 
knowledge  will  be  more  easy  and  sure,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  and  completen^s  of  these 
written  records.  'I'he  writings  of  disciples  who 
were  contemporary  with  their  teacher,  and  his 
personal  friends,  are  far  more  important  in  ascer- 
taining his  principles  than  the  writings  of  later 
followers,  who  are  apt  to  intri»duce  opinions 
foreign  to  the  system  which  they  undertake  to 
exhibit.  Socrates  wrote  nothing  himself;  but 
Plato,  Xenophon,  and  others  of  his  early  dis- 
ciples, wrote  abundantly  respecting  him  and  his 
doctrine.  The  disciples  of  these  men  styled 
themselves,  still,  the  followers  of  Socrates,  and 
continued  to  expound  his  system,  but  they  as- 
cribed to  him  many  opinions  which  he  did  not 
profess.  All  this  is  applicable  to  the  New  Tes- 
tament. Jesus  wrote  nothing  hims())f:  but 
many  of  his  early  disciples  left  records  respect- 
ing him  which  are  collected  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. If  these  records  are  truly  the  produc- 
tions of  those  disciples  of  .lesns  whose  names 
they  bear  (the  proof  of  which  will  be  given  in 
the  Article  on  the  holy  scriptures^  they  furnish, 
doubtless,  the  most  authentic  information  which 
we  can  possess  respecting  the  doctrines  wliich 
Jesus  himself  taught,  and  wished  his  disciples 
to  teach.  The  writings  of  the  apostolical  fa- 
thers, the  followers  of  the  first  disciples  of 
Christ,  are  of  inferior  authority  ;  and  still  less 
authentic  are  the  traditions  transmitted  orally 
in  the  church. 

If  it  is  true  that  Jesus  is,  what  these  writinijs 
affirm  him  to  be.  a  teaeher  divinely  commis- 
sioned, and  the  greatest  amonu  all  whom  God 
has  sent  into  the  world;  and  if  the  books  of  ttie 
New  Testament  were  composed  under  that  pe- 
culiar divine  Efuidance.  called  inspiralinn,  then 
we  must  admit  that  the  doctrines  of  Christ  and 
the  apostles  contained  in  them  are  true  and 
divine.  These  two  suppositions  arp  the  giound 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  symbols  of  the  protectant 


38 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


church,  that  the  holy  scriptures,  and  especially 
the  New  Testament,  are  the  only  sure  source  of 
Chrisiian  truth,  and,  consfcjuenily,  ilie  only  rule 
of  ("hrisiian  faith  and  practice,  exclusively  of 
all  cuinmandinents  and  traditions  of  merely 
human  ori<>in. 

Our  system  of  faith  and  morals  depends, 
therefnre,  solely  upon  the  authority  of  Christ 
and  his  apostles,  reirarded  as  teachers  commis- 
bioned  hy  God.  if  any  one  does  not  regard 
till -m  as  such,  he  cannot  hold  himself  bound  to 
believe  their  doctrines  solely  on  their  authority  ; 
he  must  demand  that  his  reason  should  be  con- 
vinced by  rational  proofs,  lie  may,  indeed, 
hold  liie  memory  of  Christ  and  tlie  apostles,  as 
he  does  of  Socrates  and  Kpictetus,  in  high  re- 
spect, as  worthy  teachers;  but  he  cannot  feel 
himself  obliged  to  believe  on  their  word.  We 
here  see  the  cause  of  the  real  importance  of  the 
controversy  which  has  existed  on  the  (juestion. 
Whether,  in  matters  of  faith,  the  Bible  or  reason 
is  the  lTa»princifjiuin  cognosce ndi. 

II.   0/  the  Use  of  Reiison. 

The  frequent  abuses  of  reason,  when  applied 
to  matters  of  faith,  led  Luther  and  many  of  the 
older  theolotjians  to  express  themselves  severely 
respectinjT  the  use  of  reason  on  these  subjects. 
Their  objections,  however,  were  directed  only 
against  the  arrogance  and  perversion  of  reason, 
and  especially  against  the  Aristotelian  philoso- 
phy, then  prevalent  in  the  schools.  Paul  object- 
ed in  the  same  way  to  (fnXoooipia,  (Col.  ii.  8;) 
or  yvCjji^  4.fv6wvi!fioj,  1  Tim.  vi.  20.  All  these 
w'riters  have,  in  other  passages,  done  full  justice 
to  reason  in  itself,  as  the  noblest  gift  of  God. 

]ieas9n  (Vernunft)  is  that  power  which  guides 
and  rei/ulates,  liy  its  spontaneous  action,  the 
other  faculties  of  our  minds  in  the  ac(|uisilion 
of  knowledge;  it  constitutes  the  peculiar  cha- 
ra'-teristic  of  humanity,  and  is  that  by  which 
alone  we  are  capable  of  religion.  Reason  alone 
can  acknowledge  and  receive  the  truths  of  either 
natural  or  revealed  religion,  and  give  them  an 
intluence  upon  the  liuman  will.  Vides.  G,  No.  6. 
It  is  therefore  always  mentioned  with  respect  in 
the  Bible;  and  the  use  of  it,  in  the  stuily  and 
examination  of  relitrious  truth,  always  recom- 
mended. Cf.  Rom.  i.  20;  Psalm  xix.;  Isaiah, 
xl.  xli.  Indeed,  the  use  of  reason  is  presup- 
pi-',ed  in  a  revelaiion;  since  witlioul  the  use  of 
reason  we  should  be  incapable  of  enjoying  a 
revelation.  It  is  the  object  of  revelation  to  sup- 
|)ly  the  dericiencies  of  the  knowleilire  which  we 
acijiiire  in  the  use  of  unaided  reason;  and  this 
very  revelation  canticnis  us  airainst  the  two  ex- 
tremes, of  relying  wholly  upon  reason  for  our 
knowledge,  and  of  neglecting  the  use  of  it  alto- 
gether. 

Human  reason,  as  the  Bible  teaches,  is  not 


the  only  source  of  the  truths  of  religion ;  whicK 
are  not,  therefore,  to  be  deduced  from  nature 
alone.  None  hut  the  rationalist  would  pretend, 
that  the  oidy  sources  of  our  religious  knowledge 
were  the  nature  of  our  own  minds,  and  of  the 
external  world.  The  Bible  teaches  us  that,  in 
respect  to  objt-cts  of  the  spiritual  world,  which 
lie  beyond  the  sphere  of  sense,  and  which 
could  not  be  known  except  from  revelation  or 
history;  reason  is  merely  \\w  iiuitrument  of  our 
knowledge.  But  we  are  not  at  liberty  to  neglect 
to  use  reason  as  the  instrument  of  our  know- 
ledge of  the  objects  of  revelation.  On  the  con- 
trary, we  are  sacredly  bound  to  employ  out 
reason  in  examining  the  credibility  of  the  his- 
tory of  revelaiion,  and  the  correctness  of  the 
facts  gathered  by  experience,  and  in  discovering 
and  estimating  the  suitableness  and  sacredness 
of  the  duties  imposed  upon  us. 

Reason  may  properly  be  used,  as  the  instru- 
ment of  our  knowledge  of  revealed  truth,  in  the 
following  particulars: — viz., 

1.  In  the  discovery  and  arrangement  of  argu 
nicnls  in  support  of  tiiese  truths,  and  of  results 
llowing  from  them,  (a)  The  proof  of  many 
doctrines  which  are  clearly  revealed  is  not  dis- 
tinctly stated  in  the  Bible,  but  thrown  upon 
reason.  The  proof  of  the  divine  existence,  foi 
example,  is  not  drawn  out  in  the  Bil)le,  but  is 
presupposed.  (i)  i'roofs,  auxiliary  to  those 
given  in  the  scriptures,  may  be  suggested  by 
reason  in  favour  of  the  arlicuH  mixli ;  the  |)ro- 
vidence  of  God,  &c.  (>)  Without  the  use  of 
reason  we  cannot  ascertain  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  credibility  of  the  history  of  the  sa- 
cred books,  their  divine  authority,  or  the  rules 
by  which  they  should  be  interpreted,  (c')  We 
must  employ  our  reason  in  developing  such 
doctrines  as  are  not  distinctly  expressed,  but 
only  im|)lied,  in  the  holy  scriptures.  Reason 
may  be  further  employed. 

2.  In  the  exhihition  and  statement  of  the  truths 
of  revelation.  We  find  the  truths  of  religion 
brought  together  in  the  Bible  in  a  loose  and  dis- 
connected manner,  and  must  therefore  make  a 
ililigent  use  of  our  reason  in  collecting,  arrang- 
ing, and  uniting  them  into  such  a  system  a? 
shall  suit  our  own  convenience  or  the  advantage 
of  others.  We  must  also  illustrate  the  truth, 
excellence,  and  fitness  of  the  particular  parts  of 
the  system  of  revealed  religion,  by  analogi(?s 
drawn  from  human  lhin<;s,  by  the  observation 
of  human  nature,  hy  historical  illustrations,  and 
in  many  other  ways  which  call  r»'ason  into 
exercise. 

3.  In  the  difence  of  revealer  religion,  ar  d  o^ 
the  particular  dctrines  which  it  embraces  (ueui 
ratioiiis  huinanie  apiilegeticus)  llow  much 
reason  is  needed  in  this  particular  must  appear 
sufliciently  from  the  preceding  reikiarks. 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


3» 


m.  Of  the  use  of  Tradition. 

The  words  rtapaSojtj  and  Iroditio  are  used  by 
Ihe  older  ecclesiastical  fathers,  to  denote  any 
\nstruclion  which  one  gives  to  another,  whether 
vr«/  or  loritten.  I  n  the  New  Testament  also,  and 
in  the  classical  writers,  na^Mhovvai.  and  tradere 
signify,  in  general,  to  teach,  to  inatrtict.  Tradi- 
tion in  this  wider  sense  was  divided  into  scripta, 
and  no7i  scripta  sive  oralis.  The  latter,  traditio 
oralis,  was,  however,  frequently  called  traditio 
by  way  of  eminence.  This  oral  tradition  was 
often  appealed  to  by  Irenteus,  Clemens  of  Alex- 
andria, 'I'ertullian,  (De  Prseser.  cap.  7,)  and 
others  of  the  ancient  fathers,  as  a  test  by  which 
to  try  the  doctrines  of  contemporary  teachers, 
and  by  which  to  confute  the  errors  of  the  here- 
tics. They  describe  it  as  being  instruction  re- 
ceived from  the  mouth  of  the  apostles  by  the  first 
Christian  churches,  transmitted  from  the  apos- 
tolical age,  and  preserved  in  purity  until  their 
own  times.  Tcrtuliian,  in  the  passage  above 
referred  to,  says,  that  an  appeal  to  tradition  is 
the  most  direct  way  of  confuting  heretics,  who 
will  often  evade  the  force  of  an  appeal  to  texts 
of  scripture  by  misinterpreting  them.  Tliis 
tradition  is  called  by  Origen  x^|n7^a  ixxTir^- 
criapTixdi',  and  by  the  Latin  Fathers  regulajidci 
(i.  e.  doctrinaj  Christianas)  site  vcritatis.  'I'he 
latter  title  was  given  by  them,  more  specifically, 
to  the  ancient  symbols,  which  contained  the  in- 
struction received  from  the  apostles,  and  trans- 
milted  and  preserved  in  the  church. 

Oral  tradition  is  still  regarded  by  the  Romish 
•jhurch  as  2l principium  cogiwacendi  in  theology. 

"Sacrosancta  cecumenica  synodus hoc 

sibi  perpetuo  ante  oculos  proponens,  ut,  sublatis 
erroribus,  puritas  ipsa  evangelii  in  ecclesia  con- 
servetur,  ....  perspiciensque  banc  veritatem 
et  disciplinam  contineri  in  libris  scriptis  et  siiu 
scripto  truditinnibus,  quw  ex  ipsius  Christi  ore  ab 
apostolis  accept X,  ub  ips-iiis  apostolis,  spiritu  sancio 
dictanfe,  quasi  per  matnis  traditae,  ad  nos  usque 
pervenerunt:  orthodoxorum  patrum  excmpla 
secuta,  omnes  libros  tarn  veteris  quam  novi  tes- 
tamenti,  cum  unus  Deus  sit  auctor,  nee  non 
iruditiones  ipsas,  turn  adfidem  turn  ad  mores  per- 
tinentes,  tamquam  vel  oreteniis  a  Chrisio  vel  a 
spiritu  sancto  didatas  et  eontinua  successinne  in 
ecclesia  calliolica  conservatas,  pari  pietatis  affectu 

ac  reverenlia,  siiscipit  ac  veneratur Si  j 

quisauiem traditiones  pra^lictas  sciens 

et  prudens  contemserit,  anathema  sit.^'  Concil. 
Trident.  Sess.  IV.  Uecr.  1. 

Kote'. — The  ancient  Latin  writers  tise  the  word 
tiaditio  in  the  sense  of  delivery  or  surrender—^ 
e.  g.  of  a   person  or  thing   into  the    hands  of 
another.     What  we  mean  by  tradition,  in  the  j 
ecclesiastical  sense,  Livy  or  Sallust  would  ex-  j 
press  by  the  phrase  res,  dnctrina,  or  historia  per  \ 
manus  tradita, — voce,  if  the  tradition  were  oral, 
teripto  or  Uteris,  if  it  were  written.  [ 


Observations  on  the  merits  of  the  question 
respecting  doctrinal  tradition  (traditio  oralis 
dogmatica).  In  coming  to  a  decision  on  this 
subject,  every  thing  depends  upon  making  ihe 
proper  distinctions  with  regard  to  time. 

1.  In  the  first  period  of  Christianity,  the  au- 
thority of  the  apostles  was  so  great  that  all  their 
doctrines  and  ordinances  were  sirictly  and 
punctually  observed  by  the  churches  which  they 
had  planted.  And  the  doctrine  and  discipline 
which  prevailed  in  these  apostolical  churches 
were,  at  that  time,  justly  considered  by  others 
to  be  purely  such  as  the  apostles  themselves  had 
taught  and  established,  'i'his  was  the  more 
common,  as  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
bad  not,  as  yet,  come  into  general  use  among 
Christians.  Nor  was  it,  in  that  early  period, 
attended  with  any  special  liability  to  mistake. 
In  this  way  we  can  account  for  it,  that  the  Chris- 
tian teachers  of  the  second  aad  third  centuries 
appeal  so  frequently  to  oral  tradition. 

2.  But  in  later  periods  of  the  church,  the  cir- 
cumstances were  far  difl'erent.  After  Ihe  com- 
mencement of  the  third  century,  when  the  first 
teachers  of  the  apostolical  churches  and  their 
immediate  successors  had  passed  away,  and 
another  race  came  on,  other  doctrines  and  forms 
were  gradually  introduced,  which  differed  in 
many  respects  from  apostolical  simplicity.  .And 
now  these  innovators  appealed,  more  frequently 
than  had  ever  been  done  before,  to  aposto- 
lical tradition,  in  order  to  give  currency  to  their 
own  opinions  and  regulations.  Many  at  this 
time  did  not  hesitate,  as  we  find,  to  plead  apos- 
tolical tradition  for  many  things,  at  variance  not 
only  with  other  traditions,  but  with  the  very 
writings  of  the  apostles,  which  they  had  in  their 
hands.  From  this  time  forward,  tradition  be- 
came, naturally,  more  and  more  uncertain  and 
suspicious.  And  especially  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  fourth  century,  the  more  judicious 
and  conscientious  teachers  referred  more  to  the 
Bible,  and  less  to  tradition.  Augustine  estab- 
lished the  maxim,  that  tradition  could  not  be 
relied  upon,  in  the  ever-increasing  distance  from 
the  age  of  the  apostles,  except  when  il  was  uni- 
versal and  perfectly  consistent  with  itself.  And 
long  before  him,  Irena-us  had  remarked,  that  no 
tradition  should  be  received  as  apostolical,  un- 
less founded  in  the  holy  scriptures,  and  confor- 
mable to  them.    Adv.  Ha;r.  IV'.  3G. 

3.  From  these  remarks,  we  can  easily  deter- 
mine the  value  of  doctrinal  tradition  in  our  own 
times.  We  have  but  little  credible  information 
respecting  the  first  Christian  churches,  of  at 
early  a  date  as  the  first  or  second  century,  beside 
that  which  the  New  Testament  gives  us.  And 
the  information  respecting  them  of  a  later  origin 
is  so  intermingled  with  rumours  and  fables  ap 
to  be  quite  uncertain.  We  cannot  hope,  there- 
fore, to  obtain  by  oral  tradition  any  information 


to 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


respectinor  the  doctrines  held  in  the  first  Chris- 
tian churches,  beyond  what  we  obtain  from  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  the  only  genuine 
recoids  of  the  early  period  of  Christianity.  Les- 
sintj  affirmed,  indeed,  that  the  Christian  reliirion 
would  have  been  handed  down  from  age  to  age, 
even  if  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament  had 
never  existed.  And  true  it  is,  tliat  by  oral  tra- 
dition, l)y  writings  of  a  later  origin,  by  baptism, 
the  Lord's  supper,  and  other  Christian  riles, 
much  of  Christianity  might  have  been  preserved 
to  our  own  times,  without  the  aid  of  the  sacred 
books  of  our  religion.  But  it  is  equally  true, 
that  without  the  New  Testament  any  certainty 
with  regard,  to  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
would  be  impossible;  the  sure,  historical  basis 
of  the  system  would  be  removed,  and  Chris- 
tianity soon  become  greatly  disfigured;  as  may 
be  learned  from  the  example  of  the  Romish 
church,  where  lh»tuse  of  the  Bible  was  limited. 
Christianity  did,  indee<l,  exist  for  some  time 
before  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  were 
written.  And  during  that  early  period,  while 
the  apostles  and  their  immediate  successors  still 
lived  and  taught,  these  books  might  be  dispensed 
with  by  Christians  without  serious  injury.  But 
not  so  in  after  times. 

The  reformers,  therefore,  justly  held,  that  tra- 
dition is  not  (certainly  for  t/s)  a  sure  source  of 
knowledge  respecting  the  doctrines  q(  theology ; 
and  that  the  holy  scriptures  are  to  be  received 
as  the  only  princijjtuin  eoi^ruiscendi.  C  f,  Walch , 
llntersucliung  vom  Gebrauche  der  heiligen 
Schrifl  uiiter  den  Christen  in  den  vier  ersten 
Jahrhuuderten,  Leipzig,  1770,  8vo;  a  work 
which  ajipeared  on  occasion  of  the  controversy 
with  Lessini;. 

A'otr. — On  all  the  subjects  which  have  been 
thus  far  introduced  and  briefly  considered,  the 
student  will  find  very  full,  tiiorough,  and  in- 
structive discussions  in  Miiller,  Thnophil,  oder 
Unterhaltimgen  iiber  die  chrislliche  Religion 
mil  Jiinglingen  von  reiferem  Alter,Tli.  L  Ziirch, 
1801,  8vo;  a  work  which  deserves  to  be  highly 
recommended  to  the  student  in  theology. 

SECTION  VIIL 

or  THE  OBJKfT,  DIKKKIIENT  nECIlEKS,  PRINriPAI, 
PKIMODS,  AMI  niKI.K'AL  AI'1'EM.ATlONS  OK  THE 
DIVINE  REVELATIONS. 

I.  Of  the  Object  of  Hcvcliition. 

When  man  is  in  the  savage  state,  and  left  en- 
tirely to  himself,  he  follows  his  appetites  and 
passions,  :ind  leaves  his  moral  powers  unexer- 
cised. Instead  of  allowing  his  will  to  lie  go- 
verned by  the  moral  law,  he  chooses  atiimal 
propensity  (<la8  sinnliehe  princip)  as  its  de- 
termining motive.  lie  thus  constantly  re- 
cedes firtm  that  holiness  and  happiness  for 
which  he  wa«  made.     Now  to  show  man   the 


true  way  of  fulfilling  his  destination,  from  which 
he  is  thus  wandering,  is  the  chief  object  of  all 
direct  revelations.  Cf.  sec.  2,  3.  So  even  rea- 
son decides.  Vide  f'ichte,  Versuch  einer  Kritik 
aller  OlTenbarung,  Kunigsberg,  1793. 

To  enable  man  to  attain  his  destination,  it  was 
requisite  (I)  that  he  should  be  instructed  by 
God  respecting  the  means  to  be  employed  by  a 
divine  revelation,  or  in  some  superhuinan  way; 
since  left  to  hiinself.  he  could  never  have  disco- 
vered these  means ;  and  (2)  that  his  moral  power 
should  be  so  strengthened  and  supported  as  to 
enable  him  to  control  his  stronger  animal  pro- 
pensities. These  two  things  are  absolutely  and 
equally  requisite.  For  the  mere  knowledge  of 
the  divine  will  does  not  impart  to  man  ihe power 
which  he  needs  in  order  to  obey  it,  his  bodily 
desires  having  already  the  preponderance  over 
his  moral  faculties.  Cf.  sec.  2,  3.  Now  to 
these  two  points — to  show  man  his  destination, 
and  to  enable  him  to  attain  it — we  may  reduce 
all  the  objects  which  the  scriptures  ascribe  to 
God  in  the  revelations  he  has  made  to  man. 

II.  Of  the  different  Degrees  of  RcvelatioTi. 

Although  the  plan  of  God  in  leading  men  to 
their  destination  was  always  the  same,  yet  the 
manner  in  which  he  imparted  instruction  through 
direct  revelation,  and  the  whole  method  which 
he  pursued  in  the  education  of  the  human  race, 
were  very  different.  We  are  led  by  reason  to 
this  result,  which  is  confirined  by  the  history  of 
revelation  contained  in  the  Imly  scriptures. 
'I'he  instruction  given  to  men  must,  of  course, 
be  adapted  to  their  wants  and  capacities,  which 
differ  at  ditTerent  times.  Hence  Paul  remarks, 
very  justly,  (Heb.  i.  1.)  that  God  revealed  him- 
self to  men  in  ancient  times  i;i  various  ways 
(rtoXtrportoc).  Nor  did  this  dilTerence  concern 
solely  the  form  and  costume  of  the  divine  in- 
structions; it  extended  even  to  the  doctrines 
which  were  taught.  Vide  Gal.  iii.  20,  seq.  et 
alibi. 

God  treated  the  human  race  as  human  instruct- 
ors treat  their  pupils.  There  is  a  great  deal  of 
knowledge  which  is  useful, and  indeed  indispen- 
sable to  a  person  of  mature  age,  which  w<nild  be 
altogether  useless,  tinintelligible,  and  nerhaps 
hurtful,  to  one  in  childhood.  Now  the  wise 
teacher  will  withhold  this  knowledge  from  (he 
child,  or  communicate  it  to  him  only  so  far  as  it 
will  be  serviceable  to  him,  and  in  such  a  way  as 
will  be  most  intelliirible,  proceeding  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown,  and  from  the  easy  to  the 
(jiiricult.  And  this  is  the  manner  in  which  God 
proceeds  in  the  instruction  and  education  of  men. 
He  cannot,  therefore,  at  any  time  have  revealed 
such  things  as  were  unnecessary,  or  woulil  have 
been  useless,  to  the  people  to  whom  the  revelation 
was  given.  He  must  also  have  so  planned  the 
instruction  to  be  communicated  by  direct  revela- 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


41 


tion  as  to  produce  a  growing  conviction  in  the 
minds  of  men  of  the  necessity  of  a  more  perft^ct 
instruction  and  a  more  efTectual  assistance  before 
they  could  hope  to  succeed  in  controlling  their 
natural  desires.  Such  a  course  is  the  only  one 
adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  human  mind,  of 
which  God  is  'he  author.  Accordingly,  God  so 
regulated  his  instructions  from  the  heginning  as 
to  make  men  sensible  of  their  wants,  and  then 
to  supply  them  ;  for  until  men  have  been  brought, 
by  some  elementary  instruction,  to  be  deeply 
conscious  of  their  need  of  something  further, 
they  will  never  inquire  with  earnestness  for  a 
more  perfect  instruction. 

III.  0/  the  Principal  Periods  of  Revelation. 

The  sacred  records  contain  a  history  of  tht 
divine  revelations.  This  history  will  be  fouml 
to  confirm  the  general  remarks  which  have  just 
been  made. 

1.  The  great  doctrine  which  we  find  exhibited 
in  the  earliest  revelations  recorded  in  the  holy 
scriptures  is  this  :  those  who  obey  the  laws  which 
God  has  revealed  shall  be  rewarded,  those  who 
disobey  shall  be  punisiied.  This  assurance  from 
God,  sometimes  expressed  in  plain  language, 
sometimes  represented  by  images,  ceremonies, 
and  examples,  and  in  various  other  ways,  was 
jalculated  to  strengthen  and  encourage  men  to 
jbtain  their  mastery  over  their  passions  with 
which  the  divine  favour,  guidance,  and  support 
were  connected. 

This  first  period  of  revealed  religion,  the  ac- 
count of  which  is  given  by  Moses,  is  called  the 
patriarchal  period  (oeconomia  patriarchalis),  and 
is  divided  into  antediluvian  and  postdiluvian. 
Revealed  religion  was  at  that  time  extremely 
simple,  suited  to  the  wants  of  the  infancy  of  the 
world,  and  highly  practical.  All  the  institutions 
of  religion  had  the  benevolent  end  of  preserving 
among  men  the  knowledge  of  the  one  living  and 
true  God,  and  of  leading  them  to  exercise  to- 
wards hi.n  that  love  and  confidence  upon  which 
the  scriptures  everywhere  set  so  high  a  value. 
The  more  to  exercise  and  strengthen  this  pious 
confidence  they  were  made  acquainted  from  time 
to  time  with  their  own  future  destiny  and  that  of 
their  descendants,  and  with  the  great  divine  eco- 
nomy for  the  welfare  of  the  human  race  at  some 
distant  time;  as  yet,  however,  as  Paul  expresses 
't,  (Heb.  xi.  13,)  they  only  saw  the  promised 
Olessings/ro7/)  afar  (rtO|j^u)flfi/  iSovtf^). 

2.  Next  followed  the  civil  and  reliijious  institute 
of  Moses  ;  and  here  again  the  same  divine  assur- 
ance was  at  the  foundation  of  the  whole.  But  in 
this  infancy  of  the  world  God  found  it  necessary 
to  confine  his  promises  for  tho  most  part  to  tem- 
p'jral good,  and  his  threatenings  to  tempornlevW  ; 
because  such  promises  and  threatenings  were 
best  adapted  to  influence  a  people  who  were  as 
yet  extremely  rude,  and  who  derived  their  pains 

6 


and  pleasures  from  the  objects  of  the  present  life. 
Intimations,  however,  of  the  destiny  of  man  be- 
yond the  grave  were  by  no  means  withheld,  from 
those  who  were  cultivated  to  such  a  degree  as  to 
be  able  to  understand  them.  But  in  general  so 
much  only  of  these  higher  truths  could  at  that 
time  be  made  known  as  would  be  intelligible  to 
the  people  at  large.  And  even  this  small  portion 
of  spiritual  truth  needed  to  be  imbodied,a8  faraa 
])ossible,  in  sensible  representations,  before  it 
could  gain  access  to  the  uncultivated  mind. 

In  accordance  with  these  principles,  the  New 
Testament  teaches  that  the  Mosaic  institute  was 
indeed  («)  of  divine  orii^in,  (Moses  being  always 
regarded  by  Christ  and  the  apostles  as  a  prophet 
sent  by  God,)  but  that  still  this  institute,  in  com- 
parison with  the  Christian,  was  (i)  very  imper- 
fect, and  indeed  could  not  well  Imve  been  other- 
wise, considering  the  times  and  the  men  it  was 
designed  for.  Gal.  iv,  3,  9  (arot;^fto) ;  Col.  ii. 
8,  20,  et  alibi ;  and  therefore  it  was  (c)  only  a 
temporary  religion,  designed  by  God  to  continue 
only  for  a  time,  and  then  to  give  place  to  a 
higher  and  more  perfect  scheme,  2  Cor.  iii.  II, 
seq. ;  Gal.  iv.  1 — 5  ;  Heb.  viii.  6,  et  alibi. 

But  God  excited  in  the  minds  of  the  very 
people  who  enjoyed  this  preparatory  revelation, 
a  sense  of  their  need  of  one  more  full  and  perfect. 
And  in  various  ways  he  deepened  this  impres- 
sion: (1)  by  such  instruction  respecting  the  de- 
sigaof  the  sacrifices  and  rites  of  the  Mosaic  in- 
stitute as  should  turn  their  attention  from  the 
mere  external  ceremonies  of  religion,  and  lead 
them  gradually  to  a  more  pure  and  spiritual  wor- 
ship. Vide  Ps.  1.  Isaiah,  lviii.,lx.,  seq.  (2)  By 
prophecy  respecting  that  great  economy  for  the 
moral  perfection  and  welfare  of  the  human  race 
which  God  would  at  some  future  time  establish. 
Tiiese  prophecies  were  at  first  only  distant  and 
obscure  intimations,  hut  they  became  gradually 
more  clear  and  intelligible  as  men  became  more 
convinced,  by  a  long  trial  and  experience,  that 
such  a  new  economy  was  absolutely  necessary. 
And  this  conviction  of  the  necessity  of  some  new 
economy  became  stronger  the  more  men  learned 
by  experience  that  the  mere  knowledge  of  the 
divine  will,  connected  though  it  might  be  with 
the  certainty  of  rewards  and  punishments,  was 
insuflicient  to  enable  them  to  lead  a  life  of  virtue 
and  self-government.  Accordingly,  the  prophe- 
cies respecting  the  Messiah,  and  the  new  econo- 
my which  he  would  introduce,  became  more  and 
more  clear  and  distinct,  especially  from  the  time 
ofDavid  until  shortly  after  the  Babylonian  exile. 
The  prophets  now  plainly  predicted  that  the 
economy  under  which  they  lived  would  come  to 
an  end,  and  that  a  new  economy  would  com- 
mence, which  would  bring  relief  to  the  wants  of 
men,  Jer.  xxxi.  31—36,  coll,  Heb.  viii.  7,  seq. 

A'o/f. — A  revelation  of  the  truths  of  religion, 
ir  order  to  convince  men  that  it  actually  pro- 
u2 


M 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ceods  from  God  and  should  be  obeyetl  as  his 
will,  must  be  attended  with  such  events  zs  prove 
its  author  to  be  ti\eir  lord  and  creator,  and  the 
creator,  proprietor,  and  governor  of  the  world. 
Accordinoly,  the  divine  revelations  have  always 
been  attended  with  events  in  tlie  natural  world 
of  such  a  miraculous  kind,  as  could  seem  to  the 
most  savage  and  unlettered  mind  to  proceed  from 
none  otiier  than  the  author  and  governor  of  na- 
ture. But  the  Bible  claims  not  only  that  its 
doctrines  should  be  received  as  divine,  hut  that 
the  teachers  by  whom  they  iire  published  should 
be  acknowledged  to  be  sent  by  God,  as  is  im- 
plied in  the  word  prophet — the  title  commonly 
given  them.  Now*  in  order  to  establish  tliis  cx- 
iraorditiiiri/  claim,  it  is  natural  that  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  should  narrate  extraordinarij 
events.  And  these  narrations,  when  given,  must 
not  be  explained  away,  but  taken  as  they  stand, 
according  to  the  obvious  intention  of  the  narra- 
tor; for  the  extraordinary  mission  which  the 
Bible  claims  for  Moses,  Christ,  and  other  teach- 
ers, could  be  confirmed  in  no  other  way  than  by 
extraordinary  events.  Those,  therefore,  who, 
like  Eck,  in  his  Inquiry,  explain  away  the  mira- 
cles of  the  Bible  by  a  violent  and  arbitrary  in- 
terpretation, counteract  their  own  purpose.  In- 
stead of  vindicating  the  Bible  in  this  way  from 
objection  and  reproach,  they  render  it  a  very  in- 
consistent book. 

3.  After  all  these  preparatory  revelations,  cal- 
culated to  produce  in  the  minils  of  men  a  sense 
of  their  need  of  more  complete  instruction,  God 
founded  a  new  institute,  which,  without  in- 
fringing the  liberty  of  man,  exerted  a  more 
powerful  influence  than  any  which  had  pre- 
ceded, and  imbodied,  in  the  most  perfect  man- 
ner, every  means  of  holiness  and  happiness. 
This  was  the  Chrixllan  institute.  Its  object  suf- 
ficiently appears  from  its  nature  and  inlluence; 
its  authority,  like  that  of  the  ancient  economy, 
was  abundantly  confirmed.  We  shall  hereafter 
treat  of  its  divine  origin,  its  internal  excellence, 
&c.  In  this  cotmection  we  siiall  notice  only  two 
of  its  principal  advantnges,  which  are  often  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament. 

(rt)  //»  unirirsnillji.  By  this  we  mean  that 
the  Christian  religion  is  adapted,  in  its  whole 
constitution,  to  be  the  religion  of  all  men.  Its 
precepts  are  not  confined  to  any  one  nation  or 
country,  butareapplicahle  to  all  people,  in  what- 
ever climate  and  under  whatever  form  of  jjo- 
▼ernment  they  may  live.  Accordingly,  Christ 
commands  (Mark,  xvi.  Ifi)  that  his  religion 
should  be  preached  to  nil  men  without  distinc- 
tion, (rtuTiJ  rrj  xrimi ;)  for  he  is  the  Saviour  of 
all  men,  of  Jews  and  (Jentiles,  of  the  world, 
(2u>r>j()  fou  xoT/iov.)  Vide  .lohn,  X.  IC  ;  Rom. 
i.  IG,  seq. ;  Ephes.  ii.  n — H,  et  al.  And  ex- 
perience has  shown,  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times,  that  the  truths  of  the  gospel,  when  exhi- 


bited in  the  native  simplicity  in  which  they  ap- 
pear in  the  New  Testament,  produce  the  same 
effects  in  all  ages  and  upon  all  classes  of  men. 
They  have  thus  proved  themselves  to  be  the 
power  of  God  unto  salvation  to  all  those  who  be* 
lieve  in  them,  Rom.  i.  16 ;  1  Cor.  i  But  Christ 
and  his  apostles  never  laboured  to  make  converts 
in  great  multitudes,  or  to  bring  ivhnk  nations  to 
an  external  profession  of  Christianity  ;  nor  has  a 
whole  people,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  been  ever  tho- 
roughly reformed  by  the  Christian  religion.  Ma- 
ny thousand  individuals,  however,  in  different 
nations,  have  been  reformed  by  it,  and  have  by 
their  example  exhibited  to  others  the  advantages 
of  obedience  to  the  precepts  of  Christ;  and  so 
it  will  always  be  in  Christian  communities. 
The  tares  and  the  wheat  will  always  grow  to- 
gether, though  in  ditferent  proportions  at  differ- 
ent times,  according  to  the  prediction  of  Christ, 
Matt.  xiii. 

(/()  Its  pr^rpetuihj,  (perennitas.)  JeSus  and 
the  apostles  assure  us  that  we  can  expect  no 
farther  revelations  of  religious  truth  after  the 
full  disclosures  which  (?hrist  has  made.  Vide 
:\Iatt,  xvi.  IS;  1  Cor.  xv.  24.  The  institute 
founded  by  Christ,  unlike  other  religions,  and 
unlike  the  schools  of  philosophy,  which  soon 
pass  aw-ay,  will  continue  to  the  end  of  the  world. 
Hence  the  Christian  ministry  is  called  to  fiivov, 
in  opposition  to  the  Jewish  ministry,  w  hich  is 
called  TO  xarof^yovfievov,  2  Cor.  iii.  11;  cf.  Heb. 
xii.  27.  This  contradicts  the  opinion  of  some 
ancient  and  modern  writers,  that  a  still  mors 
perfect  religion  will  hereafter  arise,  to  which 
Christianity  in  its  turn  will  give  place.  Mon- 
tanus  in  the  second  century,  and  many  fanatics 
in  succeeding  ages,  adopted  the  notion  that  this 
more  perfect  religion  would  be  founded  in  a  new 
revelation;  but  some  modern  philosophers  and 
theologians  suppose  that  the  rrUixion  of  reason 
is  the  only  perfect  religion,  and  is  destined  to 
become  universal,  after  gradually  abolishing  all 
positive  religions,  and  the  Christian  among  the 
rest.  This  is  a  favourite  idea  of  Lessing,  F^r- 
•/.iehungdes  Menschengeschlechts.  and  of  Krug, 
Mricfe  iiher  die  Perfcctibilitjit  dcr  ireoffenbarlea 
Religion,  Jena,  1795.  Vide  Meyer's  ])rize  es- 
say, |}eytrag  zur  endlichen  Entsclieidun<j  der 
Fra<re :  In  wie  fern  habendie  Leliren  und  Vor- 
schriften  des  N.  T.  bloss  eine  locale  und  tempo- 
relle  Beslimmung,  und  in  wie  fern  sind  diesel- 
hen  von  einein  allgemeinen  und  stets  giiltigen 
Ansehen?     Hanover,  IROG,  8vo. 

Xole. — Biblical  names  of  revealed  religion 
and  of  a  religious  institute.  Some  of  the  most 
important  are  the  following: — viz. 

n-^'n,  lo^oj.     This  name  is  frequently  given, 

by  way  of  eminence,  to  the  ISIosaic  religi'im,  io 

opposition  to  the  Christian.     Sometimes,  liow- 

[  ever,  it  denotes  the  precepts  of  revealed  reli^ioo 

;  in  general,  as  Rom.  ii.  11,  toftoi'  firj  tjt"" 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


43 


nna,  Sia^fXr;.  When  God  made  a  law,  or 
published  his  will,  he  was  said  to  enter  into  a 
covenant  or  league  with  men.  He  promised,  on 
his  part,  to  bestow  blessings  upon  men  if  they 
were  obedient  to  his  law  ;  and  they  promised,  on 
their  part,  to  do  his  will.  Accordingly,  biai^rxr; 
signifies  a /«tt'  v^h  ?t  promise,  znA  also  the  whole 
economy  foundeTon  the  law  and  promise.  It  is 
applit^d  soinetmips  to  the  ancient  Jewish  econo- 
my and  sometimes  to  the  new  Christian  econo- 
my, and  somet'mes  to  both  without  distinction. 
Vide  Gal.  iv.  24;  2  Cor.  iii.  (3. 

The  Ciiristian  economy  is  called  rtinnj  Xpc<r- 
rov,  I'ouoj  Xpirsroij,  voiuoj  ^tiTTfwj,  rtvfvfta,  (in 
reference  to  its  divine  origin  and  perft^ction.)  and 
especially  tvayyiX'.ov.  The  last  term  was  origi- 
nally the  name  of  the  joyful  promises  which 
Christianity  contains;  but  it  is  frequently  used 
in  the  New  Testament  in  a  wider  sense,  to  de- 
note the  whole  Christian  ecmomy,  as  containing 
not  only  promises  but  precepts  as  conditions  of 
those  promises.  In  this  sense  it  may  be  applied 
to  the  whole  of  Ciirist's  sermon  on  the  mount, 
which  is  for  the  most  part  of  a  preceptive  nature. 
It  is  also  adapted  to  particular  doctrines  of 
Christianity. 

SECTION  IX. 

OF  THE  SCIENTIFIC  TREATMENT  OF  CHRISTIAN 
THEOLOGY. 

1.  In  the  apostolical  church  the  Christian  re- 
ligion was  not  taught  in  a  scientific  manner. 
All  Christian  instruction,  as  we  may  see  from 
the  Acts  of  the  apostles,  and  the  epistles,  was 
then  popular,  practical,  and  hortatory.  This 
appears  from  the  terms  jrajjaxXjj'jtj,  rta\mxa.Xfiv. 
na^aixvit^tr'^ai,  which  are  used  in  reference  to 
the  teaching  of  Christianity,  (x^pryua.)  Nei- 
ther in  the  times  of  the  apostles,  nor  shortly 
after,  did  Christianity  need  the  aid  of  science 
and  learning;  and  among  the  first  Christians 
there  were  no  learned  men,  except  Paul,  Aiudlos. 
and  a  few  others,  who  were  versed  in  the  Jewish 
law. 

2.  In  the  third  century,  many  heathen  who 
were  versed  in  science  and  philosophy  became 
members  of  the  Christian  church.  At  the  same 
time  learned  men  arose  among  the  heathen  in 
opposition  to  Christianity,  and  heretics,  among 
Christians  themselves,  in  opposition  to  the  ori- 
ginal principles  and  doctrines  of  the  apostolical 
churches,  from  which  they  wished  to  advance  to 
something  more  elevated  and  perfect.  In  order 
to  this,  they  misinterpreted  the  writings  of  the 
apostles,  parts  of  which,  at  this  distince  of  time, 
had  become  obscure.  In  consequtmce  of  these 
circumstances,  learning  was  soon  needed  in  the 
statement  and  defence  of  Christianity.  The 
learned  men  who  had  been  converted  from  hea- 
thenism now  applied  the  doctrines  and  terms  of 


their  philosophy  to  the  truths  of  the  Christian 
religion.  This  they  did  partly  from  the  influence 
of  habit,  and  partly  from  the  desire  of  rendering 
Christianity  in  this  way  more  popular.  They 
had  also  the  example  of  the  Grecian  Jews,  who 
trequently  at  that  time  treated  the  Jewish  reli- 
gion in  the  same  way.  This  was  done  by  Justin 
the  Martyr;  and  also  by  Panttenus,  Clemens,  and 
Origen,  the  teachers  of  the  catechetical  school 
at  Alexandria.  They  su])posed  that  this  was 
the  best  way  to  defend  Christianity,  not  only 
against  their  learned  heathen  opponents,  but  also 
against  the  heretics.  For  the  interpretation  of 
the  New  Testament,  also,  literary  knowledge 
was  now  becoming  more  requisite  than  formerly, 
since  the  language,  customs,  and  whole  mode  of 
tliinking,  had  gradually  changed  since  it  was 
written.  This  department  of  learning  was  cul- 
tivated with  great  success,  in  the  tliird  century, 
by  Origen,  who  gave  the  tone  to  the  scientific 
interpretation  of  the  scriptures. 

3.  From  that  time  forward  the  reigning  philo- 
sojjhy  of  every  successive  age  has  been   con- 
nected, and  indeed  wholly  incorporated  by  the 
learned    with    Christian  theology  and    morals. 
The  theology,  of  course,  of   each   successive 
period  has,  with  few  exceptions,  received   the 
form  and  colour  of  the  contemporary  philosophy. 
The  Grecian  church,  after  the  second  century, 
began  with  the  Platonic  philosophy  ;    it   next 
adopted  the  Aristotelian,  in  which  it  was  fol- 
lowed  by  the  western   church.     Through   the 
influence   of   the    schoolmen,    the  Aristotelian 
j  philosophy,  after  the  eleventh  century,  became 
I  universal  in  the  western  church.     This  philo- 
sophy had  the  longest  reign.     The  reformers  of 
'  the  sixteenth  century  did  indeed  banish  it  from 
j  tlie  theology  of  the  protestant  church;  but  the 
I  theologians  of  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth, 
I  and  of  the  seventeenth  century,  readmittcJ  it. 
I  Then  followed  the  systems  of  Dps  Carles,  Fho- 
I  masius,  Leibnitz,  Wolf,  Crusius,  Kant,  Fichte, 
Schelling,  and  others,  which  first  supplanted  the 
j  school  of  Aristotle,  and   have  since  kept  up  a 
constant  warfare  among  themselves.     In   this 
contest  the  theologians  have  ever  taken  a  lively 
I  interest;  and,  what  is  worthy  of  remark,  they 
j  have  always  been  able,  however  opposite  their 
I  llieological    systems   might   be,  to   find    argu- 
'  nients  for  their  own  support,  and  for  the  rcfuta- 
I  tion  of  their  opponents,  by  a  peculiar  and  subtle 
i  application  of  the  very  same  principles  of  the 
(•oniempnrary    schools   of    philosophy.      Thus 
both  Clemens  of  Alexandria  and  Porphyry  drew 
!  arguments  from  the  philosophy  of  Plato;  and 
thus,  in  every  succeeding  age,  the  friends  and 
enemies  of  Christianity — the  advocates  and  o^ 
ponents  of  particular  doctrines  of  Christianity 
— have  alike  furnisheil  themselves  with  weapon* 
:  from  thephilosophyof  Aristotle,  Leibnitz,  Kant, 
,  and  others,  down  to  our  own  times. 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


From  thfisc  facts  we  should  learn  that  philo- 
sophy can  never  afford  a  permanent  basis  for 
theolojry,  and  should  never  be  relied  upon  as  a 
sure  pillar  of  a  theolocjical  system.  Those  who 
found  their  belief  ujion  philosophy  never  have 
any  ihinor  fum  and  abiding.  As  soon  as  the 
system  which  they  had  adopted  orives  place  to 
another,  tlie  opinions  which  they  betore  reijarded 
as  true  have  no  longer  any  evidence,  and  their 
faith  founders  like  a  ship  which  the  storm  has 
torn  from  its  anchor.  The  belief  which  rested 
upon  the  philosophy  of  Wolf  till  the  year  seven- 
teen hundred  and  eighty  was  undermined  when 
Kant  prevailed ;  and  the  belief  which  rested 
upon  the  philosophy  of  Kant  till  the  year  eigh- 
teen hundred, was  undermined  when  Kiclite  and 
Schelling  prevailed.  The  same  fate  will,  doubt- 
less, hereafter  attend  every  belief  which  rests 
upon  a  merely  philosophical  basis. 

4.  Particular  portions  of  theology  had  been 
discussed  in  a  scientific  manner,  from  time  to 
time,  ever  since  the  second  century;  so  that 
abundant  materials  were  soon  furnished  for  the 
composition  of  a  complete  system  of  theology  : 
they  only  needed  to  be  collected,  arranged,  and 
brought  into  a  perfect  whole.  This  was  first 
attempted,  in  the  sixth  century,  by  Isidorus  of 
Sevilla,  in  his  work,  Libri  tres  Sententiarum. 
It  was  accomplished  much  more  successfully,  in 
the  eighth  century,  by  John  of  Damascus,  in  his 
txSoitj  ajfpt.'»-j  r-/;^  6|):jo6o|ov  fti'jriuf.  We  do  not 
mention  the  hooks  of  Origen,  rtfpi  d,i;^(Iii',  in  this 
connection,  because  they  contain  a  scientific 
statement  of  only  some  particular  doctrines  in 
theology.  After  the  twelfth  century,  many  such 
systems  were  published  by  the  schoolmen  in  the 
western  church.  Tlie  principal  among  these 
were,  Theologia  Christiana,  by  Abelard,  and 
Libri  quatuor  Sententiarum,  by  Peter  of  Lom- 
bardy.  The  doctrines  (sententiae)  of  these  sys- 
tems were  taken  from  Augustine  and  other 
fathers  of  the  church,  and  connected  and  illus- 
trated in  the  method  and  phraseology  of  Aris- 
totle. 

5.  The  application  of  learning  to  religion  is 
so  far  from  being  objectionable  in  itself  consi- 
dered, that  it  has  become  absolutely  indispen- 
sable to  the  teachers  of  religion.  But  they  have 
been  at  va.iance  on  this  subject  from  the  first; 
since  there  were  always  some  to  whom  this  ne- 
cessity was  not  very  obvious,  and  who  perceived, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  learning  was  often  and 
greatly  abused  in  religious  instruction, 

(a)  There  always  were  learned  tlieolngians 
who  treated  the  truths  of  religion  as  if  they  were 
given  for  no  other  purpose  than  speculation,  and 
who,  directly  or  indirectly,  turned  away  the  at- 1 
tention  of  their  pupils  from  the  great  object  to 
which  it  should  have  been  directed — the  prac- , 
tical  influr-nce  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Hible. 
They  taught  their  pupils  to  acquire  knowledge,  j 


'  as  Seneca  says,  not  for  life,  but  for  the  schoolt 
,  and,  consequently,  many  even  of  those  who  were 
•  desiirned  to  leach  the  common  people  and  the 
'  young  in  the  duties  of  religion  acquired  an  aver- 
sion to  every  thing  practical.  That  such  should 
be  the  result  of  this  course  must  appear  almost 
inevitable,  if  we  consider  how^nimon  a  fault  it 
is  with  young  men  of  liberal  education  to  feel  a 
distaste  for  whatever  is  merely  practical,  and  a 
strong  inclination  to  speculation.  If  academical 
teachers  live  in  mere  speculation,  as  too  many 
of  them  do,  they  will  infuse  this  disposition  into 
their  hearers  and  readers,  who  will  again  infuse 
it  into  others,  to  the  great  disadvantage  of  the 
common  people.  It  was  common  fur  those  who 
had  been  educated  in  this  way  to  assume  an  ex- 
tremely authoritative  and  dogmatical  tone;  for 
there  is  no  other  pride  which  can  compare  with 
the  pedant's  pride  of  reason.  These  theological 
teachers,  in  their  devotion  to  the  philosophy  to 
which  they  had  once  pledged  themselves,  either 
wholly  neglected  the  scriptures,  or  so  inter- 
preted theui  as  to  render  them  consistent,  if  pos- 
sible, with  their  own  preconceived  philosophical 
opinions.  This  fiiult  is  chargeable  upon  the 
schoolmen  of  former  times,  and  upon  too  many 
teachers  of  religion  at  the  present  day. 

(Ij)  In  opposition  to  such  theologians,  who 
composed  what  may  be  cal led  the  sc/inlmfie  party, 
there  always  were  others,  who  composed  what 
may  be  called  the  ascetic  party.  They  insisted 
upon  the  personal  application  if  known  truths  fir 
the  purposes  (f  piety,  rejected  every  thing  which 
interfered  with  practical  religion,  and  regarded 
theological  study  as  important  only  so  far  as  it 
contributed  to  this  end.  But  some  among  them 
fell  into  extravagant  and  fanatical  notions,  and 
pronounced  an  unconditional  sentence  against 
all  learning  of  whatever  kind.  Such  were  some 
of  the  mystics,  as  they  are  called,  who  appeared, 
even  in  the  western  church,  especially  after  the 
eleventh  century,  in  opposition  to  the  schoolmen. 
'I'lie  mystics  have  been  divided,  in  consequence 
of  this  difference  of  opinion  among  them,  into 
puri  and  mi.rti.  The  iin/stici  ptiri,  as  the  more 
moderate  and  unprejudiced  of  the  ascetic  party 
were  called,  blamed  only  the  abuse  of  philosophy 
and  learning,  and  wished  to  have  them  regarded, 
not  as  an  end  in  themselves,  hut  as  the  meansof 
a  more  important  end.  To  this  class  belonged 
the  Waldenses,  WicklifTiles,  and  the  Bohemian 
and  Moravian  Brethren;  and,  in  more  modern 
times,  the  (Jerman  and  Swiss  reformers  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  in  the  pmtestant  church, 
atthoend  of  the  seventeenth  and  commencement 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  S|)ener,  and  the  first 
theologians  of  Halle,  who  were  of  his  school. 

The  state  of  theolntry  durinij  particular  pew 
riods,  and  especially  in  modern  linies,  is  exhi- 
bited in  rcclesiasiical  history. 

6.  The  course  of  theological  study  to  be  pur- 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


45 


sued  by  the  student,  with  special  reference  to 
tlie  circumstances  of  our  own  limes. 

(1)  Since  the  holy  scriptures  are  the  true 
ground  of  our  knowledge  of  the  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity, so  far  as  they  are  of  a  positive  nature, 
(vide  s.  7,)  the  study  of  theology  must  com- 
mence wiih  the  Bible.  The  truth  of  the  maxim, 
thcologiis  in  scripluris  nascitur,  cannot  be  contro- 
verted. The  first  business  of  the  theologian  is, 
to  search  and  discover,  in  the  use  of  his  exege- 
tical  helps,  the  sense  of  the  passages  upon 
which  the  proof  of  any  doctrine  depends.  Ht^ 
should  then  faithfully  exhibit  the  doctrine  itself, 
as  drawn  from  these  texts,  without  any  addiiion 
or  diminution.  He  should  entirely  forget,  while 
thus  engaged,  what  ancient  and  modern  teachers 
have  said  respecting  the  doctrine  in  question, 
and  endeavour  to  come  to  a  result  which  sliall  he 
purely  xcriptural. 

(2)  When  he  has  done  this,  he  may  arrange 
the  doctrines  which  he  has  thus  discovered  in 
Ri'ch  an  order  as  shall  suit  his  main  design,  and 
d*>fend,  confirm,  and  illustrate  them  by  what- 
ever he  can  draw  for  this  purpose  frf"  pliilo- 
sophy,  history,  or  other  departments  of  learning. 
Proceeding  in  this  way,  the  theologian  will  al- 
ways be  able  to  ascertain  how  much  of  any  doc- 
trine is  expressly  taught  in  the  holy  scriptures, 
and  how  much  of  it  is  merely  derived  from  them 
by  inference,  or  added  by  men  for  the  purposes 
of  defence  or  illustration. 

(3)  The  theologian  should  always  be  careful 
to  notice  the  practical  infiuence  of  the  several 
doctrines  of  theology,  and  of  the  particular  pro- 
positions of  which  they  are  composed.  He 
should  also,  as  far  as  possible,  suggest  advice, 
in  passing,  respecting  the  proper  manner  of  ex- 
hibiting the  truths  of  religion  before  a  popular 
assembly  ;  for  those  who  are  to  be  the  religious 
teachers  of  the  people  need  to  be  taught  how 
they  may  enter  into  the  views  and  understand 
the  wants  of  hearers  of  a  far  different  intellec- 
tual culture  from  their  own.  A  modern  theolo- 
gian has  well  remarked,  that  n)ost  of  the  stu- 
dents of  theology  know  no  better  than  to  address 
a  promiscuous  audience  on  the  various  subjects 
of  religion  in  the  same  way  in  which  they  them- 
selves, as  educated  men,  have  been  addressed 
for  their  own  conviction  by  their  theologicnl  in- 
structor. The  necessity  of  such  advice  to  po- 
pular teachers  of  religion  is  apparent,  from  con- 
sidering that  they  are  often  wholly  destitute  of 
a  deep  internal  conviction  and  personal  experi- 
ence of  the  truths  which  they  are  expected  to 
teach  to  others.  It  cannot  be  said  with  respect 
to  them,  pectus  est  quod  disertosfnc.it.  The  want 
of  this  personal  experience  cannot  be  made  good 
by  any  thing  else;  the  teacher  of  religion  can 
never  be  qualified  for  his  office  if  he  has  not  felt, 
with  joy  in  his  own  heart,  the  truth  of  the  doc- 
trines to  which  his  understanding  has  assented. 


I  (4)  It  is  now  very  generally  admitted,  that 
'the  circumstances  of  our  age  require  that  the 
;  history  of  doctrines  should  be  connected  with  the 
study  of  theology.  Many  attempts  have  accord- 
ingly been  made  to  produce  a  complete  history 
of  doctrines,  which,  however,  must  prove  un- 
[  successful  until  the  particular  portions  of  which 
such  a  history  is  composed  have  been  more  tho- 
roughly studied.  The  latest  works  in  tliis  de- 
partment are  tiiose  of  Lange,  Miinscher,  Miinter, 
and  Augusti.  Tie  historical  method  of  treating 
the  subject  of  theology  has  indeed  been  abused  ; 
but  when  properly  employed,  it  possesses  great 
advantages.  It  is  useful  in  the  following  re- 
spects : — 

(«)  It  presents  us  with  diiTerent  views  of  these 
most  important  subjects  of  knowledge,  makes 
us  acquainted  with  the  opinions  of  others  re- 
specting them,  and  shows  us  briefly  the  causes 
which  led  to  these  different  views,  and  the  ar- 
guments for  and  against  them.  In  this  way  it 
serves  to  quicken  the  judgment  of  the  teacher 
of  religion,  to  confirm  and  settle  his  own  coi>» 
victions,  and  to  preserve  him  from  illiberality  in 
his  estimate  of  others.  He  is  often  enabled  by 
a  simple  historical  view  to  decide  u])on  the  va- 
lidity or  invalidity  of  the  different  arguments  by 
which  a  doctrine  may  be  supported. 

{Ii)  In  the  established  system  of  our  churches, 
of  which  no  teacher  of  tlie  church  should  remain 
ignorant,  there  are  many  philosophical  and  tech- 
nical phrases,  which  have  been  introduced  in 
consequence  of  the  various  errors  and  contro- 
versies which  have  existed.  These  phrases 
cannot  be  understood  and  properly  estimated 
unless  we  are  acquainted  with  the  time  and  man- 
ner in  which  they  originated.  And  this  we  learn 
from  the  history  of  doctrines. 

[c)  There  is  another  very  important  point  of 
view  with  res|>ect  to  the  liistory  of  doctrines, 
which  is  too  often  overlooked. 

There  is  a  certain  universal  annhsy  in  the 
knowledge  and  opinions  of  men  on  the  subject 
of  religion;  like  the  analogy  existing,  for  ex- 
ample, among  human  languages.  This  analogy 
may  be  often  used  by  the  theologian  to  greater 
effect  than  many  logical  demonstrations.  'J'he 
opinions  and  conceptions  of  men  resj'ecting  God 
and  divine  things  are  indeeii  very  dillVrent;  and 
so  are  their  languages.  I3ui  in  the  midst  of  all 
this  variety,  both  of  religion  and  language,  we 
find  a  striking  similarity  in  some  principal 
points;  and  this  similarity  leads  us  at  last  to 
the  result,  that  even  on  the  subject  of  religion 
men  proceed  everywhere  on  certain  universal 
principles,  which  must  have  their  ground  in  the 
original  constitution  which  God  himself  has 
given  us.  Cf.  s.  2,  3.  The  thousand  ditTerent 
modifications  of  these  principles  and  modes  of 
conception  are  owing  to  the  different  degrees  of 
intellectual  and  moral  culture,  and  to  othef  ex* 


46 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ternal  circumstances  by  which  men  are  afTected. 
And  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  analogy  of 
human  opinions  on  the  subject  of  religion  is 
most  visible  and  striking  in  the  infancy  of 
society. 

Knowing  now  these  universal  ideas,  and 
modes  of  conception  and  expression  on  the  sub- 
it^ct  of  religion,  we  may  safely  presume,  thai  if 
God  has  actually  given  a  direct  revelation  to 
men,  be  has  adapted  it  to  these  ideas  and  con- 
c<»ptions,  founded  as  they  are  in  the  original 
constitution  of  the  human  mind.  This  is  de- 
manded by  the  nature  of  man ;  and  this  is  found 
to  ber  actually  the  case  in  the  divine  revelations 
which  we  enjoy. 

These  ideas  and  conceptions,  which  belong 
essentially  to  the  nature  of  man,  give  us  the 
thread,  as  it  were,  by  which  we  may  traverse 
the  labyrinth  of  religious  opinions,  and  ascend 
up  to  their  very  origin.  They  illustrate  the 
doctrine  of  divine  revelation,  and  render  the 
wisdom  of  the  divine  plan  in  the  dilTerent  de- 
grees of  revelation  (vide  s.  8)  everywhere  con- 
spicuous. 

The  theologian,  therefore,  who  would  cast  the 
light  of  history  upon  the  doctrines  of  revelation, 
must  acquire,  from  all  the  sources  of  informa- 
tion within  his  reach,  both  of  ancient  and  mo- 
dern date,  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the 
religious  opinions  and  conceptions  of  different 
nations,  especially  in  the  infancy  of  their  exist- 
ence, and  from  all  these  various  sentiments  de- 
duce some  universal  results.  In  this  in(|iiiry, 
he  will  lind  the  careful  study  of  the  Old  Tesl.i- 
ment  peculiarly  important  and  instructive.  For 
here  he  will  discover  the  germs  which  were 
afterwards  developed  in  the  religions  of  the 
.Tews.  Christians,  and  other  nations.  With  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Jews  he  should  compare  the 
writings  of  other  nations,  especially  those  which 
belong  to  their  early  history.  Anion?  all  the 
writings  of  the  peopleof  the  ancient  world,  none 
are  so  im])()rtant  as  those  of  the  (Jreeks,  parti- 
cularly the  poems  of  Homer.  They  contain 
those  funda!nental  ideas  which,  in  all  their  va- 
rious modifications  among  the  later  (Jreeks, 
disclose  tiieir  common  origin  in  the  essential 
nature  of  man.  The  passages  which  exhibit 
these  fundamental  ideas  should  therefore  be  fre- 
quently cited,  in  order  to  render  this  analogy  of 
principles  obvious,  in  cases  where  important 
results  are  depending  upon  it. 

Nate. — In  the  study  of  theology,  the  follow- 
ing works  may  be  read  with  profit,  and  used  as 
manuals.  (1)  Morus,  ('ommentarius  Exegetico- 
historicus,  in  suain  Tbeologiw  ('hristian;e  E|)i- 
tomen,  Tom.  2,  edited  by  M.  Hempel,  Halle, 
1797 — nS,  8vo.  (2)  Ueinbard,  Vorlesungen  iiber 
die  Dogmatik,  edited  with  literary  additions  by 
Berger,  Aniberg,  and  Sultzbach,  IBOl,  fivo. 
(3)  Slorr,  Doctrin2e  Christians  pars  theoretica 


e  s.  Uteris  repetita,  ed.  2,  ex  MS.  auctoris  emen- 
data,  180S.  (4)  Storr,  Lehrbuch  der  christlichea 
Dogmatik,  with  additions  by  Flatt,  Stuttgard, 
180.3,  8vo. 

The  manuals  of  Ammon,  Schmidt,  Staiidlint 
and  others,  may  be  recommended,  in  many  re- 
spects, to  the  more  advanced  student,  who  can 
examine  for  himself.  The  work  of  Stori  do 
serves  special  recommendation,  as  a  very  tho- 
rough system  of  biblical  theology.  The  works 
wiiich  give  a  merely  historical  view  of  the  vari- 
ous theological  opinions  are  less  suitable  for  be- 
ginners. One  of  the  best  among  tiie  works  of 
this  kind  is  Beck,  Commentarii  historici  decreto- 
rum  rejigionis  Christians  et  formulae  Lutherioe, 
Lips.  1801,  Bvo.  The  work  of  Autrusti,  above 
mentioned,  gives  a  briefer  sketch.  Another 
work  of  the  same  author.  System  der  christ- 
lichen  Dogmatik,  nach  den  Grundsatzen  der 
lutherischen  Kirche,  im  Grundrisse  dargestellt, 
Leipzig,  1809,  Bvo,  contains  rnucli  that  is 
valuable. 


ARTICLE  I. 


OF  TIIE  ItOI.Y  PCniPTlRES  AS  TflH  SniTRCE  Or 
OUK  KNOWLEDGE   L\  CHRI.STIAN  THEOLOGY. 

SECTION  I. 

NAMKS  AND    DIVISIONS  OF  THE    BOOKS  RELONGINO 
TO    THE    HOLV    SCRIPTURES. 

The  holy  scriptures  are  a  collection  of  the 
productions  of  the  prophets,  evangelists,  and 
apostles,  containing  the  doctrines  and  the  his- 
tory of  revealed  religion.  They  are  the  archives 
of  the  records  of  revealed  religion,  and  of  its 
history.  They  consist  of  two  principal  parts: 
the  Old  Testament,  or  the  sacred  national  books 
of  the  Israelites;  and  the  New  Testament,  or 
the  sacred  books  of  Christians.  Acoir^x);'  and 
n'i3  denote  Inwx,  relii^ion,  and  rcli^;iiiiis  icrit- 
ini^n ;  also  the  banks,  or  the  colUclion  if  the  books, 
which  embody  all  the  precepts  of  reli'^ion.  Bt/J- 
Xtov  6ial»;'z^j  is  used  in  the  latter  sense,  1  Mac. 
i.  57,  and  naXaia,  iiobrx?;,  2  Cor.  iii.  14.  The 
sacred  books  of  ( 'hristians  are  called,  in  distinc- 
tion, XOUI'JJ  Sltl^XTJ. 

The  books  of  the  New  Testament  have  been 
ditTerently  divided.  At  a  very  early  period  they 
were  divided  into  to  liayyiXiov  and  u  ondarroXoj, 
of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter.  They  have 
also  been  divided  into  the  historical  part,  con- 
taining the  gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the  apostles ; 
the  doelrinnl  part  containing  the  epistles,  and 
iUe  prophetical  part,  the  Apocalypse.  The  his- 
tory of  the  remarkable  events  of  the  life  of  .Tosus 
stands  first  in  the  collection ;  because  the  d  vine 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


49, 


rerelation  contained  in  the  New  Testament  de- 
pends upon  events,  and  upon  the  divine  autho- 
rity of  Jesus,  which  was  confirmed  hy  these 
events.  For  the  same  reason,  the  history  of  the 
reiiiiirkable  evpnts  of  the  life  of  Moses,  and  of 
his  times,  stands  first  in  the  Old  Testament. 

The  Old  Testament  was  divided  by  the  Jews 
into  three  parts:  (1)  n-^n,  Ihe  Ian,  containing^ 
the  five  books  of  Moses  (^rtntdtcvxoi) ;  (2)  d's-^j, 
the  prophets ;  subdivided  into  c\s'2J  u^iyc'S"),  pri- 
oreg,  containinir  the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings,  and  3''JTnx  svsoj,  pos/enorts, 
containing  tlie  prophets,  properly  so  called; 
(3)  2'3ir3,  Ha^idgrapha,  containing  Job,  Psalms, 
Proverbs,  and  the  remaining  books. 

This  division  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, at  least  the  division  into  ro^uoj  xai.  Tt^io^tj- 
Tai,  occurs  in  the  prologue  of  Jesus  Sirach,  and 
in  the  New  Testament,  Luke  xvi.  IG;  and  v6- 
ftoi  rtpo^irTat,  xai  -^aJ.fioi  (libri  poetici),  in  Luke, 
xxiv.  44,  in  Josephus,  and  very  frequently  in 
the  Talmud.  All  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  sometimes  designated  in  the  New  by 
the  word  i-duoj.  They  are  also  called  ifpa  ypa'^- 
fiara,  ypa-pat  aytat,  and  simply  ypaifr;.  'i'hey 
are  sometimes  called  by  the  Jews  nyaisi  a-it';', 
ihe  four  and  twenty  books. 

The  holy  scriptures  are  frequently  called  the 
Word  of  God;  especial!)'  since  the  time  of 
Hotter,  who  gave  them  this  nam*.  Tollner, 
Semler,  and  others,  object  to  this  phrase,  as  in- 
convenient and  liable  to  mistake.  It  may  be 
Bliowed,  however,  if  it  is  properly  explained. 
This  phrase,  as  used  in  the  Bible,  does  not  de- 
note the  sacred  books;  but  (1)  oracles,  predic- 
tions, and  other  divine  declarations ;  and  ("2)  the 
doctrines  and  precepts  of  religion.  So  Rom. 
iii.  2 ;  Acts  vii.  3S.  The  Word  of  God  may 
therefore  be  distinguished  from  the  holy  scrip- 
tures, of  which,  strictly  speaking,  it  composes 
only  a  part.  It  cannot,  therefore,  in  strict  pro- 
priety of  language,  be  used  to  signify  the  boohs 
belonging  to  the  Bible. 

Cf.  Moras,  p.  IG,  s.  1. 

SECTION  IL 

or  THE  AUTHENTICITY  OR  GENUINENESS  OF  THE 
BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

The  word  av^fvtia  properly  denotes  the  cre- 
dibility (a^ioTtiitia.,  Gloss.  Vet.)  of  a  work  in 
respect  to  its  author.  In  investigating  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  books  of  the  Bible,  we  inquire, 
therefore,  whether  the  opinion  that  they  are  the 
productions  of  the  authors  to  whom  they  are 
ascribed  is  worthy  of  credit. 

We  shall  first  exhibit  the  evidence  of  the 
genuineness  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  after  which  the  genuineness  of  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  can  be  more  easily  and 
•ftUefactorily  proved.    The  proofs  for  the  genu- 


ineness of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  may 
be  divided  into  inlenml  ^nd  external. 

L  Internal  proofs  of  the  Genuineness  of  the  Books 
of  the  New  Testament. 

1.  Their  contents.  They  contain  nothing  to 
awaken  the  suspicion  that  thpy  were  composea 
ill  another  age,  or  by  other  authors,  than  are 
commonly  supposed.  They  agree  in  every  re- 
spect with  what  we  know  from  other  sources  of 
the  history  and  circumstances  of  the  age  in 
which  they  are  supposed  to  be  written,  and  ex- 
hibit no  traces  of  a  later  composition;  facts 
which,  considering  the  variety  of  subjects  in- 
troduced, are  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  sup- 
position that  they  are  sjiurious. 

2.  Their  dialect.  It  is  clear  from  the  dialect 
in  which  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  are 
written,  that  they  are  the  productions  of  native 
Jews  of  the  first  century;  for  all  the  Jewish 
writers  of  the  first  century  who  made  use  of  the 
Greek  language  employed  exactly  that  Hebra- 
istic Greek  in  which  the  New  Testament  is 
written;  but  after  the  second  century,  this  dia- 
lect was  no  longer  employed  by  Christian 
writers,  who  then  wrote  in  an  entirely  different 
manner.  Now  if  these  books  are  supposititious, 
they  must  have  been  forged  during  the  second 
century,  when  the  dialect  in  which  they  are 
written  was  fallen  into  disuse  among  Christian 
writers.  Besides,  a  very  extraordinary  and  in- 
credible skill  would  have  been  requisite  to  in- 
vent for  each  of  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment such  a  peculiarity  of  style  as  appears  in 
the  writings  of  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John, 
Peter,  Paul  and  t!ie  rest;  and  still  more,  to 
carry  through  successfully  a  fiction  like  this. 

II.  External  proofs  of  the  .Authenticity  of  the  Books 
of  the  New  Testament. 
1.  The  testimony  of  Christian  u-riters  of  the 
first  three  centuries.  We  necessarily  derive  out 
earliestevidences  of  the  existence  of  these  books 
from  those  who  read  and  used  them — from  Chris- 
tian writers.  Now  we  know  that  the  fathers  of 
the  first  three  centuries  possessed  these  books, 
and  considered  them  to  be  tlie  genuine  produc- 
tions of  those  whose  names  they  bear.  The  tes- 
timony of  the  early  Christain  fathers  on  this 
subject  has  been  carefully  collected  by  t'use- 
bius,  Hist.  Eccles.  III.  25;  VI.  25;  and  De- 
monstratio  Evangelica.  This  whole  subject  has 
been  ably  and  accurately  investigated  in  moderD 
times  by  Lardner,  Credibility  of  the  Gcspel 
History.  A  more  brief  survey  is  taken  by 
Storr,  Doctrinae  Christiance  pars  theoretica  e 
sacris  Uteris  repetita,  Stuttgard,  1795, 8vo.  He 
has  executed  the  article,  De  sacrarum  lilera- 
rum  auctoritate,  pages  1 — 82,  with  great  dili- 
gence, acuteness,  and  accuracy.  Cf.  the  Intro* 
ductions  of  Michaelis,  Hug,  and  others. 


iB 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


2.  The  assent  of  the  heretics  of  the  first  cen- 
turies. The  Gnostics,  who  were  the  hiretics 
of  the  first  period  of  the  church,  never  ques- 
tioned the  credibility  of  the  books  of  iht  New 
Testament,  They  even  received  some  books 
as  genuine  which,  from  regarJ  to  tlieir  philo- 
Bophical  views,  they  could  not  admit  to  be 
inspired.  From  this  quarter,  therefore,  no  rea- 
sonable doubt  can  arise  with  respect  to  the 
authenticity  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment.    Vide  Storr,  ubi  supra,  p.  1 — 1. 

3.  The  evidence  from  heathen  writers.  Cel- 
«us.  Porphyry,  Lucian,  Julian,  and  other  hea- 
then writers,  who  attacked  the  doctrines  con- 
tained in  th»se  books,  confirm  their  genuine- 
ness.    Vide  Storr,  ubi  supra,  p.  1 — 1. 

4.  The  evidence  from  the  ancient  versions. 
The  books  of  the  New  Testament  were  trans- 
lated as  early  as  the  second  century  into  Syriac 
and  Latin,  and  during  the  third  and  fourth  cen- 
turies into  ^thiopic  and  Gothrc. 

Note. — From  the  foregoing  remarks  we  may 
conclude  that  since  no  important  objection  can 
be  urged  against  the  authenticity  of  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament  as  a  whole,  they  are 
therefore  genuine;  and  even  intelligent  deists 
will  now  universally  admit  that  no  valid  his- 
torical arguments  can  be  urged  against  the  au- 
thenticity of  most  of  these  books. 

The  orenuineness  of  some  of  the  books  which 
belong  to  this  collection  was  indeed  doubted  in 
ancient  times  by  some  Christians.  This,  how- 
ever, so  far  from  disproving  the  genuineness  of 
the  rest,  is  a  strong  argument  in  its  favour.  It 
shews  how  cautiously  the  early  Christians  pro- 
ceeded in  distinguishing  the  true  from  the  filse. 
Besides,  their  doubts  respecting  the  authenticity 
of  tiie  Apocalypse,  the  g<>neral  epistles,  and  some 
other  books,  arose  very  obviously  fron\  the  doc- 
Iriuos  contained  in  them,  and  not  from  any  defi- 
ciency in  the  historical  evidence  by  which  tliey 
were  supported. 

The  books  of  the  New  Testament  were  divided 
in  consequence  of  the  doubts  respecting  their 
authentiritv,  into  (I)  ojxo>Mynv_afva,  the  books 
whose  authenticity  was  never  doubted  by  the 
orthodox  or  catholic  church,  Morus,  p.  28;  (2) 
dvriXfyoufva,  the  books  whose  authenticity  was 
doubted  by  some,  although,  according  to  Kuse- 
bius,  it  was  admitied  by  most — viz.,  James, 
Jude,  the  second  epistle  of  Peter,  and  the  se- 
cond and  third  epistles  of  John;  (3)  »o>a,  the 
books  which,  although  received  by  the  unin- 
formed as  gen'iine,  were  doubtless  spurious — 
viz.,  the  epistle  of  narnabas,  the  Shepherd  of 
Hermas,  k,c.  This  division  occurs  first  in  Ori- 
gen,  and  afterwards  in  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles. 
III.  25.  It  has  been  adopted  in  part  by  some 
modern  iheolojians,  who,  however,  have  altered 
<he  ter;tis,  calling  the  ofxoTjoyoifitvo.,  pmtoca- 
monici,  and  the  ivTtXfyo^fva,  dcuterocanoniei. 


SECTION  m. 

OF    THE    AUTHENTlCtTY    OF    THB    BOOKS    OF    THl 
OLD  TESTAMENT. 

The  proof  of  the  authenticity  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  is  attended,  indeed,  with 
some  difficulty,  and  is  destitute  of  that  degree 
of  evidence,  with  respect  to  particular  parts, 
which  belongs  to  the  proof  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  reasons  of  this  are 
very  easily  understood.  We  are  wholly  igno- 
rant of  the  authors  of  many  of  these  books,  and 
of  the  age  in  which  they  were  composed  ;  and 
in  general,  so  high  is  their  antiquity,  and  so 
few  are  the  written  accounts  transmitted  from 
that  early  age,  that  we  are  very  deficient  in  sure, 
historical  information  concerning  tliein,  and  are, 
of  course,  unable  to  decide  correctly  in  every 
case  on  the  question  of  their  authenticity.  How- 
ever, it  can  be  shewn,  from  many  combined 
reasons,  that  with  respect  to  most  of  these  books, 
either  the  whole  of  them  or  their  most  important 
parts  were  composed  in  the  ages  to  which  they 
are  assigned. 

I.  Internal  Proofs  of  the  Genuineness  nf  the  Bookt 
of  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  The  language,  style,  costume,  and  the 
whole  mode  of  representation  in  the  Hebrew 
scriptures,  are  in  the  spirit  of  the  times  in  which 
they  were  written.  In  the  earlier  bookf,  the 
ideas,  expressions,  and  in  short  ever'hing 
about  them,  is  such  as  it  naturally  would  oe  in 
the  infancy  of  the  world.  Now,  if  Ezra,  or  any 
number  of  Jews  living  at  the  time  of  the  exile, 
or  afterwards,  had  composed  these  books,  as 
some  have  supposed,  they  could  hardly  have 
avoided  allusions  to  the  language,  njanners,  of 
history  of  their  own  age,  by  which  the  decep- 
tion would  have  been  betrayed,  (-onsider,  too, 
that  notwiihsianiling  the  general  agreement  of 
the  sacred  writers  of  the  Hebrews  in  language, 
style,  and  the  mode  of  thought  and  representa- 
tion, each  has  some  peculiarity  which  plainly 
distinguishes  him  from  all  the  rest.  Vide  the 
Notes  of  Michaelis  to  his  Ril)le  ;  also  the  Intro- 
ductions of  Eichhorn  and  IMicharlis. 

2.  The  accounts  which  the  sacred  writers 
give  us  of  the  history,  polity,  customs,  and  in- 
stitutions of  the  oldest  nations  of  the  world 
agree  exactly  with  those  which  we  obtain  from 
other  sources.  The  accounts  which  Moses  gives 
us  of  Egypt,  for  example,  agree  with  tlioue 
which  we  obtain  from  oriental  and  Grecian 
writers.  And  it  is  quite  incredible  that  impostor* 
of  a  late  age  should  have  given  a  description 
like  this,  which  is  true  even  to  the  slightest 
characteristic  shades.  They  m\)st  have  com- 
mitted anachronisms  and  historical  mistakes; 
especially  considering  how  much  the  critical 
study  of  antiquity  and  of  gcovral  history  was 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


neglectp<i  by  the  ancients.  Jerusalem,  Briefe 
uberdie  Mosaisclien  Schriften  und  Philosophie, 
Braunschweig,  17G2,  8vo.  C.  Gotllob  Lang, 
Versiich  einer  Harnionie  der  heiligen  und  Pro- 
fanachreibenlen,  1775. 

II.  external  Proofs  of  the  Authenticity  vfthe  Books 
of  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  Ti.ese  books  are  full  of  allusions  to  each 
other.  Not  only  are  the  events  which  are  re- 
curded  in  the  earlier  writings  often  mentioned 
in  the  later  books,  as  Psalms  lxxviii.,cv,,  cvi. ; 
1  Samuel,  xii.  8 — 12;  but  the  earlier  writers 
themselves  are  often  afterwards  cited  by  name 
— David,  e.  g.,  in  2  Chron.  xxiii.  18;  Moses, 
Josh.  viii.  31  ;  and  Jeremiah,  Dan.  ix.  2.  That 
the  authenticity  of  these  books  cannot  be  proved 
from  a  large  number  of  contemporary  witnesses 
is  nothing  strange  ;  the  case  is  the  same  with  all 
the  writings  of  the  ancient  world.  In  those  early 
times  little  was  written,  and  still  less  is  pre- 
served. All  the  evidence  which  we  can  rea- 
sonably ask  of  the  authenticity  of  such  ancient 
works  is,  that  they  possess  internal  marks  of 
truth,  which  are  not  invalidated  by  any  external 
testimony  to  the  contrary.  There  is  no  contem- 
porary testimony  for  the  poems  of  Homer  or  the 
history  of  Herodotus  ;  but  since  they  possess 
sufficient  internal  credibility,  and  there  is  no 
external  testimony  against  them,  their  antiquity 
and  genuineness  are  universally  admitted. 

2.  The  written  records  of  the  Jewish  nation 
were  preserved  from  the  earliest  times  with  the 
greatest  care.  The  law  of  Moses  was  depo- 
sited amonj  the  sacred  things  in  the  temple 
(Deut.  xxxi.),  and  with  it,  from  time  to  time, 
other  public  documents  which  the  Jews  wished 
to  preserve  with  special  care,  or  to  which  they 
wished  to  give  a  solenin  sanction,  Josh.  xxiv. 
26  ;  1  Sam.  x.  {25.  Thus  a  kind  of  sacred  libra- 
ry was  gradually  formed  in  the  temple,  from 
which  our  present  collection  of  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  was  taken.  Josephus  mentions, 
Antiq.  V.  I,  avax(ifx.cva.  iv  ii^  if)>v  ypuunata. 

3.  Tht  Creek  translation,  called  the  Septua- 
gint  or  Alexandrine  version,  is  a  proof  that  the 
Jews,  at  a  very  early  period,  acknowledged  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  to  be  genuine.  This 
translation  was  commenced,  beginning  with  the 
Pentateufh,  in  the  reign  of  the  F]gy[)tian  king 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  completed  a  consi- 
derablfe  time,  certainly  a  century,  before  the 
birth  of  Christ. 

4.  The  Jews  who  lived  at  the  time  of  Christ, 
and  in  the  centuries  immediately  preceding  and 
following,  were  all  united  in  the  opinion  that 
these  bo-ks  were  authentic  and  credible.  The 
Grecian  Jews  agreed  with  those  of  Palestine  on 
this  point.  Vide  the  catalogue  of  the  wise  and 
distinguishea  men  of  the  Jewish  nation,  Sirach, 
*liv. — xlix.     The  testimony  of  Philo  on  this 

7 


subject  is  very  important ;  and  also  that  of  Jo. 
sephus,  (Contra  Apionein,  I.  8,)  whose  opi- 
nions were  always  remarkably  candid.  The 
old  Jewish  rabbins,  whose  testiuiony  is  collect- 
ed in  the  Talmud,  agree  with  the  writers  above 
mentioned  in  supporting  the  authenticity  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

5.  The  testimony  of  Christ  and  his  apostles 
confirms  that  which  has  already  been  adduced. 
They  frequently  quote  passages  from  Moses,  the 
prophets,  and  the  historical  books,  thus  admit- 
ting their  authenticity,  Morus,  p.  23,  s.  13,  and 
Storr,  p.  GI — 70.  Even  Paul,  who  was  so  in- 
tent on  the  subversion  of  Judaism,  and  who 
always  gave  his  opinion  against  it  without  any 
reserve,  never  expressed  the  most  distant  doubt 
respecting  the  authenticity  of  the  sacred  books 
of  the  Jews,  or  the  credibility  of  the  Jewish 
history.  Jesus,  Paul,  and  the  other  apostles 
did  not  indeed  themselves  institute  critical  ex- 
aminations and  inquiries  respecting  these  books ; 
nor  was  it  necessary  that  they  should.  On  sup- 
position that  they  were  inspired  teachers,  their 
mere  word  is  sulricient  security  for  the  truth  of- 
what  they  uttered  ;  and  since  the  authenticity 
of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  was  admitted 
by  them,  it  must  also  be  admitted  by  all  who 
consider  them  to  be  inspired.  This  considera- 
tion alone  is  sufficient  to  support  the  faith  of  the- 
Christian,  when  attacked  with  specious  objec- 
tions which  he  is  unable  to  answer. 

Kote. — Some  additions  have  indeed  been 
made  in  later  times  to  the  oldest  writings  of  the 
Israelites ;  but  these  interpolations  can  gene- 
rally be  distinguished  from  the  original.  Nor 
have  the  scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament  fared 
worse  in  this  respect  than  the  writings  of  Ho- 
mer, and  indeed  most  of  the  written  records 
composed  at  an  early  period.  These  additions 
inserted  in  the  books  of  Moses  consist  of  naines 
of  towns  and  countries,  which  were  not  given 
to  them  till  after  liis  time — the  account  of  his 
death  and  burial,  Deut.  xxxiv.,  &c.  Here  the 
nature  of  the  case  and  the  alteration  of  style 
sufficiently  indicate  another  hand. 

Note  2. — At  this  distance  of  time  it  cannot  be 
determined  with  entire  accuracy  whether  the 
authors  to  whom  the  several  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  are  ascribed,  gave  them  the  very 
form  which  they  now  have,  or  only  furnished 
the  material,  which  others  have  brouirht  into 
the  shape  in  which  they  now  appear.  But  even 
on  the  latter  supposition,  the  credibility  of  these 
books  is  not  at  all  diminished.  Rhapsodies  and 
disconnected  compositions  are  frequently  col- 
lected and  arranged,  for  the  first  time,  by  some 
compiler  living  a  long  time  after  the  original 
author.  Many  of  the  prophetical  books — for 
example,  the  book  of  Isaiah,  and  most  of  the 
historical  books,  and  perhaps  even  tnose  of 
Moses — were  composed  in  this  way.     But  al 


M 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


though  Moses,  for  example,  may  not  have  writ- 
ten his  books  exactly  in  the  manner  in  which 
they  appear  at  present,  he  may  still  be  said  to 
have  written  them;  and  Jesus  properly  speaks 
of  what  Moses  wrote.  The  books  which  hear 
his  name  are  undoubtedly  composed  from  very 
ancient,  credible,  and  authentic  narratives, 
which  breathe  everywhere  the  very  spirit  of  the 
ancient  world.  They  are  his  writings,  although 
lliey  may  have  been  arranged,  and  sometimes 
perhaps  newly  modelled,  b_v  another  hand.  The 
eame  may  be  said  with  respect  to  the  writings 
of  Homer,  and  many  others.  They  were  col- 
lected and  modelled  anew,  some  time  after  they 
were  originally  composed,  and  yet  their  authen- 
ticity as  a  whole  remains  unimpaired.  Vide 
Wolf,  Prolegg.  ad  Homerum. 

SECTION  IV. 

OF  THE  CANON  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT,  OR  THE 
COLLECTION  OF  THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTA- 
MKNT  INTO  A   WHOLE. 

Introductory  Remarks. 

This  section  and  the  following  comprise  all 
die  to|)ics  which  are  usually  introduced  under 
the  title  of  the  canon  of  the  holy  scriptures.  The 
word  canon,  which  is  often  misunderstood, 
means  anything  determined  according  to  a  fixed 
measure,  rule,  or  law  ;  hence,  a  list  or  catalogue 
made  by  a  law — e.  g.,  canon  martyrum. 

But  the  phrase  canonical  books  has  not  always 
•teen  used  in  the  same  sense  in  the  Christian 
church.  (1)  The  canonical  books  were  origin- 
ally those  which  Christians  commonly  used, 
according  to  the  appointment  of  the  church,  in 
tlieir  public  assemblies  for  divine  worship  ;  so 
that,  undei  this  name,  many  books  were  for- 
merly included  which  did  not  belong  to  the 
authorized  collection  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament scriptures,  while  many  books  whose 
divine  authority  was  undoubted  were  not  re- 
garded as  canonical — that  is,  were  not  read  in 
tlie  churches.  (2)  But  after  the  fourth  century 
the  phrase  libri  raiumici  was  taken  in  a  more 
limited  sense,  and  became  syni)nyinous  with  the 
term  tvbiu'^r xoi,  which  was  common  among  the 
ancient  (ireek  fathers.  Libri  entwnici,  in  this 
sense,  were  the  books  belonging  to  the  author- 
ized collection  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
scriptures,  and  containing,  as  such,  the  rules  of 
our  faith  and  |)ractice.  In  this  sense  the  word 
canonical  was  formerly  used  by  Augustine,  and 
is  still  used  by  theological  writers  at  the  pre- 
sent day. 

In  contradistinction  to  the  canonical  are  the 
apocryphal  books.  And  the  latter  term,  as  well 
as  the  fornipr,  has  been  used  in  a  wider  and  a 
more  limited  sense,  (a)  The  apocryphal  writ- 
ings were  originally  those  books  which  were 


not  publicly  used  in  the  Christian  asscmblica, 
which  were  laid  aside,  or  shut  up,  the  juiblic 
use  of  which  was  forbidden,  (^t^ia  anox^v^a^ 
rjuj.)  A  book  therefore  of  the  Old  or  New 
Testament,  whose  divine  original  and  authority 
were  undoubted,  might  be  apocryphal  in  this 
sense.  But  {b)  after  the  fourth  century  the 
apocryphal  books  were  understood  to  he  ^hose 
which  did  not  in  reality  belong  to  the  collection 
of  the  Old  and^'ew  Testament  scriptures,  al- 
though frequently  |)laced  in  it  by  the  uninformed, 
and  esteemed  by  them  of  equal  autliority  with 
the  inspired  books.  This  is  the  sense  in  which 
the  word  apocryphal  is  now  used  by  theological 
writers. 

The  history  of  the  canon  of  the  Old-Testament 
scriptures  is  obscure,  from  the  deficiency  in  an- 
cient records.  Still  there  are  some  historical 
fragments  and  data  from  which  it  may  be  com- 
posed;  though,  after  all,  it  must  remain  imper- 
fect. 

I.  The  Oriirin  of  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament 
before  the  Babylonian  Exile. 

Most  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
composed,  and  some  of  them  (a  considerable 
number  of  the  Psalms,  to  say  the  least)  collected 
and  arranged,  before  the  lime  of  Ezra,  or  the 
Babylonian  exile.  The  books  of  Moses  had 
been  collected  and  arranged  in  the  order  in 
which  they  now  stand  before  the  ten  tribes  were 
carried  captive  by  the  Assyrians.  They  were 
therefore  adopted  by  the  Samaritans.  The  book 
of  the  law  was  kept  in  the  sanctuary  of  the  tem- 
ple, in  order  (1)  to  secure  it  more  effectually 
from  injury,  and  ("3)  to  give  it  a  more  solemn 
sanction.  Vide  s.  3,  II.  2.  The  oracles,  sacred 
songs,  and  various  other  compositions  of  Isaiah, 
Hosea,  and  other  prophets  and  teachers  of  reli- 
gion, were  afterwards  preserved  in  the  same 
manner,  and  doubtless  with  the  same  intention. 
But  it  does  not  appear  that  before  the  exile  any 
complete  and  perfect  collections  were  made  of 
all  the  oracles  of  any  one  prophet,  or  f.f  all  the 
Psalms  or  Proverbs.  And  even  suppi.sing  such 
collections  to  have  been  made,  they  did  not  agree 
throughout  with  the  collections  which  we  now 
possess,  which  were  made  and  introduced  soon 
after  the  exile.  'J'he  original  collection  of  the 
Psalms,  for  example,  has  been  enriched  by  the 
addition  of  many,  which  were  not  composed  till 
after  the  captivity.  The  other  original  collec- 
tions have  been  altered  and  improved  in  a  simi« 
lar  manner. 

Note. — It  is  usually  the  case,  that  as  soon  as 
a  nation  comes  to  the  possession  of  many  works 
which  have  dilTerenl  dcgfces  of  merit,  or  which 
are  in  danger  of  being  corrupted  or  neglected,  oi 
which  perhaps  have  alreatly  experienced  this 
fate,  persons  appear  who  are  versed  in  literature 
and  who  interest  themselves  in  these  works 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


A 


Tliey  take  pains  to  preserve  their  text,  or  to  re- 
store it  when  it  lias  become  corrupt;  they  shew 
the  distinction  between  genuine  and.  spurious 
writings,  and  they  make  collections,  or  lists, 
comprising  only  those  which  are  genuine,  and 
among  these  only  the  more  eminent  and  distin- 
guished. Such  persons  appeared  anciently 
among  the  Israelites,  and  afterwards  among 
Christians.  And  such  among  the  Greeks  were 
the  grammarians  of  Alexandria,  under  the  Ptole- 
mies. They  distinguished  between  the  genuine 
and  spurious  works  of  Grecian  literature,  and 
composed  catalogues  (canones)  of  the  best 
among  the  former.  The  books  admitted  into 
their  canon  were  called  tyzpn'o^fiw  (classici), 
and  the  books  excluded,  (xx^)Lv6{lfl'0{,,  The  ex- 
cluded writings  were  of  course  less  used,  and 
have  since  mostly  perished.  Vide  Ruhnken, 
Historia  Oratorum  Gra?corum  critica,  p.  xcvi. 
Quinlillian,  (I.  0.)  I.  4,  s.  3,  and  Spalding,  ad 
h.  1.  These  remarks  illustrate  the  origin  of  the 
collection  of  the  holy  scriptures. 

II.  T/ie  Completion  of  (he  Canon  of  the  Old  Testa' 
ment  after  the  Babylonian  Exile. 

It  is  a  current  tradition  among  the  .Tews  that 
the  complete  collection  of  their  sacred  books  was 
made  by  Ezra.  Another  tradition,  however, 
ascribes  the  establishment  of  the  canon  to  Nehe- 
niiah,  2  Mace.  ii.  13.  But  neither  of  these  tra- 
ditions is  siip|)orted  by  sure  historical  evidence. 
It  cannot  be  doubted,  however,  tl:at  in  so  im- 
portant a  work  as  the  collection  and  arrange- 
ment of  their  sacred  books,  the  priests,  and 
lawyers,  and  all  the  leading  rnen  of  the  nation, 
must  have  been  unitedly  engaged,  as  the  gram- 
marians of  Alexandria  were,  in  determining  the 
Gri'ck  classics.  And  it  is  very  probable  that 
both  of  the  distinguished  men  above  mentioned 
may  have  had  a  principal  share  in  this  under- 
taking. 

Our  collection  of  the  Old-Testament  scrip- 
tures appears  to  have  originated  somewhat  in 
tke  following  manner: — When  the  Jews  return- 
ed from  captivity,  and  re-established  divine 
worship,  they  collected  the  sacred  books  which 
they  still  possessed,  and  commenced  with  them 
a  sacred  library,  as  they  had  done  before  with 
the  book  of  the  law.  To  this  collection  they 
afterwards  added  the  writings  of  Zachariah,  Ma- 
lachi,  and  other  distinguished  prophets  and 
priests,  who  wrote  during  the  captivity,  or 
ehortly  after;  and  also  the  books  of  Kings, 
Chronic-les,  and  other  historical  writings,  which 
had  been  compiled  from  the  ancient  records  of 
the  nation. 

The  collection  thus  made  was  ever  after  con- 
sidered* complete ;  and  the  books  composing  it 
were  called  The  Holy  Scriftlrf.s,  the  Law 
itvn  THE  Prophets,  &:c.  It  was  now  circulated 
by  rneans  of  transcripts,  and  came  gradually  into 


common  use.  The  cane  n  af  the  Old  Testament 
was  closed  as  soon,  certainly,  as  the  reiirn  of  the 
Syrian  king,  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  proba- 
bly somewhat  before.  After  this  time  the  spirit 
of  prophecy  ceased,  and  no  new  writings  were 
added  to  the  approved  collection.  What  was 
done  by  the  Grecian  grammarians  under  Ptole- 
my, towards  securing  the  exist^ence  and  literary 
authority  of  Grecian  works,  by  the  establish- 
ment of  the  canon  of  the  Greek  classics,  was 
done  by  the  Jews,  after  their  return  from  exile, 
towards  securing  the  existence  and  religious 
authority  of  Hebrew  books,  by  the  establish- 
ment of  the  canon  of  the  Hebrew  scriptures.  . 

The  books  belonging  to  this  collection  were 
the  only  ones  translated  as  sacred  national  books 
by  the  first  translators  of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
authors  of  the  Septuagint.  But  to  some  manu- 
scripts of  this  version,  other  books,  apocryphal, 
as  the)-  are  called,  were  found  appended.  From 
thi^  circumstance  some  have  supposed  that  the 
Egyptian  Jews  had  a  different  canon  from  those 
of  Palestine,  and  included  in  it  the  apocryphal 
books,  as  of  equal  authority  with  the  rest.  This 
was  the  opinion  of  Semler;  but  it  cannot  be 
shewn  from  Josephus  or  Philo  that  the  Egyptian 
Jews,  though  they  held  the  apocryphal  books  in 
high  esteem,  both  before  and  after  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era,  ever  thought 
them  of  equal  authority  with  the  canonieal 
books.  Philo,  in  the  first  century,  does  not 
once  mention  them,  although  Sirach  wrote  about 
237  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  They  can- 
not, therefore,  have  been  counted,  even  by  the 
Egvptian  Jews  of  the  first  century,  among  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament.  Besides,  they 
were  never  cited  by  the  apostles,  who,  however, 
always  follow  the  Septuagint.  During  the  se- 
cond century,  Sirach  was  held  in  high  esteem 
among  the  fathers;  and  gradually  he  and  the 
other  apocryphal  writers  obtained  great  autho- 
rity in  the  churches.  At  a  still  later  period  they 
were  admitted  into  the  canon  by  Christian 
writers,  who  mistook  their  high  reputation  for 
divine  authority.  Vide  No.  III.  Cf.  Eichhorn, 
Einleitung  in  das  A.  T.  Th.  I.,  and  also  in  die 
apokryphisclien  Schriften  des  A.  T.  Leipzig 
1795;  Storr,  in  the  work  above  mentioned,  p 
71,  ff. ;  especially  Jabn,  Einleitung  in  die 
friittlichen  Schriften  des  alten  Bundes,  Wien, 
1802.  The  latter  work  contains  a  full  examina- 
tion of  the  latest  objections. 

Can  it  be  shewn  by  historical  evidence  that 
all  the  books  which  now  stand  in  this  collection 
belonged  to  it  originally  1  Of  most  of  these 
books  this  can  be  satisfactorily  shewn;  buf  re- 
specting some  particular  books  it  cannot  be 
ascertained  from  historical  records,  either  that 
they  belonged  to  the  collection  originally,  or  at 
what  time  they  were  received  as  canonical;  for 
no  complete  list  of  all  our  canonical  books  caa 


53 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


be  gathsred  from  the  works  of  the  oldest  Jewish 
writers. 

The  following  observations,  however,  may 
enaSle  us  to  come  to  some  conclusion: — (I) 
We  see  from  Sirach,  xlv. — xlix.,  that  most  of 
these  hooks  belonged  to  his  canon.  (2)  The 
citations  which  Philo,  in  the  first  century,  makes 
from  the  Old  Testament,  shew  that  most  of  these 
books  belonored  also  to  his  collection.  (3)  Jlut 
Josephus  has  left  a  list  of  the  books,  of  which, 
at  his  time,  the  collection  was  composed;  but 
there  is  some  obscurity  attending  the  passage. 
Contra  Apionem,  I.  8,  in  which  this  catalogue 
is'contained.  We  cannot  be  certain  frym  this 
passage  that  Josephus  intended  to  include  the 
books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Esther,  and  Nehe- 
miah,  in  his  catalogue;  though  the  probability 
is  that  he  did.  Vide  Eichhorn,  Eiiileitung,  Th. 
1.  8.  113.  (I)  The  frequent  citations  which 
the  evangelists  and  propiiets  made  from  these 
books  render  it  certain  that  most  of  them  be- 
longed to  the  canon  at  the  time  of  Christ.  The 
passage,  Matt,  xxiii.  35,  coll.  Luke,  xi.  51,  de- 
serves to  be  specially  noticed.  Christ  here  de- 
clares that  the  Jews  should  be  punished  for  the 
murder  of  all  the  just  men  who  had  been  slain 
from  Abel  (Gen.  iv.  8)  to  Zachariah,  2  Chron. 
xxiv.  21,  22.  From  this  passage  we  are  led  to 
conclude  that  the  disputed  book  of  Chronicles 
not  only  belonged  to  the  canon  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament at  the  time  of  Christ,  but  that  it  was 
then,  as  it  is  now,  placed  last  in  the  collection. 
(5)  Add  to  this,  that  these  disputed  books  are 
contained,  as  belonging  to  the  canon,  in  the 
Alexandrine  version. 

Xiiti\ — Since  the  free  inquiry  respecting  some 
of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  Oeder 
pul)lished  at  Halle,  1771,  many  protestant  theo- 
loi;;,ins  have  employed  themselves  in  suggest- 
ing doubts  respecting  the  genuineness  of  some 
of  the  canonical  Hebrew  scriptures,  and  in  at- 
tem;)ting  to  prove  them  to  be  either  spurious, 
uncertain,  or  adulterated.  Among  these  theolo- 
gians, De  Wetle  is  the  latest.  'I'hey  commenced 
the  attack  upon  the  books  of  Esther,  Chroni- 
cles, Ezra,  and  Nehemiah  ;  proceeded  to  Isaiah 
(xl. — Ix.)  and  other  prophets,  and  then  to  the 
books  of  Moses;  against  tiie  genuineness  of  all 
of  which  tliey  arrayed  specious  objections,  and 
finally  endeavoured  to  subvert  the  foundation  of 
the  whole  canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
student  can  become  acquainted  with  the  princi- 
pal modern  writers  who  have  either  assailed  or 
advocated  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
with  the  principal  arguments  used  on  both  sides, 
fiom  Jahn's  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament, 
and  the  theological  work  of  Storr  and  Flatt, 
which  notice  all,  except  perhaps  a  few  of  the 
very  latest  objections. 

To  all  these  objections  but  few  Christians  are 
tble  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer.     But  if  they 


allow  to  Christ  the  authority  which  he  claimed 
for  himself,  and  which  the  apostles  ascribed  to 
him,  they  can  relieve  their  minds  from  doubts 
by  the  considerations  already  suggested  in  s.  3, 
II.  5,  and  by  those  which  here  follow. 

III.  The  Reception  of  this  Canon  hy  Christian!. 

Since  the  primitive  Christians  received  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Israelites, 
they  may  naturally  be  supposed  to  have  admit* 
ted  into  their  collection  all  the  books  which  be- 
longed to  the  canon  of  the  contemporary  Jews. 
It  has  been  always  said,  from  the  earliest  limes 
of  the  church,  that  Christians  received  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  on  the  simple  testimony 
of  Christ  and  his  apostles  ;  and  whatever  some 
Christians  may  think  of  the  authority  of  this 
testimony,  they  must  allow  that  it  is  at  least 
important  in  ascertaining  the  canon  of  the  He- 
brew scriptures.  But  to  this  testimony  it  has 
been  objected,  especially  in  modern  times,  (nr) 
that  it  did  not  extend  to  all  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament;  for  example,  to  the  books  of  Esther, 
Nehemiah,  &c.;  and  {h)  that  it  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  decisive,  because  Christ  and  his  apos- 
tles made  it  no  part  of  their  object  to  examine 
critically  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  scriptures; 
and  made  the  Old  Testament  the  basis  of  their 
own  instructions  only  because  it  was  regarded 
as  the  source  of  religious  knowledge  by  the 
Jews  among  whom  they  taught. 

But  it  appears  from  No.  II.  that  the  whol* 
collection  existed  at  the  time  of  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  and  indeed  for  some  time  previous, 
and  that  it  was  approved  by  them.  Whoever, 
therefore,  acknowledges  them  to  be  divine  teach- 
ers, must  receive  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment on  their  authority.  If  he  refuses  to  do 
this,  he  is  either  inconsistent  in  rejecting  the 
authority  of  tiiose  whom  he  acknowledges  to  he 
divine  teachers,  or  dishonest  in  acknowledging 
Christ  and  his  apostles  to  be  divine  teachers, 
while  he  really  does  not  believe  them  to  be 
su'-h. 

Aftt^r  the  times  of  the  apostles,  the  fathers  of 
the  church  disagreed  with  respect  to  the  books 
belonging  to  the  canon  of  the  Old-Testament 
scriptures.  (1)  The  fathers  of  Palestine,  their 
disciples,  and  others  who  were  aci|uainti'd  with 
the  original  Hebrew,  or  the  tradition  of  the  Jews, 
com|)osed  catalogues  containing  all  the  books 
which  belong  to  our  Bible,  This  was  done  in 
the  second  century,  hy  Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis, 
cited  in  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles.  IV.  2G;  by 
Origen,  cited  VI.  25  of  the  same  history;  by 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Calf ch.  IV.;  by  Gregory 
Nazianzen,  Athanasius.  and  Epiphanius.  (2) 
But  some  of  the  fathers  included  the  apocrypha, 
writings,  which  are  usually  appended  to  thh 
Alexandrine  version,  among  the  canonical  books. 
They,  at  least,  ascribed  to  these  writings  a  greit 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


authority,  and  called  them  ^iloc  although  they 
were  never  considered  as  divine  by  the  Jews, 
who  lived  either  before  or  at  the  time  of  Christ, 
and  were  never  quoted  by  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament  or  by  Philo.  Vide  No.  II. 
These  fathers  believed  the  fable  of  the  inspira- 
tion of  tlie  Septuagint;  and  finding  the  apocry- 
phal books  appended  to  this  version,  and  in 
high  repute  among  the  Egyptian  Jews  of  the 
second  century,  they  considered  them,  at  length, 
as  divine,  and  placed  them  on  a  level  with  the 
canonical  books.  The  Egyptian  fathers,  Cle- 
mens of  Alexandria  and  Irenceiis,  first  adopted 
this  opinion,  in  which,  as  in  many  other  things, 
they  were  followed  by  the  Latin  fathers.  At 
the  council  at  Hippo,  in  the  year  3J*3,  in  can. 
3ti,  and  at  the  third  council  at  Carthage,  in  the 
year  397,  can,  47,  the  apocryphal  books  were, 
for  the  first  time,  expressly  included  inter  scrip- 
turas  canonicas.  This  decision  was  then  re- 
ceived by  the  African  fathers,  and  generally  in 
the  western  church. 

But  there  were  some  of  the  fathers  of  the 
Latin  church  who  carefully  distinguished  the 
apocryphal  from  the  canonical  books.  Hiero- 
nymus,  in  his  Prologus  Galeatus,  says  respect- 
ing the  Book  of  Wisdom,  &;c.,  non  sunt  in  ca- 
nvne.  In  his  Pra^f.  in  lihros  Salomonis,  he  says, 
♦'  Ha;c  duo  volumina  (ecclesiasticum  et  sapien- 
tiam)  legat  ecclesia  ad  ledificationem  plebis, 
non  ad  auctoritatem  ecclesiaslicorum  dogmatum 
confirmandam."  Hence  the  books  properly 
belonging  to  the  Old  Testament  were  called 
libri  canonici,  and  the  apocryphal  books,  libri 
eccksiastici.  Rufinus,  Expositio  Sy mboli  Apost., 
after  enumerating  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Old  Test-^ment,  says,  "  Ha;c  sunt  qua;  patres 
intra  canonem  concluserunt,  et  ex  quibus  fidei 
nostrse  asserliones  constare  vnhiirvnt :  sciendum 
tamen  est,  quod  et  alii  libri  sunt,  qui  non  sunt 
eanonici,  sed  eccksiastici  a  majoribus  appellati." 
He  then  enumerates  them,  and  adds,  "  Qua" 
omnia  legi  quideni  in  ecclesia  vol ue runt,  non 
tamen  proferri  ad  auctorilatim  e\  hif' Jidei  con- 
Jirniatidam." 

But  after  all,  the  Romish  church,  through  ig- 
norance of  the  subject,  placed  the  apocryphal 
books  on  a  level  with  the  canonical,  and  even 
appealed  to  them  as  authority  on  the  doctrines 
Df  the  Bible.  They  were  induced  to  do  this 
the  more,  from  the  consideration  that  some  of 
the  peculiar  doctrines  of  their  church  were  fa- 
voured bj'  some  passages  in  these  books;  inter- 
cession for  the  dead,  for  example,  by  the  passage 
2  Mace.  xii.  43 — J5.  Accordingly  the  council 
at  Trent,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  set  aside  the 
distinction  between  the  canonical  and  a|)Ocry- 
|ihal  books,  and  closed  its  decretal  by  saying, 
"Si  quis  autem  libros  ipsos  integros,  cum  omni' 
btis  suis  partibus,  prnut  r'n  ecclesia  calholica  legi 
COt,sueverunt,  et  in  vetcri  vii/gaia  Latina  editione 


habentur,  pro  sacris  et  canonicis  non  susciperit, 
et  traditiones  prajtiictas,  sciens  et  prudens  con- 
ttrnserit,  anathema  sit."  Sess.  IV.  Deer.  I. 
The  more  candid  and  enlightened  theologians 
of  the  Romish  churcii  have,  however,  never  al- 
lowed quite  the  same  authority  to  the  apocryptial 
as  to  the  canonical  scriptures;  and  have  adopt- 
ed the  convenient  division  of  the  books  into  prt>- 
iocanonici  and  deutoucammici,  in  the  latter  of 
which  they  place  the  apocryphal  writings. 
Ct\  Morus,  p.  38. 

SECTION  V. 

OF  THE  CANON  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT,  OR  THE 
COLLECTION  OF  THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TES- 
TAMENT INTO  A  WHOLE. 

I.  Origin  of  this  Cvlkct ion. 
It  was  natural  that  the  first  Christians,  who 
had  been  in  the  habit  of  using  a  collection  of 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews,  should  feel  in- 
duced to  institute  a  similar  collection  of  their 
own  sacred  books.  'I'his  was  the  more  neces- 
sary, as  many  spurious  writings,  which  were 
ascribed  to  the  apostles,  were  in  circulation, 
and  even  publicly  read  and  used  in  the  churches. 
Even  during  the  life  of  the  apostles,  such  spu- 
rious writings  were  palmed  upon  them  bj  impos- 
tors, 2  Thess.  ii.  2  ;  Col.  iii.  17.  Inconsequence 
of  these  circumstances.  Christians  were  induced 
very  early  to  commence  the  collection  of  their 
sacred  books  into  a  complete  whole,  with  par- 
ticular reference  to  Christian  posterity,  which 
otherwise  w'ould  have  had  a  very  groun<lless 
and  disfigured  Christianity.  Vide  Introduction, 
s.  7,  ad  finem.  Into  this  collection  only  such 
writings  were  admitted  as  were  considered  to  be 
the  ^renuine  productions  of  the  apostles  and  first 
disciples  of  Christ;  although  many  other  books 
were  still  regarded  as  canonical,  in  the  old  ec- 
clesiastical sense  of  the  word,  and  were  still 
publicly  read  in  Christian  assemblies.  Euse- 
bius.  Hist.  Eccles.  111.  3,  and  others  of  the  an- 
cient fath«'rs,  said  expressly  that  many  bonks 
were  (ii'ayti'uoKoufi'oi,  which  were  notivbia'^r^xoi 
(tyzpiroufioi.)  'I'hus  the  epistle  of  Barnabas, 
theShepherd  of  Hernias, and  the  sermon  of  Peier, 
were  used  in  l^gvpt;  and  even  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, the  revelation  of  Peter,  in  Palestine. 

But  with  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  this 
collection  originated,  and  with  respect  to  those 
who  were  chiefly  instrumental  in  forminff  it,  we 
can  obtain  only  very  disconnected  and  imperfect 
information  from  the  history  of  the  churrti  dur- 
ing the  first  centuries.  'I'he  information  w  hich 
we  possess  on  these  points  is,  however,  more 
complete  than  that  which  relates  to  the  canon  of 
the  Old  Testament;  and  indeed  amounts  to  a 
satisfactory  degree  of  evidence. 

In  order  to  confirm  the  credibility  and  genu- 
ineness of  the  collection,  it  was  formerly  sup- 
e2 


04 


CHRISTIAN   THEOLOGV 


poised  that  some  inspired  man  must  have  either 
made  or  apj)roVt(J  it ;  and  because  Juhn  outlived 
the  other  apostles,  he  was  fixed  upon  as  the  in- 
dividual ;  just  as  Kzra  was,  by  the  Jews,  for  the 
compilation  of  the  Old-Testanieiit  scriptures. 
In  ihis  supposition  there  is  a  mixture  of  truth 
and  error.  We  have  no  historical  evidence  for 
Lflieviii^  that  John  either  made  or  approved  the 
u-A.*>  collection.  In  order  to  arrive  at  the  truth 
oil  tliis  subject,  we  must  consider  the  collection 
divided  into  its  two  principal  parts,  tvayyij.ioi' 
and  anunTo%.oi. 

I.  It  was  commonly  reported  in  the  early 
aires  of  the  church,  that  John  was  acquainted 
Willi  the  first  lliree  gospels,  that  he  sanctioned 
them  by  his  aulhurity,  and  cooipleled  the  his- 
tory of  Jesus  which  they  contain,  by  his  own 
gospel.  Eusehius,  Hist.  Eccles.  in. -21.  And 
this  Tv'port  appears  to  be  true,  on  a  moment's 
relleciion.  Vide  Michaelis,  Herder,  and  JSlorr. 
John  either  wholly  omits  to  mention,  or  at  most 
only  briefly  notices,  for  the  sake  of  connexion, 
even  such  important  events  as  the  baptism  and 
the  ascension  of  Christ,  and  the  institution  of 
the  Lfird's  supper,  if  they  have  been  fully  de- 
scribed by  the  otiier  evangelists.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  relates  many  things  which  the  others 
omii.  He  enlarges,  for  example,  on  the  inci- 
dents and  discourses  which  preceded dud  followed 
the  supper,  the  passion,  the  resurrection,  and 
other  events,  the  histories  of  which  are  given 
by  the  other  evangelists.  He  may  therefore  be 
su|)|>osed  to  have  known  and  sanctioned  the  first 
three  gospels,  which,  in  connexion  with  liis  own. 
v.ere  of  course  received  by  the  Christian  church. 

•2.  But  it  cannot  be  shewn  from  historical  tes- 
timony, or  any  other  evidence,  that  John  either 
made  the  collection  of  the  other  books  (aTton- 
ro>.o{)  now  belonging  to  the  New  Testament,  or 
sanctioned  it  by  his  authority,  when  made.  This 
supposition  is,  on  the  contrary,  extremely  im- 
pr'"bable.  If  John  had  sanctioned  the  entire  col- 
lection of  our  New  Testament  scriptures,  how 
could  doubts  have  arisen  respecting  his  second 
anil  third  epistles,  the  Apocalypse,  and  some 
other  writinijs,  even  in  the  midst  of  the  Asiatic 
church,  wliere  he  himself  lived  T  His  decision 
would  hive  for  ever  settled  the  question  as  to 
the  sacred  canon. 

It  is  evident  from  tlie  historical  information 
which  we  possess,  that  this  collection  was  not 
finished  a'  '<nce,  but  was  commenced  a  consi- 
flerable  lime  bel'ore  it  was  made  coin|i|ete.  It 
was  ilivided  into  two  parts,  to  fvoy/tXtor,  and 
o  anooTO'fjOi  or   TO  drtoiT<jXi*oi'. 

(I)  As  to  the  i;osprl.H,  the  genuine  and  the 
spurious  were  early  distiriijui.shed  frofn  each 
other.  Justin  the  Martyr  di^iinctly  speaks  of 
the  irospels  as  productions  of  the  apostles.  Ire- 
neus,  (Contra  Hares.  III.  II,  cites  the  gospels 
of  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John,  as  those 


which  he  knew  to  be  genuine.  The  same  w»9 
done  by  Clemens  of  Alexandria,  and  Tertullian. 
Vide  Storr,  s.  1-2.  Taiian,  at  the  end  of  the  se» 
cond  century,  and  Ammonius,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  third,  composed  harmonies  of  the  foui 
gospels,  and  Origen  wrote  a  copious  commen- 
tary on  Matthew  and  John.  The  gospels  were, 
therefore,  collected  as  early  as  the  second  cen- 
tury ;  and  in  the  thini  and  fourth  centuries  were 
regarded  as  of  undoubted  authority  throughout 
the  Christian  church.  They  were  prefixed  to 
the  other  books  of  the  New  Testament ;  because 
the  history  of  Jesus  was  considered,  at  that  early 
period,  as  the  basis  of  Christian  truth,  and  was 
taught  wherever  the  gospel  was  preached,  (John, 
XX.  'SI  ;)  just  as  the  historical  books,  especially 
the  writings  of  Moses,  were  prefixed  to  the 
Old  Testament,  as  the  basis  of  the  Mosaic 
economy. 

(•2)  As  to  the  epi.-ft/es,  a  collection  of  them 
was  commenced  at  a  very  early  period,  and  was 
gradually  enlartjed "and  completed.  It  appears, 
indeed,  to  be  of  somewhat  later  origin  than  the 
collection  of  the  gospels;  but  both  of  them  must 
have  existed  soon  after  the  commencement  of 
tlie  second  century;  for  lirnatius,  Ep.  ad.  Phi- 
ladelph.  cap.  5,  s])eaks  of  the  <.'o-^f/.»,  and  of  the 
apostulir.'jl  writings.  The  apostolical  epistles 
were  first  sent  to  the  churches,  for  which  they 
were  ])rincipally  written.  They  were  then 
communicated  by  these  churches,  either  in  the 
original  or  in  transcript,  to  other  connected 
churches,  (Col.  iv.  IG;)  and  each  church  col- 
lected as  many  as  it  could  obtain.  From  such 
small,  imperfect  besrinnings,  our  present  collec- 
tion was  formed.  It  is  probable  that  some  cele- 
brated teacher,  who  possessed  more  epistles  than 
any  other  man,  or  perhaps  some  distinguished 
church,  first  instituted  this  collection  in  the  se- 
cond century ;  and  that  it  was  afterwards  adopted 
by  others,  in  deference  to  this  authority.  The 
place  where  this  collectiim  was  first  made,  is 
unknown.  Mill  supposes  it  was  Home;  but 
without  sufficient  re-.ison. 

This  collecton  of  the  epistles  was  designed  to 
include  only  those  which  were  nmst  distin- 
(juished,  and  whose  authenticity  was  univer- 
sally allowed.  The  ujtmroXtxoj',  therefc/re,  ori- 
ginally contained  only  the  thirteen  epistles  of 
Paul,  and  the  first  epistles  of  Peter  and  John; 
since  these  only  were  considered  by  the  oldest 
fathers  as  beloriffing  to  the  ivhiu'^rxoi.  Hut 
iifterwards  the  d^TiJuyouf  ja  were  crradually  ad- 
niilied  into  the  canon.  And  as  early  as  the  third 
lentury,  most  of  the  copies  of  the  collection  cn- 
laii.ed  all  the  books  which  H'  w  hehng  to  it,  the 
aj'TtJ.fyti^f  I'a  not  excepted  ;  as  appears  from  the 
catalojjue  of  Origen  cited  by  Ensebius,  Hist. 
Eccles.  VI.  25;*iid  from  that  of  Eusehius  hiin- 
s^elf.  Hist.  Eccles.  111.  '2.5,  where  heapjieals  toljf 
xXi^otioTixij  Ho^Oiboaiin  and  excludes  the  Apocrj« 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


sr 


pha  from  the  tvSia'^/jxou  Vide  Griesbach,  Hist, 
epp.  Paull.  Jenae,  1777,  4to.  The  catalogues 
of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  and  of  Gregory  Nazi  in- 
zen  agree  with  these,  except  that  the  Apoca- 
lypse is  wholly  omitted  by  the  former,  and  is 
mentioned  by  the  latter  as  doubtful. 

II.  The  Principles  on   which   this  Collection   vcus 
made,  and  the  Authority  luhic/i  it  possesses. 

We  discover  these  principles  from  the  w^rit- 
ings  of  the  fathers  of  t  lie  evrrly  ages  of  the  church. 

1.  It  was  a  rule  to  admit  only  such  books 
into  the  canon  as  could  be  proved  to  be  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  apostles  themselves,  or  of  their 
first  assistants  in  office.  Those  only,  therefore, 
were  allowed  to  he  iibiu^rjxoi  which  had  credible 
testimony  in  their  favour  from  the  earliest  times. 
The  gospels  of  Peter,  Thomas,  and  others,  were 
on  this  principle  rejected  by  Origen  and  Euse- 
bius. 

2.  The  doctrines  taught  in  a  book  were  also 
examined  before  it  was  admitted  into  the  canon. 
If  any  book  disagreed  with  the  doctrines  which 
the  apostles  taught,  or  with  the  regulations 
which  the  apostles  established,  it  was  excluded 
from  the  canon  as  clearly  spurious.  This  rule 
was  needed  even  at  that  early  period  ;  for  many 
books  written  in  support  of  error  liad  from  the 
first  been  ascribed  to  the  apostles,  in  order  to 
orocure  more  influence  and  currency. 

3.  The  custom  and  exam'ple  of  otiierchurches, 
hich  might  reasonably  be  supposed  to  have 

judged  on  good  and  solid  grounds,  and  which 
were  free  from  the  suspicion  of  credulity  or  care- 
lessness, were  in  some  cases  referred  to  in  de- 
termining whether  a  book  should  be  admitted 
into  the  canon.  So  Hieronymus  (Catal.  Script. 
Eccles.),  when  speaking  of  the  book  of  Jude, 
says  that  it  had  indeed  been  doubted  and  n-jeci- 
ed  by  some,  hut  auctoritatem  jam  velustate  it  usu 
meruit. 

The  question  upon  what  the  canonical  autho- 
rity of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  deppnds 
may  now  be  easily  answered.  It  depends  prin- 
cipally upon  the  decision  of  the  first  Christian 
teachers  and  churches;  as  the  authority  of  the 
Greek  classics  depends  upon  the  decision  of  the 
grammarians  of  Alexandria.  Their  decision, 
however,  was  not  arbitrary,  but  founded  on  sc^ber 
examination  of  the  authenticity  of  these  books. 
No  public  and  universal  law  was  ever  passed 
in  the  ancient  church,  determining  that  all  and 
each  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  should 
be  adopted  without  further  examination  and  in- 
quiry. The  learned  always  were,  and  always 
must  be.  free  to  inquire  on  this  subject.  If  we 
are  convinced  at  all,  it  must  be  by  reason  and 
not  by  atithority.  We  should  not,  therefore, 
hlindly  credit  the  testimony  of  the  ancients,  whe- 
ther given  by  particular  churches  or  by  distin- 
guished indi^  iduals ;  nor,  on  thecontrary,  should 


we  blindly  reject  their  testimony.  W^e  ought 
rather  to  examine  the  evidence  upon  which  they 
decided,  and  tiien  believe  according  to  our  own 
sincere  conviction.  The  authenticity  of  some  of 
the  books  (the  a.vr0.f-/Qfx(va.)  which  stand  in  our 
present  collection  was  disputed  even  in  ancient 
times;  and  the  decision  respecting  them  was 
very  ditTerent,  even  in  the  ancient  orthodox 
church. 

The  canonical  books  were  indeed,  as  we  find, 
in  some  ca'ses  determined  by  formal  decrees, 
which  seem  to  cut  off  and  discountenance  all 
further  inquiry,  as  in  the  Cunones  Jlpostoliei, 
which,  however,  ?.re  spurious  ;  also  in  can.  (jO 
of  tiie  council  at  Laodicea,  about  the  year  3G0, 
in  which  only  the  Apocalypse  is  omitted.  But 
this  council  was  composed  of  only  a  few  bi- 
shops, and  its  determinations  were  not  adopted 
by  tlie  other  churches ;  besides,  the  sixtieth  canon 
is  pri'bably  spurious.  Vide  Spittler,  Kritische 
Uiitersuchung  des  sechzigstnn  Laodic.  Ca- 
nons, Bremen,  1777, 8vo.  The  council  at  Hippo, 
in  the  year  393,  and  at  Carthage,  in  the  year 
397,  also  established  similar  catalogues.  But 
neither  of  these  councils  was  general.  Many 
other  enactments  were  made  on  the  subject  of 
the  canon  in  the  Romish  church  at  a  later  pe- 
riod ;  but  the  council  of  Trent,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  for  the  first  time  established  the  canon 
for  the  Romish  church  by  a  general  and  formal 
decree. 

But  the  protestant  church  has  never  acqui- 
esced in  those  decrees  which  preclude  or  pro- 
hibit further  investigation.  Luther  considered 
it  allowable  to  call  in  question  the  authenticity 
of  the  Apocalypse  and  the  epistles  of  James;  and 
he  was  followed  in  this  opinion  by  many  theo- 
logians of  the  sixteenth  century.  And  other 
protestant  theologians  have  doubled  respecting 
other  books  of  the  dtTi^^yojUf la. 

Note  1. — Even  if  we  should  allow  that  the 
diri7.fyojufia  are  spurious,  and  cannot  be  relied 
upon  in  proof  of  the  Christian  system,  we  should 
not  be  compelled  either  to  relinquish  or  to  alter 
a  single  doctrine.  For  the  books  whose  genu- 
ineness is  undisputed  contain  all  that  is  neces- 
sary for  a  complete  knowledge  of  Christian  faith 
and  duty. 

Note  '2. — If  we  examine  the  reasons  which  led 
some  of  the  ancients  to  doubt  the  authenticity 
of  theovTiXfyd/tfro,  weshall  find  that  they  were 
derived  rather  from  the  doctrines  taught  in  these 
books  than  from  any  historical  evidence  against 
thpin.  Such  were  Luther's  objections.  But 
none  of  the  objections  of  this  nature  which  are 
alleged  are,  in  my  view,  sufficiently  weighty  to 
justifytisin  considering  any  one  of  these  books 
as  doubtful,  not  even  the  Apocalypse,  as  most 
at  present  acknowledge.  In  the  following  work, 
therefore,  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian  religion 
will  be  supported  by  texts  taken  from  the  differ- 


%6 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


ent  books  of  the  New  Testament,  without  any 
reference  to  tliis  distinction. 

Works  to  be  consulted  : — Gerh.  de  Mastricht, 
Cunon  SS.  secundum  serieai  seculor.  N.  T. 
collectus  et  notis  illustratus,  Jenee,  17*25.  This 
work  contains  the  opinions  of  the  fathers,  cat.i- 
lotrues  of  the  canon  extracted  from  their  writ- 
inj^s,  and  the  decrees  of  the  councils.  Stosch, 
De  librorum  V.  T.  canone,  Frankfort  an  dem 
Oder,  1755,  8vo.  Semler,  Abhandlunjjen  von 
freyer  Untersuchunof  des  Canons,*  4  Theile, 
Halle,  1771 — 75,  8vo.  Weber,  Heytrat^e  zur 
Geschichte  des  neutestamentlichen  Canons, 
Tiibinjen,  1791.  Corrodi,  Versuch  einer  Be- 
leuchtunff  der  Geschichte  des  jiiiiishen  und 
christlichen  Bibelcanons,  2  Biinde,  llaile,  1792. 
Oiher  works  are  referred  to  in  Jahn,  and  in  the 
Elements  of  Storr  and  Flatt. 

SECTION  VI. 

ON  THE  UNADULTERATED  CORRECTNESS  AND  IN- 
TEGRITY' OF  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENT 
SCRIPTURES. 

The  intenrrity  of  the  holy  scriptures  implies 
(1)  that  none  of  the  books  which  formerly  be- 
longed to  the  canon  are  now  wanting  (integritas 
totalis;)  (2)  that  these  scriptures  are  transmitted 
to  us  in  such  a  state  as  still  to  promote  the  ob- 
ject for  which  they  were  originally  written,  (in- 
teyritas  parlium,  or  partialis.) 

I.  Jnlegritus  Totalis. 

If  some  of  the  scriptures  which  formerly  be- 
longed to  the  canon  had  perished,  the  loss  would 
not  be  very  e^isential.  If  tliose  that  are  left  give 
us  all  thfi  information  which  we  need  respecting 
the  Jewish  and  Cliristian  economy,  no  other 
books  are  necessary.  That  any  books,  how- 
ever, have  evpr  belonged  to  the  canon  of  the 
Jewish  or  Christian  scriptures,  which  do  not 
now  belong  to  it,  cannot  be  proved.  It  is  true, 
indeed,  that  the  apostles  and  prophets  wrote 
manv  books  which  have  not  come  down  to  us — 
books,  too,  which  were  inspired.  For  if  inspi- 
ration is  conceded  to  those  books  of  theirs  which 
were  admitted  into  the  canon  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  and  which  are  therefore  pre- 
served, it  must  also  be  con(;eiled  to  those  which 
were  not  admitted  into  the  canon,  anil  have 
trierefore  perisiied.  The  or«/ discourses  of  Jesus 
and  the  apostles  were  doubtless  inspired, an<l  yet 
many  oftln-se  discourses  are  lost;  and  even  of 
those  which  were  c<immitted  to  writing,  only 
extracts  of  the  inore  important  parts  were  in 
many  cases  jireserved.  There  is  nothing  incon- 
sistent, therefore,  in  the  supposition  that  (iod 
should  stitTer  even  an  inspired  book  to  be  left 
out  of  this  collection,  and  consequently  to  be 
lost  to  posterity.  But  there  is  no  evidence  that 
any  of  the  books  which  are  lost  ever  belong- 


ed to  the  canon.  Paul  wrote,  as  wo  see  from 
his  epistles,  at  least  otie  letter  to  the  Corinthi- 
ans more  than  we  have  at  present.  Many  me- 
moirs of  Jesus,  as  we  find  from  Luke,  i.  1,  were 
written  at  a  very  early  period.  The  historical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  were  extracted  from 
larger  historical  works,  which  are  often  cited 
in  the  books  compiled  from  them,  but  which 
are  now  lost.  Other  collections  of  songs  are 
mentioned  ;  as,  irm  "icd,  Joshua,  x.  13.  Writ- 
ings of  the  prophets  Gad,  Nathan,  Semaja,  and 
Jehu,  are  mentioned  in  Chronicles;  but  none  of 
these  ever  belonged  to  the  collection  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  scriptures.  Cf.  Jahn, 
Einleitung. 

11.  Integritaa  Partialis. 

The  integrity  of  a  book  is  not  affected  by 
variations  of  the  text,  and  by  false  readings. 
These  could  not  have  been  avoided,  except  by 
miracle,  in  the  numerous  transcripts  which  have 
been  made  of  these  ancient  scriptures.  The  in- 
tegrity of  a  book  requires  only  that  its  text  be 
in  such  a  state  that  the  object  for  which  the 
book  was  written  is  fully  answered.  When  we 
assert  the  integrity  of  the  Bible,  therefore,  we 
do  not  pretend  that  every  letter,  word,  and  ex- 
pression in  our  present  copies  exactly  answers 
to  the  original  text,  but  that  the  general  contents, 
the  doctrines  of  the  Bible,  are  taught  in  it  with 
uncorrupted  correctness  and  certainty. 

The  variations  of  the  text  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment amounted,  according  to  the  estimate  of 
Weistcin,  to  sixty  thousand;  and  of  tiie  text  of 
the  Old  Testament  to  a  still  greater  number. 
But  by  all  these  variations  no  doctrine  of  any 
importance  is  undermined  or  altered,  and  no 
history  of  any  interest  is  disfigured  or  changed. 
A  few  of  the  texts  by  which  some  doctrines 
were  supported  have,  indeed,  been  discarded — 
e.  g.,  1  John,  V,  7 ;  but  tliere  are  other  texts  which 
atford  to  each  of  these  doctrines  an  ample  proof; 
so  that  the  doctrines  themselves  remain  unal- 
tered. Besides,  the  most  important  variations, 
those  which  affect  the  sense  most  materially,  do 
not  concern  the  doctrines  of  reliirion  or  the  ob- 
jeets  of  faith,  but  some  indifferent  circumstances, 
trifling  historical  minuiiH!,  A:c.  Without  giving 
up  the  integrity  of  the  Uihle,  then,  we  may  freely 
concede  that  in  some  few  places  the  true  reading 
is  lost  beyond  recovery. 

The  Text  of  the  Holy  .'Scriptures  is  net  so  airrtipt 
(US  to  prevent  the  utlui'iiutitt  of  the  oliject  fi/r 
H'hich  thry  were  written. 

1.  Of  the  text  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
supposition  that  the  text  in  all  the  manuscripts 
of  the  New  Testament  has  been  intPntionally 
and  generally  filsilied  cannot  possibly  be  made. 
Any  falsifications  must  have  been  made  either 
by  the  reigning  ecclesiastical  body  (c«tholici) 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


57 


or  by  some  of  the  sect?  (haeretici)  durinrr  the 
first  three  centuries.  But  among  ihe  former, 
there  was  no  man  during  this  period  of  snfiicient 
authority  to  cause  the  alterations  which  he 
might  have  made  to  be  generally  adopted.  The 
jealousy  existing  among  individual  churches 
and  teachers  was  far  too  great,  and  the  use  of 
the  Christian  scriptures  far  too  general,  to  allow 
an  intentional  falsification  to  be  made.  These 
scriptures  were  publicly  read,  and  were  there- 
fore familiar  to  every  Christian.  This  was  the 
case  certainly  with  those  more  important  parts, 
which,  if  any,  would  have  been  falsified.  There 
were  also  many  translations  made  from  the  va- 
rious manuscripts  of  the  original  Greek,  the 
text  of  which  still  agrees  in  every  important 
particular  with  our  own. 

The  text  of  the  New  Testament  was,  indeed, 
intentionally  altered  and  corrupted  by  some  of 
the  heretics — e.  g.  Marcion ;  but  those  altera- 
tions were  immediately  discovered  and  con- 
demned by  the  orthodox  churt-hes.  In  fact, 
these  heretics  freely  acknowledged  that  they 
themselves  had  fabricated  them,  and  did  not 
pretend  to  follow  the  original  text. 

2.  Of  the  text  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
opinions  which  formerly  prevailed  respecting 
the  integrity  of  the  text  of  the  Old  Testament 
were  much  more  extravagant  than  respecting 
that  of  the  New.  These  opinions  were  founded 
on  the  exaggerated  accounts  which  were  given 
by  the  later  Jews  respecting  the  pains  which 
their  ancestors,  especially  the  Masorites,  had 
taken  to  preserve  the  sacred  text  unaltered. 
They  went  so  far  as  to  say,  that  in  consequence 
of  this  caution,  not  a  single  mistake  or  false 
reading  had  been  able  to  creep  into  the  original 
Hebrew  text.  And  they  extended  the  same  re- 
mark even  to  the  accents  and  vowel  points. 
John  Buxtorf,  father  and  son,  professors  of  the 
Hebrew  language  at  Basel,  during  the  last  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  adopted  tliese  fabu- 
lous Jewish  opinions  and  stories,  and  advocated 
them  with  great  zeal.  Through  their  influence 
and  that  of  their  disciples,  as  the  principal 
cause,  these  opinions  becairie  very  prevalent 
among  the  Swiss,  and  even  Lutheran,  theolo- 
gians at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  Switzer- 
land they  were  regarded  as  essential  points  of 
orthodoxy,  and  placed  as  such  in  the  Formula 
consensus  Htdvitici.     But, 

( 1 )  The  exactest  agreement  of  all  our  present 
manuscripts  would  not  prove  the  present  text  to 
be  throughout  true,  for  all  our  present  Hebrew 
maimscri|>ts  follow  the  same  IMasoretic  recen- 
sion; and  titeir  agreement  would  only  prove 
that  this  recension  had  suffered  no  corruption. 

(2)  This  supposed  agreement  has,  however, 
oeen  dispr  ^ixeA  since  our  manuscripts  have  been 
compared.  They  differ  widely  from  one  another, 

8 


as  appears  from  the  vast  number  of  various  read* 
ings  collected  by  Kennicott  and  Dc  Rossi. 

(3)  The  Hebrew  manuscripts  from  which 
the  ancient  versions — for  example,  the  Septua- 
gint — were  made  differed  still  more  widely  ;  and 
in  some  instances  quite  another  recension  of  the 
Hebrew  text  was  at  the  foundation  of  these  ver- 
sions. 

But  however  great  may  be  the  corruptions 
which  are  found  in  particular  books  or  passages 
of  the  Old  Testament,  they  do  not  materially 
affect  the  Christian  religion,  which  does  not 
stand  in  such  an  intimate  connexion  with  any 
parts  of  the  Jewish  scriptures  that  it  must  stand 
or  fail  with  them.  But  the  same  is  true  on  this 
subject  with  respect  to  the  Old  Testament  as 
was  remarked  above  with  respect  to  the  New. 
Not  a  single  doctrine  is  undermined  or  weak- 
ened by  all  these  various  readings.  Nor  can  it 
be  proved  that  the  text  has  in  a  single  instance 
been  intentionally  corrupted  in  favour  of  parti- 
cular doctrinal  prejudices.  Even  the  Samaritan 
text  of  the  five  books  of  Moses,  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  Hebrew  scri|)lures,  exhibits  their 
contents  with  entire  fidelity,  and  in  entire  ac- 
cordance with  the  texts  of  our  common  Hebrew 
manuscri|)ts. 

Cf.  Rich.  Simon,  Hist,  critique  du  V.  T., 
Rotterdam,  IC85,  4to.  Capellus,  Critica  Sacra, 
Paris,  1G50.  Eicbhorn,  Einleitung  ins  alte 
Testament,  Th.  I.  Cap.  II.  Lichtenstein,  Pa- 
ralipomena  critica  circa  textum  Vet.  Testamenti, 
Helmstadt,  1799,  4to.  Jahn,  Einleitung.  Also 
the  writings  of  Kennicott  and  De  Rossi. 

SECTION  VII. 

OF   THE  TRUTH  AND  DIVINITY  OF    THE  DOCTRINES 
TAUGHT  BV  CHRIST  AND  HIS  APOSTLES. 

The  truth  and  divinity  of  the  doctrines  con- 
tained in  the  Christian  scriptures  must  be  con- 
sidered before  the  divinity  of  these  scriptures 
themselves. 

The  principal  proofs  which  Jesus  himself  and 
his  apostles  produced  in  tavour  of  the  divinity 
of  their  doctrines  are  the  following: 

I.  Proof  from  the  Claims  ivhich  Jesus  himself  made, 

Jesus  frequently  called  himself  an  immediate 
divine  messenger.  He  declared  that  he  taught 
his  religion  by  the  express  command  of  God, 
and  as  his  deputed  ambassador.  Matt.  xxvi.  'iS  ; 
John,  V.  43  ;  xvi.  27,  28,  et  passim.  This  de- 
claration of  Jesus,  so  ofien  repeated,  is,  in  itself 
considered,  of  great  weight.  Tiie  same  preten- 
sions have,  indeed,  sometimes  been  made  by  im- 
postors and  enthusiasts;  but  the  whole  charac- 
ter and  conduct  of  Jesus  were  such  as  to  free 
him  from  the  imputation  of  being  either  an  ho- 
nest enthusiast  or  a  crafty  impostor.  He  is  the 
very  opposite  of  what  impostors  and  enthusiasts, 


58 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


even  of  the  best  description,  usually  are;  he 
practised  none  of  the  arts  of  deception,  and  he 
appealed  confidently  and  unreservedly  to  iiis  in- 
nocence, even  in  presence  of  his  enemies ;  and 
challenged  them  to  convict  him,  if  they  were 
able,  of  a  single  uct  of  dishonesty,  John,  viii. 
46,  seq. 

This  proof  ha?  been  carefully  stated  by  Storr, 
Ductrina  Christiana,  p.  28 — H4,  and  by  Dr. 
Hensler,  Die  Wahrheit  und  Guttlichkeit  der 
christliclien  Reliirion  in  der  Kiirze  dargestellt, 
p.  2G— 3-2,  Hamburg,  1803,  8vo. 

II.  Proof  from  f/ie  Excellence,  Suifahleness,  and  Be- 
nijicial  'Itndency  of  I  his  Religion, 

This  proof  is  called  argumentttm  internum 
pro  veritate  et  divinitaie  religionia  Chrintianic. 
Jesus  himself  makes  use  of  this  argument,  John, 
vii.  17.  It  is  also  employed  by  the  apostles, 
and  by  the  ancient  apologists  of  Christianity, 
Justin,  Athenagoras,  Terlullian,  and  Clemens 
of  Alexandria.  That  the  Christian  religion  is 
surpassed  by  no  other  in  tiie  purity,  simplicity, 
and  practical  utility  of  its  doctrines,  is  perfectly 
obvious,  an),  even  at  the  present  day,  is  gene- 
rally acknowledged.  No  sage  or  moralist,  of 
ancient  or  modern  times,  has  accomplished  so 
great  a  work  as  has  been  done  by  Christ;  has 
taught  such  salutary  doctrines— doctrines  whicii 
exert  so  benign  an  influence  in  comforting  and 
renovating  the  heart  of  man.  And  this  every 
one  may  know  from  his  own  experience  who 
makes  a  personal  application  of  these  doctrines 
in  the  manner  which  Christ  has  prescribed. 
Vide  Introduction,  s.  3,  ad  finem. 

The  religion  which,  by  its  doctrine  and  disci- 
pline, accomplishes  all  this,  and  which  is  so 
taught  as  to  ellVct  what  had  never  before  been 
done  by  man,  deserves  to  be  called  divine;  and 
must  be  acknowledged,  even  by  the  rationalist, 
to  be,  on  this  account,  at  least  important  and 
worthy  of  respeot.  But  the  internal  excellence 
)f  the  Cliristi.in  religion  does  not,  in  itself  con- 
sidered, satisfactorily  prove  that  this  religion  is, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  derived  immediately  from 
God  ;  the  utility  and  benevolent  tendency  of  a 
doctrine  prove  only  that  it  is  worl/ii/  if  God,  and 
not  the  fact  that  it  is  derived  from  liim.  As  this 
is  a  question  of  fact,  it  can  be  proved  only  bv 
other  facts.  Vide  Introdiiction,  s.  8. 1 II.  2,  note. 
Hence  it  is  that  this  proof  ffon\  the  internal  ex- 
cellence of  the  Christian  religion  is  always  in- 
sisted upon,  to  tlie  exclusion  of  the  proof  from 
miracles,  by  those  who  deny  any  immediate  di- 
vine  revelation  in  the  higher  sense.  That  di- 
vine revelation  in  this  sense  cannot  be  suffi- 
ciently esiablishi;d  by  this  internal  argument 
may  be  seen  from  the  Introduction,  s.  7,  I.  ad 
finem. 

But  although  this  internal  argument  does  not, 
separately  considered,  satisfactorily  prove  the 


immediate  divine  origin  of  the  Christian  religion, 
it  is  still  of  great  importance — 

1.  To  the  since  e  inquirer.  A  conviction  of 
the  inherent  excellence  of  the  Christian  religion, 
and  of  its  benevolent  tendencies,  is  of  the  great- 
est importance  to  the  candid  inquirer  in  seriously 
examining  the  other  proofs  by  which  the  divi- 
nity of  our  religion  is  supported.  It  prepares 
his  mind  to  receive  them,  and  predisposes  him 
to  believe  any  evidence  that  may  be  olTered,  or 
any  declaraticms  that  may  be  made,  by  one  wh  ) 
gave  such  excellent  precepts,  and  lived  himself 
in  a  manner  so  conformed  to  them,  as  Jesus  did. 
Jesus  declared  that  his  instructions  were  derived 
immediately  from  God.  Vide  No  I.  Now  if 
the  inquirer  finds  that  the  religion  of  Christ  ac- 
complishes what  might  be  reasonably  expected 
of  a  religion  of  divine  origin  ;  if  he  finds  that  its 
founder  possessed  a  pure  moral  character,  and 
was  neither  an  impostor  nor  a  deluderd  enthusi- 
ast; he  will  give  credit  to  his  pretensions,  and 
feel  himself  bound  to  admit  the  evidence  that 
may  be  offered  of  his  divine  mission. 

2.  To  the  practical  Clirislian,  The  belief  of 
the  trulli  and  divinity  of  the  Christian  religion 
arising  from  its  internal  excellence  and  its  bene- 
ficial effects,  is  in  the  highest  degree  important 
to  every  practical  Christian.  His  whole  estima- 
tion of  this  religion  depends  upon  his  having 
felt  this  excellence,  and  joyfully  experienced 
these  benefits,  in  his  own  heart.  These  experi- 
ences ])roduce  a  firm  conviction  in  his  mind  of 
tlie  truth  of  this  religion,  which  no  theoretic 
doubts  are  able  to  shake. 

These  feelings  arising  in  the  heart  of  the  true 
Christian,  as  he  studies,  ajiplies,  and  practises 
the  instructions  of  his  religion,  and  the  firm  con- 
viction of  the  truth  and  divinity  of  his  religion, 
arising  from  these  feelings,  is  called  testimonium 
spiritus  sancli  internum— r'\,  e.,  a  conviction  of 
the  divinity  of  the  Christian  religion  produced 
in  the  mind  of  man  by  the  Spirit  of  God.  This 
conviction  is  not  a  conclusion,  hut  a  feeling,  from 
which  the  truth  is  inferred.  Vide  Morus,  p.  39, 
10.  The  term  testimonium  (^a,)rv))ta),  taken 
from  Horn.  viii.  Iti,  and  1  John,  v.  G,  was  ap- 
plied to  this  inward  persuasion,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  name  testimonium  externum  spiritus 
sfindi,  taken  from  Heb.  ii.  1,  which  was  given 
to  the  proof  alTorded  by  miracles. 

The  internal  tritites.i  if  the  Spirit  denotes  those 
pious  feelings  anrl  dispositions  which  God  or 
the  Holy  Spirit  awakens  in  us  by  means  of  the 
(^bri-tiaii  doctrine,  and  wiiicli  are  the  evidence, 
tiie  internal  proof,  to  us,  that  liiis  doctrine  is 
true.  "  Ullima  ratio,  sub  qua  et  propter  quam 
fide  divina  et  infallibili  credimus,  verbum  Dei, 
esse  verbum  Dei,  est,  ipsa  intrinseca  vis  et  rjfien- 
cin  vrrhi  divini,  ct  spiritus  sancti  in  scriptura  lo- 
qiientis  tei^tifeatio  et  obsignatio,"  Qucnstcdt, 
Systema,  I.  p.  140 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ib 


This  intimate  persuasion  is  perfectly  rational, 
and  by  no  means  visionary.  It  is  not  produced 
in  us  in  a  miraculous  manner,  by  direct  divine 
afjency,  but  it  results  from  the  truths  which  we 
have  understood  and  obeyed.  We  are  conscious 
in  our  inmost  souls  that  since  we  have  embraced 
this  heavenly  reliirion,  and  have  f<iiiiifully  obey- 
ed its  precepts,  we  have  had  more  peace  and 
happiness,  and  more  strength  to  execute  our  vir- 
tuous resolutions,  than  ever  before.  In  this  way 
we  are  brouo;lit  to  the  conviction  that  the  Chris- 
tian reiigiiin  is  the  true  and  only  means  of  pro- 
motinjf  our  happiness,  and  of  imparling  that 
quiet  of  mind,  and  that  strength  for  virtue,  which 
we  need.  And  from  this  conviction  we  pass  to 
the  conclusion,  that  the  Christian  religion  is  true 
and  divine,  and  that  Jesus  and  his  apostles  are 
to  be  believed  when  they  declare  it  to  be  such. 
We  have  found  this  doctrine  to  be  possessed  of 
higher  excellences  and  of  a  greater  efficacy  than 
any  other  with  which  we  have  been  acquainted, 
and  hence  conclude  that  it  is  the  very  means 
wiiich  God  himself  has  appointed  for  our  good. 

This  proof  of  the  divine  origin  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  derived  from  its  happy  effects,  is 
often  urged  by  Christ,  John,  vii.  15 — 17,  coll. 
viii.  47;  and  also  by  the  apostles,  1  Thess.  ii. 
13  ;  2  Cor.  iii.  1 — 4  ;  Acts,  ii.  14 — 37;  and  par- 
ticularly from  the  effect  of  the  discourses  of 
Jesus,  Matt.  vii.  28,  29  ;  Luke,  xxiv.  3-J.  This 
proof,  explained  in  this  way,  is  conformed  both 
to  reason  and  observation;  and  the  feelings 
upon  which  it  rests  must  have  been  experienced 
by  every  true  Christian.  Cf.  s.  124,  11.; 
Nosselt,  Diss,  inaug.  de  interno  testimonio  spi- 
ritussancti,  Halle,  17(J7.  Gehe  (Superinlendant 
at  Oscliatz).  Diss,  inaug.  de  argumentn,  quod 
pro  divinitate  religionis  Christiana;  ab  experi- 
entia  ducitur,  Gtittingen,  1796.     Morus,  p.  40. 

in.  Frooffrom  Miracles. 

In  this  place  we  shall  consider  only  what  we 
are  taiijrht  on  this  subject  by  the  writers  of  the 
Old  and  Xew  Testaments,  and  the  point  of  view 
in  which  they  regarded  it;  adding  a  few  obser- 
vations fir  the  purpose  of  illustration.  Here- 
after, in  the  Article  on  Divine  Providence,  s.  72, 
we  shall  consider  the  arguments  and  objections 
of  a  philosophical  nature. 

1.  The  following  names  are  jriven  to  miracles 
by  the  sacred  writers,  and  by  Jesus  liimself : — 
n->i2:,  7ni3J,  correspondent  to  wbicii  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  and  in  the  New  Testament,  are  thip 
words  Sviautj,  hwdfitii,  because  miracles  are 
proofs  of  the  divine  power,  s-'d,  ^avjxuaicx, 
^avjiiara,  something  extraordinary,  wiiich  ex- 
cites wonder,  rpic,  ripaj,  TJpara,  jrodiiiia,  par- 
teuta,  something  monstrous,  whicli  excites  the 
idea  of  a  tremendous  force,  nx,  oruna,  osienla, 
because  miracles  are  signs  or  evi  lences  of  di- 
vine interposition;  whence  they  are  also  called 


(he  hand  if  Cod,  the  finger  of  God.  "  riSjcr,  ?pya 
rov  Qfov.  The  miracles  of  Christ  are  frequently 
called  tjiya,  by  way  of  eminence.  The  divine 
power  by  which  miracles  were  wrought  was 
called  nn,  z''\'<p  nn,  rtvevfia  ayiov,  nvsi/xa  Qiovf 

2.  'I'hese  biblical  names  of  miracles  clearly 
shew  that  the  sacred  writers  considered  miracles 
to  be  events  effected  by  divine  power,  unlike 
those  which  commonly  occur  in  the  known 
order  of  nature,  established  by  God,  and  inex- 
plicable to  us  by  the  laws  of  nature,  and  there- 
fore calculated  to  excite  surjirise  and  wonder. 
^uch  events  are  not  necessary  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  nittural  religion  ;  but  they  are  indis- 
pensable to  the  establishment  of  any  religion 
which  announces  itself  as  revealed  from  God  in 
any  other  way  than  through  the  reason  of  man, — 
of  a  religion,  in  short,  like  the  Christian,  which 
is  a  pobHive  religion,  and  in  which  Christ  ap- 
pears in  the  character  of  a  divine  messenger  to 
disclose  the  mind  of  God.  The  peculiar  doc- 
trines of  this  religion  are  not  coguizable  from 
the  nature  of  things,  but  are  taught  ue  by  per- 
sons who  assert  that  they  themselves  were 
taught  by  God.  Now  if  they  would  obtain  cre- 
dit in  this  assertion,  they  must  be  able  to  prove 
(heir  divine  mission  by  proper  evidence.  They 
cannot  do  this  by  proofs  drawn  from  reason; 
they  therefore  resort  to  miracles. 

Properly  speaking,  these  miracles  are  wrought 
by  God.  In  pertorming  them,  he  does  not  alter 
or  disturb  the  course  of  things  which  he  himself 
directs,  or  counteract  the  laws  which  he  himself 
has  established  ;  hut  he  accompli.shes,  by  means 
of  nature,  which  he  has  thus  constituted  and 
which  he  governs,  something  7//o/-e  than  is  com- 
mon, and  in  connexion  with  unusual  circum- 
stances. 

\_Nole. — This  is  here  maintained  in  opposition 
to  some  theolofrians  of  former  limes,  who  held 
that  in  case  of  a  real  miracle  the  course  of  na- 
ture was  disturbed,  or  the  laws  of  nature  coun- 
teracted. ^'  Mirnculn  vera  et  praprie  dicta  sunt, 
quffi  contra  vim  rebus  naluralihus  a  Deo  inditam, 
cursumque  naturalem,  sive  per  extraordinariam 
Dei  potentiam  efficiuntur;  ut  cum  . . .  aqua  in  vi 
num  convertitur,  moriui  suscitantur,"  &:c.  Quen- 
stpdt,  Systema,  P.  I.  et  II.  p.  471,  Vitebergse, 
1085,  fol.  The  same  opinion  is  expressed  by 
Hnddeus.  !\Iiracles,  he  says,  are  "operationes 
qiiibus  naturte  leges  ad  ordinem  et  conserva- 
tionem  totius  bujus  universi  spectantes,  re  vera 
su!ipenduj>tur."  Inslit.  theol.  dogm.  p.  245. 
They  are  likewise  defined  by  \\'egscheider  as 
"  eventus  insoliti  admirationem  excitanfes ;  ideo- 
que  a  cooperatione  causae,  humanas  vires  super- 
antis,  et  rcrum  7iff/Hr<TCursum  consuetum,  leges- 
r/ue  in  efficienih)  ejusnwdi  eventu  tolkntis,  ple- 
rumque  repetiti."  Instituiiones,  p.  173,  s.  46. 
But  with  respect  to  this  opinion,  Augustine  pro- 


it 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


perly  asked,  "  Quomndo  est  contra  nnuiram, 
qi:od  est  voiuntate  Dpi,  quuin  voluntas  t;inli 
uliqiie  creatoris,  conditae  rei  eiijuslibet  naiura 
sit."  De  Civ.  Dei,  XXI.  8.  This  opinion  led 
to  the  supposition  that  in  connexion  with  every 
miracle  there  was  a  miraculum  reslilulioiu's,  by 
whicli  the  confusion  occasioned  was  obviated, 
and  the  proper  order  restored.  Vide  J.  Jac. 
Ebert,  Dubitaiiones  contra  miracula  restiiu- 
tionis. 

The  followintr  remarks  on  this  subject  are 
fromTieftrunk,Censurdeschr.  protest.  Lehrbe- 
gritTs,  s.  2G3 — 2C5:  "The  efficient  supcrsi-n- 
sible  Beinjj  may  not  suspend  the  laws,  or  disar- 
range the  course  of  nature;  but  must  employ 
nature  as  the  means  of  producing  tlie  designed 
result.  What  is  miraculous  is  not  therefore 
tDiitrnry  to  nature  (widernaturlich),  but  extraor- 
dinary, preternatural,  (aussernaturlich.)  The 
wonder-working  Being  produces  in  the  S[)liere 
of  sense,  and  by  the  laws  which  govern  this 
sphere^  such  an  effect  as  does  not  occur  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  tilings,  and  could  not  be  pro- 
duced by  the  mere  powers  of  nature.  A  miracu- 
lous event  seems  to  encroach  upon  the  course  of 
nature,  without  disturbing  or  displacing  it.  But 
this  encroachment  cannot  be  accounted  for  by 
any  natural  causality,  and  must  be  ascribed  to  a 
higher  power  working  according  to  the  laws  of 
sensible  nature.  But  we  must  not  suppose  thai 
this  supersensil)le  cause  acts  in  a  lawless  man- 
ner in  working  miracles;  for  although  we  are 
unarquainled  with  the  laws  which  |)revail  in  the 
sphere  of  sjiirit,  we  must  still  believe  that  some 
laws  are  there  in  force;  and  if  we  knew  what 
they  were,  we  should  consider  the  saine  events 
which  now  appear  miraculous  as  perfectly  na- 
tural." Vide  Ilahn,  Lehrbuch  des  chrisllichen 
(ilaubens,  s.  21,  L'-ipzig,  1H28.] 

In  this  extraordinary  exertion  of  his  power. 
Cod  has  ever  some  great  moral  end  in  view; 
since  it  is  inconsistent  with  reason  and  scripture 
to  8up|)ose  that  he  acts  without  respect  to  an 
end.  Now  the  end  for  which  miracles  are  per- 
formed is  clearly  revealed.  They  are  the  cre- 
dentials of  tlie  divine  messengers,  and  invest 
with  a  divine  authority  their  precepts,  |)rnmises. 
tlireatHiiiiigs,  and  whatever  else  they  may  de- 
clare ;  for  no  t<'acher  ever  did  or  can  work  a 
miracle  by  bis  own  power  :  he  can  only  act  as 
the  instrument  in  the  haiul  of  (Jod,  the  author 
and  governor  of  nature.  When  Cod,  therefore, 
raises  the  dead,  or  performs  any  other  miracle, 
through  the  instrumentality  of  a  teacher,  he  thus 
declares  that  this  teacher  is  divinely  commis- 
sioned, that  through  him  he  shall  speak,  and 
act,  and  accomplish  his  purposes.  lie  thus  fur- 
nishes his  ambassador  with  credentials,  secures 
him  the  atlentif)n  of  his  fellow  men,  calls  upon 
them  to  acknowledge  the  divinity  r)f  his  mission, 
and  to  receive   his   heavenly  doctrine.     This, 


then,  as  we  are  taught  by  the  Bible,  is  the  end 
for  which  miracles  were  wrought.  True  mira- 
cles are  the  credentials  which  Cod  gives  his 
ambassadors  of  their  divine  mission;  and  everj 
teacher  who  perforins  them  should  be  received 
as  a  messenger  sent  from  Cod.  For  it  cannot 
be  supposed  that  the  Cod  of  truth  would  enable 
an  enthusiast,  or  a  crafty  impostor,  or  any  false 
teacher,  to  perform  rea/ miracles,  since  he  would 
thus  set  his  own  seal  to  a  falsehood.  Hence 
we  may  safely  argue  the  falsity  of  all  the  al- 
leged miracles  which  are  wrought  for  the  con- 
lirmation  of  doctrines  and  declarations  which  are 
demonstrably  untrue,  and  therefore  not  of  Cod,— 
such,  for  example,  as  were  wrought  by  the  false 
prophets  in  ancient  times,  and  which  are  de- 
clared in  the  Bible  to  be  deceptive. 

On  these  principles,  Christ  and  his  apostles 
prove  the  divinity  of  their  mission  and  doctrine, 
by  the  miracles  which  they  performed  in  view 
of  their  contemjjoraries.  Matt.  xi.  3,  seq.  John, 
xiv.  11.  Vide  Scripta  Varii  argument!,  ed.  2, 
p.  187.  And  in  consequence  of  the  miracles 
which  he  wrought,  .lesus  was  received  by  many 
of  his  contemporaries  as  a  teacher  sent  from 
Cod,  John,  iii.  2;  ix.  35 — 38.  Tiiis  belief  ia 
his  character  arising  from  his  miracles,  was  ap- 
proved by  Jesus  himself,  Matt.  xi.  2 — G,  20 — 24. 
Sometimes,  however,  he  justly  blamed  the  Jews 
for  seeking  constantly  after  signs  and  wonders. 
As  to  the  object  of  the  miracles  which  he  per- 
formed, he  distinctly  declared,  that  they  should 
be  considered  as  proof  (j^r^fxilov)  that  he,  as  a 
man,  did  not  teach  his  own  wisdom,  nor  act 
from  his  own  will,  but  as  the  organ  of  Cod.  the 
creator  and  governor  of  the  universe;  and  that 
bis  instructions  should  theri?fore  be  considered  as 
divine  instructions  (j.oyot),  and  received  and 
obeyed  as  coming  from  (Jod.  Vide  John,  iii., 
v..  vi.,  viii.,  xii.,  xiv.,  xvi. ;  Acts,  ii.  22  ;  x.  38. 
Miracles  are  regarded  by  Christ  and  the  apos- 
tles as  always  intended  by  Cod  to  promote  the 
success  (ovifpyfifrbai)  and  confirm  the  authority 
(3f,.3atoit»')  of  the  doctrine  taught  by  the  one 
through  whom  they  were  performed.  Mark, 
xvi.  20.  The  apostles  refer,  in  the  Acts  and  in 
the  e|)istles,  to  three  kinds  of  miracles — viz., 
(1)  those  wrought  upon  Jesus,  to  prove  his  au- 
tliority,  especially  his  resurrection  from  the 
dead  ;  (2)  those  wrought  bij  him;  and  (3)  those 
which  they  themselves  perfi>rmed. 

The  proof  from  miracles,  impressing,  as  they 
d  J,  the  bodily  senses,  often  produces  a  strong 
conviction,  and  is  especially  adapted  to  those 
who  are  insensible  to  the  proof  drawn  from  the 
internal  excellence  of  the  Christian  religion, 
ami  the  efTecls  which  it  produces  on  the  hearts 
of  men. 

3.  'low  far  is  the  proof  from  mi:  jcles  still 
valid?  May  it  be  urged  at  the  present  day  1  It 
has  been  rejected,  in  .ncdcin  times,  as  wholly 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


dpstitiite  of  evidence,  by  Rousseau,  Hume,  and 
all  the  rationalist  theologians.  Hume  main- 
tained, that  however  strong  might  be  the  evi- 
dence in  favour  of  any  miracle,  there  was  always 
stronger  evidence  against  it;  and  that  every 
miracle  was  contradicti^ry  to  the  reason  and  ex- 
perience of  all  afjes.  In  order  to  render  the  mi- 
racles of  the  Bible  suspicious,  he  collected  all 
manner  of  marvellous  histories,  and  endeavoured 
to  shew  that  the  miracles  of  the  liible  had  less 
evidence  to  support  them  than  many  of  these 
pretended  miracles,  which  were  universally 
allowed  to  be  false.  The  proof  from  miracles 
was  also  abundantly  canvassed  in  the  contro- 
versies with  Lessing. 

We  may  freely  concede,  («)  that  this  proof 
must  have  carried  a  stronger  and  more  resistless 
evidence  to  the  minds  of  those  who  themselves 
saw  the  miracles  with  their  own  eyes,  than  to 
the  minds  of  others  living  at  a  distance  from  the 
scene,  or  after  the  time  in  which  they  were  per- 
formed ;  and  (b)  that  Christ  and  his  apostles  in- 
tended their  miracles  primarily  for  their  contem- 
poraries, who  expected  and  demanded  evidence 
of  this  nature,  and  who  would  receive  the  true 
ri'ligion  more  readily,  and  believe  it  more  firmly, 
if  it  came  to  them  supported  by  such  evidence 
as  was  conformed  to  their  previous  opinions  and 
expectations  ;  and  that  this  proof  may  so  far  be 
said  to  be  temporary.  But  (c)  it  can-  by  no 
means  be  said  to  be  destitute  of  evidence  for  all 
who  were  not  the  contemporaries  of  Christ  and 
the  apostles.  If  any  at  the  present  day  are  con- 
vinced of  the  historical  truth  of  the  mimcles 
wrought  by  Christ,  to  them  the  proof  derived 
from  miracles  must  still  be  perfectly  valid.  For 
to  attempt  to  prove  h priori,  as  is  usually  done, 
that  miracles  are  impossible,  is  the  height  of  folly 
and  presumption.  Moreover  (rf)  the  system  of 
truth  which  was  taught  by  Jesus,  the  apostles, 
and  prophets,  is  consistent  with  itself  only  on 
the  suppnsition  that  it  was  corroborated  by  mi- 
racles. They  laid  claim  to  the  character  of  ex- 
traordinary divine  messengers — a  claim  which 
could  not  be  supported  except  by  extraordinary 
events.  Vide  Introduction,  s.  7,  8.  The  rea- 
son, now,  that  so  many  deny  the  evidence  of  mi- 
racles is,  that  they  are  unwillinji  to  admit  this 
extraordinary  c'aini,  which  miracles  are  intend'il 
to  establish. 

Tiie  hi^itoricaJ  credibility  of  the  miracles  of 
Christ  may  be  proved  in  two  ways  : 

(1.)  From  the  testimony  of  the  apostles  them- 
selves. We  reason  thus:  («)  they  were  able  to 
know  the  truth.  They  were  contemporaries  of 
Ch.rist,  and  eye-witnesses  of  his  works.  They 
enjoyed  the  best  opportunity  for  examining  ami 
Bcrutinizingeverythingwhich  hedid.  Nor  were 
they  credulous  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  slow  to  be- 
lieve, as  Christ  himself  says,  Mark,  xvi.  14. 
They  perfectly  agree  in  their  testimony,  and  in 


open  court  refer  to  the  mira.Jes  of  Christ  as  lO 
undisputed  facts,  known  to  the  world,  Acts,  ii. 
22,  (6)  They  z'n/e/K/erf  to  speak  the  truth.  Theii 
whole  character  is  such  as  to  free  them  from  the 
suspicion  of  intentional  deception.  If  they  had 
been  influenced  by  considerations  of  wordly 
interest  they  would  not  have  embraced  Christi- 
anity, from  wliich  they  had  little  to  hope,  and 
everything  to  fear,  as  to  their  temporal  prospects. 
Besides,  the  style  of  their  narratives  is  so  sim- 
ple, artless,  and  unaffected,  that  every  unpreju- 
diced reader  must  feel  himself  compelled  to  ac- 
knowledge that  they  understood  and  believed 
what  they  wrote,  and  had  no  intention  of  deceiv- 
ing their  readers.  1  John,  i.  1,  seij.  Cf.  Morus, 
p,  16— 20. 

(2)  From  the  testimony  of  those  who  were 
not  followers  of  Christ,  and  even  of  those  who 
were  opposed  to  his  religion.  The  Jews  who 
were  contemi)orary  with  Christ  allowed  that  he 
had  wrought  miracles,  (John,  xi.  47,)  and  did 
not  venture  to  accuse  him,  before  a  judicial  tri- 
bunal, of  deception  in  performing  them.  Even 
the  Talmud  makes  mention  of  his  miracles,  and 
allows  their  historical  truth,  although  it  under- 
takes to  account  for  them  in  different  ways. 
And  so  the  pharisees,  when  they  were  unable 
to  deny  the  reality  of  the  miracles  of  Christ,  pre- 
tended, as  a  last  resort,  thft  they  were  the  work 
of  the  devil.  And  even  the  apostate  Judas,  who 
lived  on  terms  of  perfect  intimacy  with  his  Mas- 
ter, could  not  bring  against  him  the  charge  of 
deception,  and  confesses  at  last,  in  despair,  that 
he  had  betrayed  innocent  blood  ;  whereas,  if  he 
had  known  or  suspected  any  dishonesty,  he 
would  surely  have  justified  his  crime.  And  if 
he  did  not  know  of  any  dishonesty,  we  may 
safely  conclude  that  there  was  none;  since  the 
imposture  could  not  have  been  executed  without 
pecuniary  means,  which  were  placed  in  the  hands 
ofJudfis.  Matt,  xxvii.  4,  seq.  Those  who  op- 
posed Christianity  during  the  first  periods  of  its 
existence — namely,  Celsus,  Hierocles,  and  Ju- 
lian, did  not  doubt  the  historical  truth  of  the  mi- 
racles of  Christ,  although  they  ascribed  them  to 
magical  arts.     Morus,  p.  2G,  27. 

IV.  Prunf from  the  fulfilment  of  Ancient  Prophecies 
in  Christ. 
In  urging  this  proof.  Jesus  and  his  apostles 
had  primary,  though  by  no  means  exclusive,  re- 
ference to  the  Jews,  in  whose  sacred  bonks  these 
predictions  respecting  the  Messiah  were  contain- 
ed. This  proof  will  be  particularly  considered 
in  connexion  with  the  office  of  Messiah,  s,  89, 
90,  in  the  Article  on  Christ. 

V.  Proof  from  the  Propliecies  of  Christ  himself. 
Every  prediction  of  future  iniidents  may  pro- 
perly be  reg-arded  as  a  miracle.     All  which  was 
said,  therefore,  respecting  the  proof  from  mira- 
F 


C2 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY, 


cles,  may  be  applied  to  this  proof  and  the  one 
precedin<r,  both  of  which  are  parts  of  the  gene- 
ral proof  from  miracles. 

With  respect  to  the  proof  from  prophecy,  we 
remark  now  more  particular!)',  that  in  order  to 
its  validity,  (1)  The  prediction  must  he  hi'sturl- 
Cdlly  true — i.  e.,  must  have  been  actually  made 
before  the  events  to  which  it  relates,  and  not 
fabricated  afterwards,  nor  even  enriched  by  the 
addition  of  any  circumstances  which  may  have 
occurred  in  connexion  with  the  fulfilment  of  the 
oritjinal  prophecy.  (2)  It  must  not,  like  most  of 
the  oracles  of  the  ancient  heathen  world,  hide  its 
nieanintr  under  an  artful  ambiijuity  ofexpression. 
(.S)  The  exact  and  perfect  fulfilment  of  the  pre- 
diction must  be  capable  of  proof  from  history. 
If  any  prediction  answers  these  conditions,  it 
must  be  allowed  to  come  from  God,  and  to  be  of 
the  nature  of  a  miracle,  2  Pet.  i.  19. 

God  only  can  foresee  future  and  fortuitous 
events.  When  a  man  therefore  foretells  events 
of  tins  nature,  he  ])roves  that  he  is  instructed 
and  commissioned  by  God.  The  Jewish  pro- 
phets who  laid  claim  to  the  title  of  divine  am- 
bassadors were  required,  therefore,  in  proof  of 
their  pretentions,  to  foretell  the  future.  Christ 
himself  made  use  of  this  proof  to  support  his 
own  claims,  John,  xiii.  19;  xiv.  29.  He  fore- 
told, in  the  most  distinct  and  accurate  manner, 
his  own  impending  f^te,  (Matt.  xvi.  21,  seq. 
Luke,  xviii.  .31 — 33;)  and  also  that  of  his  dis- 
ciples, M;itt,  x.  16,  seq.  He  predicted  that  his 
rcliijion  would  prevail  upon  the  earth,  and  con- 
tinue to  the  end  of  the  world  ;  and  this,  too,  at  a 
time  when  its  destruction  must  have  appeared 
to  every  one  in  the  highest  dejrree  probable. 
He  predicted  the  destruction  of  tlie  temple,  and 
the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  state  hy  the  Romans, 
Matt.  xxiv. ;  Luke,  xxi.  This  latter  |)re(liction 
was  very  minute,  and  was  fulfilled,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  Josephus,  in  every  particu- 
lar. Cf.  tlie  valuable  treatises  on  the  prophecies, 
collected  by  Hurd  and  Halifax.  'I'ho.nas  \ew- 
ton,  Trevitise  on  the  prophecies  which  have 
been  remarkably  fulfilled.  Less,  Wahrheit  der 
cliristliclieri  Helie;ion,  s.  472,  ff.  (loliini'en, 
ITsr). 

Morns,  p.  21,  seq.,  s,  11,  seq. 

Niile. — It  thus  appears,  that  in  investifratinrr 
the  truth  of  Christianity  we  must  proceed  as 
we  do  when  we  investijrate  any  subjects  of  an 
historical  nature.  We  must  believe  what  we  are 
taujrbt  in  the  holy  scriptures,  upon  the  aut/ioriti/ 
of  the  ti-Mini'inif  by  which  it  is  supported.  We 
are  indeed  gratified  to  find  other  reasons,  beside 
positive  divine  testimony,  on  which  to  found  our 
belief  in  the  truths  of  religion;  but  these  addi- 
tional reasons  are  not  essential  to  our  belief. 
And  in  cases  where  we  are  unable  to  discover 
them,  we  may  believe  upon  the  simple  divine 
testimony.     Nor  are  we  chargeabie  with  credu- 


lity in  so  doing,  any  more  than  when  wc  be- 
lieve, on  credible  testimony,  any  fact  which  may 
for  a  time  be  incomprehensible. 

Cf.  Job.  Friedr.  Kleuker,  Neue  PriLi'ung  und 
Krklariing  der  vorziiglichsten  Beweise  fur  die 
Wahrheit  und  den  gottlichen  Ursprung  des 
Christenthums,  wie  der  Offenbarung  iiberhaupt, 
3  Ude,  Riga,  1787 — 94,  8vo.  Koppen,  Die 
Bibel  ein  Werk  der  gottlichen  Weishtit,  Ausg. 
2,  Rostock  and  Leipzig,  1797-8,  8vo.  .Slorr, 
Doctrinee  Christians,  &c.,  p.  21,  seq.  Sixskind 
(Prof,  of  theology  at  Stuttgard),  Eine  bisto- 
risch — exegetische  Untersuchung,  In  welchem 
Sinne  hat  Jesus  die  Gcittlichkeit  seiner  Religion 
und  Siiteiilehre  behauptet]  Tiibingen,  1802, 
8vo.  Hensler,  Die  Wahrheit  und  (ioltlichkeit 
der  christlichen  Religion,  in  der  Kiirze  darge- 
stellt,  s.  33 — 48. 

SECTION  VIII. 

OF  THE  INSPIRATION  OK  THE  SCRIPTURES  OF  THE 
OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS,  OR  THE  HIGHER 
DIVINE  INFLUENCE  ENJOVED  BY  THE  SACRED 
WRITERS. 

Iniroductorij  Remurhs. 

1.  The  two  following  ])ositions — viz.,  the  dne- 
irlnes  taught  in  the  boobs  of  the  Bible  are  of  di- 
vine origin,  and  these  book)s  themselves  are  given 
by  God,  are  by  no  means  the  same,  and  need  to 
be  carefully  distinguished.  The  divinity  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Bible  was  considered  in  s.  7;  but 
this  does  not  necessarily  involve  the  divinity  of 
the  Bible  itself.  The  doctrines  of  revelation 
are  frequently  contained  in  books  of  devotion, 
for  example,  but  it  is  not  pretended  that  on  this 
account  these  books  are  of  divine  origin.  The 
truth  and  divinity  of  the  Christianreligion  might 
be  satisfactorily  proved  if  the  l)ooks  of  the  New 
Testament  were  acknowledged  to  be  merely  ge- 
nuine, and  the  authors  of  them  merely  credible: 
so  that  the  divinity  of  the  Christian  religion  need 
not  be  considered  as  depending  on  the  divinity 
of  the  holy  scriptures.  The  two  things  were  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Melancthon. 

Religion,  therefore,  is  more  concerned,  as 
Michaelis  has  justly  observed,  in  having  proot 
for  the  authenticity  and  genuineness  than  for  the 
inspiration  of  the  sacred  volume.  Still  the  sin- 
cere friend  of  truth  will  surely  be  rCjoiced  in 
finding  reason  to  believe  in  the  immediate  divine 
origin  of  the  books  of  our  religion.  If  this  liigher 
divine  influence,  called  inspiration,  were  not  en- 
joyed by  the  a|)ostles  in  those  instructions  which 
they  have  left  us,  how  easily  could  we  be  dis- 
turbed by  the  suspicion  that  they  misunderstooi^ 
some  of  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  or  failei^ 
to  exhibit  them  in  a  proper  manner!  They 
were  liable,  we  might  then  say,  from  their  de- 
voted attachment  to  the  person  of  Christ,  and 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


^ 


thoir  high  esteem  for  his  character,  to  adopt 
false  and  exag-geratcd  opinions'  respecting  his 
nature,  and  iiis  future  exaltation.  In  this  way, 
if  these  books  were  not  believed  to  be  given  by 
inspiiatiuu  of  Ood,  the  most  important  positive 
doctrines  of  Christianity  might  be  considered 
doubtful ;  as  has  been  done,  in  fact,  in  modern 
times,  by  those  who  deny  the  inspiration  of  the 
scriptures. 

2.  Inspiration  has  been  defined  in  different 
ways.  Cf.  the  historical  sketch,  s.  9,  10.  It 
may  be  best  defined,  according  to  the  representa- 
tions of  the  scri])tures  tlieiiiselves,  to  be  an  ear- 
traurdinary  divine  injhtence  by  which  the  teachers 
of  religion  were  instructed  what  and  how  they 
should  write  or  speak,  while  discharging  the  duties 
of  their  office.  There  is  no  need  of  any  distinc- 
tion betwen  their  oral  and  written  discourses. 
Morus,  p.  30,  s.  24.  The  correctness  of 
this  definition  will  hereafter  appear  from  the 
texts  which  will  be  cited  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

Note, — It  may  be  regarded  as  a  settled  point 
that  inspiration  is  not  impossible,  and  that  no 
argument  h priori  can  be  urged  against  the  his- 
torical evidence  of  the  fact.  This  was  truly 
remarked  by  Kant,  Religion  innerhalb  der  Griiii- 
zen  der  reinen  Vernunft,  2  Ausg.  Konigsberg, 
1793,  8vo;  and  also  by  Fichte,  Versuch  einer 
Kritik  aller  Offenbarung,  2  Ausg.  Konigsberg, 
1793,  8vo. 

I.  Inspiration  of  the  New  Testament. 

1.  This  cannot  be  proved  from  tiie  testimony 
of  the  fathers.  They  can  command  belief  only 
when  they  testify  respecting  things  which  could 
be  known  by  observation;  such  as  the  authen- 
ticity of  a  book,  or  the  age  of  the  writer.  Nor 
can  the  divine  origin  of  the  Bible  be  proved  by 
the  argument  by  which  we  prove  the  divine 
origin  of  the  doctrines  it  contains — viz.,  the  in- 
ternal witness  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  s.  7.  .Still  less 
can  it  be  proved  from  the  miracles  which  tlie 
sacred  writers  performed.  These  arguments  for 
the  inspiration  of  the  Bible  were  unknown  to  the 
ancients,  and  were  first  employed  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  by  the  theologians  of  Helmstiidt, 
who  succeeded  Calixtus. 

2.  The  great  argument  upon  which  protest- 
ants  rely  in  proving  the  inspiration  of  the  scrip- 
tures presupposes  only  the  genuineness  of  the 
books,  and  the  credibility  of  the  authors  of  the 
New  Testament.  Vide  s.  7;  cf.  Morus,  p.  17 — 
20,  s.  3—9,  and  p.  32,  s.  28.  We  hold  that 
every  book  of  the  New  Testament  which  is  ge- 
nuine, and  which  was  really  written  by  an  apos- 
tle, is  inspired,  or  written  under  a  special  divine 
influence.  In  proof  of  this  point,  we  rely  upon 
the  express  testimony  of  Jesus,  who  explicitly 
and  solemnly  promised  to  his  disciples  a  peculiar 
divine  assistance  whenever  they  should  be  call- 


ed upon  to  teach,  confirm,  or  defend  liis  reli- 
gion, to  the  service  of  which  he  had  consecrated 
them. 

Christ  promised  his  disciplrs  this  peculiar 
divine  assistance  on  four  ditferent  occasions  :— 
(ff)  when  he  first  sent  thern  forth,  Matt.  x.  19, 
•20;  (i)  in  a  discmirse  in  which  he  commis- 
sions them  to  publish  his  religion,  Luke,  xiu 
11,  12;  (c)  when  be  pn  dieted  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  ]Mnrk,  xiii.  11;  Luke,  xxi.  14; 
((/)  in  his  last  adiiress  to  his  disciples,  John, 
xiv. — xvi.  On  these  occasions  he  promised 
them  to  Tivixjjia.  uytoi;  an  extraordinary  divine 
influence  to  attend  them  constantly,  and  secure 
them  against  error.  Ho  said  to  them  in  Mark, 
that  when  they  spoke  under  this  divine  impulse, 
it  would  not  be  they  who  spoke,  but  the  Holy 
Spirit,  (ovx  iafi  r^fij  ol  7.o7u>i'vrfj,  dx^-a  to 
nvsii-ia  to  aytov.)  He  forbade  them  to  pre- 
meditate what  they  should  say  before  judicial 
tribunals,  since  they  should  then  be  taught  by 
the  Divine  Spirit,  not  only  what  but  how  they 
should  speak,  (^jj  ^uEpt/xy'/jo^re  rtCj^  r  tk  XoXtj- 
ar^tf  So^jjatrat  yap  i^iiv  x.  t.  %.)  The  object 
of  the  apostles,  in  those  discourses  in  which 
the  divine  assistance  was  promised,  was  not 
only  to  defend  themselves,  but  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  Christianity. 

Now,  if  the  apostles  were  assisted  in  this 
manner  in  their  discourses,  which  were  merely 
oral,  and  of  course  of  a  very  temporary  and  li- 
mited advantage,  how  much  more  should  they 
be  assisted  in  their  written  instructions,  which 
were  destined  to  exert  a  more  lasting  and  extend- 
ed influence !  '^  Est  enim  scriplurx  et  pracdica- 
tionis  par  ratio.  Qua3  enim  voce  pra^dicabatur 
doctrina,  ea  postea  juvanda)  memoria  causa  con- 
signabatur  Uteris,  et  qua;  causa  ernt  cur  prsedi- 
cationem  ex  divina  inspiratione  oporteret  peragi, 
ea  militabatpro  scriptione  eo  magis,  quod  scrip- 
tura  deberet  esse  medium  doctrina?  ejusdem  in- 
corrupte  ad  finem  mundi  usque  conservandse,  et 
ad  posteritatem  propaganda?."  Job.  Musaeus 
in  Spinosismo,  p.  G9.  Divine  assistance  was 
promised  to  the  apostles,  in  general  terms,  in 
the  discharge  of  their  duties  as  teachers,  whe- 
ther they  spake  or  wrote ;  and  the  words  xaXf  if 
and  Tia^^axaxdv  are  applied  with  equal  propriety 
to  speaking  and  writing.  According  to  John, 
xiv. — xvi.,  Christ  promised  his  disciples  that  so 
often  as  the  circumstances  of  time  and  place 
might  require,  they  should  enjoy  t!ie  constant^ 
uninterrupted  assistance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  as 
their  Paracletus,  their  counsellor,  and  assistant. 
According  to  John,  xvi.  7 — II,  the  Holy  Spirit 
would  convince  the  world  through  them,  (by 
their  writing,  therefore,  as  well  as  speaking.) 
And  finally,  the  apostles  and  evangelists  them- 
selves ascribe  the  same  authority  to  their  writ- 
ings as  to  their  oral  instructions,  John,  xx.  31 ; 
1  John,  i.  1—4;  2  Thess.  ii.  15;  1  Cor.  xt.  1, 


64 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


coll.  II.  j3;  Ephes.  iii.  3,  seq.;  Acts,  \v.  23, 
6eq. 

The  Holy  Spirit,  beside  the  general  assistance 
which  he  would  render  the  apostles,  should,  ac- 
cording to  the  promise  of  Christ,  reveal  to  them 
many  things  of  wliich  Christ  had  not  spoken, 
John,  xvi.  12 — 15.  That  in  their  teaching  they 
might  be  secure  from  mistake,  even  with  respect 
to  knowledge  which  they  might  have  acquired 
in  the  unaided  use  of  their  own  faculties,  he 
should  remind  them  (vrtour/Jifi)  of  all  that  Christ 
had  taught  them  ;  and  himself  instruct  them  in 
everything  (5[6a'?5^  rtdvta)  necessary  for  the 
discharge  of  the  duties  of  their  office,  John,  xiv. 
26.  He  should  reveal  to  them  future  events, 
John,  xvi.  13;  endow  them,  when  necessary, 
with  miraculous  powers,  Mark,  xvi.  17  ;  correct 
their  mistakes,  and  impart  to  them  new  instruc- 
tions whenever  the}'  were  called  for,  John,  xvi. 
1'2;  xiv.  2tj.  So  that  whatever  the  apostles 
taught  might  be  regarded  as  coming  from  God. 

This  testimony  of  Christ  is  the  foundation  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  inspiration  of  the  \evv  Tes- 
tament. And  from  this  testimony  we  see  clearly 
the  propriety  of  the  definition  of  inspiration 
given  in  the  introductory  remarks.  In  order  to 
shew  in  what  estimation  the  apostles  held  their 
own  writings  and  those  of  their  fellow-labour- 
ers, it  deserves  to  be  mentioned,  that  the  epis- 
tles of  Paul  were  placed  by  Peter  on  a  level 
with  the  scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament,  which 
were  then  regarded  by  both  Jews  and  Christians 
as  divine,  2  Pet.  iii.  ICi. 

These  promises  of  special  divine  assistance 
were  not,  indeed,  originally  made  to  Mark  and 
Luke,  who  were  not  apostles.  But  each  of  them 
was  the  disciple  and  assistant  of  an  apostle. 
"Mapxoj  ftn^r^rrj  xal  tpufvtvtrji  Uirpov,  xai, 
aitof  fa  v,t6  FltTpov  xjjfjVToouf I'tt  fyypa^Jjj  ruiv 
-ta;)i'5u>a:f,"  Ir<'naeus,  Adversus  Hares.  HI.  1. 
Luke  stood  in  a  similar  relation  to  Paul,  by 
whom  his  writings  were  su])[)nsed  to  be  sanc- 
tioned. ♦'  Lucm  digestuin  Paulo  adscrihere 
Solent,"  Ttrtiillian,  Adversus  Marc.  IV.  5. 
The  writings  of  Mark  and  Lnki",  therefore,  beino- 
either  dictati'd  or  sanctioned  by  inspired  apos- 
tles, must  be  ri'girded  as  pnssessin<r  divine  au- 
thority. "  Potest  m.igisirorum  videri,  quae  dis- 
cipuli  promulgnrint,"  Tertullian,  ubi  supra,  IV. 
5.  Besides,  as  thi-y  were  iho  companions  and 
fellow-labourers  of  the  apostles,  tlipy  may  i)e 
supposed  to  have  been  endowed,  as  such,  with 
the  higher  gifts  of  teaching,  to  have  enjoyed  the 
same  divine  influence  when  ihry  wrote  and 
spake,  and  therefore  to  be  entitled  to  equal  cre- 
dit with  the  others  in  what  they  teach.  Nor 
were  these  promises  originally  made  even  to 
Paul,  who  was  not,  like  the  other  apostlps,  a 
companion  of  Jesus;  but  they  were  afterwards 
extended  to  him,  since  he  was  appointed   an 


apostle  by  Jesus  himself,  and  enjoj'ed  all  the 
privileges  of  an  apostle,  and  was  acknowledged 
by  the  others  as  one  of  their  own  number 
Morus,  p.  19,  s.  7. 

II.  The  Inspiration  of  the  Old  Testament. 

The  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ  generally  con- 
sidered the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  to  be  in- 
spired ;  by  which  they  did  not  mean,  merely, 
that  the  doctrines  contained  in  them  were  of  di- 
vine origin,  but  that  the  books  themselves  were 
divine,  being  the  productions  of  inspired  pro- 
phets. Vide  Josephus,  Contra  Apionem,  1.  7. 
They  all  agreed  in  this  point,  although  they  had 
dilfcrent  opinions  respecting  the  mode  and  the 
degrees  of  inspiration.  It  is  not  enoutjh  to  say 
th;it  ('hristand  the  apostles  did  not  disclaim  this 
prevailing  opinion  of  the  Jews;  they  assented  to 
it,  and  presupposed  and  confirmed  its  truth. 
They  received  the  Old  Testament,  in  all  its 
parts,  as  divine.  The  texts  in  which  the  several 
books  of  tiie  Old  Testament  are  cited,  are  enu- 
merated by  Storr,  Biblical  Theology,  vol.  1,  s. 
13,  14  (of  the  translation.)*  Now  if  Christ  and 
his  apostles  were  inspired  men,  as  has  been 
shewn,  No.  1,  their  testimony  with  resj^ct  to 
the  inspiration  of  the  ancient  scriptures  is  deci- 
sive. And  this  testimony  affords  the  most  brief 
and  convincing  proof  which  can  be  offered  for 
the  inspiration  of  the  Old  Testament.  Vide 
Morus,  p.  23,  s.  13. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  tliongh  Christ 
and  his  apostles  laboured  to  subvert  the  Jewish 
dispensation,  and  to  establish  a  more  perfect  one 
in  its  place;  they  still  regarded  tlie  ^Iosaic  doc- 
trine, institute,  and  writinffs,  notwithstanding 
their  imperfections,  as  divine.  These  imperfec- 
tions were  inevitable  to  the  ancient  economy, 
which  was  designed  for  the  world  while  yet  in 
its  infancy,  and  incapable  of  a  higher  instruc- 
tion. 

That  the  apostles  assented  to  the  Jewish  opi- 
nion respecting  the  inspiration  of  tlie  Old  'IVs- 
tament,  is  abundantly  evident  from  various  and 
explicit  passages  in  their  wrilinirs.  Their  opi- 
nions on  this  subject  are  exhii)ited  with  most 
clearness  in  the  two  following  texts  : — 

I.  2  Tim.  iii.  II — 17.  In  this  passage,  Paul 
exhorts  Timothy  to  hold  fast  the  doctrine  which 
was  taught  by  the  apostles,  because  they  were 
inspired  teachers,  and  because  their  doctrine  was 
accordant  with  the  ancient  scriptures.  In  ver. 
M,  he  mentions  the  first  reason:  "Continue 
thou  in  the  things  whieh  thou  hast  learned 
ftSwj  rtapa  n'voj  ?utt^fj."  In  ver.  l.'i  he  men* 
tions  the  second  reason :  Continue  thou  in  the 
things  which  thou  hast  learned  (for  this  is  the 


•  Paijes  B6 — 72,  in  the  edition  forming  part  of 
Waiiu's  Liiihaut  of  Standard  Diti.'iitt. 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


65 


force  of  xat,)  because  thou  hast  from  athildknovun 
the  holy  scriptures  (of  the  Old  Testament,)  ra 

XptaT'9  "I^jtJoiJ,  which  cai\  instruct  you  in  the 
knowledge  of  that  salvation  which  we  obtain  by 
the  Christian  doctrine.  Here  Paul  expresses  his 
opinion  that  the  Old  Testament  leads  to  Christ, 
and  is  preparatory  to  Christianity.  In  ver.  IG, 
he  proceeds  to  say,  ndna  ypa<f»7  ^(oHvivotoi  (for 
^eoHvtvatoi  ovtjtt,  according  to  Clemens  of  Alex- 
andria, Theodoret,  the  Syriac  version,  the  Vul- 
gate,  and  nearly  all  the  theologians  of  the  six- 
teenth century  ;  otherwise  the  article  must  be 
inserted  before  ypa^y;,  and  the  comma  after  it  be 
retained,)  xai  iL^h^ifio^  rtpoj  6i.6aijxa7.tav,  rtpoj 
XXfyXov,  Ttpoj  ijiavop^uiaiv,  rtpoj  7i<uSnav  -triv  iv 
Sixaioavvri,  Jill  inspired  scripture  (no  part  of  it 
excepted)  is  also  profitable  for  instruction  (in  the 
Christian  religion),  yor  conviction  (confutation 
of  errors,  Sec),  for  improvement,  and  fur  disci- 
pline in  virtue  or  piety.  Ver.  17,  "Iva  dpttoj 
ij  0  roij  Qcov  av'^puiTto^,  rtpoj  nav  Ipyov  aya^oj/ 
i^r^pttdfiivo^.  By  means  (fthc  Old-Testament  .scrip- 
tures the  servant  tf  God  (Christian  teacher)  may 
become  fitted,  and  truly  qualified  for  his  import- 
ant work.  In  this  passage,  therefore,  Paul  ex- 
presses the  opinion,  that  tiie  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  are  inspired,  and  that,  wiien  rightly 
employed,  they  are  useful  even  in  Christian  in- 
struction. 

2.  2  Pet.  i.  19,  20.  Vide  Scripta  Varii  Argu- 
menti,  t.  i.  p.  1,  seq.  In  this  passage,  Paul 
shews,  in  opposition  to  Jews  and  judaizing  he- 
relics,  that  Jesus  was  the  true  Messiah.  In 
shewing  this,  he  now  appeals  to  those  predic- 
tions of  the  Jewish  prophets  which  had  been 
fulfilled  in  him.  Ver.  19,  "  We  (apostles)  find 
the  oracles  of  the  prophets  (respecting  Christ) 
much  more  convincing  now  (since  they  have 
been  fulfilled  ;)  and  ye  will  do  well  to  attend  to 
them.  Formerly,  before  their  fulfilment,  they 
were  obscure,  like  a  lantern  shining  feebly  on  a 
dark  path,  until  the  appearance  of  Christ  upon 
the  earth,  from  which  event  a  clearer  light  now 
proceeds,  and  we  can  better  understand  the  pro- 
phecies." Ver.  20,  "Nor  could  the  prophets 
themselves  of  the  Old  Testament  give  a  clear 
explanation  (frttXvoij  from  iTHX-vdv,  explicare, 
Mark,  iv.  34,)  of  their  own  oracles,  because 
they  had  only  indistinct  conceptions  of  the  sub- 
jects o,n  which  they  spake,  and  knew  only  so 
much  as  was  comnmnicated  to  them,  from  time 
to  timp,  by  divine  revelation."  (This  is  the 
context  of  \er.  21 ;  and  what  is  here  said  agrees 
with  the  passnge,  1  Pet.  i.  10 — 12.)  Ver.  21, 
Oi)  yap  ^'Xr^uaiL  (pxn,  ycr)  di/^pwrtou  rivix'^r, 
".ori  TCpr,<^r^r^ia,  aXK  vrto  rtffvftafoj  ayiov  (divine 
impulse  and  guidance)  ^fpofuvoi,  {ifipfrs'^ai,  mo- 
veri,  agitari, — the  word  by  which  the  Greeks 
commonly   described   the   inspiration   of   their 


minstrels,  prophets,  soothsayers  of  the  temple 
of  Apollo,  &.C.  ;  vide  S.  9;)  tXaXij'jai'  ayiot,  €>(ov 
oi'^ptortoi  (the  prophets  of  the  OKI  Testament,) 
for  no  oracle  was  delivered  from  the  mere  will  of 
man,  (i.  e.,  whether  th<^y  should  speak,  and 
what  and  how  they  should  speak,  did  not  depend 
on  the  will  of  the  prophets  ;)  but  the  ancient  pro- 
phets spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Sj/ii  it. 
The  prophets  themselves  acknowledged,  that 
whatever  they  taught,  whether  by  speaking  or 
writing,  was  dictated  to  them  by  God,  or  the 
Divine  Spirit,  and  was  published  by  his  com- 
mand, Ex.  iv.  12,  15,  16;  Dent,  xviii.  18;  Jer. 
i.  6,  seq.;  Amos,  iii.  7  ;  Is.  Ixi.  1 ;  Cf.  Morus, 
p.  20,  seq. 

This  passage  from  Peter  proves  the  inspira- 
tion only  of  the  prophetical  part  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  not,  strictly  speaking,  of  the  rest. 
But  from  the  two  passages  taken  together,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  apostles  believed  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, as  a  whole,  to  be  insjiired.  We  can  find 
no  evidence  in  all  the  New  Testament  that 
Christ  and  bis  apostles  dissented  in  the  least 
from  the  o|)inion  commonly  received  among  the 
Jews  on  ttiis  subject.  But  the  Jews  regarded 
the  entire  collection  of  the  Old-Testamenl  scrip- 
tures as  divine.  They  were  frequently  called 
by  Josephus  and  Philo,  ^tlai  ypa^ui,  ifpo  ypoju- 
;uara,  and  always  mentioned  with  the  greatest 
veneration.  Divine  inspiration  (irtcrtioio  ©foi) 
is  expressly  conceded  by  Josephus  to  the  pro- 
phets :  and  as  none  but  prophets  were  permitted 
by  the  Jews  to  write  their  national  history,  and 
none  but  priests  to  transcribe  it,  (as  appears 
from  the  same  author  ;)  we  conclude  that  inspi- 
ration was  also  conceded  by  him  and  his  con- 
temporaries to  their  historical  books.  Josephus, 
Contra  Apionem,  I.  6,  7,  8.     Cf.  Morus,  p.  20. 

Such  were  the  prevailing  opinions  of  the  Jews 
of  the  first  and  second  centuries,  and  long  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Christ;  and  to  these  opinions 
Christ  and  his  apostles  plainly  assented;  they 
must,  therefore,  be  adopted  by  all  who  allow 
Christ  and  his  apostles  to  be  divine  teachers. 
The  contemptuous  expressions  which  many  have 
permitted  themselves  to  use  with  regard  to  the 
Old  Testament  are,  as  Morus  justly  observed. 
Epitome,  p.  24,  Christiano  indignsc  voces. 

'V\\B  doubt  may  arise  whether  some  of  the  his- 
torical books  can  be  considered  as  the  produc- 
tions of  prophets,  as  they  were  compiled  from 
other  works  after  the  Babylonian  exile.  But  no 
essential  difference  is  made,  even  if  what  is  sup- 
posed be  true;  since  the  most  important  part* 
of  these  historical  books  were  extracted  from 
larirer  histories,  and  ascribed  to  the  prophets  by 
whom  they  were  oritrinally  written.  So  the  ex- 
tracts made  in  the  books  of  Kin^s  and  Chroni- 
cles, from  a  larger  history  of  Jewish  kings,  ar« 
I  ascribed  to  Isaiah. 

r2 


66 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


SECTION  IX. 

HISTORICAL  OBSERVATIONS,  COMPARING  THE  CON- 
CEPTIONS AND  E\PRF.SSIONS  OV  THE  ANCIENT 
WORLD  RfcSPECTING  IMMEDIATE  DIVINE  INFLU- 
ENCE. 

I.  TTie  Idea  of  Inspiration  Universal. 

We  find  tliat  every  nation  of  the  ancient 
world  believed  in  immediate  divine  influences, 
althoufjh  ilie  particular  conceptions  which  they 
entertained  on  this  subject  varied  with  their 
local  circumstances,  and  the  dilTerent  degrees  of 
their  intellectual  culture  :  but  in  consequence  of 
the  prevalence  of  a  strict  and  scholastic  philoso- 
phy in  modern  limes,  our  own  conceptions  on 
this  subject  have  become  widely  different  from 
those  which  formerly  prevailed,  and  can  hardly 
be  brought  into  aj^reement  with  them.  Tite  at- 
tempt has  frequently  been  made  to  reconcile  the 
modes  of  thinking  and  speaking  respecting  di- 
vine infl'jences,  wiiich  were  common  in  all  an- 
tiquity, with  the  philosophical  principles  of  our 
own  day.  But  this  attempt  has  not  been  very 
successful;  and  the  entirely  different  methods 
which  have  been  adopted  by  writers  to  effect 
this  reconciliation  are  a  sufficient  proof  of  the 
difficulty  of  the  undertaking. 

From  the  above  remarks  we  may  conclude — 

1.  That  since  these  conceptions  are  found  to 
exist  among  all  people,  and  to  be  everywhere 
very  much  alike,  especially  in  the  early  stages 
of  cultivation,  they  must  be  natural  to  the  hu- 
man mind,  and  result  directly  from  its  original 
constitution. 

2.  That  if  God  has  seen  fit  to  make  a  direct 
revelation  to  any  particular  man  or  nation,  he 
has  accommodated  himself  in  so  doing  to  these 
original  conceptions  of  the  mind,  and  has,  as  it 
were,  met  ihem  on  the  way  in  which  they  were 
coming  towards  him.  This  might  be  reason- 
ably expected  from  the  Divine  wisdom  and  good- 
ness; for  how  should  a  wise  and  good  father 
deem  it  improper  to  adapt  the  instructions  which 
he  gives  to  his  children  in  their  education  to 
their  natural  expectations,  and  to  answer  the  de- 
mands of  their  minds  1  This  shews  us  the  rea- 
son why  true  inspiration,  such  as  the  apostles 
and  prophets  enjoyed,  resembles  so  much  in  its 
exUffnal  signs,  how  wide  soever  the  internal  <lif- 
ference  may  be,  theyV//jemnd  imairinary  inspira- 
tion to  which  the  prophets  and  teachers  of  the 
heathen  world  pretended.  The  reason  of  this 
resemblance  between  real  and  pretended  inspi- 
ration should  be  carefully  noted,  because  the 
comparison  of  the  two  has  been  frequently  turn- 
ed to  bad  account. 

3.  That  the  explanations  which  are  frequently 
given  of  those  passages  of  the  Bible  which  treat 
of  inspiration  cannot  be  true.  Some  modern 
writers  explain  away  the  sense  of  lln-se  passages 
till  nothing  seems  to  be  left  of  literal  inspird- 


tion,  and  everything  accords  with  their  philo- 
sophical system.  But  by  applying  these  his- 
torical observations  to  tliese  passages,  we  find 
that  the  sacred  writers  intended  to  teach  a  lite- 
ral inspiration  in  the  proper  sense,  and  were  so 
understood  by  their  contemporary  hearers  and 
readers. 

II.  Rude  Nations  believed  Great  Men  to  he  Inspired. 

Nations  in  the  first  stages  of  improvement 
believe  that  everything  which  is  great,  which 
excites  their  wonder,  or  surpasses  their  compre- 
hension, is  the  result  of  immediate  divine 
agency,  and  overlook  the  second  causes  to  which 
these  effects  are  to  be  ascribed.  Accordingly, 
they  regard  useful  inventions,  laws,  and  reli- 
gious institutions,  as  gifts  bestowed  directl}'  by 
God,  and  the  distinguished  men  through  whom 
these  blessings  are  bestowed  as  the  favourites 
and  messengers  of  God,  and  therefore  entitled 
to  the  highest  reverence.  This  statement  is 
abundantly  proved  from  the  mythology  of  the 
ancient  nations,  and  especially  of  Greece. 
Through  these  men  God  was  supposed  to  speak  ; 
and  wliat  they  said  was  regarded  as  the  word  if 
God,  and  they  thrmselves  as  holy  or  constcrntcd, 
as  is  implied  in  all  the  ancient  languages.  Thus 
minstrels  and  prophets  were  called  by  the  an- 
cient Greeks  ayiot  and  ^ftoi,  by  the  sacred 
writers  b-w'i-'.?,  svT'sn  r«s,  "2  Kings,  i.  9,  uyiot 
Qiov  ar^pwrtot,  2  Pet.  i.  21;  also  cn-^j,  which, 
according  to  its  Arabic  etymology,  wculd  denote 
messengers,  ambaasadors,  (uf  God.)  The  term 
^£ort|)orfoj  (Homer,  Iliad,  XII.  22S)  signifies 
one  who  speaks  in  the  place  of  God,  L-ata.  Cicero, 
Pro  Archia  Poeta,  VIII.,  says  that  poets  were 
supposed  divina  qaodani  »pirilu  injlari,  and  that 
they  were  called  sandi,  quod  quasi  dCorum 
aliquo  dono  atque  muncre  coinineudali  nobis  esse 
vidcantur ;  and  XII.,  that  they  semper  apud 
oniucs  sancli  sunt  habiti atque  dicti.  Cf,  Dresde, 
Proluss.  ^luo  de  notione  propheta?  in  codice 
sacro,  Wittenberg,  1788 — 89.  IMorus,  p 
20,  21. 

III.  Great  Men  believed  themselves  to  be  Impired, 

Those  who  felt  themselves  urged  on  to  great 
and  noble  deeds,  or  irresistibly  compelled  to 
communicate  their  feelings  to  others,  believed 
the  impulses  by  which  they  were  actuated  to  be 
supernatural,  and  that  they  were  the  organs 
through  whom  the  Deity  spake  and  acted. 
Many  of  the  sages  and  philosophers  of  early  ar>- 
tiquity  expressed  this  beliel  ref-^H-cting  them- 
selves; and  to  doubt  their  sincerity,  or  to  sup- 
pose that  they  made  such  pretensions,  as  artful 
politicians,  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  their 
contemporaries,  would  betray  great  ignorance 
of  the  historj'  of  mankind.  The  minstrels  and 
prophets  among  the  ancient  Greeks  believed  ao 
leps  firmly  than  their  hearers  or  readers  thatthejr 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


67 


were  actuated  by  a  divine  impulse.  This  ap- 
pears evident  from  the  writings  of  Homer. 
What  Cicero  said,  Dt  Natura  Deorum.  II.  fiO, 
Nemo  vt'r  nia'^nus  sine  uliqu-o  njflulti  divino  uH' 
quam  fuit,  was  universally  believed  in  all  anti- 
tjuiiy.  Accordingly,  everything  great  and  noble 
in  the  thoughts  or  actions  of  the  ancient  heroes, 
commanders,  kings,  and  sages,  all  their  great 
undertakings,  their  wars  and  victories,  were 
ascribed  to  the  Deity  working  in  them  as  instru- 
ments of  its  own  purposes. 

It  appears,  then,  from  Nos.  II.  III.,  that  the 
teachers  and  prophets  of  the  heathen  world,  as 
well  as  those  of  the  Bible,  both  believed  them- 
selves and  were  believed  by  others  to  be  in- 
spired. And  the  question  here  naturally  arises, 
whether  the  inspiration  of  the  latter  as  well  as 
that  of  the  former  may  not  have  been  feigned  or 
imaginary.  This  question  may  be  firmly  an- 
swered in  the  negative,  with  reasons  which  are 
perfectly  satisfactory  to  the  unprejudiced  in- 
quirer. The  teachers  and  prophets  of  the  Bible 
were  enabled,  through  the  divine  wisdom  and 
goodness,  to  give  such  proof  of  the  reality  of 
their  inspiration  as  those  of  the  heathen  world 
could  never  offer. 

IV.  Different  Nations  agree  in  their  Representations 
and  IdeiA  nf  Inspiration. 
The  conceptions  formed  of  the  Deity  in  the 
«arly  ages  were  extremely  gross  and  sensual. 
Men  in  the  savage  state  have  always  supposed 
God  to  possess  a  body,  and  every  way  to  resem- 
ble themselves.  Their  conceptions  respecting 
his  influence  would  not,  of  course,  be  more  re- 
fined than  respecting  his  nature.  In  this  parti- 
cular, as  well  as  in  many  others,  the  ideas 
which  the  human  mind  has  entertained  have 
been  everywhere  very  much  the  same,  as  is 
proved  by  the  agreement  of  various  languages. 
Almost  all  the  ancient  nations  ascribed  the  di- 
vine influence,  by  which  the  confidents  of  hea- 
ven were  inspired  to  speak  or  act,  to  the  icord 
or  mouth  of  God,  or  to  the  breath  proceeding  out 
of  his  mouth  ;  and  they  accordingly  regarded  this 
divine  influence  itself  as  literally  inspiration. 
All  this  is  shewn  by  the  language  employed  to 
designate  their  ideas.  Vide  John,  xx.  22.  The 
oracles  of  the  prophets  were  called  .among  the 
Hebrews  nn"  ■>d,  n^r^^  -n^i,  u> ;  among  the  Greeks, 
^r^jxr^t  4)a'rr({,  xdyiov  and  among  the  Romans,  ora- 
cula,  derived,  according  to  Cicero,  from  ore  sive 
oratione  Deartim.  And  these  divine  influences 
are  expressed  in  all  the  ancient  languages  by 
terms  which  literally  designate  blowing,  breath- 
ing, breathing  upon,  &c.;  in  the  Hebrew, 
nn,  D'H-'S  m-\,  ry-rp  nn,  mn"  no  nn;  in  the  Greek, 
rtviu),  ijA-rtvioi,  rivivuo.  (aytov  or  ©fov,)  turtvivjif, 
iriijivoia  0fOv,  also  ^fdrti/fvffToj,  2  Tim.  iii.  16, 
(vide  s.  8;)  sometimes,  XaXslv  iv  rtifvuart-0fov 
for  ^onv(va-tav  tZtoi,  or  ininvoiay  ©tov  txt^'V  in 


the  Latin,  inspiratio,  inspiratus,  (a  spirando,) 
and  spiritu  divino  instincluin  esse,  Livj',  V.  i5, 
ajjlahis  Dei,  afflutuni  esse  vnmine,  injlari  divino 
spiritu,  Cicero,  Pro  Archia  Poela,  Vlll.  From 
this  agreement  in  the  terms  by  which  the  an- 
cient nations  designated  inspiration,  we  argue 
the  agreement  of  their  original  ideas  ?especting 
it;  and  we  conclude  that  these  terms,  when 
used  in  the  Bible,  must  be  understood  to  denote 
immediate  divine  influences,  since  this  is  the 
only  sense  in  which  they  were  used  in  the  an- 
cient world.     Cf.  s.  19,  II.,  and  s.  39,  I. 

V.  Inspired  Men  often  spake  what  they  did  not 

understand. 
The  ancient  nations  believed  that  one  whose 
words  and  actions  were  thus  under  the  divine 
influencea,  was  himself,  at  the  time  of  inspira- 
tion, merehj  passive.  Mentes  declares  to  Tele- 
machus,  Odyssey,  I.  200,  201 — 

cydt  iiavTevaOfiai,  <L;  et>i  iviioi 
'ASavaiot  ffaWowi.  \ 

Cf.  Odyssey,  XV.  172.  They  also  believed 
that  the  soothsayer  or  minstrel  did  not  himself 
understand,  and  could  not  explain  to  others,  what 
he  spake,  or  rather,  what  God  spake  through 
him,  while  he  was  inspired.  This  opinion  was 
a  natural  consequence  of  the  former.  In  con- 
formity with  this  general  belief  was  the  opinion 
of  the  Jews,  as  expressed  in  the  Talmud,  the 
prophets  themselves  did  not,  in  many  cases,  tinder- 
sta7id  the  import  of  tvhat  they  predicted.  The 
same  opinion  is  expressed  by  Josephus  and 
Philo;  and  Peter  says,  2  Pet.  i.  20,  rt()0'pr;T(i.a 
iSJaj  £rtt>.vfTfto5  ov  yiVfrai.  Vide  s.  8.  We  find 
the  same  thing  expressed  in  innumerable  pas- 
sages of  the  Grecian  writers.  Plato,  in  his  dia- 
logue rtfpi  "IXiaSoj  ('Iioi'),  puts  the  prevailing 
notion  of  the  Greeks  into  the  mouth  of  Socra- 
tes : — Kor^oi"  xpr^ua  rtoir^Trj^  iati,  xai  nrr^vov,  xai, 
cfjjof  xat  oil  npoTfpoc  old^Tf  notfiv  rtfiv  ai  tv^iof 
tc  ytvr^Tai  xat  tzijipiov,  xat  o  voi'f  fxrxtti  iv  avrc^ 
fi'ij.  f(05  8'  av  tovri  tx'>[i  to  jcr>jjua,  dSvi'OToj  nav 
noiflv  iariv  av^pwrtoj,  xai  Xiir^ifiaSfiv  .  .  .  .  ov 
yap  Tf;^i'>;  ravra  T.f'yortjij',  aXXa  J>fia  Swa^ft  .  .  . 
o  Jifoj,  i|atpovuf I'oj  TovTwv  vovv,  rovToiy  ^rpr^ra* 
vrtrptratj.  xai  rot;  j;p>;5/.4(i-6ot5,  xai  rotj  uavrfit 
Toij  J>fiot;'  lia  r^ufi^  oi  axovovrti  fiSufirv  on  ovx 
ovroi  ti'jiv  ol  Tttvra  Xtyofrrj,  ovVw  rto'K'Kov  a^ia, 
oI{  voii  ixri  rtdpfi^riv,  aXX'  o  ^fdj  foTiv  o  Xf'yui'. 
biOL  Toi'tuv  6s  (fbt'yyfTttt  rtpo;  t^fia^.  "The  poet 
cannot  compose,  nor  the  soothsayer  prophesy, 
unless  he  is  inspired  by  the  Deit\\a^d  trans- 
ported, as  it  were,  beyond  himselt.  He  then 
loses  sight  of  the  rules  of  art,  and  is  borne  away 
by  the  divine  impulse.  The  Deity  deprives 
him  of  his  own  consciousness  and  reflection, 
and  employs  him  as  an  ambassador.  //  f»  not 
he  who  speaks,  but  God  U'ho  speaks  throu<:h  him.'''' 
True  inspiration  is  described  in  very  much  the 


68 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Bame  way,  Mark,  xiii.  11.  Anrain,  Plato  says 
in  his  dialogue  ntpi  ApfT^j  (Mt'i'wi'),  '0,j^wj  av 
xaTJiiuev  ^(iov{<  oirn'fj  vow  /.irj  t^o^ffiy  noXXo 
xai  /If  yaXa  xaropboiTii'  uv  rtparT0v5t  xai,  Xt'yovtJt, 
•'  |)oets  and  prophets  are  justly  called  dii'ine, 
bt'cause  while  they  declare  important  things, 
they  themselves  do  not  understand  what  they 
say."  In  the  Odys^y,  I.  317 — 350,  Telema- 
chus  thus  checks  Penelope  in  attempting  to 
control  the  bard, 

M'lrrp  Cfiil,  Tt  T    dp'  dv  ^ovicif  Iptripov  doiidif 
TfpTdi'  omrrj  01  kdof  opivrai  \   oi    fi    T      doiioi 
Airioi,  dXXa   vo&i   Zcv(   atrio;,   <n  rt  di Jcoaii' 
'A-iiSpdaiv  dXipqar^aiv  onuf  iHiSyjin  tuaaru), 

Phemius  declares,  Odyssey,  xxii.  316, 

AvToiiSaitTOf  i'  tin'i'  Stdj  it  fioi  en  (tipcatr  oT^oj 
TlafToiaf  ivitpi'Oti'. 

In  the  Sybilline  Oracles,  an  inspired  speaker 
says, 

ovTt  yap  otfia, 
'O  n  \eyu},  (teXtrai  i'  o  Sidj  ru  tKuoT   dyoptvuv. 

So  it  is  said  respecting  Balaam,  (Num.  xxiii. 
5,)  that  the  Lord  put  words  into  his  mouth.  The 
ancient  minstrels  and  poets,  in  whose  produc- 
tions art  had  as  yet  no  share,  were  called  simply 
aoiboi  and  bloi  ixoihoi.  So  they  are  always  called 
in  Homer.  The  word  Ttoir^rr^^  is  of  later  origin, 
and  was  unknown  until  poetry  had  become  an 
art.  Cf.  Scripta  Varii  arguiiienti,  p.  23,  29, 
ed.  2. 

^'lI.  Inspiration  described  by  terms  indicating 
Violence, 

The  impulse  which  is  fell  by  those  who  are 
inspired  is  commonly  very  strong  and  irresist- 
ible. They  often  betray  their  emotion  by  an 
unusual  strength  of  voice,  and  very  violent  bo- 
dily movements  ;  hence,  in  all  the  ancient  lan- 
guages the  terms  which  designate  the  words  and 
actions  of  those  who  are  inspired  convey  the 
idea  of  violence  of  mental  feeling  and  bodily  ac- 
tion— 0.  g.,  up/ir;  (impetus),  opftaofiai,.  Those 
who  were  inspired  were  said,  rorripi,  agilari 
D'O,  xarixf'^ai  ix  &fov,  ^ipf.^ai,  (2  Pet.  i.  21), 
pati  Drum;  and  inspiration  itself  was  called 
furor  divimi.i,  fiayia  (fiaUtn^ai.)  Accordingly, 
the  words  which  in  the  ancient  languages  siirni- 
fy  to  predict,  generally  signify  too,  to  ra^e,  to 
act  like  a  inadmnn,  tnsanirv  f,  g.,  vntlcinnri  in 
Latin,  and  in  Hebrew  K3j-n,  1  Sam.  xviii.  10. 
The  impulses  attending  inspiration  were  like- 
wise represented  in  the  writings  of  the  Asiatics 
as  a  S|)iritual  and  sacred  inloricntton;  because 
(liey  transported  a  man  beyond  himself,  and 
strained  and  elevated  all  the  powers  of  his  soul. 
Hence  the  figurative  language  employed,  Luke, 
i.  15;  Rphes.  v.  IR.  The  ancient  prophets  and 
poets,  as  we  «ee  from  Homer,  were  accustomed 


to  employ  music  and  song- as  a  means  of  exciting 
and  increasing  inspiration.  Elisha  did  the  same, 
2  Kings,  iii.  15.  And  the  members  of  the 
schools  of  the  prophets  were  ever  engaged  in 
these  exercises,  1  Sam.  x.  5,  seq. 

SECTION  X. 

or  THE  VARIOUS  THEORIES  RESPECTING  THE  MAN- 
NER AND  DEGREES  OF  INSPIRATION. 

I.  The  Theory  that  Inspiration  in  the  highest  sense 
was  extended  equally  to  all  Scripture, 

The  theory  that  the  divine  assistance  which 
the  saf-red  writers  experienced  extended  toevery- 
thincr  which  they  wrote,  words  and  letters  not 
excepted,  is  doubtless  one  of  the  oldest  in  the 
Christian  church.  In  this  view  of  the  subject, 
the  sacred  writers  were  merely  the  scribix  or 
amaTiuenses,  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  and  were  often 
compared  by  the  ancients  to  flutes,  upon  which 
the  Spirit  of  God  played.  This  comparison  is 
found  in  the  writings  of  Justin,  Athenagoras, 
Macarius,  and  other  fathers ;  and  also  of  the 
modern  theologians,  Musseus,  Baier,  Quenstedt, 
and  even  of  Schubert,  in  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century. 

This  theory  accords  very  well  in  many  re- 
spects with  the  mode  of  thought  and  conception 
which  prevailed  in  the  ancient  world,  (vide  s. 
0;)  but  it  is  very  unlike  the  ideas  which  are 
entertained  on  the  subject  of  inspiration  at  the 
present  day.  But  it  is  still  more  important  to 
remark  respecting  it,  that  the  sacred  writers 
themselves  never  profess  to  have  enjoyed,  while 
writing,  inspirati(jn  of  such  a  nature.  And  that 
they  were  not  in  reality  the  mere  organs  of  the 
Divine  Spirit,  whatever  may  have  been  supposed 
by  their  contemporaries,  must  appear  from  a  mo- 
ment's observatirm.  For  (1)  we  find  that  each 
of  the  writers  of  the  Bible  has  his  own  peculiar 
style,  which  perfectly  distinguishes  him  from 
all  the  rest.  It  has  indeed  been  said,  that  the 
Holy  Spirit  accommodated  hiniselftothe  style  of 
each  particular  writer  ;  but  the  one  who  dictates 
is  not  wont  to  accommodate  himself  to  the  style 
of  the  amanuensis.  (2)  The  manner  in  which 
the  sacred  writers  treat  the  subjects  which  they 
introduce, — the  costume  with  which  they  invest 
them,  is  often,  notwithstanding  the  dignity  and 
excellence  of  the  subjects  themselves,  rude  and 
unpolished,  and  such  as  misht  be  expected  from 
illiterate  and  uncultivated  writers.  Tliis  trait, 
at  least  in  their  writings,  must  be  ascribed  to 
their  own  agency.  (.1)  In  many  cases  the  in- 
spired writ'Ts  evidently  made  use  of  the  pro- 
ductions of  others  :  the  evangelists  compoRi>d 
their  histories  in  part  from  the  previous  accounts 
of  the  life  of  Jesus;  the  later  prophets,  Fzekiel 
and   Jeremiah,   frequently   borrowed    from    the 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


69 


oracles  of  Tsaiah,  &c.  (1)  The  sacred  histo- 
ri.ms  frequently  appealed  to  the  evidence  of 
their  own  senses  for  the  facts  which  they  relate, 
to  the  testimony  of  others,  to  the  records  from 
wliich  they  derived  their  information,  and  to 
their  own  investigations,  (Luke,  i.  1  ;)  from  all 
wiiich  it  appears  that  they  were  not  passti-e 
•inder  the  divine  influences,  and  that  they  were 
not  miraculously  endowed  with  any  knowledge 
which  they  could  ohlain  in  the  diligent  use  of 
their  own  intellectual  powers,  since  God  does 
not  work  miracles  when  they  are  unnecessary. 
(5)  They  frequently  speak  in  their  own  names, 
send  greetings,  mention  their  private  affairs  (2 
Tim.  iv.  13,  seq.),  &c.  (6)  In  some  cases  they 
themselves  make  a  distinction  between  their 
own  advice  and  the  express  command  of  God, 
or  of  Christ,  I  Cor.  vii.  25,  coll.  v.  40;  2  Cor. 
viii.  10. 

According  to  the  conceptions  of  the  ancient 
world,  (vide  s.  9,)  the  very  words  employed 
were  in  some  cases,  though  not  always,  inspired  ; 
and  by  many  writers,  both  of  ancient  and  mo- 
dern times,  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible  has 
been  thought  to  extend  even  to  the  words  in 
which  it  was  written.  This  opinion  is  advo- 
cated by  Ernesti,  Neue  Theol.  Bibliothek,  b.  iii. 
b.  4G8,  ff.  The  argument  which  he  used,  and 
which  is  commonly  urged,  is  this:  thoughts 
cannot  be  clearl)'  communicated  to  the  mind 
without  words;  and  therefore  the  latter,  as  well 
as  tKe  former,  must  have  been  given  to  the  in- 
spired writers  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  But  I  may 
obtain  a  person  to  write  a  book  under  my  super- 
intendence and  direction;  I  may  communicate 
to  him  the  ideas  to  be  expressed,  furnish  him 
with  all  the  materials  of  the  composition,  and 
suggest,  whenever  it  is  necessary,  particular 
words;  and  all  this  without  dictating  to  him 
every  syllable  and  letter  to  be  employed  :  I  may 
leave  him,  under  my  close  supervision,  to  exe- 
cute the  work  in  his  own  wa5\  So  Paul  might 
nave  been  left  by  the  Spirit  to  pursue  his  own 
method  in  shewing  that  the  Mosaic  institute 
must  be  abolished.  But  in  other  cases  it  seems 
to  be  necessary  that  the  Holy  Spirit  should 
have  communiciited  the  very  words  in  which 
the  things  revealed  should  be  expressed  ;  as,  for 
example,  in  certain  numbers,  or  names  of  persons 
and  places,  which  could  not  have  be.en  known 
except  from  revelation.  Vide  Morus,  p.  35,  n. 
6.  Cgnsiderations  like  these  prepared  the  way 
for  the  views  which  follow. 

11.  The  Theory  thai  Inspiration  teas  extended  in  dif- 
ferent degrees  to  different  portions  of  Scripture. 

This  theory  was  adopted  in  order  to  avoid  the 
difficulties  resuhintj  from  the  former.  In  this 
view  of  the  subject,  the  degrees  of  inspiration 
vary  rt-iih  the  character  nf  the  writer  and  the 
r-iture  of  the  subject.     This  was  believed  by 


some  of  the  ancients  ;  but  theologians  have  nevel 
been  able  to  agree  in  deciding  how  many  de- 
grees of  inspiration  there  were,  or  in  what  way 
they  should  be  defined  ;  nor  is  it  probable  that, 
on  these  points,  they  will  ever  perfectly  agree, 
since  the  inspired  writers  iiave  left  them  un<ie- 
cided,  and  we  are  unable  to  determine  with  re- 
spect to  objects  which  lie  so  wholly  beyond  the 
circle  of  our  experience.  The  following  <:re 
some  of  the  principal  attempts  that  have  been 
made  to  determine  the  manner  and  degrees  of 
inspiration: — 

1.  Some  theologians  are  contented  with  the 
general  position,  that  there  are  different  degrees 
of  inspiration,  and  do  not  think  proper  to  deter- 
mine under  what  particular  degTee  any  i;iven 
passage  was  written.  Tliey  g'>  i,o  further  than 
to  saj',  that  in  writing  on  subjects  of  the  first 
importance,  in  communicating  facts  which  could 
have  been  learned  only  from  revelation,  and  in 
cases  where  there  was  peculiar  liability  to  mis- 
take, the  sacred  writers  enjoyed  the  highest  de- 
gree of  divine  influence — the  inspiration  of  wr^rds 
(inspiratio  verbalis)  ;  but  that  in  treating  of  sub- 
jects of  inferior  interest — for  example,  of  those 
of  a  merely  historical  nature — they  enjoyed  no 
higher  assistance  than  was  necessary  to  secure 
them  against  error,  to  refresh  their  recollection 
with  the  knowledge  which  they  had  before, ac- 
quired, or  perhaps  to  give  the  first  impulse  to 
speak  or  write.  These  views  of  inspiration 
were  entertained  by  Michaelis,  Doderlein.  and 
others.  Calixtus  thought  that  it  was  sufficient 
to  say,  in  general  terms,  that  the  sacred  wri'ers 
were  secured  by  divine  influence  against  the 
possibility  of  mistake.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  3G,  s. 
29,  n.  7.  But  considering  that  we  are  unable, 
at  the  present  time,  to  determine  how  much  the 
sacred  writers  knew  respecting  the  several  sub- 
jects of  which  they  have  treated,  from  their  own 
unaided  study,  and  how  much  from  the  direct 
teaching  of  the  Holy  S|iirit,  none  of  the  theolo- 
gians above  mentioned  have  attempted  to  define 
accurately  the  degree  of  inspiration  under  which 
particular  portions  of  holy  writ  were  composed. 

2.  Other  theologians  have  denied  that  al!  the 
books  of  the  Bible  were  inspired,  or  that  the 
irhnle  of  the  inspired  books  was  written  under 
special  divine  assistance.  Those  who  have  (en- 
tertained this  opinion  may  be  sulidivided  ii.to 
different  classes.  Some  go  so  far  as  to  say^ 
that  some  parts  of  a  book  may  be  of  divine  ori- 
f;in,  while  other  parts  of  the  same  book  are  of 
human  origin  only,  and  must  therefore  be  care- 
fully distinguished  fr^^m  the  former. 

If  we  ask,  now,  which  parts — of  the  epi«tle 
to  the  Romans,  for  example — are  divine  and 
which  human,  we  shall  receive  various  answers. 
Henry  Holden.  as  cited  by  Richard  Simon, 
would  say,  that  only  those  parts  were  to  be  re- 
ceived  as  inspired   which   the   sacred   wriieM 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


themselves  expressly  declared  were  spoken  by 
God ;  anil  that  the  other  parts,  whether  they 
rel.iled  to  history  or  doctrine,  were  to  be  re- 
garded as  human.  Others  would  say,  that  what- 
ever related  to  the  doctrines  of  religion  was  in- 
spired. Semler,  in  his  Treatise  on  the  Canon, 
ami  likewise  Kant,  maintained  that  the  general 
mural  ulllHy  of  a  work  was  the  only  criterion 
by  which  its  inspiration  could  be  judged;  that 
ail  inspired  book  must  therefore  be  calculated 
to  promote  the  moral  improvement  of  all  men 
in  all  ages;  and  that  consequently  those  parts 
only  of  our  scriptures  which  had  this  tendency 
were  inspired. 

According  to  the  last  opinion,  some  parts  of  a 
book — those  of  universal  application,  and  of  ge- 
neral moral  uiility — are  inspired,  while  other 
parts  of  one  and  the  same  book,  not  possessing 
these  marks  of  divinity,  are  merely  human. 
To  this  view  it  may  be  objected,  (1)  that  by 
subji^cting  inspiration  to  the  criterion  of  utility 
it  does  the  same  as  to  deny  it  altogether;  since 
what  might  be  received  as  divine  by  one,  from 
the  general  luiliiy  which  he.  might  suppose  it  to 
possess,  might  be  denied  this  character  by  an- 
other, as  wanting,  in  hin  view,  this  mark  of 
ins|)iration.  (2)  It  is  chargeable  with  the  error 
ot"  reasoning  h  priuri  upon  a  question  of  fact— • 
an  efror  which  cannot  be  justified;  for  if  God 
has  seen  fit  to  give  special  divine  aids  to  any 
individual,  we  are  not  to  determine  by  our  rea- 
sonings, and  prescribe  as  it  were  to  God,  what 
and  how  great  they  may  or  must  have  been. 
(3)  It  does  not  correspond  with  the  view  of  the 
inspiration  anil  divinity  of  a  book  entertained 
by  llie  ancient  world,  and  of  course  by  the 
sacred  writers.  Vide  s.  9.  It  is  easy  to  see, 
that  while  those  who  hold  this  opinion  retain 
the  ancient  words  tiispiralitm  and  divinity,  they 
ende.wour  to  use  them  in  such  a  sense  as  will 
accord  with  the  prevailing  conceptions  of  our 
own  age,  and  with  the  principles  of  their  philo- 
sophy. 

'I'his  opinion  is  not  of  recent  origin.  Tertul- 
liansays,  "A  nobis  nihil  omnino  rejiciendnm 
est,  quod  pertinet  ad  nos  :  et  legimiis,  omnein 
Bcripluram  icdijicatinni  hubilrm  divinittis  inspi- 
rari."  De  habiiii  mulierum,  c.  3.  He  says 
this  in  ordi'r  to  defend  the  book  of  Knoch. 

Xote. — We  nny  indeed  decide  that  a  divine 
revelation  cannot  contain  any  doctrines  subver- 
sive of  the  moral  improvement  and  happiness 
of  men,  which  we  have  before  shewn  (Intro- 
duclifm,s.  3,  r»)  to  be  the  great  objects  for  which 
a  revelation  was  made.  And  we  may  conse- 
quently determine,  that  no  book  which  contains 
finch  hurtful  doctrines  can  be  inspired.  So  far 
Kant,  Ficlite,  and  others,  are  ri'jiit.  But  when 
they  undertake  to  pre8crii)e  to  Supreme  Wisdom 
the  means  by  which  tiiis  end  is  to  be  attained, 
they    transct.jd    their    proper    limits.     These 


means,  it  is  obvious  to  every  one,  must  vary 
with  the  age,  character,  and  other  circumstances 
of  those  for  whom  they  are  intended.  And 
who  can  say,  that  positive  religion  may  not  be 
a  iTieans  of  moral  improvement,  by  giving  effi- 
cacy to  moral  religion,  and  iK^nce  be  revealed 
and  inspired  ]  If  positive  doctrines  %vere  not 
contained  in  the  Bible,  philosophers  would  soon 
demonstrate  that  they  must  be  contained  in  a 
revelation  made  from  God. 

3.  The  great  body  of  modern  theologians, 
both  of  the  Romish  and  protestant  churclies, 
prefer  a  middle  course  between  the  theory  first 
mentioned  and  the  opinions  last  cited.  They 
adopt,  for  the  most  part,  the  theory  of  Claude 
Frassen,  a  Franciscan  monk  and  a  scholastic 
theologian  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  sup- 
pose three  degrees  of  inspiration. 

(«)  The  first  and  highest  degree  of  inspira- 
tion is,  the  revelation  of  things  before  unknown 
to  the  sacred  writers.  This  is  called  by  Frassen» 
iiispiruiio  antccedens,  but  commonly  by  other 
writers,  revelation;  who  thus  make  a  distinction 
between  iiwpiratinn  and  rcvelafiim,  and  hold  that 
revelation  is  indeed  always  attended  by  inspira- 
tion, but  that  inspiration  is  not,  in  every  case, 
preceded  by  revelation.  Evei-j'tbing  in  the  sa- 
cred scriptures,  ihcy  say,  is  inspired,  but  every- 
thing titere  is  not  revealed  ;  for  much  which  is 
contained  in  the  Bible  was  known  to  the  sacred 
writers  from  their  own  reflection. 

(6)  The  second  degree  of  inspiration  is,  the 
security  against  error  which  God  atTords  the  sa- 
cred writers  in  the  exhibition  of  doctrines  o» 
facts  witi)  which  they  are  already  acquainted, 
the  care  which  he  takes  in  the  selection,  truth, 
and  intulligibleness  of  the  subjects  introduced, 
and  the  words  by  which  they  are  expressed, 
&c.  This  is  called  by  Frassen,  impirutin  coti- 
coniitftns, 

(c)  The  third  degree  of  inspiration  is,  the 
divine  authority  stnnped  upon  writings,  origin- 
ally composed  witiiout  inspiration,  by  the  ap- 
probation of  inspired  men,  and  is  called  inspirn- 
tiocnnscrjitciis.  'i'his  degree  of  inspiration  is  pre- 
dicated of  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, which  were  approved  by  .lesus  and  the 
apostles;  and  of  the  gospels  Mark  and  Luke, 
which  were  approved  by  Peter  and  Paul,  and 
afterwards  by  John. 

'I'his  theory  is  developed  by  Doddridge,  and 
still  more  fully  by  ToUner;  the  latter  of  whom 
endeavours  to  shew,  that  the  authority  of  the 
holy  scriptures  as  the  source  of  our  knowleilije 
in  matters  of  faith  is  perfectly  secured,  even  in 
cases  where  only  the  lowest  degree  of  inspira- 
tion is  admitted.  Vide  'I'ollner,  Die  oottliche 
Kingei)uiig  der  heiligen  Schrifl. 

4.  Other  theidoirians  deem  it  sufficient  to 
shew  that  tlie  prophets  and  aposiles  enjoyed  a 
higher  divine  assistance  and  support.     Vide  s. 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


71 


8.  Tbey  were  induced  in  various  ways,  some- 
times by  natural  means,  and  sometimes  by  im- 
mediate divine  direction,  to  write  tiie  sacred 
books.  They  always  wrote,  as  well  as  spoke, 
as  persons  enjoying  the  influence  of  the  S])irit 
of  God.  This  is  the  light  in  which  inspiration 
is  regarded  by  Morus,  p.  32,  seq.  s.  27,  28.  He 
did  not  think  necessary  to  determine  what  par- 
ticular actus  ^fOTti'i-vorias  was  exerted  in  each 
p.irticular  actus  scribendi. 

It  may  be  well  to  remark  the  striking  contrast 
between  the  meagre  productions  of  the  fathers 
of  the  first  century  and  the  rich  and  instructive 
writings  of  the  apostles,  most  of  whom  were 
illiterate  men.  But  how,  the  unprejudiced  in- 
quirer will  be  compelled  to  ask,  could  the  latter 
have  written  in  such  a  widely  different  manner, 
and  one  so  superior  to  that  of  the  fathers,  if  they 
had  not  enjoyed  a  higher  divine  assistance] 

Nnte. — The  following  works  on  this  subject 
may  be  recommended  to  the  attention  of  the  stu- 
dent. Rich.  Simon,  Histoire  Critique  du  V. 
T.,  especially  ch.  23 — 25;  and  the  Letters  of  a 
Dutch  divine  on  the  critical  History  of  Simon, 
edited  by  Le  Clerc.  The  opinions  contained  in 
this  work,  some  of  which  are  true,  and  others 
false  and  partial,  have  been  developed  by  mo- 
dern theologians.  Among  modern  works,  the 
following  are  most  distinguished  : — (1)  Sernler, 
Abhandhmg  von  freyer  Untersuchung  des  Ca- 
nons, 4  Thie,  Halle,  1771 — 75,  8vo.  The  dif- 
ferent theories  are  here  illustrated  and  examined. 
This  work  induced  Schmid,  Miiller,  Pittiscus, 
and  others,  to  undertake  the  defence  of  the  com- 
mon doctrine.  (2)  Tiillner,  Die  gotiliche 
Eingebung  der  heiligen  Schrift,  IMitau  und 
Leipzig,  1782,  8vo.  (3)  Koppen,  Die  Bibel 
ein  Werk  der  gottlichen  Weisheit.  This  book 
contains  many  excellent  observations  on  the 
origin  and  collection  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
Bilile,  (1)  Fichte,  Versuch  einer  Kritik  aller 
Offenharung,  Konigsberg,  1793,  8vo — a  pro- 
found inquiry  respecting  the  possibility  of  direct 
revelation,  and  the  criteria  by  which  it  is  to  be 
judged.  (5)  Sonntag,  Doctrina  inspirationis, 
ejiisque  ratio,  historia,  et  usus  popularis,  Hei- 
delberg, 1810, Bvo. 

Note  2. — The  teacher  of  religion  should  not 
trouble  the  common  people  and  the  young  with 
the  recondite  investigations  of  ancient  and  mo- 
dern theologians  respecting  the  nature,  manner, 
and  degrees  of  inspiration,  or  respecting  the  an- 
cient mode  of  thought  and  expression  on  this 
subject.  In  his  public  instructions  he  should 
confine  himself  to  the  scriptural  view  of  inspira- 
tion exhil)ited  in  s.  8.  He  should,  as  Calixtus 
and  Morus  have  done,  give  prominence  to  the 
truth,  that  the  sacred  writers  were,  by  divine 
aid,  perfectly  secured  against  error.  He  should 
explain  to  his  liearers  the  promises  of  assistance 
which  Christ  gave  his  disciples.   In  doing  this, 


he  will  sufficiently  establish  and  confirm  -heir 
faith.  But  he  ought  not  by  any  means  to  with- 
hold this  doctrine  from  those  whom  he  is  ap- 
pointed to  teach,  since  it  is  a  doctrine  taught  in 
the  Bible,  and  is  calculated,  as  there  exhibited, 
to  produce  a  deep  and  happy  persuasion  of  the 
truths  of  revealed  religion.  Nor  should  he  at- 
tempt to  modernize  this  doctrine,  but  should 
rather  labour  to  restore  it  to  its  early  simpli- 
city. 

SECTION  XI. 

OF  SOME   OF  THE   PRINCIPAL    ATTRIBUTES   OF 
THE  HOLV  SCRIPTURES. 

Since  the  sixteenth  century,  the  theologians 
of  the  protestant  church  have  endeavoured  to  ob- 
viate various  opinions,  respecting  the  nature  and 
use  of  the  Bible,  which  appeared  to  them  erro- 
neous, by  treating  in  their  systems  of  the  attri- 
butes of  the  holy  scriptures.  Most  of  what  they 
say  on  this  subject  is  aimed  against  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Romish  church.  The  fallowing  are 
the  principal  attributes  of  the  Bible: — 

I.  The  Inielllgibleness  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

The  protestant  church  has  maintained  from 
the  first,  in  opposition  to  the  Roniisii,  that  the 
holy  scriptures  are  intelligible.  The  popes  have 
always  been  anxious  to  crush  a  spirit  of  free  in- 
quiry in  the  members  of  their  church,  to  subject 
belief  to  human  authority,  and  to  arrogate  to 
themselves  a  judicial  power,  even  in  matters  of 
faith.  But  they  saw,  at  once,  that  the  free  use 
of  the  Bible  would  be  very  much  in  tlie  way  of 
the  success  of  their  designs;  and  therefore  either 
wholly  interdicted,  or  at  least  encuiiil)ered  the 
common  use  of  it,  under  the  pretence  that  it  was 
full  of  obscurities,  calculated  to  mislead  or  con- 
found the  faith  of  the  laity,  which  ought  to  de- 
pend upon  tradition  or  ecclesiastical  authority. 
Vide  Introduction,  s.  7,  HI.  and  Art.  I.  s.  13. 
This  extravagant  opinion,  however,  is  only  re- 
ceived by  the  more  zealous  adherents  of  the 
papal  see,  and  is  rarely  entertained  by  the  theo- 
logians of  the  Galilean  church. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  protestant  theolo- 
gians have  entertained  opinions  respecting  the 
intelligibleness  of  the  Bible  which  are  equally 
extravagant.  The  truth  on  this  subject  may, 
perhaps,  be  best  expressed  as  follows: — The 
holy  scriptures  are  so  written,  that  ihefimf  read- 
ers, for  whom  they  were  especially  designed, 
could  understand  the  greater  part  of  them  with- 
out the  necessity  of  laborious  interpretation,  and 
that  even  tee  can  obtain  from  them  a  clear  ac- 
quaintance with  those  doctrines  of  religion  whic^ 
are  essential  to  our  improvement,  comfort,  and 
salvation.  There  is  no  need  of  proving  more 
than  this.  The  following  remarks  will  illustraUt 
I  the  view  here  expressed  "  — 


79 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


1.  Many  parts  of  these  books  must  have  been 
unavoidably  obscure  even  to  the  contemporaries 
of  the  sacred  writers,  from  the  nature  of  the  siib- 
jtcls  of  revelation.  Many  of  the  subjects 
brought  to  view  in  the  epistles  of  Paul  were 
hard  to  be  understood,  even  at  his  own  time,  2 
Pet.  iii.  16.  And  much  that  was  written  under 
divine  influence  was  unintelliuible  even  to  the 
sacred  writers  themselves.  Vide  s.  9,  V.  But 
as  Buddeus  justly  observes,  "  alia  est  perspi- 
cuitas  rcruin,  alia  verhnrum," 

2.  The  writers  of  the  Bible  employed  the  lan- 
guage and  style  which  were  common  in  the  age 
in  which  they  lived,  and  understood  by  the 
public  for  which  they  wrote;  they  expressed 
themselves  in  conformity  with  the  modes  of 
speech  and  thought  then  prevalent:  of  course, 
their  writings  must  have  been,  for  the  most  part, 
intelligible  to  their  contemporaries,  to  whom 
they  had  always  primary  reference  in  what  they 
wrote. 

3.  But  in  consequence  of  this  very  circum- 
stance, much  which  was  then  perfectly  intelli- 
gible is  so  no  longer.  Our  language  is  wholly 
unlike  the  Hebrew  or  Hebraistic  Greek  in  which 
they  wrote.  And  our  manners,  customs,  opi- 
nions, and  modes  of  thinking,  are  equally 
changed.  If  we  were  able  to  place  ourselves  in 
the  circumstances  and  enter  into  the  feelings  of 
the  inspired  authors,  we  should  find  their  writ- 
ings C(t;ni)aratively  easy  and  intelligible.  But 
common  Christians  cannot  do  this  ;  and  even  the 
most  learned  will  find  passages  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  which,  after  all  their  efTorts, 
will  remain  doubtAil  and  obscure.  If,  however, 
we  set  aside  all  passages  of  this  nature,  we  shall 
find  enough  left  to  give  us  a  clear  and  sure 
ki»owle<igei  of  the  essential  doctrines  of  religion. 
These  dilficult  and  obscure  passages  commonly 
have  no  bearing,  or,  at  most,  a  very  remote  one, 
upon  the  truths  of  salvation.  And  it  is  fre- 
quently the  case,  that  when  an  important  doc- 
trine or  duty  is  expressed  with  apparent  obscu- 
rity in  one  place,  it  is  exhibited  elsewhere  with 
so  much  the  greater  clearness.  Experience 
shews,  that  people  in  common  life  have  been 
able  to  acquire,  by  the  exercise  of  a  sound  under- 
standing, and  by  the  aids  of  the  divine  Spirit,  a 
fund  of  uspful  knowledge  and  of  important  prin- 
ciples, even  from  very  defective  translations  of 
the  Bible.  Indeed,  an  illiierate  man,  who  pos- 
sesses a  sound  understanding  and  good  charac- 
ter, and  studies  the  Bible  without  prejudice,  will 
often  understand  it  better,  and  with  more  ease, 
than  the  scholar,  who  first  adopts  his  opinions 
and  then  endeavours  to  find  them  in  the  Bible. 
The  latter  looks  upon  all  the  doctrines  of  the 
Bilile  through  a  discoloured  medium.  The  holy 
scriptures  were  not  written  for  the  scholar,  as 
such ;  nor  were  they  inten<led  to  alFord  materials 
for  speculation,  but  rather  enjoyment  for  the 


heart.  Hence  they  are  often  misunderstood  an<! 
despised  by  those  whose  feelings  are  deadened, 
and  who  have  little  taste  for  anytliing  but  spe- 
culation. Most  of  the  writers  of  the  Bible  were 
themselves  illiterate  men,  and  lived  in  familiar 
intercourse  with  common  people.  They  there- 
fore meet  the  wants  of  this  class  of  society,  and 
agree  with  the  common  mode  of  thought  and 
expression  better  than  the  learned  commonly  do. 
This  consideration  is  overlooked  by  those  who 
would  take  the  Bible  from  the  hands  of  the  com- 
mon people.  It  is  truly  remarked  by  Thomas  i 
Kempis,  that  the  holy  scriptures  must  be  read 
with  the  assistance  of  the  same  Spirit  by  which 
they  were  inspired.  Now  this  may  be  enjoyed 
by  all — by  the  unlearned  as  well  as  the  learned, 
if  they  only  sincerely  wish  to  obtain  it. 

It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that  the  very 
difliculties  and  obscurities  which  occur  in  the 
Bible  have  been  very  beneficial  to  the  human 
race  by  exercising,  and  of  course  strengthening, 
th3  powers  of  the  mind.  If  the  scriptures  were 
so  plain  that  all  parts  of  them  could  be  under- 
stood without  study,  they  would  not  furnish 
nourishment  and  employment  for  the  spirit  of 
inquiry.  Lessing  made  the  bold  assertion,  that 
the  human  race  had  not  been  benefited  so  much 
by  the  doctrines  taught  in  the  Bible  as  by  the 
inquiries  and  investigations  to  which  the  Bible 
had  given  occasion. 

Some  have  attempted  to  prove  the  intelligible- 
ness  of  the  Bible  from  texts  of  scripture;  but  an 
opponent  would  not  allow  the  testimony  of  a 
writer  in  bis  own  behalf  to  be  valid  proof;  nor 
do  these  texts  (such,  for  example,  as  compare 
scripture  with  a  light,  enlightening  men,  and 
shewing  them  the  way  to  true  happiness,  Psa. 
xix.  8;  cxix.  105)  apply  so  much  to  the  scrip- 
tures themselves  as  to  the  doctrines  which  they 
contain. 

II.  The  Efficacy  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

When  we  say  the  holy  scriptures  have  an  efll- 
cacy,  we  use  figurative  language;  forthisefi^cacy 
belongs  rather  to  the  doctrines  and  principles 
contained  in  the  scriptures.  Theologians  have 
been  led  to  adopt  many  fine  distinctions  on  this 
point,  by  the  controversies  which  have  existed 
respecting  the  means  of  grace.  We  shall  con- 
sider these  distinctions  in  connexion  with  the 
means  of  grace,  s.  1.'?.'?,  II. 

III.  The  InfuUibility  of  the  Ihly  Scriptures. 

When  we  assert  the  infallibility  of  the  holy 
scriptures,  we  mean  to  say,  that  if  any  doctrine 
of  religion  can  be  clearly  shewn  to  be  taught  in 
them,  it  must  he  received  as  true,  and  needs  no 
further  evidence ;  according' to  the  maxim,  w«- 
siix  hrrmenculiec  rrru.i,  est  rttnm  clnij^.  latiee  rerun. 
This  position  is  grounded  on  the  fact,  that  the 
authors  of  the  Bible  were  rendered  infallible  by 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


73 


divine  influence,  according  to  the  promise  of 
Christ,  John,  xiv,  26.  It  is  t;>lien  in  opposition 
to  those  vvlio  rely  unduly  upon  unaided  reason 
in  matters  of  faith.  Vide  Introduction,  s.  7,  II. 
and  s.  8,  0.  But  before  we  can  prove  that  any 
doctrine  is  taught  in  the  holy  scriptures,  we 
must  be  sure  of  the  uncorruptedness  of  the  sa- 
cred text,  and  of  the  justice  of  our  interpretation 
of  it;  and  as  both  of  these  points  are  sometimes 
ittended  with  difilculties,  we  cannot  apply  this 
maxim  to  much  purpose  in  particular  cases,  al- 
\hough,  abstractly  considered,  it  is  perfectly 
\rue. 

IV.  The  Authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

1.  Audoritas  normativa.  By  this  is  meant 
the  authority  of  tlie  Bible  to  bind  men  to  believe 
and  do  what  it  teaches  and  prescribes.  This  is 
likewise  called  auclorilas  canonica  (petito  voca- 
bulo  ex  Gal.  vi.  16.)  Vide  Morus,  p.  37.  This 
authority  depends  upon  the  infallibility  of  the 
scriptures,  and  also  upon  their  divine  origin. 
Moreover,  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  re- 
quire that  every  doctrine  should  be  examined 
by  the  instructions  of  Jesus  and  his  apostles, 
and  should  be  received  as  obligratory,  if  found 
to  agree,  but  otherwise,  should  be  rejected,  I 
John,  iv.  I,  coll.  2  John,  v.  10 ;  Gal.  i.  8.  Paul 
exhorts  Timothy  to  hold  fast  the  doctrines  of 
true  Christianity  (tytatVoi-rtj  Xoyoi),  the  suiti  of 
which  (vTtorvrttofrtj,  what  we  now  find  in  the 
writings  of  the  apostles)  he  had  taught  him  with 
his  own  mouth,  2  Tim.  i.  13.  Jesus  himself 
required  that  the  doctrines  which  he  taught 
should  be  received  on  his  mere  authority,  and 
frequently  brought  no  other  proof  than  the  sim- 
ple assertion,  'Eyw  §£  Xtyco  v^iv.  He  gave  Ni- 
codemus  to  understand  that  he  acted  very  incon- 
sistently in  acknowledging  his  divine  authority, 
and  y^et  questioning  the  truth  of  his  assertions. 
The  question  which  Nicodemus  asked,  "  How 
can  these  things  be  1"  was  indeed  very  natural ; 
and  the  serious  inquirer  after  truth  will  always 
rejoice  to  have  it  answered.  But  if  it  cannot  be 
answered,  he  must  be  content  with  the  mere  as- 
sertion of  a  teacher  whose  divine  authority  he 
must  acknowledge  :  he  must  say  with  respect 
to  Christ,  as  Pliny  the  younger  said  of  a  certain 
wise  man,  iua  mihi  auclorilas  pro  ratione  xtijficit. 

2.  Aucloritas  judicialis.  By  this  is  meant, 
that  the  scriptures  are  the  final  appeal  in  mat- 
ters of  faith  and  practice.  No  doctrines  opposed 
to  the  Bible  can  be  admitted  as  true  by  those 
who  receive  it  as  an  inspired  book.  Christ  and 
the  apostles  everywhere  appeal  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  thus  shew  that  they,  and  the  Jews 
generally,  regarded  it  as  divine,  John,  v.  30; 
Matt  xxii.  II ;  Acts,  xv.  15.  But  in  applying 
the  judicial  authority  of  scripture  to  particular 
cases,  everythinij  depends  upon  the  justice  of 
the  interpretation ;  and  we  must  frequently  say, 

10 


that  it  is  rather  the  interpreter  than  the  scripture 
which  decides.  Most  theological  controversies 
owe  their  origin  to  the  different  interpretations 
of  the  Bible  ;  and  every  theologian  pleads  the 
aucloritas  judicialis  of  scripture  in  behalf  of  his 
own  opinion,  because  he  regards  one  particular 
sense  of  the  words  as  true.  The  question  is, 
how  he  proves  that  this  sense  is  the  true  one, 
and  whether  he  interprets  the  Bible  on  just  prin- 
ciples? 

The  text,  Heb.  iv.  12,  13,  where  the  word  of 
God  is  said  to  be  xptttxoj  iv^'i.ir^aii'.v  xai  iwoiuiif 
xopSiaj,  is  often  cited  in  this  connexion.  But 
the  phrase  Xoyoj  Qiov  here  signifies  the  divine 
Ihrealenings  against  sinners  and  apostates.  The 
meaning  of  the  text  is,  the  threatenings  of  God 
relate  not  merely  to  the  outward  actions,  but  to 
the  most  secret  purposes  of  evil. 

V.  The  Sufficiency  or  Completeness  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures. 
1 .  The  sufficiency  (f  the  docfrincs  of  the  Bible. 
All  the  doctrines  affecting  the  improvement, 
comfort,  and  salvation  of  men,  which  were 
taught  by  Jesus,  the  apostles,  and  prophets,  are 
contained  in  the  holy  scriptures,  without  any 
omission.  This  completeness  (j)ler)itudo)  of 
the  scriptures  is  called  by  Paul,  Acts,  xx.  27, 
rta^ai'  i^ovXrv  rov  ©fov,  the  whole  divine  plan  of 
salvation.  This  attribute  of  scripture  is  main- 
tained in  opposition  both  to  those  who  receive 
from  tradition  some  doctrines  of  faith  which  are 
not  found  in  the  Bible,  and  to  those  who,  under 
the  influence  of  enthusinsiin,  would  make  addi- 
tions from  new,  pretended  revelations  to  the  doc- 
trines really  revealed.  In  opposition  to  both  of 
these  classes,  this  attribute  may  be  truly  predi- 
cated of  the  holy  scriptures;  for  tl-.e  instructions 
which  the  Bible  contains  respecting  the  way  of 
real  happiness  here  and  hereafter  are  so  com- 
plete that  we  have  no  occasion  to  resort  either 
to  the  dark  sources  of  tradition  or  the  assevera- 
tions of  fanatics.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  when 
we  afiirm  the  sufficiency  of  the  scriptures  we 
must  not  be  understood  to  mean  that  the  Bible 
is  a  repertory  of  information  respecting  the  arts, 
sciences,  literature,  and  every  object  of  human 
knowledge.  These  things  do  not  fall  within 
the  scope  of  the  sacred  writers,  because  they  do 
not  stand  immediately  connected  with  the  great 
end  of  man.  The  instructions  contained  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  were  adapted  to  the 
comprehension  and  wants  of  those  for  whom 
they  were  primarily  written.  But  we  are  per- 
mitted, according  to  the  example  of  Jesus  and 
his  apostles,  yea,  we  are  required,  to  adapt  these 
instructions  to  our  own  wants,  and,  by  the  help 
of  these  scriptures,  to  make  constant  progress 
in  spiritual  knowledge  and  experience.  Th» 
proffress,  however,  must  still  accord  with  the 
Bible,  and  be  regulated  by  the  principles  of 
G 


74 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Christianity.  The  Bible,  from  which  these 
principles  are  learned,  must  be  the  star  by  which 
Nve  are  iruided  in  all  our  advances.  In  this  view, 
Paul  recommends  the  use  of  the  Old  Testament, 
even  to  Christian  teachers,  -  Tim.  iii.  15.  ^'ide 
Introduction,  s.  5.  I. 

2.  The  sufficiency  of  the  booJcs.  This  implies, 
that  our  canon  contains  books  enough  to  furnish 
the  Christian  with  all  necessary  knowledge  of 
the  trutiis  of  religion.  This  cannot  be  proved 
from  the  sacred  writers  themselves;  for  the 
canon  must  have  been  incomplete  while  any 
one  of  them  was  as  yet  writing.  The  passage 
Rev,  xxii.  18,  19,  idv  nj  irti'^rj  frt'  avra,  x.  r.  7.. 
was  formerly  cited  in  proof  of  the  sufficiency  of 
the  books  of  the  Bible,  by  Tertullian,  Adv. 
Herni.  c.  22,  and  has  since  been  frequently 
called,  as  well  as  the  whole  book  in  which  it 
stands,  sif^illum  canonis.  But  the  prohibition 
here  expressed  strictly  relates  only  to  the  Apo- 
calypse. So  much,  however,  is  beyond  dispute, 
that  the  great  truths  of  salvation  are  repeated  so 
often  in  the  Bible,  that  they  might  all  be  learned 
from  a  much  smaller  collection  of  books  than 
we  have  at  present.  If  therefore  some  part  of 
the  canon  should  be  rejected  as  spurious,  the 
completeness  of  the  holy  scriptures  would  be 
unalTecled,  and  the  system  of  divine  truth  re- 
main entire. 

SECTION  XII. 

OF  THE  USK  OF  THE  BIBLE  AS  THE  SOURCE  OF  THE 
DOCTRINES  OF  REVELATION. 

I.  The  Use  of  the  New  Testament. 

From  the  remarks  already  made,  it  appears 
that  the  scriptures  of  the  New  Testament  are  to 
be  regardfd  as  the  source  from  wiiich  we  are  to 
derive  the  knowledge  of  the  principal  doctrines 
of  the  Christian  religion.  But  in  deriving  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity  from  the  New  'I'esta- 
nient,  we  must  be  governed  by  the  following 
considerations: — 

1.  Tiie  authors  of  the  New  Testament  had 
their  contemporaries  principally  in  view  in  what 
they  wrote.  Paul,  for  example,  in  his  epistle 
to  the  Romans,  had  primary  and  principal  refer- 
ence to  the  churcii  then  existing  at  Rome,  and 
not  to  the  Christian  church  in  succeeding  ages. 
These  scriptures  would  have  been  very  dilfer- 
entiy  composed  if  they  had  been  throughout  in- 
tended for  all  ages  of  the  world.  Instead  of 
containing  salutations,  allusions  to  local  inte- 
rests, and  temporary  disputes  and  errors,  and  a 
disconnected  view  of  the  doctrines  of  revelation, 
they  wfiulil  have  exhibited  a  complete,  connected 
system  of  religious  truth.  Those  texts  of  the 
Bible,  then,  wliich  relate  merely  to  circum- 
stances then  existing,  but  never  afterwards,  can- 
not be  re'nirdcd  as  sources  of  Christian  doctrine. 


Such  texts  are  indeed  useful,  in  making  us  ac- 
quainted with  the  history  of  the  limes  in  which 
they  were  written,  and  in  furnishing  examples 
for  imitation,  if  similar  circumstances  should 
recur;  but  in  themselves  they  have  no  binding 
authority  at  the  present  time.  Texts  of  this  na« 
ture  are  those  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and 
in  the  epistles  to  Timothy,  which  relate  to  the 
constitution  of  the  apostolical  church.  For  these 
texts  the  sacred  writers  do  not  claim  an  univer- 
sal and  perpetual  authority,  still  less  do  they 
claim  this  for  all  parts  of  their  writings  withou* 
exeppiion,  although  they  do  distinctly  for  the 
Christian  doctrines  which  they  teach.  Vide 
Introduction,  s.  5,  I.  and  s.  8,  111.  3,  b. 

2.  Since  the  scriptures  of  the  New  Testament 
were  originally  adapted  to  the  age  in  which  they 
were  written,  and  always  presuppose  the  oral 
instructions  which  were  given  by  the  apostles, 
we  cannot  expect  that  all  the  doctrines  of  faith 
should  be  taught  in  them  with  equal  fulness  and 
clearness.  The  slight  and  unfrequent  mention 
of  a  doctrine  in  our  sacred  writings  does  not 
prove  its  unimportance,  since  the  authors  of  the 
Bible  might  have  known  that  it  was  already 
sufficiently  understood  and  duly  regarded  hy 
those  for  whom  they  wrote.  Nor  does  the  fre- 
quent and  extended  discussion  of  any  subject  in 
the  Bible  prove  its  internal  and  lasting  import- 
ance, since  the  local  circumstances  of  some 
churches,  or  the  character  of  certain  individuals, 
may  have  required  a  more  repeated  and  urgent 
inculcation  of  particular  doctrines  than  would  be 
otherwise  advisable.  Thus  the  circumstances 
of  the  church  at  the  lime  when  the  apostles 
wrote  led  them  to  insist  more  frequently  and 
strongly  upon  the  abolition  of  the  Mosaic  insti- 
tute than  they  would  have  done  in  other  circun)- 
stances. 

3.  The  case  is  exactly  the  same  with  the 
manner  in  which  the  apostles  taught  the  doc- 
trines of  religion.  Their  manner  was  adapted 
to  the  conceptions,  views,  and  capacities  of  their 
contemporary  hearers  and  readers,  and  is  often 
wholly  inappropriate  to  other  persons  in  other 
circumstances.  In  bringing  the  instructions  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles  in  proof  of  any  doctrine 
of  religion,  we  must  therefore,  in  many  cases, 
pay  more  regard  to  the  truth  itself  which  they 
teach,  than  to  the  rntmner  in  which  they  illus- 
trate it.  For  many  of  ihe  proofs  and  illustra- 
tions employed  successfully  hy  the  first  teachers 
of  Christianity  have  now  lost  their  force  and 
evidence.  It  is  frequently  true,  that  those  very 
consid(!ration8  which  must  have  made  the 
strongest  impression  on  the  contemporaries  of 
the  apostles,  are  least  of  all  convincing  to  us ; 
while,  on  the  contrary,  the  proofs  hy  which  we 
are  most  ititluenced  would  have  been  scarcely 
intelliirihie  to  them.  'I'he  proofs  which  .Tesus 
adduced  from  the  Old  Testament  in  behalf  of 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


75 


many  of  his  doctrines  were  far  more  convincing 
to  the  Jovvs  than  the  most  powerful  arguments 
which  could  be  drawn  from  human  reason.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  many  of  the  illustrations 
contained  in  the  epistles  to  the  Hebrews  and 
Cahiiians.  The  doctrines  of  the  Bible  are  un- 
alterably true,  and  intended  for  all  ages  of  the 
world  ;  but  the  method  in  which  they  are  taught, 
the  costume  in  which  they  are  invested,  the  ar- 
guments by  which  they  are  proved,  were  all  de- 
signed i)riniarily  for  the  Jews,  and  are  therefore 
by  no  means  obligatory  on  the  present  teachers 
of  religion. 

We  may  therefore  affirm,  that  while  it  was 
the  design  of  God  that  religious  knowledge 
should  be  communicated  by  means  of  these  books 
to  all  the  successive  ages  of  the  world,  this  was 
not  the  design  wliich  the  authors  of  the  Hible  had 
in  view,  in  a  great  portion  of  what  they  wrote. 
But  for  the  very  reason  that  these  sacred  books 
were  designed  for  the  good  of  all  succeeding 
ages,  each  particular  portion  of  them  could  not 
possibly  be  designed  for  each  succes>ive  age. 
What  is  most  useful  and  necessary  for  one 
period  is  not  equally  so  for  another.  But  we 
should  expect,  that  the  wants  of  the  present  and 
future  would  he  alike  provided  for  in  the  codex 
of  revelation  ;  and  this  we  find  to  be  done  in  the 
Bible.  !Many  parts  of  it,  which  seem  hardly  to 
answer  the  demands  of  the  present  day,  were 
perfectly  adequate  to  the  wants  of  a  former 
period  ;  and  tlie  reverse  :  and  many  ])arts  which 
were  once  in  the  highest  degree  useful,  and 
have  ceased  to  be  so  now,  may  perhaps,  in  after 
times,  become  as  useful  and  important  as  ever. 

4.  Those  texts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments which  exhibit  particular  doctrines  with 
the  most  fulness  and  clearness,  and  arc  therefore 
most  frequently  cited  for  proof  or  illustration,  are 
called  setles  doclrinarum,  dicta  probitntia ;  more 
frequently  loca  classica — i.e.,  primaria,  pracatan- 
tisaimn ;  like  aticlores  classic/,  first  used  by  Gel- 
lius,  XIX.  8;  and  cives  c/a>*7c/,  the  name  given 
to  those  belonging  to  the  first  class  of  Roman 
citizens,  into  which  such  only  were  admitted  as 
possessed  a  certain  amount  of  property,  decided 
by  law. 

If^  using  these  proof-texts  many  of  the  ancient 
systems  fallowed  a  kind  of  doctrinal  or  herine- 
neutical  tradition,  employing  such  texts  only  as 
had  i)een  adduced  by  the  authors  of  the  sym- 
bols, who,  on  their  part,  had  employed  those 
mostly  which  had  been  previously  adduced  by 
the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  and  the  theologians 
of  the  Romish  church.  As  the  theologians  of 
former  times  strictly  followed  the  doctrines  of 
the  symbolical  books,  they  were  inclined  to 
adopt  the  arguments  and  proof-t-  xts  by  which 
these  doctrines  were  there  supp' rted.  Hence 
we  find  almost  the  same  proof-texts,  explained 
in  the  same  way,  constantly   recurring,    with 


very  slight  alterations  in  the  theclogical  sys« 
tems,  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Some  of  these  traditionary  texts  had 
no  bearing  on  the  point  which  they  were  in- 
tended to  prove,  or  at  best  were  doubtful  and 
obscure;  while  on  the  other  hand,  some  of  the 
most  direct  and  pertinent  texts  were  never  cited. 
In  making  use  of  these  texts  we  should  never 
lose  sight  of  the  above  remarks.  As  Luther 
well  observes,  we  must  treat  the  Bible  cau- 
tiously, and  inquire  not  only  whether  any  par- 
ticular truth  is  taught  in  the  word  of  God,  but 
whether  it  concerns  us  or  others.  "  Man  muss 
mit  dor  Schrift  siiuberlich  handeln  und  fahren. 
Man  rnuss  nicht  allein  ansehcn  ob  es  Gottes 
wort  sey;  sondern  vielmehr  zu  wern  es  geredet 
sey,  ob  es  dich  trtffe,  oder  eimn  ar.dtrn.  Den 
Unterschied  soUen  wohl  merken,  fassen,  und 
zu  herzen  nehmen  die  I'rcdi^er,  ja  alle  Chris- 
ten," Luther,  Unterricht  wie  man  sich  in  Mosen 
schicken  soil.  We  should  also  carefully  dis- 
tinguish between  the  truth  itself  which  is  taught 
in  these  passages,  and  the  manner  in  which 
this  truth  is  illustrated. 

II.  T/ie  Use  of  the  Old  TedamciU. 

1.  Christianity  and  the  Jewish  institute  are 
not  so  nearly  related  that  they  must  stand  or  fall 
together.  It  is  possible  that  one  who  knew  no- 
thing of  the  Jewish  religion,  and  had  never  read 
the  Jewish  scriptures,  might  believe  on  Jesus 
as  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  And  we  find,  ac- 
cordingly, that  when  the  apostles  were  called  to 
teach  the  principles  of  the  Christian  religii  n  to 
those  who  were  unacquainted  with  Judaism, 
they  rarely  alluded  to  the  Old  Testament. 
Christ  and  the  apostles  n^garded  the  divine  re- 
velations as  gradual,  and  the  instruction  given 
in  the  Old  Testament  as  elementary,  adapted  to 
the  slate  of  society  while  yet  in  the  infancy  of 
improvement,  and  calculated  to  deepen  the  sense 
of  the  higher  and  more  spiritual  wants  of  the 
mind.  Vide  Introduction,  s.  8,  11.  In  this 
light  is  Judaism  regarded  by  Paul,  who  com- 
pares the  ritual  of  the  former  institute  with  a 
schoolmaster  (rtaiSayuydj)  who  is  deserted  by 
the  children,  as  they  approach  towards  manhood, 
Gal.  iii.  24  ;  iv.  1,  9.  The  books  therefore  con- 
taining the  principles  'of  the  Jewish  relioion, 
taken  by  themselves,  cannot  be  regarded  as  a 
principal  source  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Chris- 
tian system,  although  they  are  of  essential  ser- 
vice, and  indeed  often  indispensable.  They 
are  recommended  in  the  New  Testament  to  our 
careful  study  ;  but  always  in  connexion  with 
Christian  instructions.  For  we,  as  Christians; 
are  no  longer  bound  by  many  things  which  are 
commanded  in  the  Old  Testament ;  and  niuot 
learn  from  Christian  instructions  what  ih^se 
things  are,  and  why  their  obligation  has  ceased 

2.  The  books  of  the  Old  Testament  niav  be 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


used  for  various  purposes,  which  differ  very 
much,  accordinor  to  time  and  circumstances. 

(1)  U.ius  poltinicus  or  ekncticus.  The  Old 
Testament  may  be  employed  to  prove  the  truth 
and  divinity  of  the  Christian  religion  against 
Jews  and  infidels.  From  these  ancient  hooks 
we  can  shew  that  the  Cliristian  institute  was 
promised  and  expected  from  the  earliest  times; 
and  can  correct  many  of  the  mistakes  whicli 
have  prevailed  among  the  Jews  and  other 
nations.  For  tliis  purpose  they  were  used  by 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  sometimes  in  the 
instruction  even  of  the  heathen,  but  more  fre- 
quently when  Jews  were  to  be  convinced.  We 
may  see  the  dilTerent  method  in  which  they 
addressed  Jews  and  heathen,  by  comparin<r  the 
discourses  of  Paul  contained  in  the  Acts,  and 
also  his  epistles  to  the  Hebrews  and  Galatians, 
with  those  to  the  Thessalonians. 

When  Christ  wished  to  convince  the  Jews  of 
the  truth  of  liis  reliirion,  and  the  divinity  of  his 
mission,  he  exhorted  them  to  study  their  own 
scriptures,  in  which  he  was  predicted.  But  al- 
thoujjh  this  advice  of  Christ  was  first  given  to 
the  Jews,  it  must  apply  in  full  force  to  all  who 
allow  the  authority  of  Christ,  and  acknowledge 
that  the  Old  Testament  contains  predictions  re- 
specting him.  Christ  thus  addresses  the  Pha- 
risees, (John,  v.  39,)  'Epfumrj  (indicative,  not 
imperative,  as  many  suppose)  raj  ypafaj,  on 
vuftj  hoxiiti  iv  aiirotj  ^tu^v  alutviov  tx^^v  x  at 
(xftfai  I  i  1 1 V  at  /xaprvpovaai  rt^pi 
f^ov,  "Ye  search  the  scriptures  (of  the  Old 
Testament),  because  ye  suppose  that  ye  shall 
find  in  them  the  means  of  attaining  salvaticm; 
and  these  very  sen'pfurcs  testifi/  of  me — i.  e.,  of 
the  Messiah,  the  character  which  I  sustain, and 
of  the  way  of  salvation  through  me."  In  2  Tim. 
iii.  11  — 17,  Paul  distinctly  states  that  Timothy 
(even  asa  ('hristian  and  Christian  teacher,  verse 
17)  wouhl  find  the  Old  Testament  very  useful 
in  connexion  with  the  Christian  instruction 
which  he  had  received  (ver.  11),  in  acqu^iinting 
himself  wiih  the  way  of  salvation  (ver.  15),  in 
teaching  tiiis  way  to  others  (rtpoj  hi.ba'jxuxia.v^ 
ver.  IG),  and  in  refuting  the  objections  of  the 
Jews  and  oliier  enemies  of  Christianity,  (yrpoj 
Hxiyxo^'y  ver.  IC.)  Cf.  8.  8,  II.  1.  2  Peter,  i. 
1!>,  "The  predictions  of  the  Old  Testament 
respecting  Chri'^t,  are  now,  since  their  fulfilment, 
much  more  certain  than  formerly;  and  ye  (con- 
verts from  Judaism,  who  are  accustomed  to  read 
the  Jewish  scriptures)  will  do  well  to  attend  to 
them."  In  this  very  connexion,  however,  Peter 
likens  the  Old  Testament  to  a  lantern,  casting 
a  feeble  ligiit,  when  compared  with  the  day 
which  had  risen,  since  Christ  had  appeared, 
upon  those  who  had  embraced  his  religion.  Cf. 
8.  6,  II.  2. 

yiitc. — However  imperfect  the  Jewish  insti- 
tute may  be  in  comparison  with  the  Cliristian, 


it  must  not  be  despised  or  unde:  valued.  Moms, 
p.  21,  note.  It  was  perfectly  adapted  to  the  ago 
for  which  it  was  intended,  and  to  the  country 
where  it  was  established,  and  could  not  havo 
been  difTerent  in  any  respect.  It  betrays  a  poor 
judgment  to  blame  a  teacher  for  not  introducing 
into  his  book  of  elements  everything  which  is 
found  in  a  complete  system,  or  for  pursuing  a 
different  method  in  the  instruction  of  little  <  iiil- 
dren  and  advanced  scholars.  This,  so  far  from 
deserving  blame,  constitutes  the  highest  merit 
of  the  teacher.  The  instructions  given  by  Ciod 
in  the  Old  Testament  are  regarded  in  this  light 
by  Christ  and  the  apostles,  and  are  highly  es- 
teemed as  adapted  to  the  age  for  which  they 
were  given.     Vide  s.  8,  II.  ad  finem. 

(2)  Usus  dogmatt'cus  nnd  hislariciis.  The  Old 
Testament  is  of  use  in  ascertaining  the  doctrines 
of  Christianity,  inasmuch  as  it  is  very  full  upon 
many  doctrines  presupposed  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  gives  intimations  on  many  doctrines 
on  which  the  latter  enlarges,  (a)  As  the  primi- 
tive Christians  were  for  the  most  part  native 
Jews,  they  were  naturally  supposed  to  have 
known  from  the  Old  Testament  many  of  the 
most  important  truths  of  religion.  Accordingly 
we  find  that  the  instructions  given  them  in  the 
New  Testament  respecting  the  nature,  attri- 
butes, and  providence  of  God,  the  creation  of 
the  world,  and  the  fall  of  man,  are  less  full  and 
ex|)licit  than  those  contained  in  the  Old.  (/») 
The  Old  Testament  also  contairfs  traces,  inti- 
mations, and,  as  it  were,  the  germs  of  many 
doctrines  which  were  afterwards  followed  out 
and  develojied  by  Christ  and  the  apostles. 
This  is  exactly  as  it  should  be  in  a  book  of 
elementary  instruction.  The  Old  Testament 
pointed  to  the  distant  blessings  which  were 
promised.  The  passages  of  the  Old  Testament 
which  treat  of  the  Messiah,  the  life  beyond  the 
grave,  and  subjects  of  the  same  kind,  are  useful 
in  shewing  that  these  ideas  have  been  brought 
to  light  and  developed  by  Christ  (usus  historU 
cus),  and  that  all  the  divine  revelations  compose 
one  complete  system. 

The  false  opinions  w  hich  were  formerly  en- 
tertained respecting  the  use  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  its  relation  to  Christianity  led  many 
writers  to  attribute  too  many  ("hristian  ideas  to 
the  ancient  Jewish  prophets,  and  to  carry  back, 
without  any  distinction  of  lime,  all  the  light  of 
the  New  Testament  into  the  t)ld.  That  the 
light  enjoyed  under  the  former  dispensation  was 
inferior  to  that  which  Christians  enjoy  appears 
from  the  declarations  of  an  apostle,  2  Peter,  i. 
10,  seq. ;  I  Pet.  i.  10,  seq.  Christ  himself  says. 
Matt.  xi.  11,  that  among  those  who  had  been 
born  of  women  there  had  not  been  a  irreaier 
prophet  than  John,  his  precursor;  hut  that  the 
least  who  enjoyed  Christian  instruction,  and 
had  kindled  liis  torch  by  the  (.'hristian  light. 


CHKISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


was  ^;■tter  acquainted  with  the  peculiar  doctrines 
of  the  Christian  religion  than  John. 

(3)  Urns  htrmentuticus.  As  Christ  and  the 
iposiles  were  native  Jews,  and  had  their  own 
countrymen  for  their  first  hearers,  they  con- 
Cjnned.  as  far  as  they  could  consistently  with 
July,  to  the  manners  and  opinions,  to  the  mode 
af  thought  and  expression,  common  among  those 
niih  whom  they  were  conversant.  It  is  there- 
fore iiiipossible  for  any  one  who  is  ignorant  of 
this  prevailing  mode  of  thought  and  expression 
to  understand  fully  their  instructions.  And  this 
knowledge,  which  is  so  essential  to  the  right 
understanding  of  the  Christian  doctrine,  can  be 
obtained  only  from  the  Old  Testament.  The 
service  which  it  renders  us  in  this  respect  is  of 
the  greatest  importance.  How  many  mistakes 
respecting  the  doctrines  of  faith,  and  how  much 
confusion  would  have  been  avoided,  if  theo- 
logians had  broucrht  to  the  study  of  the  Chris- 
tian scriptures  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the 
Old  Testament ! 

(4)  Urns  moralis.  The  books  of  Moses,  tlie 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  and  other  portions  of  the  Old 
Testament,  are  full  of  precepts  relating  to  the 
wise  conduct  of  human  life,  and  calculated  to 
awaken  religious  and  pious  sentiments.  Even 
the  historical  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  are 
highly  useful  in  this  view,  and  should  be  em- 
ployed by  religious  teachers,  and  especially  the 
teachers  of  youth,  for  the  promotion  of  virtue 
and  piety,  more  than  is  commonly  done.  It  was 
the  manner  of  Moses,  and  of  all  the  ancient  Jew- 
ish teachers,  to  give  instruction  by  means  of 
history — a  manner  which  is  always  interesting, 
and  which  was  imitatial  by  the  first  Cliristivm 
teachers,  who  always  built  their  instructions 
upon  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament  and  of 
Christ. 

Cautions  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  the 
Old  Testament  for  moral  instruction. 

(a)  All  the  precepts  contained  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament are  not  of  universal  obligation;  some  of 
tliem  are  applicable  only  to  those  living  under 
the  peculiar  constitution  of  the  Jewish  nation. 
Christians  commit  a  great  mistake  when  they 
ap))ly  to  themselves  the  promises  of  temporal 
good  and  the  threateninjs  of  temporal  evil  which 
are  contained  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  whirli 
are  valid  only  underatheocratical  form  ofgovern- 
ment.  Christians  can  make  application  to  them- 
selves of  such  only  of  these  precepts  as  relate  to 
all  men  in  every  age.  By  neglecting  this  distinc- 
tion, and  applying  to  the  present  time  what 
has  long  since  ceased  to  be  valid,  the  teacher  of 
religion  frequently  draws  contempt  upon  him- 
self and  his  doctrine,  and  awakens  unnecessary 
suspicion  of  the  truth  of  what  he  utters.  Every 
act  of  disobedience  to  the  divine  law  will  indeed 
be  punished,  and  every  act  of  obedience  re.ward- 
ed.     But  that  thi^  will  be  visibly  accomplished 


in  the  present  life  is  nowhpre  taught  in  the 
Christian  system,  but  railier  the  contrary. 
Temporal  rewards  and  punishments  are  peculiar 
to  a  theocratic  constitution,  snd  ought  not  to 
be  expected  under  a  difll'erent  divine  dispensa- 
tion. 

(h)  The  rudeness  of  the  early  age^,  and  the 
degeneracy  of  the  Jewish  nation,  called  for  a 
strictness  of  discipline  from  which  Christianity 
has  now  released  us.  The  spirit  of  Christianity 
is  in  many  respects  essentially  diflerent  from 
that  of  Judaism.  The  latter  terrified  by  punish- 
ments those  wiio  were  too  depraved  to  be  in- 
fluenced by  love  ;  the  former  teaches  us  to  love 
Cod  as  our  father  and  benefactor,  and  moves  us 
by  mildness  and  benevolence.  Rom.  viii.  15, 
"Ye  (true  Christians)  have  not  received  (by 
Christianity)  a  slavish  spirit,  leading  you  still 
(rtaxn-,  as  Christians)  to  tremble  before  God; 
but  ye  have  a  filial,  confiding  disposition 
{jtvivao.  r'io^rnt'ac)  produced  in  your  minds  by 
God,  under  the  influence  of  which  you  can  sup- 
plicate him  in  all  circumstances  as  your  beloved 
Father."  Cf.  Heb.  xii.  18—24 ;  Gal.  iv.  1—4. 
When,  therefore,  as  Christians,  we  obey  any 
part  of  the  law  of  Moses,  or  of  the  precepts  of 
the  Old  Testament,  we  yield  this  obedience,  not 
because  it  is  required  by  the  law  of  Moses  or 
the  Old  Testament,  but  partly  because  it  is  corti- 
manded  hy  the  universal  moral  law,  and  chiefly 
because  it  is  commanded  by  Christ.  For  Christ 
did  not  come,  as  he  himself  said,  to  annul  the 
moral laio  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  to  fulfil  and 
enforce  it,  Matt.  v.  17,  seq.  So  depraved  were 
the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Moses,  and  long  after- 
wards, that  he  was  compelled  to  proceed  with 
them  as  a  teacher  does  with  ignorant,  rude,  and 
untractable  pupils.  The  first  measures  which  the 
teacher  takes  in  the  education  of  such  pupils  are, 
to  separate  them  from  others  of  tlie  same  charac- 
ter with  themselves,  to  iinjjose  compulsatory  re- 
straints, to  awe  them  with  threatenings,  and  to 
make  to  them  such  sensible  representations  as 
are  most  calculated  to  produce  an  effect.  And 
these  are  the  measures  which  Moses  adopted 
Those  for  whom  his  institute  was  intended  were, 
in  a  great  measure,  incapable  of  any  hisrhtT  re- 
ligious knowledge,  which  was  not  therefore 
given  them,  except  in  such  obscure  intimations 
as  were  proper  in  elementary  instructions. 
Vide  Introduction,  s.  H,  II.  Cf.  Gal.  iv.  3 
Col.  ii.  8,  -20.  Warburton,  Divine  Legation  of 
Moses. 

(c)  Christians  oujht  not  to  adopt,  without 
some  limitation,  the  life  and  example  of  the  per- 
sons described  in  the  Old  Testament,  even  of 
those  there  mentioned  with  approbation,  as  mo- 
dels for  their  own  imitation ;  fir,  in  consf  quence 
of  their  better  instniction.  Christians  are  now  in 
manv  respects  far  advanced  bey.md  the  best  of 
former  times.  In  those  ages  of  ignorance  maoT 
e3 


78 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


things  were  allowed  or  palliated  whicli,  in  this 
period  of  higher  illumination  and  improvement, 
wouhl  he  without  excuse.  Many  events  in  the 
histories  of  David,  Samson,  and  others,  for 
vvliich  they  might  perhaps  have  been  excul- 
pated, cannot  he  adopted  by  Christians  as  mo- 
dels for  their  imitation.  These  remarks  are  suf- 
ficient to  shew  the  necessity  of  caution  in  the 
use  of  the  cliaracters  of  Old-Testament  history, 
in  recommending  moral  duties,  and  in  popular 
instruction.  Vide  Joh.  Aug.  Wolf,  Diss,  duo 
de  exemplis  biblicis  in  theologia  morali  caute 
adhibendis,  Lipsiae,  1786,  4to.  Christian  teach- 
ers would  do  well  to  follow  in  this  respect  the 
example  of  tiie  writers  of  the  New  Testament. 
They  never  deal  in  indiscriminate  praises  and 
encomiums  of  the  characters  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, but  always  select  those  parts  of  their  ex- 
ample which  are  worthy  of  commendation,  and 
of  the  imitation  of  Christians ;  such  as  the  piety 
and  faith  of  Abraham,  and  others  mentioned, 
Heb.  xi. 

SECTION  XIII. 

OF  THE  READING  OF  THE  HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 

I.  Hidury  of  t lie  Dispute  respecting  the  Reading  of 

the  Bible. 

That  the  holy  scriptures  were  less  read  by  the 
the  ancient  Jews  and  primitive  Christians  than 
at  the  present  day  is  beyond  dispute.  Books 
were  formerly  very  rare  and  costly,  and  the  read- 
ing public  was  extremely  small.  Even  in 
Eiiiope  it  was  not  so  large  by  half,  a  century 
ago,  as  now.  The  great  body  of  society,  in  for- 
mer times,  had  little  taste  for  reading,  or  indeed 
ability,  as  a  general  thing,  either  to  read  or  to 
write.  They  were  not  therefore  required,  by 
any  precepts  of  the  Bible,  to  read  the  scriptures 
themselves.  This  was  made  the  duty  of  the 
teachers  of  religion,  who  were  then  required  to 
read  the  scriptures  before  the  people.  Thus  the 
sons  of  Levi  were  required  to  read  the  law  of 
IMoses  in  the  hearing  of  the  people,  Deut.  xxxi. 

II,  12  ;  and  Timothy  was  required  to  study  the 
pcriptures  in  order  to  qualify  himself  to  teach 
others,  2  Tim.  iii.  15.  The  passage,  .Tohn,  v. 
39,  is  also  addressed  to  the  teachers  of  religion. 
In  consequence  of  the  fact,  that,  in  ancient  times, 
the  great  body  of  mankind  received  instruction 
more  by  hearing  than  by  their  own  reading,  the 
learner  was  called  dzpoar^j,  and  instruction, 
njnru',  dxo/J,  Roin.  x.  15. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  common  people 
and  the  ignorant  are  nowhere  forbidden,  in  the 
Old  or  New  Testament,  to  read  the  scriptures; 
but  were  rather  encouraged  to  instruct  them- 
selves by  their  own  study  of  the  Word  of  (Jod, 
if  they  had  sufficient  leisure  and  ability.  The 
)«tltters  of  the  apostles  were  addressed   to  the 


whole  church,  and  were  publicly  read  in  the 
hearing  of  all.  Col.  iv.  16.  Now,  if  the  apostles 
did  not  fear  any  harm  from  having  their  epistles 
read  in  public,  in  the  hearing  of  all,  they  could 
have  no  reason  to  ap|irehend  danger  from  havino' 
them  perused  in  private.  The  Jews  also  were 
always  permitted  the  free  use  of  their  serij)ture8, 
cf.  Acts,  viii.  28;  nor  is  there  a  passage  in  all 
the  Old  Testament  in  which  this  is  jjrohihited. 
In  the  early  Christian  church,  too,  the  reading 
of  the  Bible  was  universally  allowed,  and,  in- 
deed, encouraged  and  facilitated  by  frequent 
versions.  As  early  as  the  second  century  the 
Bible  had  been  rendered  into  J^yriac  and  Latin, 
and  was  accessible  in  these  versions  to  as  many 
as  wished  to  own  or  study  them.  Hiemnymus 
commends  Pamphilus,  "  quod  scripturas  quoque 
sanctas,  non  ad  legendum  tantum,  sed  ad  haben- 
dum tribuebat  promptissime,  non  solum  viris  sed 
etiam  feminis,  quas  vidisset  leciioni  dediias," 
Apol.  I.  Contra  Ruffinum.  Julian  objected  to 
Christians,  "quod  mulieres  puerosque  pateren- 
tur  scripturas  legere,"  Cyril.  Alex.  (?ontra  Jul. 
VI.  9.  Cyprian  recommended  the  study  of  the 
Bible  to  Christians  :  "  Scripturis  inquam  sacris 
incumbat  christianus  fidelis,  et  ibi  inveniet 
condigna  fidei  spectacula,"  Cyprian,  De  Spec- 
tac.  p.  342.  From  all  this  it  appears,  that  at 
this  period  of  the  church  the  use  of  the  holy 
scriptures  was  unincun)bered.  Vide  Walch, 
Vom  Gebrauch  der  heiligen  Schrift  unter  den 
alten  Christen,  Leipzig,  1779,  8vo. 

At  a  later  period  the  great  decline  of  learn- 
ing commenced.  And  to  such  a  point  of  dark- 
ness did  western  Europe  arrive,  that  the  whole 
learning  of  the  clergy  of  the  middle  ages  often 
consisted  in  their  being  able  to  read.  In  a  state 
of  things  like  this,  the  Bible  was  not,  of  course, 
much  read  by  the  laity,  if,  indeed,  thev  were  able 
to  read  at  all.  And  as  the  Latin  version  was 
retained,  although  the  Latin  language  had 
ceased  to  be  vernacular  after  the  seventh  centu- 
ry, the  common  people  became  more  and  more 
ignorant  of  its  contents. 

In  the  midst  of  this  darkness  the  pope  and 
clergy  established  many  doctrines,  which -were 
as  promotive  of  their  own  interests  as  they  were 
contrary  to  the  Bible.  These  innovations  and 
errors  were  soon  discovered  and  opposed  by 
some  of  the  more  intelligent  and  inquisitive 
even  among  the  laity.  Hence,  to  take  the  Bible 
from  their  hands  was  the  obvious  policy  of  the 
clergy.  Accordingly,  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  of 
the  eleventh  century,  declared  himself  against 
the  free  and  general  use  of  the  scriptures.  But 
as  many  of  the  laity,  who  had  ol)tained  more 
enlightened  views  from  the  use  of  the  Bible, 
opposed  themselves  to  the  designs  of  the  pope, 
the  prohibition  was  repealed  by  Innocent  III., 
at  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  use  of  the  Bible  was  again  forbidden  the 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


79 


laity,  on  account  of  the  Waldenses,  by  the 
council  held  at  Toulousp,  in  the  year  1229. 
'•  Prohibeiiius,  ne  libros  V.  T.  aiil  N.  laicis  per- 
mittatur  habere;  nisi  forte  Psalierium  vel  Bre- 
viaiiiiin  pru  divinis  ofiiciis  ac  Horas  Beatae  Vir- 
ginia aliquis  ex  dcvolione  habere  v^lit;  sed,  nc 
nrajinissos  libros  habeant  in  vulgari  translalione, 
trctissime  inhibemus,"  Concilium  Tolosanum, 
Can.  Xn.  At  a  synod  at  Beziers,  in  the  year 
1233,  the  laity  were  forbidden  to  possess  any 
books  of  theology  in  the  Latin  language,  and 
both  clergy  and  laity  to  possess  any  in  the  ver- 
nacular. In  the  year  1338,  John  Wickliffwas 
declared  a  heretic  by  a  synod  at  Oxford  for  pub- 
lishing an  English  translation  of  the  Bible ;  and 
in  the  year  1 108,  the  third  synod  at  the  same 
place  ordained,  "ne  quis  iextum  aliquem  ex 
scriptura  transferatin  linguam  Anglicanam,  nisi 
a  Dioecesano  vel  Concilio  provinciali  translatio 
approbata  sit." 

Still  there  were  many  among  the  different 
sects,  and  some  even  of  the  catholic  church,  who 
read  the  Bible  for  themselves.  And  by  com- 
paring the  existing  state  of  faith  and  practice 
with  the  Bible,  they  were  soon  convinced  of 
the  errors  and  corruptions  of  the  church.  At 
last,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  Luther  and  the 
Swiss  reformers  appeared,  and  restored  the  free 
use  of  the  Bible.  Luther  especially  very  much 
promoted  the  general  circulation  of  the  scrip- 
tures by  his  German  translation,  which  was  the 
principal  means  of  the  Reformation.  The  coun- 
cil at  Trent  did  not  now  venture  to  renew  the 
prohibition  of  the  Bible,  and  undertook  only  to 
establish  the, Vulgate  edition  as  alone  authen- 
tic. But  afterwards.  Pope  Pius  IV.  issued  an 
Index  librorum  prohihitorum,  in  the  preface  to 
which  he  writes,  "  Cum  experimento  manifes- 
tuni  sit  si  sacra  Biblia  vulgari  lingua  passim, 
sine  discrimine  permittantur,  plus  inde  ob  ho- 
niinum  temeritatem  detriment!  quam  utilitatis 
oriri ;  hac  in  parte  judicio  Episcopi  sive  Inqui- 
sitoris  stetur,  ut  cum  consilio  parochi  vel  Con- 
fessarii  Bibliorum  a  catholicis  auctoribus  ver- 
sorum  lectionem  in  vulgari  lingua  eis  concedere 
possint,  quos  intellexerunt  ex  hujusmodi  lec- 
tione  non  damnum,  sed  fidci  atque  pietatis 
augmentum  capere  posse ;  quam  faeullalem  in 
scnptis  habeant.  Qui  autem  absque  tali  facul- 
tate  ea  legere  sive  habere  prssumseritj  nisi  prius 
Bibliis  ordinario  redditis,  peccatorum  absolu- 
tionen\  percipere  non  possit."  But  even  this 
permission  was  afterwards  limited  by  Clement 
VIII.,  who  declared  that  by  this  indulgence  of 
Pius  IV.,  "nullam  de  novo  tribui  facultatem 
Episcopis  vel  Inquisitoribus  aut  Regularium 
Superioribus  concedendi  licentiam  emendi, 
.egendi,  aut  retinendi  Biblia,  vulgari  lingua 
edita,  cum  hactenus  mandato  et  usu  saiicfae  ro- 
manss  et  universalis  Inquisiliotiis  sublatn  cisfucrit 


fficultas  concedendi  hujusmodi  Hceniiat  legendi 
vel  retinendi  Biblia  vulgaria,  aut  alias  sanctst 
scripturse  tarn  JVovi  quam  Vettris  Tcslamenti 
partes,  quavis  vulgari  lingua  edilas  ,-  ac  iiu>uper 
summaria  et  compendia  eliam  historica  eorun- 
dem  Bibliorum,  seu  librorum  sanctae  scripturse^ 
quocunque  vulgari  idiomale  conscripta  ;  quod  qui- 
dem  inviolate  aervandum  est."  And  ai  last  this 
permission  was  wholly  withdrawn  by  Gregory 
XV.,  who  says,  "  De  plenitudine  apostolicae  po- 
testatis'et  ex  certa  scientia,  ac  matura  delibera- 
tione  revocamus,  cassamus,  et  annullamus 
omnes  et  singulas  licenlias  legendi  el  habendi 
biblios  quoscunque  prohibitos." 

It  is  injustice,  however,  to  the  catholic  church, 
to  suppose  that  this  prohibition  of  the  free  and 
general  use  of  the  Bible  was  ever  universallj 
approved.  There  have  always  been  theolo- 
gians, especially  in  the  Gallican  church,  who 
have  advocated  the  lawfulness  and  necessity  of 
the  unlimited  use  of  the  scriptures.  Paschasius 
Quesnel  published  at  Paris,  1G87,  and  Brussels, 
1702,  a  French  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, (Le  Nouveau  Testament,  avec  des  reflex- 
ions morales  sur  chaque  verset,)  from  which  a 
hundred  and  one  propositions  were  extracted  at 
the  instigation  of  the  Jesuits,  and  condemned  by 
the  pope  in  the  bull  L'nigenitus,  1713.  Among 
these  propositions  were  the  following: — "  Lec- 
itio  sacras  scripture  est  pro  omnibus."  "  Ob- 
scuritas  sancti  verbi  Dei  non  est  Laicis  ratio 
dispensandi  se  ipsos  ab  ejus  lectione."  "  Abri- 
pere  e  Christianorum  manibus  Novum  Testa- 
mentum,  sive  eis  illud  clausum  tenere.auferendo 
eis  modum  illud  intelligendi,  est  iilis  Christi  09 
obturbare."  "  Interdicere  Christianis  lectionem 
sacree  scripturae,  preesertim  Evangelii,  est  inter- 
dicere usum  luminia  filiis  lucis,  et  facere  ut  pa- 
tiantur  speciem  quandam  excommunicationis." 
It  should  be  remarked,  too,  that  the  use  of  the 
Bible  has  never  been  prohibited  icithout  sovie 
limitation ;  so  that  it  is  not  unfrequent  in  our 
day  for  the  most  distinguished  theoloffians  of 
the  Romish  church  to  advocate  the  general  use 
of  the  scriptures;  while  there  are  still  many 
Jesuites,  or  Exjesuites,  who  hold  to  the  prohi- 
bition of  the  Bible.  Vide  Hegelmeier,  Ges- 
chichte  des  Bibelverbots,  Ulm,  17S3,  8vo. 

[_Note. — The  following  passage  from  the  his- 
torian Olaus  Magnus,  will  shew  on  what  pre- 
tences the  court  of  Rome  has  sometimes  pro- 
ceeded in  forbidding  the  translation  and  circula- 
tion of  the  holy  scriptures.  "Gregorius  VIL, 
Vratislao  (a  Bohemian  nobleman)  scripsit  (2 
Jan.  1080)  ac  prohihuit,  ne,  ut  optavit,  scriptura 
sancta  verteretur  in  linguam  vulgarcm  ;  quoniam 
tam  secreta  niajestas  in  ea  est,  ut  diihculter 
translatae  sensus  secretorum  Dei  poterit  in  ea 
postmodum  deprelirndi;immonunquam  devolior 
fieret  populus,  quando  sciens  facilitatem,  in  con* 


80 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


temptnm  verteret,  quod  in  reverentiaconsueverat 
admirnri  et  jam  in  cerevisiaria  taberna  irrisorie 
decantatur,"  Hist.  Lib.  XVI.  c.  39. 

At  thfi  time  of  the  Reformation,  the  Bible  was 
translated  by  many  catholic  theologians,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  use  of  the  "  heretical"  Bible  by 
the  members  of  their  communion.  The  New- 
Testament  was  translated  by  Ilieron.  Emser, 
in  1527,  and  by  J.  Dietenbercrer,  in  1533;  and 
the  whole  Bible  by  .1.  Eck,  Casp.  Uhlenberg, 
and  others. 

The  condemnation  of  the  maxims  of  Father 
Quesnel  by  Clement  XI.  occasioned  a  contro- 
versy in  the  catholic  church,  which  resulted  in 
larger  views  respectinor  the  use  of  the  scriptures. 
These  views  were  patronised  by  Benedict  XIII., 
in  the  synod  hi^ld  at  the  palace  of  the  Lateran, 
and  afterwards  more  successfully  by  Maria  The- 
resa and  Joseph  II.,  of  Austria. 

•Since  the  commencement  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, the  Bible  Society  has  found  patrons  in 
many  distin^-uished  members  of  the  catholic 
church.  The  Archbishops  of  Mohileff  and  of 
Gnesne  sanctioned  a  Polish  version  of  the  scrip- 
tures, and  promoted  its  circulation  in  their  dio- 
ceses; for  which,  however,  they  were  severely 
reprimanded  by  Pius  VII.,  in  his  brief  of  June 
29,  181().  Among  the  distinguished  catholics 
wiio  have  made  common  cause  with  the  protes- 
tanls  in  the  circulation  of  the  Bible,  in  opposi- 
tion both  to  pa|)al  authority  and  the  active  jea- 
lousy of  the  (Jltra-montanisls,  the  names  of  Van 
Ess,  Gossner,  and  De  Sacy,  deserve  to  be  parti- 
cularly mentioneJ.  In  o-ir  own  country,  the 
"  bishops  of  the  church"  are  content  with  "  ear- 
nestly cautioning  the  laity  against  the  indiscri- 
minate use  of  the  unauthorized  and  extremely 
defective  and  erroneous  versions  which  are 
placed  within  their  reach,"  and  with  recommend- 
ing "  the  Douay  translation  from  the  Vulgate  of 
th^  Old  Testament,  and  the  Rhemish  translation 
of  the  New  Testament."  Vide  Pastoral  Letter 
of  the  Prelates  of  the  catholic  church,  Baltimore, 
182.9. 

While  these  more  liberal  views  are  obtaining 
in  the  Romish  church,  it  is  worthy  of  remark 
tint  many  protestant  divines  have  so  far  desert- 
ed the  principles  of  the  Ref  )rmation  as  wholly 
to  disapprove  of  the  general  reading  of  the 
Bible,  or  at  least  to  allow  it  only  under  very 
narrow  restrictions.  Several  bishops  of  the 
episcopal  church,  both  in  England  and  America, 
have  publicly  avowed  their  hostility  to  the  Bible 
Society,  pretending  that  its  exertions  menaced 
the  safety  of  the  established  church.  Vide 
Christian  Observer,  vol.  xx.  p.  28.  The  same 
hostility  to  the  unrestricted  use  of  the  Bible  has 
been  m  inifested  by  several  German  theologians. 
Vide  Lessinrr,  Theol.  Nachlass,  Berlin,  I78|. 
J.  G.  B'cker,  Tract,  ad  qii<vsiionem,  utrum  lec- 
tio literaruin  sacrae  scriptura;  omnibus  oiunino  | 


Christianis,  maxime  imperitae  multitudini.  vald» 
sit  commendanda,  Rostochii,  1793,  Ito.  ^oigt- 
lander.  Die  Bibel  krin  Erbauiingsbuch,  in  the 
Predigerjournal  fiir  Sachsen,  November,  1809. 
Voeckler,  De  eo,  an  bene  actum  sit,  scripta  Ve- 
teris  et  Novi  Testamenti  omnia  ac  singula  cum 
imperitorum  multiiudinecommunicdndi,  Lipsiae, 
1823,  8vo.  Vide  Hahn,  Lehrbuch  des  clirlst 
Glaubens,  Leipzig,  1828.] 

II.  How  may  the  Biblt  be  best  adapted  to  common 
use  ? 
It  apjjears  from  th^  preceding  historical  sketch 
that  religion  has  always  suffered  from  the  prohi- 
bition or  restriction  of  the  use  of  the  scriptures; 
and,  on  the  contrary,  has  always  uained  from 
their  free  and  unrestricted  use.  To  establish 
this  declaration,  we  need  only  ap|)eal  to  the  time 
of  the  Reformation.  The  most  direct  way  to 
render  Christianity  obsolete  is  to  take  the  Bible 
from  the  hands  of  the  common  people.  And 
already  have  we  begun  to  experience  the  evils 
resulting  from  the  efforts  of  some  modern  teach- 
ers to  banish  the  reading  of  the  scriptures,  espe- 
cially of  the  Old  Testament,  from  our  schools, 
or  at  least  to  diminish  the  degree  of  attention 
formerly  paid  to  them. 

But  however  useful  the  simple  perusal  of  the 
scriptures  in  the  common  method  may  be  to 
common  people  of  no  education,  it  may  doubt- 
less be  rendered  in  ditTerent  ways  more  useful 
and  less  objectionable.  The  following  are  the 
principal  methods  adopted  to  promote  the  gene- 
ral utility  of  the  Bible: — 

1.  New  translations.  Before  the  perusal  of 
the  scriptures  can  be  instructive  and  edifying  lo 
the  common  people,  they  must  be  able  to  obtain 
clear  and  definite  conceptions  of  what  they  read; 
and  they  can  do  this  only  by  means  of  good  and 
intelligible  translations.  It  were,  indeed,  desir- 
able that  the  established  version,  which  has  a 
classical  authority  with  the  great  body  of  society, 
should  be  gradually  improved,  if  circumstances 
were  sucli  as  to  allow  this  to  be  done.  Consi- 
dering the  period  at  which  this  version  was 
made,  it  is  a  masterpiece  in  its  kind,  and  is  in 
many  respects  worthy  of  the  study  and  imitation 
of  the  modern  translator.  But  since  that  period 
we  have  made  great  advances  in  the  art  of  inter- 
pretation, antl  have  many  exegetical  helps,  which 
were  not  then  enjoyed.  Our  language,  too,  has 
undergone  great  alterations  since  this  translation 
was  written  ;  and  many  of  the  words  and  phrases 
which  are  used  in  it,  and  which  wen'  then  com- 
mon, are  now  obsolete  and  uninti'lli^ilile ;  but 
the  period  has  not  yet  arrived,  either  fjr  intro 
ducing  a  new  version  into  the  |)rotcstant  church 
or  for  making  considerable  improvements  in  iht 
one  now  established.  Indeed,  to  atteiujit  thi 
at  the  present  crisis  of  the  affairs  of  religion,  anc 
while  opposing  sects  are  inflamed  with  such 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


81 


eeal  against  each  other,  would  be  extremely  dan- 
gerous. In  these  circumstances  we  could  hardly 
expect  that  any  one  plan  of  improvement  would 
gain  the  assent  of  all  parties.  Since,  therefore, 
neither  a  new  version  can  at  present  be  author- 
ized, nor  any  considerable  improvements  be 
made  in  the  old,  we  can  do  nothing  better  to 
excite  the  interest  and  enlist  the  feelings  of  the 
common  people  in  the  reading  of  the  Bible,  than 
to  recommend  to  them  new  translations  and 
practical  expositions,  to  be  used  in  connexion 
with  the  established  version. 

2.  Jilkgorical  interpretaUon  and  compends. 
Every  part  of  the  Bible  was  not  intended  for  all 
ages  or  for  all  classes  of  readers.  Considerable 
portions  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
have  no  imnwdiate  connexion  with  the  Christian 
religion  and  the  truths  of  salvation,  and  contri- 
bute little  to  the  instruction  and  edification  of 
believers,  and  are  therefore  of  service  merely  to 
the  scholar.  Vide  s.  13.  In  order  now  to  ren- 
der the  reading  of  the  scriptures  truly  profitable 
to  common  people,  and  to  save  them  from  wast- 
ing their  time  upon  subjects  which  lie  beyond 
their  sphere,  and  from  which  they  can  derive  no 
profit,  their  attention  should  be  directed  to  such 
passages  as  exhibit  the  great  truths  of  Christian 
faith  and  practice,  and  especially  to  the  instruc- 
tive narratives  of  the  Bible.  The  inconveni- 
ences resulting  to  the  greater  portion  of  readers 
from  the  indiscriminate  and  unaided  perusal 
of  the  Bible,  and  the  necessity  of  doing  some- 
thing to  adapt  it  better  to  their  spiritual  profit, 
have  been  for  a  long  time  perceived  and  felt; 
and,  accordingly,  two  methods  have  been  taken 
to  obviate  these  inconveniences,  and  to  render 
the  perusal  of  the  Bible  more  useful  to  common 
readers. 

(ff)  A  mystical  and  allegorical  mode  of  inter- 
pretation has  been  applied  to  the  historical  parts 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  to  other  parts  of  the 
Bible,  which  have  no  immediate  bearing  on  the 
doctrines  of  salvation,  or  the  moral  improvement 
of  men ;  and  in  this  way  a  new  sense  has  been 
ascribed  to  these  passages  better  calculated  to 
instruct  and  edify.  This  method  was  formerly 
adopted  by  Philo  and  other  Jews,  who  were  fol- 
lowed in  this  respect  by  many  of  the  Christian 
fathers,  especially  by  Clemens  of  Alexandria, 
Origen,  and  others  of  the  EgyptiaA  church. 
This  method  has  also  been  adopted  in  modern 
times.  '  It  has  doubtless  been  the  means  of  good 
in  some  former  periods,  and  to  certain  classes  of 
readers ;  but  it  involves  so  many  inconveniences, 
and  gives  occasion  to  so  many  errors,  that  the 
revival  of  it  at  the  present  day  can  hardly  seem 
desirable.  It  has  lately,  however,  though  under 
the  different  name  of  moral  interpretation,  re- 
ceived the  sanction  of  Kant.  Vide  Nosselt, 
Progr.  Animadversiones  in  sensura  sacrorum 
ibrorum  moralem,  Halle,  1795. 
11 


[ybte. — Those  who  apply  this  mode  of  intei> 

pretation  suppose  that  every  passage  of  the  Bible 
contains  a  concealed,  spiritual,  and  higher  sense, 
either  in  connexion  with  or  under  its  literal  and 
grammatical  sense;  and  that  the  Holy  Uiiost 
thus  gave  two  or  more  senses  to  the  words 
which  he  inspired.  The  catholic  church  held 
to  a/owr/b/f/ sense  of  the  Bible — viz.,  (l>  gp.am- 
MATicus,  (2)  MVSTicus,  Subdivided  into  (a) 
tropologicus,  s.  moralis  (1  Cor.  ix.  8,  seq.),  (^) 
alk^oricus  (Gal.  iv.  21,  seq.),  (c)  anago^icus. 
This  theory  of  catholic  hermeneutics  was  ex- 
pressed in  the  following  distich  : — 

Literu  gcsta  docet;  quid  credas,  allegoria; 
Moralis,  quid  agas ;  quid  speres,  anagogia. 

Tirinus,  a  Jesuit,  thus  writes: — "Sub  unis, 
iisdemque  sacra;  scripturie  verbis,  prajter  semum 
literal'sm,  primario  a  spiritu  sancto  inlentum, 
latere  subinde  etiam  alium,  setiMiin  mi/sticum 
sive  spiritualem,  secundario  a  spiritu  sancto  in- 
tentum,  patet  ex  John,  iii.  14,  ubi  per  exalta- 
tionem  serpentis  jMosaici,  Christus  suam  cruci- 
fixionem ;  ex  INIatt.  xii.  20,  ubi  per  occult;itionem 
Jonx  in,  ventre  ceii,  suam  sepulturam  desig- 
nat,"  «fcc. 

In  opposition  to  this,  Sam.  IMaresius,  of  the 
reformed  church,  writes — "  Absil  a  nobis  ut 
Deum  faciamus  biy>Mtrov,  aut  multiplices  sen- 
sus  affingainus  ipsius  verbo,  in  quo  potius,  ram- 
nuam  in  speculo  limpidissimo,  sui  aulcris  sim- 
plicitatem  contemplari  debemus,  Ps.  xii.  6  ;  xix. 
8.  Unicus  ergo  senstis  scriptures  nempe  grants 
maticiis,  est  admittendus,  quibuscunque  deuium 
terminis,  vel  propriis  vel  tropicis  et  figuratis  ex- 
primatur.  Sed  cum  res  illo  sensu  grammatico 
expressae,  (sunt  enim  verba  rerum  imagines) 
Scepe  sint  typicre,  hinc  fit,  ut  sensus  ille  unicus 
et  simplex  debeat  extendi  non  solum  ad  typum, 
sed  etiam  ad  [)rototypum,cui  praefigurando  lypiis 
ille  a  Deo  destinatur;  quo  spectant  pleraque  ex- 
empla  hie  Tirino  citata,  et  in  quibus  sensum 
hactenus  mi/stician  agnoscimus,  quatenus  res 
ipsffi  mysticam  habuerunt  significationem." 

Such  was  the  opinion  of  the  reformers,  and 
of  most  of  the  older  evangelical  theologians; 
but  Musa?us,  Calovius,  Quenstedt,  HoUaz.  Car- 
povius,  jMosheim,  and  others,  contended  tor  a 
mystical  sense,  besides  the  literal  sense  disco- 
vered and  determined  by  the  ustis  loquendi  and 
the  context.  By  this  mystical  sense  they  mpant, 
however,  only  a  spiritual  application  of  the  lite- 
ral sense.  On  the  contrary,  Baier,  Buddeus, 
Baumgarten,  and  others,  maintained  that  thia 
spiritual,  hidden,  second,  remote,  sense  of  the 
scriptures  was  the  one  intended  by  the  Holy 
Spirit.  In  later  times.  Dr.  Olshausen  distin- 
guishes between  the  literal  sense  of  the  Bible 
and  a  deeper  sense  (irtorota,  L'nf'rrsinii')^  which 
he  calls  spiritual.  Vide  Olshausen,  Ein  Wort 
uber  tiefern  Schrit"tsinn,  Konigsberg,  182t,  8vo. 


82 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Hahn,  Lehrbuch  des    christiichen    Glaubens, 
Leipzig,  182S.] 

(i)  Another  means  of  rendering  the  Bible 
more  useful  to  all  classes  of  people — a  means 
far  better  than  the  former,  and  more  ada|)ted  to 
the  present  lime,  is  that  of  making  compends, 
containing  the  most  important,  instructive,  and 
practical  portions  of  the  scriptures.  The  idea 
of  making  extracts  from  the  Bible  is  not  of  re- 
cent origin.  Soon  after  the  Babylonian  exile, 
the  Jews  made  selections  from  the  various  his- 
torical works  of  their  prophets.  The  books  of 
Kings,  Chronicles,  &c.,  are  compends,  com- 
posed from  larger  historical  works  therein 
named.  Compends  of  the  same  kind  were  early 
attempted  among  Ciiristians.  According  to 
Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles.  IV.  2G,  Melito  of  Sardis, 
in  the  third  century,  composed  a  Synopsis  Veie- 
ris  Testarnenti,  which,  however,  is  now  lost. 
And  we  learn  from  a  catalogue  of  the  writings 
of  Augustine,  given  by  Possidonius,  an  African 
bishop  of  the  fifth  century,  and  a  disciple  of 
Aucfustine,  that  he  also  made  a  selection  of  such 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament  as  were  interest- 
ing and  instructive  to  Christians,  to  which  he 
gives  the  title  of  Speculum. 

These  compends  of  the  scriptures  may  be 
constructed  on  different  plans,  according  to  the 
various  ends  for  which  they  are  composed. 
But  we  are  speakmg  here  of  that  kind  only 
which  is  intended  for  the  instruction  and  edifi- 
cation of  the  common  people  and  of  the  young. 
During  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years  many 
compends  of  this  nature  have  been  composed  in 
the  protestant  church.  Some  theologians  of 
that  party  which  would  banish  from  religion 
everything/>'*s//jfe  have  made  use  of  this  method, 
in  order  to  give  a  direction  to  the  religious  in- 
struction of  the  common  people  and  of  the  young, 
conformably  to  their  own  maxims.  They  have 
selected  such  portions  only  of  the  Bible  as  incul- 
cate the  truths  of  natural  religion,  or  exhibit  tlie 
the  (reneral  precepts  of  morality,  and  have  either 
wlijUy  omitted  or  very  slightly  noticed  the  posi- 
tive doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith.  Many  of 
thein  have  gone  so  far  as  to  insist  that  such  com- 
pends should  be  used  in  the  schools  instead  of 
the  Bible,  and  have  boldly  declared  that  they 
might  be  made  gradually  to  supersede  wholly 


the  original  scriptures ;  as  in  very  many  cases 
the  extracts  made  from  a  work  have  led  to  an 
entire  neglect  of  the  original  from  which  they 
were  taken. 

If  we  consider  these  abuses,  and  the  present 
very  doubtful  tendency  of  this  method,  we  caij- 
not  deny  that  there  are  weighty  objections  to 
the  regular  use  of  compends  of  the  Bible  in  po- 
pular religious  instruction.  Indeed,  Eichhorn 
(Bibl.  der  bihl.  Lit.  Th.  I.  s.  828,  f.)  and 
many  other  neologisis  have  declared  themselves 
against  this  method. 

If,  however,  these  compends  are  properly 
constructed  and  rightly  used  they  may  be  very 
useful.  In  order  to  avoid  the  mistakes  just  men- 
tioned, and  to  answer  the  ends  for  which  these 
selections  should  be  designed,  they  should  be 
composed  in  view  of  the  following  considera- 
tions: (I)  The  author  of  the  compendium  and  the 
teachers  who  use  it  must  carefully  guard  against 
the  appearance  of  undervaluing  the  Bible  itself, 
or  of  wisliing  to  supersede  it  by  their  selections. 
(2)  They  must  rather  labour  to  prepare  those 
whom  they  teach  by  means  of  these  extracts  to 
read  the  Bible  itself  with  understanding  and 
profit.  In  short,  a  compend  of  the  Bible  should 
be  made  a  practical  introduction  to  the  Bible 
itself,  and  should  be  calculated  to  awaken  the 
desire  of  reading  the  original  from  which  it  is 
taken.  (4)  The  historical  portions  of  the  Bible 
should  be  carefully  retained,  and  the  attention 
of  the  reader  should  be  directed  to  their  practi- 
cal use.  (j)  The  author  should  especially  la- 
bour to  render  everything  clear  and  intelligible, 
preserving,  however,  as  far  as  may  be,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Bible  itself,  and  indeed,  for  the 
most  part,  that  of  the  authorized  version,  to 
which  the  readers  have  been  accustomed  from 
their  youth.  Cf.  Kuppen,  Die  Bibel  ein  Werk 
der  gottlichen  Weisheit,  Th.  II.  s.  737.  Some 
of  the  best  compends  are  those  of  Trinius, 
Bahrdt,  Seller,  llufnagel,  Schneider,  Treumann, 
Risler,  and  others  mentioned  in  Noesselt's  Bu- 
cherkenntniss.  One  of  the  latest  compends  is 
that  of  Zerrenner,  which,  however,  does  not 
answer  all  the  conditions  above  stated.  The 
student  will  find  a  number  of  essays  for  and 
against  compends  of  the  Bible  in  some  of  the 
volumes  of  the  Predigerjournal. 


BOOK    I. 


DOCTRINE     OF     GOB 


(81) 


This  Book  comprises  what  may  be  called  theology  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
term.  The  several  doctrines  belonging  to  it  will  be  considered  in  the  following 
order : — 

PART  I. 

OF  THE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES  OF  GOD. 

1.  Of  the  existence  and  the  notion  of  God Art.  II. 

2.  Of  the  nature  and  attributes  of  God Art.  III. 

3.  Of  the  doctrino  of  FathoT,  Soiu  and  Holy  Ghoet  .    •    •    .     •    *    .    Art.  IV. 

PART  II. 

or  THE  WORKS  OF  OOU. 

1.  Of  the  creation  of  the  world, 

(a)  The  creation  of  the  world  in  general,  and  of  the  earth      .     .  Art.  V. 

(h)  The  creation,  and  original  condition  of  man Art.  \  I. 

(c)  The  doctrine  of  angels Art.  VII. 

2.  Of  Divine  Providence  and  the  preservation  of  the  world     ....  Art.  VIII. 


C84) 


BOOK  I. 


DOCTRINE    OF    GOD, 


PART  I.— NAIJRE  AND  ATTRIBUTES  OF  GOD. 


ARTICLE  II. 

OF  THE  EXI5rENCE  AND  THE  NOTION  OF  GOD. 

SECTION  XIV. 

OF    THE    NOTION    OF    GOD. 

I.  Can  God  be  dejined? 

""'  0  this  question,  which  was 
frequently  asked  by  the 
schoolmen,  some  writers 
have  returned  a  negative 
answer,  for  the  reason  that 
no  definition  can  perfectly 
exhaust  the  idea  in  ques* 

iiV\    *^'°"*     ^^^  ^^  ^'^®  definition  of  a  thing 
B'l^l   must  necessarily  contain  a  complete  de- 
vji'    scription  of  its  whole  nature  and  all 
<W^     its  attributes,  a  definition  of   God   is 
'9^   indeed   impossible.     But  all  which  is 
necessary  in  a  definition  is,  that  it  should  give 
us  so  many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  thing  de- 
fined as  to  enable  us  to  distinguish  it  from  all 
other  things.     And  in  this  sense  God  can  cer- 
tainly be  defined. 

II.  What  is  the  best  definition  of  God  ? 

The  difTerence  between  the  various  defini- 
tions which  philosophers  have  given  of  God  is, 
for  the  most  part,  merely  verbal.  Some  of  the 
metaphysical  definitions  are  obscure  and  other- 
wise objectionable.  This  is  the  case  with  the 
definition  given  by  Wolf:  "God  is  a  self-ex- 
istent being,  in  whom  the  ground  of  the  reality 
of  the  world  is  to  be  found,"  or,  "  God  is  a 
being  who  has  the  ground  of  his  existence  in 
nimself."  Others  define  God  to  be  an  inde- 
pendent being,  or  an  independent  spirit,  or  an 
infinite,  necessary,  eternal  being.  By  these 
definitions,  which  enumerate  particular  divi/ie 
attributes,  God  is  distinguished  from  all  other 


beings.  As  a  general  thing,  all  the  divine  at- 
tributes may  be  derived  by  inference  from  any 
one;  which  may,  therefore,  be  made  the  ground 
of  the  definition  of  the  Divine  Being.  This 
was  done  by  the  ancient  philosophers,  who  de- 
fined God  to  be  Ttdvrav  alnov,  to  oitioj  6»',  ovaia 
diStoj,  d^ai'aT'05,  avtapxjjj,  x.  t.  X. 

But  the  best  definition  of  God — the  one  in 
which  all  the  others  are  comprehended — is  the 
following  :  God  is  ike  most  perfect  being,  and  is 
the  cause  of  all  other  beings,  (a)  The  first 
clause  of  this  definition  is  comprehensive  of  all 
the  particular  attributes  by  which  God  is  dis- 
tinguislied  from  other  beings,  such  as  eternity, 
necessity,  independence,  freedom,  and  perfec- 
tion of  will,  &c.  This  definition  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  more  popular  and  scriptural  lan- 
guage, by  saying,  God  is  the  Supreme  Being, 
the  Most  High  ({415705),  exalted  over  all,  to 
whom  none  can  be  compared.  (Z/)  The  second 
clause  of  this  definition  is  added,  because  the 
contemplation  of  all  other  beings,  the  aggregate 
of  which  is  the  world,  facilitates  the  knowledge 
of  this  most  perfect  being  by  rendering  it  obvi- 
ous that  no  other  beings  possess  all  the  perfec- 
tions which  are  united  in  him.  In  this  view, 
God  is  regarded  not  only  as  he  is  in  himself, 
but  also  in  relation  to  other  existing  things. 
But  Kant  has  pronounced  this  definition  of  God, 
and  all  the  common  definitions,  defective,  be- 
cause they  make  no  express  mention  of  moral 
perfection,  which,  in  the  description  of  a  being 
like  God,  should  be  far  more  prominent  than 
mere  metaphysical  perfection.  He  would  there- 
fore connect  with  the  idea  of  the  most  perfect 
being  that  of  a  free  being,  provided  with  a  pure 
moral  will.  But  the  latter  idea  being  implied 
in  the  former  does  not  require  to  be  expressly 
mentioned  in  a  general  definition. 

But  the  first  clause  of  the  definition  above 

given,  however  intelligible  it  may  be  to  the 

learned,  who  are  accustomed  to  abstract  ideas, 

is  too  transcendental  and  metaphysical  for  an- 

H  (85^ 


86 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


educated  people.  And  as  tlie  principal  part  of  our 
knowledge  of  God  is  derived  from  the  contem- 
plation of  the  natural  world,  and  the  conclusions 
to  which  we  arrive  from  this  contemplation ;  the 
second  clause  of  this  definition  will  be  far  more 
generally  intelligible  than  the  first.  In  popular 
instruction  we  should  therefore  define  God  to  be 
the  creator,  preserver,  and  governor  of  all  things  ; 
for  we  always  conceive  of  God  principally  in 
relation  to  ourselves  and  the  world  around  us, 
and  without  the  contemplation  of  the  world  we 
should  not  have  come  to  the  knowledge  of  God 
as  the  most  perfect  being ;  so  that  the  first  part 
of  the  definition  is  a  consequence  of  the  last. 

This  is  the  light  in  which  God  is  presented 
to  us  in  the  Bible,  Gen.  i.  1  ;  Jer.  x.  10 — Ifi; 
Amos,  V.  8;  Acts,  xvii.  21,  coll.  Psalm  clxvi. 
6 ;  Isa.  xlii.  5 ;  xlv.  6,  seq. ;  Matt.  xi.  25.  Vide 
Morus,  p.  41.  And  this,  too,  is  the  view  of  God 
which  is  most  calculated  to  inspire  the  minds 
of  men  with  reverence  for  his  character,  which 
is  the  great  object  of  all  religious  instruction. 
Vide  Morus,  pages  43,  44. 

SECTION  XV. 

OF  THE  PROOFS  OF  THE  DIVINE  EXISTENCE. 

I.  Statement  of  the  Proofs  of  the  Existence  of  God. 

The  belief  in  the  divine  existence  is  always 
presupposed  in  the  Bible,  and  the  truth  of  this 
belief  is  not,  therefore,  formally  proved,  although 
it  is  supported  by  many  convincing  arguments, 
Rom.  i.  19.  On  this  account  Baier  and  some 
other  theologians  contended  that  the  divine  ex- 
istence should  be  presupposed  in  Christian  thro- 
logy,  and  that  the  proofs  of  it  should  be  wholly 
omitted;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  tlie  full 
and  scientific  statement  of  these  proofs  belongs 
rather  to  metaphysics  and  natural  theology  than 
here.  The  proofs  of  the  divine  existence  may 
be  divided  into  two  principal  classes. 

1.  Proofs  h  priori.  The  most  celebrated  of 
these  is  that  derived  from  the  idea  of  the  most 
perfect  hcing,  and  called  the  onloloisical  or  Carte- 
sian proof.  It  was  first  used  by  Anselmus,  and 
often  repeated  by  the  schoolmen  who  succeeded 
him,  and  only  renewed  by  Des  Cartes.  It  was 
afterwards  improved  by  Leibnitz,  Wolf,  and 
Baumgarten.  It  may  be  briefly  stated  thus : 
7V/e  most  perfect  hcin<^  is  possible,  and  therefore 
actually  exists  ;ftr  existence  is  a  reality  or  perfec- 
tion, aivd  necessary  existence  is  the  highest  perfec- 
tion. Consequently  necessary  existence  must  be 
predicated  of  the  most  perfect  beintr.  The  vali- 
dity of  this  argument  was  disputed  by  tlie  monk 
Gaunilo,  a  contemporary  of  Anselmus,  and  by 
many  others  in  succeeding  ages.  In  modern 
times  it  has  at  last  been  proved  by  Kant  to  be 
entirely  futile.  The  mere  supposableness  or 
logical  possibility  of  a  perfect  being  is  no  proof 


of  the  objective  or  real  possibility  of  such  a 
being;  and  existence  cannot  be  inferred  from  a 
mere  idea.  This  proof  a  priori  entirely  sur- 
passes the  comprehension  of  common  minds. 

2.  Proofs  a  posteriori,  or  from  experience. 

(a)  From  the  contingency  of  the  world.  We 
perceive  a  constant  motion  and  change  in  the 
objects  around  us,  from  which  we  conclude  that 
they  are  contingent.  These  contingent  things 
must  have  some  ground  for  their  existence  and 
change  extrinsic  to  themselves.  And  this 
ground  must  be  a  necessary  being,  one  who  has 
the  ground  of  his  existence  in  himself;  and  this 
being  is  God.  Otherwise  we  must  make  the 
absurd  supposition  that  effects  exist  without 
their  causes,  or  that  there  is  an  infinite  series  of 
contingent  causes  (progressum  causarum  in  infi- 
nitum), which  is  equally  absurd.  This  proof, 
when  stated  in  connexion  with  others,  and  espe- 
cially with  the  moral  proof,  is  well  calculated 
to  produce  conviction.  The  Bible  frequently 
contrasts  the  eternity  and  immutability  of  God 
with  the  perishable  nature  of  the  material  world, 
Psalm  xc. ;  cii.  2G — 28;  Heb.  i.  10,  seq.  And 
this  proof,  when  exhibited  in  this  way,  is  highly 
adapted  to  produce  impression  even  on  the  com- 
mon mind.  [It  is  commonly  called  the  cosmolo- 
gical  proof.] 

Note.  This  argument,  in  its  scientific  forno 
and  development,  has  been  ascribed  by  many, 
from  their  ignorance  of  ancient  philosophy,  tc 
Thomas  Aquinas.  It  was  used,  however,  by 
Carneades  in  opposition  to  the  stoics,  who 
ascribed  divinity  to  the  world  ;  according  to  tiie 
testimony  of  Cicero,  De  Natura  Deor.  111.  12. 
It  was  also  used  by  many  of  the  ecclesiastical 
fathers.  Vide  Pelavius,  Dogm.  Theol.  1.  i. 
c.  2. 

(6)  The  proofs  from ^nfl/cflwsM.  These  may 
be  stated  in  a  very  popular  and  intelligible  man- 
ner, and  are  therefore  best  adapted  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  common  people  and  of  the  young. 
Thoy  are  called  by  the  schoolmen  argumtnta 
physica.  In  these,  however,  the  proof  from  the 
contingency  of  the  world  is  presupposed.  The 
argument  stands  thus:  If  the  things  of  the 
world  stand  connected  as  means  and  ends,  and 
follow  one  after  anothir  in  this  relation,  they 
must  be  ordered  by  an  intelligence,  a  being  of 
reason  and  supreme  wisdom.  Now  the  things 
of  the  world  are  found  actually  to  exist  in  this 
relation  and  order,  so  that  we  are  compelled  to 
believe  that  the  world  has  sprung  from  an  intel- 
ligent author. 

The  full  evidence  of  this  conclusion  depends 
upon  the  following  partimlars.  (I)  The  world 
exhibits  the  most  astonishing  marks  of  order, 
perfection,  and  design.  .\Ithough  we  are  unahls 
to  survey  the  boundless  extent  of  the  universe, 
we  find  abundant  proof  of  this  in  the  animate 
and   inanimate   creation   which   surrounds   us. 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


(C)  The  order  and  design  exhibited  in  the  world 
are  not  the  effect  of  blind  chance.  Tliis  cannot 
•je  supposed  without  contradicting  the  most  fun- 
damental principles  of  the  human  mind.  (3) 
This  order,  so  observable  in  the  material  crea- 
tion, is  contingent.  We  may  be  very  easily 
satisfied  that  it  does  not  result  from  anything 
existing  in  the  world  itself.  From  all  this  we 
conclude  that  the  order  exhibited  in  the  material 
world  must  have  a  ground  beyond  the  world 
itself;  and  that  the  author  of  the  visible  creation 
must  be  an  intelligent  being,  who  proposes  to 
himself  certain  ends  to  be  attained  in  the  produc- 
tion and  wise  arrangement  of  contingent  things. 

The  science  by  which  we  attain  the  know- 
ledge of  the  existence  and  attributes  of  the  Di- 
vine Being  from  the  wisdom  displayed  in  the 
constitution  of  the  natural  world,  is  called  jihy- 
sico-thcology  ;  and  that  which  develops  the  ends 
•or  final  causes  of  this  constitution,  teleology. 
[Hence  this  proof  of  the  divine  existence  is  com- 
monly called  the  physico-t/ieological  or  ieleolu- 
gical. 

This  argument,  so  well  adapted  to  common 
apprehension,  was  employed  more  frequently 
than  any  other  by  the  ancient  writers.  Cf. 
X»nophon,  Memorabilia,  I.  4.  IV.  3.  Plato, 
De  Legg,  X.  68.  XII.  229.  Galen,  De  usu 
partium.  Philebus,  244.  Cicero,  De  Nat.  Deor. 
II.  2,  38,  seq.  Quaest.  Tusc.  I.  28,  29.  It  was 
likewise  often  employed  by  the  Christian  fa- 
thers. Vide  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Orat.  28. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  De  opificio  hominis.  Lac- 
tantius,  De  opificio  hominis.  Theophilus,  Ad 
Autolychum,  I.  23.  Cf.  Athanasius,  John  of 
Damascus,  and  others.  The  best  modern 
writers  an  the  general  subject  of  physico-theo- 
logy  are,  Fenelon,  Van  Nieuwentyt,  Derham, 
Wolf,  Scheuchzer,  Bonnet,  and  Sander.  Par- 
ticular branches  of  physico-theology  have  also 
been  frequently  laboured  in  modern  times. 
Cf.  Frabicius,  Hydrotheologie.  Lesser,  Litho- 
theclogie.  Derham,  Astrotheologie.  Bode,  An- 
leitung  zur  Kenntniss  des  gesternten  Himmels. 
Reimarus,  Ueber  die  Triebe  derThiere.  Lesser, 
Insektothpologie,  &c.  This  general  argument 
is  often  exhibited  in  the  holy  scriptures.  Vide 
Ps.  viii.  xix.  civ. ;  Is.  xl.  21 — 26 ;  Job,  xxxvii. 
xli. ;  Matt.  vi.  25,  seq. ;  Acts,  xiv.  15,  seq.  xvii. 
24— 28;  Rom.  i.  19. 

(c)  The  7?(orrt/ argument,  lately  elucidated  by 
Kant.     Vide  No.  II. 

{d)  The  histurienl  proof,  drawn  from  the 
agreement  of  all,  even  the  most  uncultivated 
nations,  in  the  belief  of  the  divine  existence. 
Against  this  proof  it  has  been  objei^ed,  (1)  that 
the  fact  of  this  agreement  could  not  be  satisfac- 
torily proved  from  history  ;  vide  Introduction, 
s.  4  ;  (2)  that  this  agreement,  even  if  it  could 
be  satisf.ictorily  established,  would  not  prove 
this  belief  to  be  true  ;  since  many  acknowledged 


errors  and  superstitions  have  been  universally 
believed.  But  notwithstanding  these  objec- 
tions, this  almost  universal  agreement  of  nit^n 
with  regard  to  the  divine  existence  must  be  ac- 
knowledged to  furnish  an  argument  of  some 
weight.  It  shews  that  the  common  sense  <  f 
mankind,  on  a  little  reflection,  leads  to  the  id<:a 
of  God,  and  that  the  conclusion  from  these  t-f- 
fecls  to  such  a  cause  is  very  obvious  and  natu- 
ral to  the  human  mind.  Acts,  xvii.  27.  It 
should  be  here  remarked,  however,  that  tiie  be- 
lief of  the  divine  existence  precedes  the  kno'v- 
ledge  of  any  theoretic  proof  of  it.  Vide  I:.t;o- 
duction,  s.  4,  and  infra  No.  II. 

[This  argument  was  u*ed  by  the  ancient  phi- 
losophers. Ilrti'Tfj  ar^pwrtoi  rttpi  %fuiv  t;rovi^iv 
i'HoXr^-^iv,  Aristotle,  De  Ca^n.',  x.  o.  'Anairfj 
cLi'^puiTtot,  axi^ov  Ew.jji'ij  if  xai  ;3apj3apoc,  i/o/a- 
^oratv  iti'at  to  ^eiov,  Sextus  Em])iricus,  Adv. 
Mailiem.  I.  8.  The  same  writer  mentions  as 
one  of  four  proofs  of  the  divine  existence,  j^ 
rfapa  rtaot-v  dr^iiui.-tocs  ivu^uvi.a,  Adv.  Mathetn. 
IX.  60.  'Er  ]3a|j3a(jo;c  ov^fij  ifiti  tov  ^tov  uyi odtv, 
Maxiinus  Tyrius,  r)issert.  38.  Cf.  Cicero,  De 
Nat.  Deor.  I.  17,  23.     Seneca,  Epist.  117. 

(e)  The  proof  of  the  divine  existence  t'rom 
miracles.  The  miracles  recorded  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  must  have  afforded  to  those 
who  saw  them  irresistible  proof  of  the  existence 
and  perfections  of  God.  They  were  accordingly 
employed  by  Moses,  and  the  other  ancient  pro- 
phets, to  convince  the  Jews  and  F^epytians  not 
only  that  God  existed,  but  that  Jehovah  was 
the  only  true  and  the  almighty  sovereign  of  the 
universe.  And  these  miracles  are  calculated  to 
produce  the  same  conviction  in  us,  although  we 
have  not  seen  them  with  our  own  eyes,  if  we 
believe  the  truth  of  the  Bible  in  which  they  are 
recorded.  Vide  Storr  and  Flatt.  F]lements  of 
Biblical  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  309,  of  the  trans 
lation. 

II.  Observations  on  the  Use  of  the  Proof  of  the 
Divine  Existence. 

1.  The  proofs  of  the  divine  existence  have 
been  the  subject  of  much  controversy  anmng 
the  philosophers  of  modern  times.  Kant  has 
endeavoured  to  shew,  in  iiis  Kritik  der  reinen 
Vernunft,  der  Urtheilskraft,  and  other  works, 
that  all  the  theoretic  proofs  of  the  divine  exist- 
ence are  imperfect,  and  that  we  do  not  hold  the 
notion  of  God  to  be  true  on  the  ground  of  spe- 
culative reason,  but  because  it  perfectly  agrees 
with  the  principles  of  our  moral  nature.  And 
he  would  therefore  have  our  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence of  God  to  depend  solely  upon  the  moral 
proof,  which  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  :- 
There  is  a  moral  order  of  things  in  the  wcrld. — 
all  things  are  connected  together  as  means  for 
the  attainment  of  moral  ends.  Tn  this  moral 
order  we  ourselves  belong,  as  we  learn  frorn  th 


88 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


moral  feeling  which  we  all  possess,  and  which 
is  exerted  in  the  cunsctence.  Now  we  are  led 
'vy  our  pracfical  reason  to  conclude,  that  there 
txi>ts  some  cause,  by  which  alone  this  order 
couiJ  be  estiljjished — i.  e.,  that  there  is  a  God. 
Vid.'  Jacobi,  Priifung  der  Mendelssohn'schen 
Mor'^t^nstunden,  oder  aller  speculativen  Be- 
weise  fiir  das  Daseyn  Gottes,  Leipzig,  1786, 
8vi..  Cf.  Jacobi,  Ueber  den  inoralischen  Be- 
weis  vom  Daseyn  Gottes,  Libau,  1791,  8vo. 

[  i'his  argument  will  be  placed  in  a  clearer 
ligat  by  the  following  passage  from  Kant  him- 
self. "The  highest  good  of  man  consists  of 
tvv..  parts,  the  greatest  possible  morality  and 
hajipiness.  The  former  is  tlie  demand  of  his 
spiritual,  the  latter  of  his  animal  nature.  The 
foruier  only,  his  morality,  is  within  his  own 
power;  and  while,  hy  persevering  virtue,  he 
makes  this  his  personal  character,  he  is  often 
compelled  to  sac^rifice  his  happiness.  But  since 
the  Jesire  of  happiness  is  neither  irrational  nor 
unnatural,  he  justly  concludes,  either  that  there 
is  a  supreme  heing  who  will  so  guide  the  course 
of  things  (the  natural  world  not  of  itself  subject 
to  ni'.ral  laws)  as  to  render  his  holiness  and 
happiness  equal,  or  that  the  dictates  of  his  con- 
science are  unjust  and  irrational.  But  the  lat- 
ter supposition  is  morally  impossible  ;  and  he  is 
coin|)plled,  therefore,  to  receive  the  former  as 
trup.''     Kritik  der  reinen  Vernunft,  s.  620,  f.] 

•2.  An  imp  iriial  examination  of  this  contro- 
versy leads  us  to  the  following  general  i-e- 
sult : — 

((-/)  The  metaphysical  proofs  of  the  divine 
existence  are  imperfect,  as  well  as  all  proofs  of 
this  nature,  to  whatever  subject  they  may  relate. 
But  they  are  not  requisite  for  the  establishment 
of  our  faith.  If  we  should  begin  with  the  prin- 
ciple of  believing  only  what  we  could  prove  on 
speculative  grounds,  we  should  end  with  doubt- 
ing many  of  the  most  established  truths,  and  our 
own  existence  among  the  rest.  The  demonstra- 
tion which  Spinoza  has  given  of  pantheism  is 
inconclusive,  because  it  is  founded  on  merely 
speculative  grounds,  as  Kant  has  shewn  beyond 
all  dispute.  The  person  who  hopes  to  attain  to 
certainty  in  the  way  of  metaphysical  speculation, 
will  l>e  disappointed,  and  will  fall  into  the  depths 
of  cheerless  scepticism. 

{b)  It  is  an  established  fact,  that  all  who  be- 
lieve in  the  divine  existence,  are  convinced  of  it 
before  they  come  to  the  knowledge  of  any  theo- 
retic argument  by  whicli  it  might  be  proved. 
Men  in  general  admit  the  idea  of  God  to  he  true, 
because  it  perfectly  agrees  with  the  principles 
of  their  moral  nature,  and  is  demanded  by  these 
principles;  and  not  because  it  is  proved  by  spe- 
culative reason.     Vide  Inlroductiim,  s.  4. 

(c)  This  moral  proof  is  therefore  very  true 
and  just;  and  we  shall  do  well  if  we  search  for 
the  grounds  of  it  in  our  own  minds,  in  order  to 


establish  our  own  personal  conviction.  Thia 
proof  should  likewise  be  used,  divested  however 
of  technical  language,  in  popular  instruction; 
for  so  it  is  actually  employed  in  the  holy  scrip- 
tures. 

((/)  As  soon,  however,  as  the  speculative  rea- 
son is  awakened,  and  in  some  measure  culti- 
vated, the  mind,  agreeably  to  its  nature  and  its 
usual  course,  searches  for  the  theoretic  proofs 
of  the  same  truths  with  which  it  had  become 
previously  acquainted  from  practical  reason. 
But  the  man  deceives  himself  who  supposes  that 
these  theoretic  proofs  alone  would  have  ever  led 
him  to  conviction.  They  are  not,  however,  by 
any  means  to  be  rejected  ;  since  they  result  di- 
rectly from  th,P  very  constitution  of  the  specula- 
tive reason,  and  serve  to  confirm  our  belief  in 
truths  which  were  before  made  known  to  us  in 
another  way.  If  with  these  views  we  find  im- 
perfection and  inconclusivenessin  these  theoretic, 
proofs,  we  shall  not  be  wavered  in  our  faith, 
knowing  that  it  depends  upon  other  grounds 
than  these.  In  connexion,  therefore,  with  the 
moral  proof,  the  physico-theological  and  teleolo- 
gical  sliould  also  be  used.  What  God,  the  au- 
thor of  our  nature,  has  joined  together  in  the 
very  constitution  which  he  has  given  us,  let  not 
the  philosopher  or  religious  teacher  put  asunder. 

3.  The  use  to  be  made  of  these  remarks  ia 
popular  instruction.  If  the  human  mind  comes 
to  the  knowledge  of  God  in  the  manner  just 
described,  we  must  conform  ourselves  in  our  in- 
structions to  this  natural  progress,  if  we  would 
compass  our  object.  In  so  doing,  we  shall  fal- 
low the  example  of  the  sacred  writers,  who  al- 
ways proceed  in  this  way.  We  niust  accord- 
ingly inculcate  upon  our  hearers  the  truth,  that 
the  conscience  of  man  is  the  ground  of  all  our 
knowledge  of  God,  and  the  source  of  all  true 
religion.  Every  man  has  a  law  within  his  own 
bosom,  by  which  he  judges  his  feelings,  actions, 
and  his  wliole  moral  character,  'i'bis  law  com- 
mands his  obedience  so  ini|)eratively,  that  he  is 
compelled  to  regard  it  as  the  standard,  to  which 
abne  his  conduct  must  be  brought,  and  where 
it  must  he  tried  independently  of  human  opi- 
nions. And  he  acquits  or  condemns  himself, 
according  to  this  law,  as  if  he  stood  before  a  ju- 
dici.il  tribunal,  Rom.  ii.  IG — 16;  Acts,  xvii. 
27—31;  Rom.  i.  19,  20,  32;  Cf.  Introduction, 
s.  1.  Now  when  a  person  acknowledges  this 
law,  he  at  the  same  time  acknowledges,  that 
there  is  an  invisible  lawgiver  and  judge,  who 
annexes  rewards  to  what  is  morally  gooil,  and 
punishment  to  what  is  morally  evil,  to  wnnni 
therefore  homage  and  obedience  is  due  from  us 
his  subjects.  Vide  loc.  sup.  cit.  In  this  way 
does  man  come  to  tlie  knowledge  of  a  inoral 
order  of  things,  to  which  he  himself  is  conscious 
of  belonging  in  the  nobler  portion  of  his  nature, 
and  from  which  ho  cannot  but  infer  the  exist 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


ence  of  a  cause  upon  which  this  order  de- 
pends— i.  e.,  of  a  free  and  moral  being.  In 
short,  the  conscience  of  man  distinctly  utters  the 
voice  of  an  invisible  and  supreme  judge  of  our 
thouixhts  and  actions. 

But  we  do  not  stop  at  this  point.  Though 
this  judge  of  our  hearts  is  invisible,  he  is  yet  the 
ol)ject  of  our  knowledge.  His  existence  is  made 
known  to  us  by  his  works,  which  we  see  with 
our  eyes,  and  perceive  by  all  our  bodily  senses, 
(looi'Ufi-a  xa^opdrai,  Rom.  i.  20;)  for  as  long  as 
tlie  world  exists  (owo  xrtafwj  xo^ixov)  we  may 
find  proof  of  the  divine  existence,  and  revelation 
of  the  divine  attributes,  in  the  works  of  his  hand. 
Hirre,  then,  according  to  the  example  of  the  sa- 
cred writers,  we  may  introduce  the  proofs  from 
the  contingency  of  the  world,  and  the  marks  of 
desi'in  wliich  it  exhibits,  in  all  their  force. 

If  we  impart  religious  instruction  in  this  man- 
ner, we  shall  proceed  both  psychologically  and 
scripturally ;  for  conscience  within,  and  nature 
wit'iioutus,  furnish  a  twofold  source  of  the  know- 
ledge of  God.  But  if  we  follow  the  example  of 
the  Bible,  we  shall  connect  with  these  truths, 
derived  immediately  from  the  human  conscience, 
the  more  peculiar  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
system;  sucli,  for  example,  as  the  doctrine  that 
Christ  will,  at  a  future  day,  sit  in  judgment  upon 
all  ths  actions  of  our  lives,  Ron^..  ii.  IG.  It  fol- 
lows from  the  views  here  expressed,  that  we 
fthou.d  begin  to  instruct  children  in  the  know- 
le<!ge  of  God  at  a  very  early  period;  as  soon, 
iiideed,  as  they  shew  the  movings  of  moral  feel- 
ing, or  begin  to  reflect  upon  the  things  which 
surround  them,  or  to  reason  from  effect  to  cause. 

Vide  Jacobi,  Leichter  und  iiberzeugender  Be- 
weis  von  Gott,  und  von  der  VVahrheit  der  christ- 
lichen  Religion;  also,  Versuch  eines  Beweises 
eines  in  der  menschlichen  Seele  von  Natur 
liegenden  Eindrucks  von  Gott,  und  einem  Leben 
nacli  dem  Tode. 

Iir.  Of  Atheism. 

The  error  of  those  who  deny  the  existence  of 
God  is  called  atheism.  Atheists  are  such  either 
theoretically  or  practically.  Practical  atheists 
are  those  who  derive  the  motives  of  their  con- 
duct from  the  denial  of  the  divine  existence.  In 
the  common  sense,  however,  they  are  those  who, 
while  they  profess  religion,  live  in  reality  like 
atheists.  It  is  of  such  that  the  Bibfe  speaks, 
Psa.  xiv.  1 ;  Ephes.  ii.  12.  But  we  siiall  here 
treat  oiily  of  theoretic  atheism.  Some  have  de- 
nied that  theoretic  atheism  is  possible.  This 
opinion,  so  contradictory  to  all  experience  and 
history,  is  generally  entertained  by  those  who 
believe  in  innate  ideas,  or  who  would  prove  the 
existence  of  God  from  the  comnion  consent  of 
ail  mankind  ;  but  notwithstanding  this  opinion, 
there  have  always  been  those  who  have  denied 
Ihe  being  of  God.  Some,  like  Sextus  the  Em- 
13 


piric,  and  Hume,  are  scfjoh'ca/ atheists,  and  con- 
sider the  evidence  against  the  divine  existence 
as  equivalent  to  that  in  its  favour,  and  therefore 
leave  the  question  undecided.  Others  are  de- 
cided, dogmatical  atheists,  and  think  the  argu- 
ments against  the  divine  existence  prepon- 
derate. 

But  we  must  here  notice  a  species  of  atheism 
which  is  more  refined,  and  which  has  been  bet- 
ter received,  than  any  other.  God,  as  we  con- 
ceive of  him,  is  the  most  perfect  being  dialinci 
from  the  world  which  is  dependent  on  him. 
Whoever,  therefore,  believes  that  the  world 
itself,  or  any  part  or  power  of  it,  is  God,  is  an 
atheist.  But  there  have  always  been  some  phi- 
losophers who  have  held  that  the  world  itself, 
or  that  the  air  or  fire,  or  some  other  portion,  or 
that  the  power  of  motion,  (which  was  the  opi- 
nion of  many  of  the  Stoics  and  Epicureans), 
was  God  himself.  But  this  atheism  was  for 
the  first  time  thoroughly  systematized  by  Bene- 
dict Spinoza,  in  his  Ethics,  published  among 
his  posthumous  works  in  1G77.  According  to 
him,  there  is  but  one  substance,  which,  however, 
is  variously  modified.  It  has  two  principal  at- 
tributes, infinite  extension  (matter)  and  infinite 
thought  (intelligence.)  Spinoza  speaks  indeed 
of  God;  ills  God,  however,  is  not  personally 
distinguished  from  the  world,  but  is  the  uni- 
verse itself,  to  rttti'.  Hence  the  name  of  ija^ 
theism,  which  is  given  to  his  system.  He  lo 
commonly  supposed  to  have  derived  his  views 
from  Xenophanes  of  Colophon,  and  from  Parme- 
nides  and  Zeno  of  Elea.  He  did  not,  however, 
agree  so  well  with  the  principles  of  that  school 
as  with  the  ideas  of  the  system  of  emanation, 
which  he  enlarged,  refined,  and  adapted  to  his 
own  theory.  The  weakness  and  inconclusive- 
ness  of  the  reasoning  of  Spinoza  has  been  ex 
posed  with  great  sagacity  by  Kant.  The 
whole  subject  is  fully  considered  in  the  writings 
of  Jacobi,  Heydenreich,  and  Herder,  respecting 
Spinoza. 

Very  similar  to  the  system  of  Spinoza  is  that 
of  many  theosophists.  Pantheism  has  likewise 
been  received  into  favour,  in  modern  times,  by 
many  philosophers  in  Italy  and  France;  and  in 
Germany,  the  visible  tendency  of  many  of  the 
adherents  of  the  critical  philosophy  is  to  derive 
atheism  froin  the  ideas  of  Kant,  and  thus  esta- 
blish it  on  a  new  foundation.  This  appears  to 
be  the  case  particularly  with  Fichte,  Nietham- 
mer,  Forberg,  and  Schelling.  Vide  Fichte's 
and  Niethanmier's  Philosojjhischps  Journal,  St. 
I.  Fichte  is  very  unwilling  to  be  thought  au 
atheist;  and,  to  be  sure,  he  speaks  of  God;  but 
he  cannot  speak  of  him  in  the  sense  in  which 
others  do,  for  he  denies  the  existence  of  a  being 
who  is  self-existent  and  independent  of  our  con- 
ceptions; and  such  a  beins  is  intended  by  every 
one  who  speaks  of  God.  The  term  God,  accord- 
h2 


90 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


in^  to  Fichte,  means  nothinpf  more  than  the 
moral  order  of  things  ;  and  this  order,  according 
to  his  system,  exists  only  in  relation  to  us,  and 
as  belonging  to  ourselves,  and  not  at  all  inde- 
pendent of  our  conceptions.  Vide  the  Essay, 
Ueber  Fichte's  Lehre  von  Gott,  und  der  gott- 
lichen  Weltregierung,  in  Piatt's  Magazin  fiir 
cliristliche  Dogmatik  und  Moral,  St.  5,  s.  1 — 83, 
and  171 — 239;  and  Briefe  iiber  Kant's,  For- 
berg's  und  Fichte's  Religionslehre,  St,  G,  s. 
184—210.  Cf.  the  Essays  of  Dr.  Vogel,  in  the 
Neue  Theol.  .Tournal,  1799  and  1800.  Also  two 
treatises  in  Suskind's  Magazin,  St.  U,  12,  No. 
9,  Ueber  die  Grunde  des  Glaubens  an  eine 
Gottheit  als  ausserweitliche  und  fiir  sich  beste- 
hende  Intelligenz;  and  No.  9,  Ueber  das  Fun- 
damt^nt  des  Glaubens  an  die  Gottheit.  For 
remarks  respecting  Schelling's  doctrine  of  reli- 
gion, vide  Dr  Vogel's  Essay  in  Gabler's  Jour- 
nal fiir  auserleeene  theol.  Litteratur,  Bd.  V.  St. 
1,  s.  1,  ff.,  and  Suskind's  Magazin,  St.  17. 

[Xole, — The  name  atheism  would  seem  to  be 
improperly  given  to  the  error  of  those  who  in 
any  way  allow  the  idea  of  God,  however  much 
their  conceptions  of  him  may  vary  from  the 
truth.  These  different  conceptions  may  be  de- 
signated by  names  more  appropriate  and  less  in- 
jurious than  that  of  atheism.  Thus  the  doctrine 
of  F'ichte,  who  allows  the  subjective  validity  of 
the  idea  of  God,  though  he  denies  its  objective 
reality,  is  properly  called  idealistn  ;  the  doctrine 
of  Spinoza,  who  removes  the  individual  exist- 
ence of  nature,  and  transfers  it  to  God,  while 
he  retains  unaltered  the  idea  of  God  as  a  self- 
conscious  individual,  would  be  properly  called 
ideal  pantheism  ;  and  that  of  Scltelling,  who 
transfers  the  individual  being  of  God  into  na- 
ture, natural  paritkdsm.  These  remarks  are 
confirmed  by  the  following  rpiotation  from 
Henke  : — 

.  "  Summa  injuria  omnes  illi  Atheorum  numero 
accensentur,  qui  summum  numen  ab  hoc  uni- 
verso  secretum  ac  disperatum  cogitare  nesciunt, 
maluntque  Deum  rerum  omnium  causam  immn- 
nentein,  quam  iranscunlem,  dici,  nee  tamen  id 
quod  perpetuo  est,  commiscent  cum  illo  quod 
porpeiuo  fit :  quorum  error,  profecto  mngis  fana- 
ticus  quam  irnpius,  Panthriamus  r.l  Spinosigmus 
vocatur."     Lineam.  Inst,  fidei  Christ.,  p.  54. 

Among  the  ancient  (Jreek  philosophers  to 
whom  the  name  of  atheist  would  truly  apply, 
we  may  mention,  Loncipi)U9,  Diagoras  of  Melos, 
Protagoras  of  Abdera,  Critias  of  Athens,  Prodi- 
cus,  and  Theodorus  of  Cyrene;  among  the 
Romans,  liUrretius;  among  nu'dern  writers.  Do 
la  Mettrie,  Von  Holbach.  or  La  (Jrange,  (the 
author  of  the  System  of  Nature),  Helvetius, 
Diderot,  and  D'Alemhcrf,  (the  authors  of  the 
French  Encyclopaedia,)  and  Josepli  Priestly. 
Mandeville,  Edelmann,  and  Voltaire,  appear  to 


have  been  rather  promoters  of  atheistical  princi 
pies  than  themselves  decided  atheists.] 

SECTION  XVI. 

OF  THE  UNITY  OF  GOD. 

I.  Proof  of  the  Divine  Unity. 

1.  The  unity  of  God  is  proved  from  the 
idea  of  absolute  perfection,  which  cannot  be 
conceived  as  divided,  or  as  residing  in  different 
subjects.  This  proof  was  sometimes  employed 
by  the  ecclesiastical  fathers— e.  g.,  Tertullian, 
Contra  Marcionem,  I.  3. 

2.  From  the  unity  of  the  world.  All  the  ob- 
jects existing  extrinsically  to  God  himselfcom- 
pose  one  great  whole.  And  since  the  most 
perfect  being  affords  sufficient  ground  for  the 
existence  of  the  world,  the  supposition  of  an- 
other being  is  unnecessary.  This  metaphysical 
proof  was  used  by  Ambrosias,  De  fide,  I.  1. 

3.  From  the  creation  and  preservali'm  of  the 
world.  This  proof  may  be  stated  in  the  most 
popular  manner.  If  many  deities  participated 
in  the  creation  and  preservation  of  the  world, 
we  must  suppose,  (o)  either  that  they  divided 
the  powers  among  themselves,  one  possessing 
one  power,  and  another  a  ditTerent  power, — to 
which  it  might  be  said  that  the  supposition  of  a 
God  with  only  one  power  is  a  contradiciii.  n,— 
or  (Jb)  that  one  among  them  possesstd  ntore 
power  than  the  rest;  in  which  case  he  alone  ia 
worthy  of  the  name  of  God,  and  the  others  are 
unnecessary,  or  at  most  are  only  subservient  to 
the  supreme  God  ;  or  (f)  that  they  all  possessed 
equal  powers  and  perfections;  in  which  case, 
either  one  among  them  created  the  world,  and 
is,  therefore,  alone  entitled  to  the  name  of  God  ; 
or  they  all  united  their  powers  in  the  work  of 
creation,  which  implies  that  their  single  powers 
were  insufficient,  and  that  their  united  powers 
alone  constitute  God,  and  thus  lends  us  back  to 
unity,  (uoiaj.)  On  the  supposition  that  many 
different  gods  participate  in  the  govermeiit  of  iho 
world  we  could  hardly  avoid  the  conclusion  that 
they  would  disagree  in  their  views  an<i  plan*, 
and  thus  introduce  disorder  and  confusion  into 
the  world.  This  argument  was  formerly  em- 
ployed by  Abelard. 

For  a  more  full  discussion  of  the  proofs  of  the 
unity  of  God  the  student  may  consult  the  fol- 
lowing works:  Tollner,  Versuch  eines  neuen 
strengen  Heweisea  vnn  der  Einheit  Gottes.  in 
his  Vermischten  Aufsfitzen,  Samnil.  I.  Niim  3, 
1766.  Just.  Christ.  Henning,  Die  Einisrl.e.t 
Gottes,  nach  verschiedenen  Gesichtspuiiki»'n 
rrepruft;  Alienhurg.  1779,  8vo.  Plalmr,  Plii- 
losophische  Aphnrisinen,  th.  i. 

The  dortrine  of  the  unity  cf  God  is  tauirl.t  in 
the  most  clear  and  explicit  manner  in  ihe  01*. 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


91 


end  New  Testaments.  "Jehovah  is  God,  Jeho- 
vah is  one"  (inx) — i.  e.,  one  God,  Deut.  vi.  4; 
iv.  35,  39 ;  xxxii.  39.  "  I  am  God,  and  there  is 
none  else,"  Isaiah,  xlv.  5,  21,  22;  Ps.  Ixxxvi. 
10.  The  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God  was  at 
the  foundation  of  the  whole  Mosaic  religion 
and  institute,  and  also  of  the  Christian  religion. 
"  And  this  is  eternal  life,  that  they  might  know 
thee,"  tov  y.6vov  oXr^wov  0fov,  John,  xvii.  3. 
'Hulv  tli  ©foj  o  rtarjjp,  "  vve  believe  in  one  God," 
1  Cor.  viii.  4 — G;  James,  ii.  19,  seq. 

n.  Historical  Illustrations  of  tfie  Doctrine  of 
the  Divine  Unity. 

1.  The  error  of  those  who  maintain  that  the 
universe  was  created,  and  is  sustained  and  go- 
verned by  more  than  one  God,  is  called  poly- 
theism. And  those  who  had  fallen  into  this 
error  being  the  great  body  of  the  nations  of  the 
ancient  world,  were  called  by  the  Jews,  o^ij  (to. 
t^vj;,  gentes)  ;  rendered  by  Luther,  Heiden  (lit. 
Viilker)  and  by  our  translators,  heathen,  (lit. 
gentiles,  pagans.)  Hence  polytheism  is  called 
by  Luther  Jleidenthum,  and  by  our  translators, 
heathenism. 

2.  'J'he  notion  of  the  unity  of  God  is  com- 
monly supposed  to  be  very  obvious  to  the  mind 
of  every  one.  But  if  it  is  as  clear  and  compre- 
hensible to  the  human  understanding  as  the 
idea  of  the  divine  existence,  for  example,  hqw 
comes  it  to  pass  that  so  many  nations,  even 
those  who  must  be  allowed  to  have  possessed 
the  highest  mental  cultivation,  should  have  been 
from  the  first  so  decidedly  inclined,  and  so  ob- 
stinately attached,  to  polytheism?  The  Israel- 
ites themselves,  who  in  the  times  of  the  patri- 
archs had  been  taught  the  truth  on  this  subject 
by  immediate  revelation,  relapsed  afterwards 
into  the  errors  of  the  surrounding  nations.  The 
idea  of  the  unity  of  God  cannot,  therefore,  as 
Grotius  justly  observed  (De  jure  belli  et  pacis), 
be  so  obvious  to  the  mind  as  is  commonly  sup- 
posed. In  fact,  it  presupposes  an  acquaintance 
with  many  subjects  far  too  abstract  and  trans- 
cendental for  the  uncultivated  mind.  But  if 
this  necessary  knowledge  is  previously  acquired, 
this  idea  results  very  naturally,  and  when  it  is 
once  obtained  it  is  not  easily  surrendered.  This 
point  has  been  ably  illustrated  by  Meiners,  His- 
toria  doctrine  de  deo  vero;  Lemgo,  8vo. 

Kutc. — The  remarks  just  made  strikingly 
confirm  the  observation,  that  it  is  very  easy  to 
establish  by  proofs  drawn  from  reason  any  truth 
which  is  once  made  known,  but  often  very  dif- 
ficult to  discove*  in  the  first  instance  even  the 
most  simple  truth.  When  we  consider  that  the 
writers  of  the  Old  Testament  taught  the  doc- 
trine of  the  unity  of  God  at  a  time  when  all  the 
nations  of  the  world  were  sunken  in  polytheism, 
we  must  regard  them  with  great  veneration. 
Could  they,  in  the  situatif  n  in  which  they  were 


placed,  have  obtained  this  truth  by  their  own 
reflection  ]  The  neglected  writers  of  the  Old 
Testament  speak  on  this  subject  with  more 
truth  and  clearness  than  the  enlightened  philo- 
sophers of  Greece  and  Rome.  And  to  whom 
are  we  indebted  for  our  just  apprehensions  on 
this  subject?  Our  conduct  with  respect  to  the 
Bible,  to  which  we  owe  so  much,  resembles 
that  of  ungrateful  children  and  scholars  with 
respect  to  their  parents  and  instructors. 

3.  But  the  idea  of  the  unity  of  God  which 
the  great  multitude  of  the  Jews  entertained  be- 
fore the  Babylonian  exile  was  very  imperfect, 
which  accounts  for  their  inclination  to  idolatry. 
They  regarded  Jehovah  as  merely  the  first  and 
greatest  among  the  gods,  as  their  God,  and  the 
God  of  their  fathers  and  their  country.  They 
admitted  the  real  existence  of  the  deities  of  the 
heathen,  and  only  claimed  for  their  God  a  pre- 
cedence over  the  rest.  Such,  doubtless,  were 
the  conceptions  of  the  great  multitude  of  the 
Jews,  although  Abraham,  Moses,  the  prophets, 
and  the  more  enlightened  part  of  the  nation, 
were  in  possession  of  better  views.  Vide  No. 
I.  ad  finem.  If  it  were  not  so,  how  could  they 
have  revolted  so  frequently  from  the  worship 
of  the  true  God  to  idolatry,  in  order  to  make 
trial  as  it  were  of  another  god  who  might  please 
them  better]  Jacob  himself  appears  to  have 
entertained  opinions  like  this  at  first.  (Genesis, 
xxviii.  16;)  and  his  family  were  therefore,  for 
a  long  time,  in  the  practice  of  idolatry.  He  at 
least  permitted  it  in  his  wives.  And  Moses 
was  compelled  to  ask  God  for  the  name  bf 
which  he  would  be  known  to  the  Israelites,  so 
imperfect  were  their  conceptions  with  respect 
to  his  unity,  Exodus,  iii.  13.  Solomon,  too, 
permitted  his  concubines  to  practise  idolatry 
even  in  the  holy  land,  not,  however,  so  much 
from  the  want  of  sufl^icient  theoretical  know- 
ledge on  this  subject  as  from  a  false  toleration, 
resulting  from  weakness  and  a  misplaced  plia- 
bility. 

But  it  was  not  till  after  the  Babylonian  exile 
that  the  Jews  became  the  zealous  professors 
and  stanch  advocates  of  this  doctrine.  Then, 
however,  and  especially  after  they  cnme  under 
the  yoke  of  the  Persians,  who  were  at  that  time 
the  avowed  haters  of  polytheism,  ti.e  unity  of 
God  became  the  prevailing  belief  of  the  Jewish 
nation.  But  the  establishment  and  dilTusion  of 
Christianity  has  done  more  than  anything  else 
to  propagate  this  doctrine,  which  is  now  re- 
ceived by  a  great  majority  of  mankind.  To 
this  result  the  spread  of  the  IVrahommedan  r'v 
ligion  has  contributed  not  a  little;  for  Moham- 
med was  one  of  the  most  zealous  advocates  r,f 
the  unity  of  God.  He,  however,  was  jn-lebted 
for  his  purest  views  on  religion  to  Judaism  and 
Christianity. 

4.  The  question  has  been  asked   whether 


92 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


khere  were  any  among  the  heathen  nations  who 
entertained  just  conceptions  respecting  the  unity 
of  God  ! — to  which  various  and  contradictory 
answers  have  been  given.  The  following  ob- 
servations may  be  of  use  in  deciding  the  contro- 
versy : 

(a)  Pythagoras,  Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle, 
and  other  sages  of  the  heathen  world,  either  ex- 
pressly asserted  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of 
God,  or  (which  is  the  case  with  most  of  them) 
regarded  it  as  highly  probable.  Vide  Hennings, 
Die  Einigkeit  Gottes  nach  verscheidenen 
Gesichtspunkten  gepriift,  Altenburg,  1779,  8vo. 
Some  of  them,  however, — the  philosophers  of 
Elea  for  example, — formed  dilTerent  conceptions 
of  the  unity  of  God  from  those  whicii  we  derive 
from  the  Uible,  and  were  rather  inclined  to  pan- 
theism than  to  monotheism. 

(b)  Tiiere  have  always  been  various  systems 
of  polytheism  among  the  heathen  nations;  and 
in  judging  of  them,  two  extremes  should  be 
avoided.  They  should  not  be  so  much  depre- 
ciated as  they  sometimes  are  by  modern  writers, 
nor  should  tlicy,  on  the  other  hand,  be  so  much 
extolled  as  they  were  by  many  of  the  church 
fathers,  (Justin  the  Martyr,  Athenagoras,  Cle- 
mens of  Alexandria,  and  others,)  who  supposed 
that  by  giving  such  favourable  representations 
of  the  established  religions  of  the  heathen,  they 
migiit  induce  them  the  more  easily  to  embrace 
Christianity.  Cudworth,  in  modern  times,  has 
fallen  into  the  same  extreme. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  many  heathen  nations 
acknowledged  a  supreme  God.  But  besides 
him,  they  believed  in  many  subordinate  deities, 
to  whom  the  government  of  the  world  was  com- 
mitted. Such  we  find  was  the  belief  of  most 
of  the  oriental  nations.  They  supposed  that  the 
supreme  (iod  lived  in  rest  and  inaction,  uncon- 
cerned with  tiie  affairs  of  the  world,  and  in  all 
respects  like  an  eastern  despot,  and  who,  as  for 
any  influence  beyond  himself,  might  as  well 
cease  to  exist.  This  being  they  conceived  to 
be  one,  and  yet  material.  And  in  general,  the 
pure  idea  of  spirit  is  far  too  transcendental  for 
the  infancy  of  the  world,  and  we  see  from  the 
description  of  God  in  all  the  ancient  languages, 
the  Hebrew  not  excepted,  that  he  was  supposed 
to  exist  as  a  subtile,  corporeal  essence. 

The  manner  in  which  these  unjust  concep- 
tions ori'iinaled  may  be  best  explained  as  fol- 
lows:—When  man  is  in  a  savage  state  and  ig- 
norant of  the  powers  of  nature,  he  ascribes  every 
effect,  the  cause  of  which  is  unknown  to  liim, 
to  some  invisible  being  like  himself,  whom  he 
imagines  to  be  more  or  less  powerful,  good  or 
bad,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  effect  which 
which  be  witnesses.  In  every  body  there  is  a 
superior  being,  from  which  its  motion  and  ex- 
istence depend.  This  led  naturally  to  the  wor- 
ship of  this  being;  and  hence  philosophy,  when 


it  afterwards  arose,  abstracted  the  system  oi 
emanation ;  which,  accordingly,  is  one  of  the 
oldest  philosophical  systems.  Vide  Meiners' 
Essay  concerning  the  origin  and  differences  of 
false  religions,  in  Comment.  Soc.  scient.  Got* 
ting.  vol.  vii.  page  58,  seq.  1784 — 85.  Cf. 
Kleuker's  Zend-Avesta. 

\_yute. — The  following  quotations  from  Lac- 
tantius  shew  the  manner  in  which  this  subject 
was  treated  by  the  Christian  fathers  in  their  con- 
troversies with  the  early  enemies  of  C  brisiianity. 
In  defending  the  monotheism  of  Christians 
against  the  polytheism  of  the  heathen  world,  he 
says,  "  Sed  omittamus  sane  tesiimonia  prophc- 
tarum — et  eos  ipsos  ad  probatioiiem  veri  testes 
citemus,  quibus  contra  nos  uti  solent,  podas  dico 
et  philoHiiphos.  Poetse  igitur,  quamvis  Deoa 
carminibus  ornaverint,  et  eorum  res  gestas  arn- 
plificaverint  summis  laudibus,  sajpissime  tamen 
confitentur,  spiritu  velmente  una  conlineri regique 
omnia.''''  He  then  passes  to  the  philosophers, 
"  quorum  gravior  est  auctoritas  certiusque  judi- 
cium," and  after  enumerating  several  who  had 
given  intimations  of  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of 
God,  adds,  "  Nunc  satis  est  demonstrare,  sum- 
mo  ingenio  viros  attigisse  veritatem  et  prope  te- 
nuisse,"  Institutt.  1.  i.  c.  5.  In  a  similar  man- 
ner, M.  iNIinuc.  Felix  concludes  his  delence  of 
Christian  monotheism  by  the  somewhat  extra- 
vagant result,  "  aut  nunc  Christianas  philosophoa 
esse,  aut philosapho3  fuisse  jam  tunc  Christianas,^^ 
Cap.  XX.] 

5.  Some  sects  even  of  the  Christian  church 
have  been  accused  of  receiving  a  number  of 
gods,  and  especially  of  believing  in  a  good  and 
an  evil  being,  or  the  doctrine  of  dualism,  which 
was  held  in  the  second  and  third  centuries  by 
many  Persian  and  other  oriental  phiosophers. 
Such  was  the  doctrine  of  Carpocrates,  Marcion, 
and  many  other  Gnostics,  and  especially  of 
Manes  and  his  followers  in  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries.  These  sects,  however,  according  to 
the  testimony  of  lieausobre,  did  not  suppose  that 
these  beings  were  themselves  the  supreme  God, 
but  that  they  were  dependent  upon  him,  and 
that  the  evil  principle  could  not  in  any  sense  be 
properly  denominated  God.  In  fine.  Christians 
in  general  have  been  charged  by  Jews  and  Ma- 
hommedans  with  believing  in  Atritheism,  And 
it  must  be  confessed  that  too  much  ground  for 
this  charge  has  been  afforded  by  the  incautious 
expressions  with  regard  to  the  diK-trine  of  the 
Trinity  which  were  common,  especially  among 
the  ancient  teachers  of  Christianity.  And  even 
at  the  present  day  there  are  many  common  and 
unenlightened  Christians  who  fall  into  the  same 
error.  Tiiey  make  profession  with  their  mouth 
of  their  faith  in  one  God,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  conceive  of  him  in  their  mind*  as 
three. 

Murus,  s.  5,  p.  44. 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


SECTION  XVII. 

OF   THE    SCRIPTURAL   NAMES   OF   GOD. 

There  is  no  way  so  good  for  ascertaining  the 
manner  in  which  anything  is  regarded  as  by 
considering  the  names  by  which  it  is  called. 
We  may,  accordingly,  find  in  what  light  God 
was  regarded  by  the  Hebrews  by  examining 
the  names  by  which  they  called  him.  In  this 
view,  the  subject  of  the  present  section  is  very 
important.  It  shews  how  proper,  worthy,  and 
elevated,  were  the  ideas  which  the  Jews  enter- 
tained of  God. 

I.  General  names  applied  to  Deity,  without  distinc- 
tion of  true  or  false. 

1.  ntSs,  augustus,  the  one  to  be  revered,  syno- 
nymous with   tynp.     It  is    derived  from    the 

Arabic  ill.  eolere,  venerart,  which  is  still  ex- 
tant. Hence  it  comes  to  pass  that  it  is  fre- 
quently applied  to  kings,  magistrates,  judges, 
and  others  to  whom  reverence  is  shewn,  and 
who  are  regarded  as  representatives  of  the  Deity 
upon  earth.  Vide  Psalm  Ixxxii.  6 ;  Exodus, 
vii.  1.  It  is  almost  always  rendered  in  the 
Sept.  version,  even  when  it  occurs  in  the  plural, 
by  the  words  0£oj,  Qsoi,  which  are  also  applied 
by  the  Grecian  Jews  to  other  subjects  besides 
the  supreme  God.  Vide  John,  x.  34 — 3G.  The 
plural  of  this  word,  D\nSN,  although  it  denotes 
but  one  subject,  is  appropriately  used  to  desig- 
nate Jehovah  by  way  of  eminence.  In  this  fact, 
many  theologians  have  thought  they  perceived 
an  allusion  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  though 
they  have  no  sufficient  ground  for  supposing  that 
this  doctrine  was  known  at  so  early  a  period. 
And  without  resorting  to  this  supposition,  the 
application  of  this  plural  name  to  a  singular 
subject  may  be  explained  from  an  idiom  of  the 
ancient  oriental  and  some  other  languages,  by 
which  anything  great  or  eminent  was  expressed 
in  the  plural  number,  (pluralis  dignitatis,  or  ma- 
jestaticus.)  Vide  Glass,  Philol.  Sacra,  p.  58, 
seq.  ed  Datbe.  Accordingly  mSs,  augusius,  may 
be  considered  as  the  positive  degree,  of  which 
dtiSn,  augustisstmus,  is  the  superlative.  Cf. 
Genesis,  xxix.  3 ;  Exodus,  xxi.  4,  9. 

2.  Sn,  ©eoj,  sometimes  literally  rendered  in 
the  Septuagint  and  in  the  version  of  Aquila, 
6  iff;tvpoj,  the  Almighty, 

3.  ]i*^x,  hl'37^6tr^u  x-upioj,  dominus.  This  is  a 
name  of  dignity,  applied  to  rulers,  leaders,  and 
persons  of  distinction,  and,  like  the  word,  Sj.^, 
sometimes  given  even  to  heathen  deities.  Psalm 
cxxxvi.  3;  Numbers,  xxxii.  25,  27,  coll.  1  Cor. 
viii.  5.  The  form  'n-iN,  nowever,  is  the  appro- 
priate designation  of  the  supreme  God.  It  is  an 
ancient  form  of  the  plural  found  in  several  other 
Hebrew  words,  and  still  preserved  in  the  Syriac. 
Here,  as  in  the  case  of  a^nS^,  the  plural  'Jvin  is 


doubtless  superlative,  and  signifies  lord  of  lord*, 
or  supreme  lord. 

II.  Names  given  to  the  true  God  by  way  of 
distinction. 

1.  The  most  ancient  name,  by  which  the  su- 
preme God  was  distinguished  from  the  gods  of 
the  heathen,  is,  -^xy  *?«,  which  first  occurs  in  the 
history  of  Abraham,  (Gen.  xvii.  1  ;)  and  after- 
wards in  Exodus,  vi.  3,  where  God  expressly 
says,  "  I  appeared  unto  Abraham,  unto  Isaac, 
and  unto  Jacob,  by  the  name  iTi"  S'."  From  a 
false  etymology  this  title  has  been  supposed  to 
signify  the  .ill-sufficient.     But  it  is  derived  from 

the  Arabic    ^6J^^  robustus,  poicns  es^e,  and  in 

the  plural  sigmfies,  potentissimus,  znd  is  there- 
fore rendered  in  the  Septuagint,  rtairoxpaVup, 
omnipotens. 

2.  rrini.  When  the  Israelites  lived  in  Egypt, 
in  the  midst  of  an  idolatrous  people,  to  whose 
practices  they  themselves  were  inclined,  Moses 
was  commanded  (Exodus,  iii.  13,  seq.)  to  an- 
nounce to  them  the  true  God  as  the  same  Being 
who  had  been  worshipped  by  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob,  and  who  would  prove  himself  equally 
powerful  and  gracious  to  the  children  as  to  the 
fathers.  God  therefore  called  himself  n>ns,  / 
will  be — namely,  the  God  of  the  Jews  as  well 
as  of  their  ancestors ;  and  directed  Moses,  when 
he  addressed  the  Israelites,  to  call  him  rnp" — i. 
e.,  he  shall  be,  from  n^n,  or  rather,  nn,  fnit, 
according  to  a  form  which  afterwards  became 
obsolete  in  Hebrew,  but  which  was  preserved, 
and  in  common  use  in  Chaldaic.  Such  was  the 
origin  and  occasion  of  this  appellation. 

With  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
pronounced,  as  it  is  the  third  person  future,  it 
would  be  uttered,  according  to  grammatical  ana- 
logy, nirii  or  nin.  Accordingly,  the  Samari- 
tans, Epiphanius,  and  Theodoret,  pronounced  it 
Jave.  But  the  Jews  believed  that  this  name 
was  not  to  be  uttered,  and  Josephus  said,  Antiq. 
II.  12,  that  he  dared  not  to  communicate  it.  In 
place  of  it,  the  Jews  were  accustompd  to  enun- 
ciate ainS- or  •'Jin  ;  from  the  latter  of  which  its 
common  punctuation  is  borrowed.  It  is  always 
rendered  by  the  Alexandrine  translators  by  the 
word  Kvptoj.  The  Talmud  says  that  the  angels 
themselves  dared  not  to  utter  it,  and  denounces 
all  who  should  be  so  presumptuous  with  fright- 
ful curses.  The  Jews  went  so  far  as  to  believe 
that  it  could  not  be  uttered  by  man.  or  that  one 
who  might  speak  it  would  be  able,  by  its  enun- 
ciation, to  work  miracles.  Such  a  superstitious 
regard  for  this  name  does  not  seem  to  have  ex- 
isted before  the  Babylonian  exile.  ff>r  we  meet 
with  the  names  Jehoiakim,  Jehoiadah,  Jeho 
zadak,  &c.,  in  which  the  word  — i'  evidently 
makes  a  part  of  the  composite  proper  noun.    But 


94 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


these  names  were  afterwards  altered,  in  conform- 
ity with  tliis  superstition,  into  Eliakim,  &c. 
And  in  Daniel,  Esther,  and  other  of  the  latest 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  this  name  is  wholly 
omitted.  For  this  mystery,  as  well  as  many 
others  relating  to  divine  things,  the  Jews  are 
indehted  to  the  Chaldeans.  Vide  Reland,  Diss. 
de  vera  pronuntiatione  nominis  Jehovah;  Ultra- 
jecti,  1705,  8vo. 

This  name  is  appropriated  to  the  supreme  God, 
and  is  never  applied  to  the  gods  of  the  heathen. 
Vide  1  Kings  xviii.  21,  24;  Isa.  xlii.  8;  xliii.  11. 
It  has  been  asserted,  however,  that  this  name 
was  sometimes  given,  by  way  of  metonomy,  to 
such  things  as  were  consecrated  to  the  service 
of  God,  and  especially  to  the  ark  of  the  covenant. 
This  was  urged  by  Socinus  and  his  followers, 
and  has  been  repeated  in  modern  times  as  an 
answer  to  the  argumentforthedivinity  of  Christ, 
drawn  from  the  application  to  him  of  the  name 
rpn\  They  refer  to  the  passage,  Numbers,  x, 
35,  3G,  "  When  the  ark  set  forward,  Moses  said. 
Rise  up,  Jehovah  !  And  when  it  rested,  he 
said,  Return,  Jkhovah."  Cf.  Ps.  Ixviii.  1  ; 
cxxxii.  8.  But  in  this  passage  Moses  does  not 
address  the  ark,  but  God  himself,  who  was  sup- 
posed to  dwell  or  sit  upon  it. 

3.  n\  This  name  occurs  only  in  the  poetical 
portions  of  the  Bible,  and  is  frequently  ren- 
dered in  tiie  Septuagint  by  the  word  Kvpioj.  It 
is  derived  by  many  from  ns'',  decuit,  (Jeremiah, 
X.  7,)  and  thus  signifies,  the  magnificent,  the 
viaje»tic  ,•  but  this  derivation  is  contrary  to  ana- 
logy, and  tlie  word,  more  probably,  is  a  mere 
abbreviation  of  the  name,  nn\ 

4.  ;v?5?,  from  ry^y,  o  i^ii-coi,  Luke,  i.  35,) 
Deus  supremus,  th-i  Must  IIiu;h.  God  was  sup- 
posed to  dwell  in  the  highest  heaven,  which 
was  called  3-1::,  to.  v^inta.  Hence  the  name 
C"cr  is  sometimes  given  to  God  himself,  Luke, 
XV.  IB, -21. 

5.  r\S3i  nn',  i  ^nSs,  xvptoj  (ja3ow^,  rinvto- 
xparwp,  X.  T.  X.  Tills  title  is  explained  in  va- 
rious ways.  Some  translate  it  God  of  gods, 
otiiers,  Gild  of  hosts,  (the  stars  of  heaven ;) 
others  still,  and  with  more  probability.  Lord  of 
the  universe,  and  Govcrtwr  of  the  world,  navro- 
x^M1^^) ;  since  wi  fre(|ucntly  denotes  all  crea- 
tures, so  far  as  tliey  are  employed  by  God  in 
his  service,  Psalm  ciii.  21.     Cf.  s.  45. 

6.  Several  other  titles,  whicii  will  be  hereaf- 
ter enumerated  in  connexion  with  the  subject  of 
the  divine  attributes.  Art.  III.,  are  used  by  the 
sacred  writers  to  distinguish  the  true  God  from 
the  imaginary  dtiiii-a  of  tlie  heathen  world. 
Among  these  we  may  mention  the  title  ^n  \>i, 
6roj  o  ifwv,  o  /idi'Of  iiXri^ivbi  0foj,  the  living  and 
true  God,  in  oppotjilion  to  the  gods  of  the  hea- 
tiien,  who  are  called  /tarouoi,  fi6b>Xa. 


ARTICLE  III. 

OF  TIIE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBLTES  OF  GOD. 

SECTION  XVIIL 

INTRODUCTION    TO    THE    DOCTRINE    RESPECTING 
THE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES  OF  GOD. 

I.   ^S'hat  is  meant  by  the  Nature  and  Attributes  of 
G(d. 

The  nature  of  God  is  the  sum  of  all  the  di- 
vine perfections  ;  the  attributes  of  God  are  the 
particular  distinct  perfections  or  realities  which 
are  predicable  of  the  divine  nature,  (pra^dicata 
dei  necessaria,  ob  essentiam  ei  tribuenda,  ]Mo- 
rus,  p.  58,  note  1.)  The  divine  attributes  do 
not  therefore  difier  materialiter  from  the  divine 
nature,  but  on\y  for  malt  tcr,  [i.  e.,  the  dilVerence 
between  nature  and  attribute  is  not  objective,  or 
does  not  appertain  to  God  himself;  but  is  sub- 
jective,  formal,  or,  as  the  older  theologians  say, 
secundum  nostrum  concipiendi  modum,']  The 
attributes  of  (3od  are  merely  our  notions  of  the 
particular  distinctions  which,  taken  together, 
compose  the  divine  nature.  We  are  unable  to 
take  in  the  whole  object  at  a  single  glance,  and 
are  compelled,  in  order  to  accommodate  the 
weakness  of  our  understanding,  to  consider  it 
in  separate  portions.  It  should  be  remarked, 
moreover,  that  from  any  one  of  the  divine  attri- 
butes all  the  rest  may  be  derived.     Vide  s.  14. 

iWc— (1)  Cf.  Morus,  p.  57,  s.  22.  The 
attributes  of  God  were  called  by  the  Jewa 
zz',  ri::r,  nomina  dei;  I'or  a  thing  is  usually 
named  from  the  attributes  which  it  is  seen  to 
possess.  (2)  The  divine  attributes  are  called 
by  the  Greeks  u^uraC,  (1  Pet.  ii.  0,)  answering 
to  the  Latin  virtutcs,  and  the  Hebrew  rnSnn, 
(Isaiah,  xlii.  8;  xliii.  21,)  laudcs  dri,  rendered 
dpfraJ  in  the  Sepiuatrint.  They  are  called  by 
the  ecclesiastical  fathers  (e.  g.,  by  Cyrill  of 
Alexandria),  ci^iui,  d|iu>^ara,  also  tffinai,  trti- 
»oat,  vojjuara,  whence  the  Latins  have  their 
coneeptus.  In  the  western  church  they  are 
called  virtutcs,  atlributa,  proprictalcs,  quaiitatcs. 
(3)  'I'he  whole  sum  of  the  divine  attributes  is 
called  by  the  Htibrews  nn<  -1132,  ^o|a  Qfov,  inas- 
much as  they  are  admired  and  revered  by  men, 
Psa.  xix.  1;  cxlviii.  13.  The  phrase,  to  do 
ani/thing  for  thk  oi.orv  of  God,  often  means 
therefore  nothing  more  than  to  live  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  testify  the  reverence  we  owe  to 
God  and  his  glorious  perfections,  Phil.  ii.  11. 
And  hence  the  phrase,  I  wiU  not  give  mine  ho- 
nour to  another,  (Isa.  xlviii.  11;  xlii.  8.)  con- 
veys the  idea,  I  will  not  permit  that  other  gods 
should  be  regarded  with  as  much  reverence,  or 
supposed  to  possess  the  same  attributes,  as  b^ 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


95 


long  to  me.  Aocordingly,  the  terms  1133,  "  nr 
n^n",  ^d;a  Qioii,  majcilas  Dei,  are  mere  peri- 
phrasi^s  for  Gud,  or  the  nature  of  God,  which 
Paul  expresses  by  ^f(.dt»;j,  Rom.  i.  20.  Some- 
times the  term  66^a  is  used  in  a  more  limited 
sense  ;  as,  Rom.  vi.  4,  Xpiaroj  i^y(\i^*]  6tci  6d|>;{ 
Toi;  narpdj,  x.  r.  X.,  where  fid^a  signifies  ^oti'tr. 

11.  Wuit  we  know  respecting  the  Nature  and  At- 
tributes of  God,  and  whence  we  derive  our  In- 
formation. 

1 .  'J'l'te  nature  of  our  knowledge  respecting  God. 
On  a  subject  of  this  kind  it  is  impossible  that 
we  should  have  perfectly  clear  and  distinct  no- 
tions.    For, 

(a)  All  our  notions  are  sensible,  and  therefore 
inadequate.  We  indeed  acknowledge  that  when 
we  conceive  of  God  we  must  abstract  everything 
sensihli.  from  our  notions;  but  to  do  this  is  very 
difficult,  and  often  quite  impossible.  And  after 
all  our  attempts  at  abstraction,  our  knowledge 
of  Gou  will  ever  remain  anthropopathic  and  n;»- 
ihropomurphic,  as  the  philosophers  and  theolo- 
gians say — i.  e.,  we  shall  ever  transfer  to  God 
the  notions  and  expressions  wi\ich  we  derive 
from  human  •  things,  attributes,  actions,  &c. 
These  expressions,  borrowed  from  human 
things,  very  naturally  give  rise  to  gross  con- 
ceptions of  God,  especially  among  those  who 
have  but  few  words  to  express  abstract  ideas, 
r  but  few  ideas  of  this  nature  to  be  expressed. 
This  WdS  the  case  with  the  language  of  all  the 
sacred  writers,  and  especially  those  of  the  Old 
Testament;  and  this  observation  should  always 
be  kept  in  mind  by  those  who  undertake  to  ex- 
plain their  meaning.  In  order  to  be  intelligible, 
they  must  needs  have  adopted  the  language  of 
the  rude  and  uncultivated  people  whom  they 
were  called  to  address;  and  in  the  first  place 
must  have  condescended  to  the  capacity  of  their 
hearers,  in  order  to  raise  them  gradually  to  their 
own  level.  But  in  this  more  improved  period 
we  must  understand  the  gross  expressions  which 
the  sacred  writers  were  thus  compelled  to  use, 
in  the  purer  and  more  correct  sense  which  they 
themselves  attached  to  their  language.  Hence 
the  rule  laid  down  by  the  older  theologians. 
Dicta  anlhropipathica  et  anlhropomorphicn  Deo 
digne  (^fortpfrtwj)  sunt  explicanda.  Vide  Morus, 
p.  45,  s.  7,  n.  4. 

Sote. — In  popular  instruction,  the  terms  em- 
ployed should  be  neither  wholly  anthropopathic 
and  anthropomorphic,  nor,  on  the  other  hand, 
wholly  proper  and  literal,  but,  according  to  the 
example  of  the  Bible,  should  be  wisely  selected 
Crom  both  of  these  classes,  as  the  circumstances 
of  those  tq^be  instructed  may  require.  In  for- 
mer times,  the  teachers  of  religion  inclined  too 
much  to  the  use  of  figurative  expressions,  which 
they  employed  without  any  explanation;  but  at 
the  present  day  the  reverse  of  this  is  true.    The 


modern  teachers  of  religion  sarefuUy  avoid  every 
figurative  expression,  in  the  hope  of  rendering 
their.discourse  very  clear  and  interesting  to  their 
hearers,  while,  in  fact,  they  make  it  in  this  way 
extremely  dry  and  powerless.  The  same  may 
be  said  respecting  many  of  the  «acred  songs  of 
modern  composition,  which,  for  the  same  reason, 
are  far  less  interesting,  and  far  more  obscure,  to 
the  common  people,  than  those  formerly  used. 
God,  as  he  appears  in  the  discourses  of  many 
modern  teachers,  is  a  mere  metaphysical  being, 
who,  in  all  his  intercourse  with  men,  acts  in  a 
manner  wholly  unlike  anything  which  we  wit- 
ness among  ourselves.  How,  then,  is  it  possible 
that  men  should  feel  love  for  him,  or  confidence 
in  him  1  Such  a  mode  of  expression  and  repre- 
sentation is  extremely  adverse  to  the  interests 
of  the  common  people  and  of  the  young.  It 
gives  rise  to  doubts  respecting  the  providence 
of  God,  the  hearing  of  prayer,  and  other  con- 
soling truths  of  religion,  which  should  be  ex- 
hibited in  a  manner  consisting  indeed  with  the 
perfections  of  God,  and  yet  figuratively,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  analogy  of  human  affairs,  or  their 
whole  effect  will  be  lost.  On  this  subject  the 
teacher  of  religion  may  learn  a  useful  lesson 
from  that  neglected  book — the  Bible.  He  will 
there  find  nothing  of  this  abstraction,  but  an  ex- 
ample of  the  only  correct  and  of  the  most  ap- 
proved method  of  practical  instruction.  The 
sermon  on  the  mount,  the  parables,  and  other 
discourses  of  Christ,  should  be  particularly  stu- 
died with  reference  to  this  subject. 

(i)  We  reason  mostly  from  the  constitution 
of  the  world  to  the  nature  and  attributes  of  God  ; 
but  in  ourselves,  in  the  first  instance,  do  we  ob- 
serve the  perfections  which  we  ascribe  to  him, 
nor  can  we  form  any  conception,  or  even  ima- 
gine the  existence,  of  any  attribute  or  perfection 
which  we  ourselves  do  not  to  a  certain  extent 
possess.  A  man  who  had  never  seen  could  form 
no  conception  of  the  sense  of  sight,  nor  would 
he  ever  suppose  that  there  was  such  a  sense, 
unless  informed  of  it  by  others.  The  case  is 
Uie  same  with  regard  to  the  divine  perfections. 
We  can  form  no  conception  of  any  attributes 
belonging  to  the  Divine  Being  for  which  we 
cannot  find  at  least  some  analogy  in  ourselves. 
We  must  therefore  give  the  same  names  to  the 
divine  perfections  which  we  are  accustomed  to 
give  to  those  of  which  we  ourselves  are  con- 
scious, in  some  humble  degree ;  but  for  this  very 
reason  our  views  of  the  divine  nature  must  be 
extremely  poor  and  imperfect.  We  may  indeed 
have  some  right  apprehensions  with  regard  to 
the  quality  of  some  perfections  of  God, — such 
as  his  goodness  and  wisdom;  but  our  concep- 
tions as  to  their  quantily — their  extent  and 
ereatness — ever  remain  in  the  highest  degree 
imperfect  and  infantile.  The  ideas  which  the 
,  child  forms  of  the  sun  and  its  attributes  are  just 


d6 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


iM  lo  quality,  inasmuch  as  he  conceives  of  it  as 
a  round,  luminous,  and  hot  body;  but  they  are 
incorrect  as  to  quantity,  inasmuch  as  he  sup- 
poses that  its  size  is  less  than  it  actually  is,  its 
lijht  no  clearer  than  he  beholds  it,  and  its  heat 
no  more  intense  than  he  feels  it. 

In  conformity  with  these  views  are  the  pas- 
sages, Prov.  XXX.  3 ;  Is.  xl.  22,  xlvi.  5.  When 
speaking  of  this  pure  knowledge  of  God,  David 
says.  Psalm  cxxxix.  6,  "  it  is  high,  I  cannot  at- 
tain unto  it."  And  Paul  says,  1  Tim.  vi.  16, 
that  God  dwells  in  liislit  iiuiccessihle,  (<j)wjdrfpMt- 
Toi',) — i.  e.,  the  infinite  and  perfect  God  is  ex- 
alted above  the  comprehension  of  our  feeble  and 
limited  faculties.  Parallel  with  these  passages 
is  that  in  John,  i.  18,  "©for  ovbei.^  t^paxe  rtwrtorf, 
but  the  Messiah  has  revealed  to  us  as  much  of 
him  as  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  know." 

Witli  respect  to  the  true  nature  of  the  objects 
even  of  the  visible  world,  we  can  have  no  dis- 
tinct knowledge,  owing  to  the  inadequacy  of  our 
senses  ;  and  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  human 
soul,  we  are  in  equal  ignorance.  We  may 
therefore,  with  Simonides,  reasonably  decline 
to  give  an  answer  to  the  question  concerning 
the  true  nature  of  the  Divine  Being.  When  he 
was  asked,  Quid  aut  quale  sit  Deus  ?  he  re[)lied, 
quanio  diulius  considero,  tanio  mihi  res  videtur 
ohscuriur.  Cicero,  De  Nat.  Deor.  I.  21.  Con- 
siderations like  these  should  not,  however,  deter 
us  from  the  investigation  of  truth,  but  only  ren- 
der us  humble  and  cautious.  In  the  exercise 
of  this  temper,  it  is  our  duty  to  make  constant 
advances  in  divine  knowledge,  and  to  render 
our  conceptions  of  God  as  pure  and  just  as  pos- 
sible. 

Nnle. — The  representations  which  were  com- 
mon in  any  particular  nation  respecting  the  cha- 
racter and  employments  of  their  gods,  discover 
the  degree  of  cultivation  and  of  moral  improve- 
ment to  which  that  nation  had  attained  at  the 
time  wlirn  these  representations  prevailed.  The 
mythology  of  the  Greeks,  the  histories  in  which 
their  gods  are  described  as  licentious,  violent, 
and  deceitful,  originated  among  them  at  a  time 
when  tlie  practical  reason  was  as  yet  but  imper- 
fectly developed,  an<l  when  the  morals  of  tiie 
nation  agreed  perfectly  with  these  representa- 
tions. At  a  later  and  more  improved  period,  a 
new  meaning  was  given  to  these  ancient  histo- 
ries by  means  of  allegorical  interpretation. 

2.  Sources  nf  our  knowledge  respecting  the  na- 
ture anil  atlrihutes  af  God. 

{^n)  The  instructions  of  the  holy  scriptures. 
God  is  described  in  the  Bible  in  dilVercnt  ways. 
He  is  sometimes  described  in  plain  and  litcraJ 
language,  without  tropes  or  figures ;  or  (as  these 
are  sometimes  unavoitlable  both  in  popular  an<l 
scientific  discourse)  at  least  by  such  as  are  level 
to  the  common  capacity.  Of  this  kind  are  the 
descriptions  of  the  immutability  of  God  con- 


tained in  Psalm  xc,  cii.,  cxxxix.;  Job  xxxvil. 

In  the  New  Testament.,  the  figures  employed 
in  the  description  of  God  are  still  more  intelli- 
gible, and  still  better  adapted  to  general  use. 
But  God  is  also  sometimes  described  in  the  Bi- 
ble in  a  symbolical  or  typical  maimer,  the  sym- 
bols and  types  employed  being  in  a  good  mea- 
sure derived  from  the  taste  and  mode  of  thinking 
peculiar  to  tlie  early  age  and  the  orient.il  coun- 
tries in  which  the  sacred  writers  lived.  But 
these  symbolical  representations,  however  im- 
portant they  may  be  in  the  history  of  the  mode 
of  thought  and  representation  common  in  early 
ages,  are  of  very  little  importance  in  elucidating 
the  id^as  themselves  which  we  entertain  of  the 
Divine  Being.  Among  these  symbols  we  may 
mention  that  of  fire  (Ex.  iii.  2.  seq.),  of  a  gen- 
tle wind  (1  Kings,  xix.  12),  of  an  eastern  ruler 
and  judge  (Is.  vi.  1),  and  those  exhibited  in 
Ezek.  i.  coll.  Rev.  i.  These  are  all  symbolical 
representations,  shadowing  forth  some  real  per- 
fections of  the  Divine  Being,  and  should  there- 
fore be  explained  by  the  teacher  of  religion.  He 
must  not  be  content  with  saying  that  these  are 
symbols,  but  must  also  shew  what  attributes  of 
God  they  are  intended  to  represent.  He  should 
shew,  for  example,  that  by  the  symbol  (fjire, 
the  activity  of  God,  his  power  to  restore  and 
destroy,  the  moral  purity  of  his  dispositions,  are 
exhibited  ;  by  the  symbol  of  a  gentle  wind,  his 
goodness  and  mildness ;  by  the  symbol  ofa/jmice 
or  ruler,  his  sjipremacy  and  power,  and  liis  jus- 
tice in  bestowing  rewards  and  punishments. 

(/y)  Nature  is  another  source  of  our  know- 
ledge of  God.  (1)  Internal,  moral  nature.  In 
s.  15,  II.,  we  have  shewn  how  the  idea  of  the 
character  and  law  of  God  is  derived  from  the 
conscience  of  man.  (2)  Extcnuil  nature,  or  the 
sensible  world.  Here  we  argue  from  the  elTect 
to  the  cause,  from  the  attributes  of  the  creature 
to  those  of  the  Creator;  and  tor  so  doing,  we 
have  the  authority  of  the  Bible.  Vide  s.  15,  I. 
II.  A  very  important  passage  in  this  connex- 
ion is  Psalm  xix.,  in  the  former  part  of  which 
the  visible  creation  is  commended  as  a  source 
of  the  knowledge  of  God  ;  and  in  the  latter  part, 
direct  revelation.  Cf.  Ps.  civ.  ;  .lob,  xxxvii. ; 
Is.  xl.;  Matt.  vi.  26,  and  especially  Rom.  i.  20, 
21.  There  are  three  methods  of  arrivincr  at  the 
knowledge  of  the  divine  attributes  from  the 
contemplation  of  nature.  Vide  Moms,  p.  13, 
s.  2,  note  2.  (a)  We  abstract  all  defects, 
weaknesses,  and  imperfections,  from  the  attri- 
butes which  we  ascribe  to  God.  In  this  way 
we  pass  from  the  imperfect  degrees  of  power 
and  wisdom  which  we  possess  to  the  omnipo- 
tence and  omniscience  of  God ;  fij^m  the  frail 
and  perishing  nature  of  man,  and  of  all  created 
things,  to  the  eternity  and  immutability  of  God. 
Cf.  Ps.  cii.  2.5 — 2S.  This  method  is  denomi- 
nated by  the  schoolmen  via  negationis,  and  bv 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


^ 


Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  ^foxoyi'a  a^aipt-tixr;. 
(_3)  We  conclude  thvit  God  must  possess,  in  a 
peculiar  and  extraordinary  degree,  all  the  per- 
fections which  we  perceive  in  ourselves  or  in 
other  creatures.  Here  we  employ  the  argument 
a  minori  ad  majus.  By  this  mode  of  reasoning 
especially  do  we  obtain  our  notions  of  the  moral 
attributes  of  God,  his  justice,  wisdom,  and  good- 
ness. Cf.  Ps.  xciv.  9.  This  is  called  by  the 
schoolmen  via  eminentix.  (y)  There  is  a  third 
method  of  reasoning:  since  the  production  of 
certain  effects  can  be  accounted  for  only  by 
ascribing  certain  attributes  to  their  cause,  these 
attributes  must  truly  belong  to  this  cause. 
Thus  we  conclude  that  the  author  of  the  world 
possesses  supreme  power,  wisdom,  and  know- 
ledge, because  these  attributes  are  requisite  for 
the  production  and  government  of  the  world. 
This  mode  of  reasoning  is  called  via  causalilalis, 
or  causx.  It  might  also  be  called  via  pusitiva, 
in  opposition  to  via  negaiiva,  because  we  thus 
obtain  positive  ideas  and  direct  knowledge  of 
the  divine  attributes.  Thus  it  appears  that  all 
our  knowledge  of  God  is  drawn  from  annhgy. 
We  ascribe  to  God  the  perfections  which  we 
observe  in  ourselves,  after  abstracting  from 
them  whatever  of  limitation  or  imperfection  they 
may  possess,  as  existing  in  us.     Cf.  No.  I. 

III.  Division  of  the  Divine  Attributes. 

All  the  divisions  of  the  attributes  of  God, 
which  have  been  adopted  by  philosophers  and 
theologians,  are  in  some  respects  imperfect  and 
inconvenient,  but  not  equally  so.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  of  the  most  common  : — 

1.  Negative,  zx\A  positive  or  affirmative.  The 
negative  attributes  are  those  by  which  we  re- 
move from  God  certain  imperfections  of  which 
we  are  conscious.  Thus  we  ascribe  to  God 
infinity,  independence,  eternity,  in  opposition 
to  the  limitations  of  our  own  being.  The  posi- 
tive attributes,  on  the  contrary,  are  those  divine 
perfections  for  which  we  find  some  analogy  in 
ourselves — e.  g.,  holiness,  justice,  wisdom.  We 
derive  our  knowledge  of  the  negative  attributes, 
via  negattonia  >•  of  the  positive,  via  causalitatis  ct 
eminentix.  The  ground  of  this  division,  how- 
ever, does  not  exist  in  God  himself,  (for  all  his 
attributes  are  positive,)  but  in  the  imperfection 
of  our  conceptions. 

2.  Active  (attributa  operativa,  or-transeuntia, 
ivt^>yi(tixa,')  and  passive,  (quiescentia,  or  imma- 
neiitia,  di? r? pyj^nxa.)  The  active  attributes  are 
those  which  involve  the  idea  of  action;  the  qui- 
escent are  those  which  imply  rest  and  inaction. 
Omnipotence,  justice,  and  goodness,  belong  to 
the  former  class;  immensity,  eternity,  &c.,  to 
the  latter.  But  from  this  division  mistaken  no- 
tions respecting  God  might  easily  result.  *  For 
rest,  properly  speaking,  cannot  be  predicated 
of  God.     Besides    the  passive  attributes  are, 

13 


for  the  most  part,  only  the  modes  in  which  the 
active  attributes  exist.  Thus  infinity  and  im- 
mensity are  only  the  manierc  d^etre  of  the  om- 
nipotence, wisdom,  holiness,  and  other  attri- 
butes of  God. 

3.  Fhysical  or  natural,  and  moral.  We  are 
conscious  of  two  principal  powers,  undirstand- 
ing  and  will;  and  accordingly  we  ascribe 
these  to  the  Supreme  Being.  But  whatever 
analogy  may  subsist  between  the  divine  and 
human  intelligence,  the  former  is  inlinitely  dif- 
ferent from  the  latter.  Now  the  attributes 
which  we  conceive  to  be  connected  with  the 
divine  will  are  called  by  theologians  moral; 
the  others,  standing  in  no  connexion  with  the 
will,  but  belonging  to  the  understamling  and  to 
the  power  of  God  as  a  spirit,  natural  ox  phyaical. 
These  terms  are  indeed  inconvenient,  since  the 
moral  attributes  of  God  belong  to  his  nature. 
Still  there  is  ground  for  the  division  itself, 
where  it  is  correctly  stated  ;  which  may  be  done 
by  substituting  the  phrase  not  moral  for  natural. 

The  natural  attributes  of  God  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  our  attainment;  but  we  may  be  con- 
formed to  his  moral  character.  And  this  is  the 
conformity  which  the  Bible  intends  when  it  re- 
quires us  to  resemble  God,  Matt.  v.  15,  48  ;  Col. 
iii.  10.  Through  this  moral  perfection  it  is  that 
we  are  as  it  were  related  to  him,  Acts,xvii.  28  ; 
and  by  which  we  first  obtain  our  idea  of  him. 
Vide  s.  11,  and  s.  15,  II.  He  is  ■&  free  being, 
possessed  of  the  purest  moral  will. 

Morus  (p.  45,  s.  7)  adoi)ts  this  third  division 
of  the  divine  attributes  as  the  most  useful.  To 
this  opinion  we  assent,  and  shall  accordingly 
treat  (1)  of  the  spirituality  of  God,  (for  most 
of  his  physical  and  moral  attributes  are  founded 
in  this,)  s.  19  ;  (2)  of  his  eternity  and  immuta- 
bility, s.  20;  (3)  of  his  omnipotence,  s.-21; 
(4)  his  omniscience,  s.  22 ;  (5)  omnipresence, 
s.  23;  (G)  supreme  wisdom,  (though  perhaps 
this  attribute  should  be  ascribed  to  the  divine 
will,  as  has  sometimes  been  done,)  s.  24;  (7) 
the  nature  ancf  the  perfections  of  the  divine  wiii, 
Introduction,  s.  25;  its  freedom,  immutability,, 
and  efliciency,  s.  20.  In  connexion  with  the 
divine  will  are  the  following  moral  attributes, 
which  are  cursorily  described  in  s.  27 — viz., 
(8)  truth,  and  (9)  goodness,  s.  28;  (10)  holi- 
ness, s.  29;  (11)  justice,  s.  30,  31.  The  Ap- 
pendix, s.  32,  exhibits  the  doctrine  of  divine, 
decrees,  (de  decretis  divinis,  sive  pr<Miestina« 
tione,)  which  is  directly  derived  from  the  atlri 
butes  of  the  divine  will. 

Morus,  p.  58,  note,  extr. 

SECTION  XIX. 

OF    THE    SPIRITUALITY    OF    GOD. 

I.  Statement  of  the  Do-rtrine. 
By  the  word  s^pirit  we  mean  to  denote  a  na 
ture  possessed  of  inldligcme  and  a  free  moral 
I 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


nn7/  (natura  intelligens  et  moralis.)  A  mate- 
rial or  corporeal  substance  acts  only  by  motion ; 
a  spiritual  substance,  on  the  contrary,  by  thought, 
OT  free  vuill.  Now,  as  we  perceive  that  God 
possesses,  and  that  too  in  the  iiighest  perfection, 
those  qualities  of  intelligence  and  will  wliich 
constitute  a  spiritual  existence,  we  justly  con- 
clude that  he  is  a  Spirit.  Hence  it  follows, 
that  all  the  attributes  which  he  possesses  as  a 
Spirit  are  connected  either  with  his  understand- 
ing or  his  will.  And  as  he  possesses  these  at- 
tributes in  the  highest  perfection,  he  is  the  mod 
Tptrjfxt  Sjiirit.  Among  the  attributes  which  be- 
long to  God  as  a  Spirit,  the  following  may  be 
enumerated : — 

1.  Simplicity,  (simplicitas,  immaterialitas.) 
Nothing  of  a  material  or  bodily  nature  can  ap- 
pertain to  spirit.  Matter  possesses  no  power 
of  thought  or  will,  and  is  governed  by  laws  en- 
tirely different  from  those  which  prevail  in  the 
sphere  of  spirit.  The  former  is  governed  by  the 
^aw  of  mcessily,  the  latter  by  that- of /rec(7y/'(. 
If  this  is  so,  and  spirit  is  so  wholly  unlike 
matter,  it  cannot  be  compounded,  and  is  there- 
fore simple.  The  Grecian  philosophers  call 
God  artXot'j  xai  avTuov,  expels  materia:  ,•  and  with 
this  description  the  sacred  writers  perfectly 
agree.  John,  iv.  24,  riifv/ua  o  ©foj.  Here  be- 
long those  texts  which  teach  that  God  cannot 
be  represented,  Isa.  xl.  25;  Exod.  xx.  4. 

2.  Invisibility.  Wiiatever  is  immaterial  is 
also  invisible,  for  our  bodily  sight  acf|uaints  us 
only  with  the  objects  of  the  material  world. 
Accordingly,  God  is  called  by  the  sacred  writers 
dofjarof,  Col.  i.  15  ;  Kom.  i.  20;  1  Tim.  i.  17. 
"We  are  indeed  told  in  the  Bible  tiiat  tvc  shall  see 
God.  But  by  this  phrase  we  are  to  understand 
merely  that  we  shall  know  God,  or  that  he  will 
honour  us  with  his  favour  and  intimacy.  Thus 
Moses  was  said  to  have  seen  God  face  to  face, 
and  the  righteous  are  promised  as  their  reward 
in  eternal  life  that  they  shall  see  God — e.  g., 
1  John,  iii.  2.  This  figure  is  taken  from  a  cus- 
tom of  eastern  courts,  in  which  it-was  regarded 
as  a  great  privilege  to  stand  in  the  presence,  or 
enjoy  the  intimacy,  of  the  king.  Cf.  Matt.  v. 
8;  xviii.  10;  Heb.  xii.  14. 

3.  Ind'ntnictibility.  Whatever  is  composed 
jf  divisible  parts  may  be  destroyed  ;  but  spirit, 
which  is  uncompounded  and  simple,  cannot 
be  divided  or  destroyed.  Hence  the  attribute 
a^^a^fiia.  is  ascribed  to  God,  and  he  is  called 
o4>J>aproj,  1  Tim.  i.  17,  and  a.<f^a^roi  0fdj,  in  op- 
position to  ^^ofirof  di^pwrtoj,  liom.  i.  23. 

From  these  attributes  which  belong  to  God 
as  a  Spirit  wo  may  deduce  the  following  con- 
clusions— viz. : 

(a)  (iod  cannot  be  represented,  siiKe  he  is 
both  immaterial  and  incorporeal.  The  attempt 
to  exhibit  him  by  means  of  sensible  imagps 
always  leads  to  gross  and  unworthy  conceptions 


of  his  nature.  For  this  reason  Moses  forbad* 
the  Israelites  to  make  any  images  of  Cod, 
Exod.  XX.  4 ;  and  with  tliis  prohibition  all  the 
sacred  writers  agree,  Isa.  xlvi.  5;  Acts,  xvii. 
29 ;  Rom.  i.  23,  &c.  The  worship  of  imaget 
is  not  necessarily  connected  with  that  of  idols. 
The  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  worshipped 
their  own  God,  Jehovah,  under  the  in^age  of  a 
golden  calf;  and  this,  properly  speaking,  was 
not  idolatry ;  but  experience  shews  that  the 
transition  is  easy  from  the  worship  of  images  to 
idolatry  ;  and  such  was  the  case  even  with  the 
Israelites.  The  fact  that  Moses  and  other 
writers  of  the  Old  Testament,  notv.ithstanding 
their  zeal  against  the  gross  representations  of 
God,  still  described  him  in  terms  which  were 
highly  figurative,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
consideration  that  the  Jews,  as  a  nation,  were 
extremely  rude  and  uncultivated,  and  had  no 
words  ill  their  language  for  the  expression  of 
abstract  ideas  and  spiritual  things.  The  sacred 
writers  accordingly,  in  speaking  to  them  of  God 
and  divine  things,  were  compelled  to  use  terms 
which  had  before  been  applied  only  to  material 
objects  in  a  metaphorical  sense;  and  these 
terms,  whenever  they  occur  in  the  Bible,  must 
therefore  be  interpreted  ^lOTtpirtiLi,  Vide  s.  18. 
When  we  undertake  to  speak  of  God  to  uncul- 
tivated men,  we  can  make  ourselves  understood 
in  no  other  way  than  by  the  use  of  the  words 
descriptive  of  the  organs  which  men  employ  in 
their  aflairs,  or  by  which  they  exhiliii  their  va- 
rious powers.  To  denote  the  commandment  of 
God,  we  must  speak  of  his  mouth  ,-  to  denote 
his  knowledge  of  the  actions  of  men,  we  must 
speak  of  his  eyes  and  ears;  we  must  describe 
his  power  by  speaking  of  his  hand;  his  dispo- 
sition and  feelings  by  speaking  of  his  hiart,  fee. 
(6)  A  merely  external  and  bcdil'i  service  is 
of  no  avail  with  God,  who  is  a  Spirit.  So  we 
are  taught  by  Christ  himself,  John,  iv.  21 — 24. 
One  reason  why  so  many  believe  ihiit  God  will 
be  satisfied  with  an  outward  form  of  worship  is, 
that  they  •entertain  low  conceptions  of  his  na- 
ture, and  regard  him  as  like  themselves. 

II.  Historical  Skrich  nf  this  Doctrine. 

1.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  the 
same  pure  and  abstract  ideas  which  are  attached 
to  the  word  spirit  in  our  metaphysics  were  as- 
sociated with  it  in  the  minds  of  the  ancient  Is- 
raelites. Ideas  of  such  a  nature  were  far  too 
high  and  transcendental  for  so  early  a  period. 
Tlie  Hebrew  word  n«-i,  which  is  translated  spi' 
rit,  signified,  properly  and  originally,  ivind, 
breath,  (and  so  spueh,")  and  life.  Vide  s.  9. 
The  power  of  the  wind  is  ereat,  and  yet  the 
wind  itself  is  invisible.  Hence  in  nearly  all 
tiio  ancient  languages  every  power  whioii  was 
at  the  same  time  gnat  and  invisible  was  de- 
noted by  some  word  which  in  its  Jiterat  signiti 


DIVLXE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


cation  stood  tor  the  tvind, — e.  g.,  nn,  ftvtvfta, 
apirilus.  That  invisible  power  which  moves 
md  animates  our  bodies  is  indicated  by  the  mo- 
tion if  the  air,  or  breat/i,  and  thence  derives  its 
name;  for  as  soon  as  we  cease  to  inhale  the 
air,  we  cease  to  move  and  to  live.  Hence  even 
this  invisible  power,  which  gives  motion  and 
Ufe  to  our  bodies,  is  also  called  nn;  cf.  Eccles. 
viii.  8;  xii.  7.  The  body,  which  serves  as  the 
or^ran  throujrh  which  this  power  acts,  is  called 
-\r3,  and  is  thus  widely  distinguished  from  the 
power  itself  by  which  it  is  moved.  In  this 
way,  nn  and  -\r2  are  always  opposed  one  to  the 
other.  According  to  this  analogy,  the  Hebrews 
gave  the  name  nn  to  all  the  invisible  powers, 
whether  physical  or  moral,  which  they  saw  in 
operation  in  the  universe,  and  consequently  to 
God  himself,  who  is  possessed  of  all  conceiva- 
ble powers  in  the  highest  possible  degree. 
Thus  nil  and  mni  nn  came  to  signify  (a)  the 
nature  of  God  in  general ;  (6)  his  invisible 
power,  as  exercised  both  in  the  material  world, 
in  its  creation  (Gen.  i.  2),  &c.,  and  in  the  soul 
of  man,  in  promoting  its  moral  improvement,  in 
the  act  of  inspiration,  and  in  various  other  ways. 
Vide  2  Sam.  xxiii.  I,  2;  cf.  s.  9.  But  the  an- 
cient Hebrews  justly  ascribed  i hmi ^ht  ?Lnd  will 
to  the  same  principle  which  moves  and  animates 
us,  and  so  denominated  them  nn,  rtrft/xo*  which 
term  they  then  applied,  by  way  of  analogy,  to 
the  divine  intelligence  and  will.  Now,  since 
the  body,  when  destitute  of  this  animating  prin- 
ciple, is  incapable  of  will  and  action,  the  term 
-ii:'3  was  made  to  stand  for  whatever  is  weak 
and  powerless,  and  the  term  nn,  for  whatever  is 
great  and  strong,  both  in  the  material  and  moral 
world.  Vide  Isa.  xxxi.  3.  Hence  it  appears 
that  the  Hebrews  made  sufficient  distinction  be- 
tween spirit  and  body,  although  in  their  notions 
Tes|)ecting  spirit  they  may  not  have  agreed  ex- 
actly with  modern  metaphysics.  Their  views 
on  this  point  were  sufficiently  distinct  for  all 
practical  purposes ;  and  of  anything  nf^xe — oi 
whatever  possesses  a  merely  speculative  inte- 
rest— thoy  were  as  well  ignorant  as  are  the  com- 
mon people  of  our  own  day.  Many  among 
them  did  indeed  suppose  that  God,  like  man, 
was  of  a  corporeal  as  well  as  spiritual  nature, 
as  appears  from  many  of  the  ancient  terms  em- 
ployed in  their  language;  and  this  accounts,  in 
some  measurcT  for  their  strong  and  invincible 
propensity  to  the  worship  of  images.  The  same 
thing  is  found  to  be  true  in  regard  to  other  nations 
who  have  worshipped  God  under  some  human 
resemblance,  respecting  which  there  is  a  remark- 
able passage  in  Cicero,  Nat.  Deor.  I.  27,  seq. 

2.  But  even  among  Christians  there  have 
been  some  who  have  conceived  of  God  as  mate- 
rial and  corporeal.  The  Ebionites  of  the  second 
century,  Audaeus  the  Syrian,  and  a  great  part  of 
the  Egyptian  monks  of  that  period,  are  accused 


of  entertaining  this  error.  Even  some  of  the 
fathers,  as  we  find,  ascribed  somewhat  (v.rpo- 
real  to  God.  Tertullian  asks,  Quis  mgnbit 
Deum  CORPUS  esse,  etsi  JJetis  spiritus  est?  Me- 
lito  and  many  others  expressed  the  same  opi- 
nions. They  were  opposed,  however,  bv  Ori- 
gen  and  others,  who  earnest!)'  contended  for 
the  truth,  that  God  is  dicrw^aroj.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century,  Hobbes,  and  in  the  eightwnih, 
Priestley,  contended  that  God  possessed  a  body, 
as  otherwise  he  could  stand,  in  no  relation  to 
bodily  things.  Accordingly  they  ascribed  to 
him  the  attribute  of  extension. 

This  opinion  may  be  traced  to  various  causes. 
(1)  With  some  it  was  mere  ignorance,  (.'r  the 
use  of  unguarded  expressions,  like  those  em- 
ployed by  illiterate  people  at  the  present  day. 
This  was  probably  the  case  with  the  Ebionites, 
Audaius,  and  some  of  the  fathers.  (2)  Others 
seem  to  assert  these  views  when  they  do  not  in 
reality  entertain  them,  the  mistake  arising  from 
the  different  use  of  language.  Such  is  the  case 
with  Tertullian,  who  meant  to  denote  by  the 
word  corpus  nothing  more  than  substance  and 
individuality.  He,  however,  believed  extension 
to  be  an  attribute  of  spirit.  (.3)  Others  still  are 
gross  mat'rialii-ts,  and  deny  the  possibility  of 
simple  substances.  Such  are  Hobbes,  Priest- 
ley, and  others.  (4)  Some  of  the  mystics  ascribe 
extension  to  God,  and  consequently  somewhat 
of  a  material  nature.  This  may  be  said  of  the 
Egyptian  monks;  and,  as  a  general  thing,  the 
mystici  inipuri  have  been  very  much  inclined  to 
pantheism. 

Morus,  p.  45,  s.  7,  extr.  et  not.  4. 

SECTION  XX. 

OF  THE  ETERNITV  AND  IMMUTABILITY  OF  GOD. 

I.   What  Eternity  is,  and  upon  what  it  depends. 

The  word  eternity  is  used,  as  philosophers 
observe,  in  a  figurative  and  a  literal  sense.  In 
the  figurative  or  popular  sense  it  denotes  an  ex- 
istence which  may  indeed  have  had  a  beginning, 
but  will  have  no  end;  like  that  of  the  angels, 
of  the  human  soul,  &c.  Instead  of  eternity  in 
this  sense,  th^  shoolmen  use  the  words  a^vitir- 
nitas,  sempiternitas.  In  the  literal  sense  it  de- 
note's  an  existence  which  has  neither  beginning 
nor  end,  like  that  of  God.  The  eternity  of  God, 
considered  as  without  beginnincf,  is  called  by 
the  schoolmen  a-ttrnitas  h  parte  ante,  or  A  priori, 
and  sometimes  primitas  Dei ;  considered  aj 
without  end,  it  is  called  setemitas  h  parte  post. 
or  h  posteriori,  more  commonly  called  immor- 
tality, a^%a^<jio.,  d^aia^io.  This  immortality  of 
God,  however,  unlike  that  of  created  spirits,  is 
necessary ;  with  him  there  is  necessiias  absoluta 
Vivendi ;  nor  can  he.  like  the  creatures  of  hii 
power,  ever  cease  to  exist. 


'00 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


The  eternity  of  God  depends  upon  the  neces- 
sity of  his  existence;  since  we  cannot  suppose 
that  there  ever  was,  or  will  be,  a  period  in 
whicii  a  necessary  bein^  did  not  or  will  not 
exist.  To  suppose  this  would  be  contradictory, 
and  equivalent  to  saying  that  a  necessary  being 
is  not  necessary.  Such  was  the  reasoning  of 
Plato  in  Tiniaeus;  of  Proclus  in  his  Commen- 
tary on  the  same;  of  Parmenides  and  Plotinus. 

The  question  is  sometimes  asked  in  this  con- 
nexion, whether  the  notion  of  the  eternity  of 
God  implies  the  exclusion  of  all  succession  of 
time  in  his  existence,  so  that  in  him  the  past, 
present,  and  future  are  indistinguishable.  Cle- 
ricus  and  other  Socinian  and  Arminian  theolo- 
gians, and  some  philosophers,  have  contended 
for  a  succession  of  time  in  God.  This  subject 
lies  so  wholly  beyond  the  circle  of  our  know- 
ledge, and  is  so  little  analogous  to  anything 
with  which  we  are  acquainted,  that  at  first  sight 
it  might  seem  not  to  admit  of  a  definite  determi- 
nation. At  least,  we  are  incapable  of  forming 
any  conception  on  this  subject,  as  we  can  never 
contemplate  an  object  as  without  time  and  !t])aee. 
In  everything  in  the  material  world  around  us, 
and  even  in  ourselves,  there  is  a  constant  suc- 
cession of  time;  and  however  much  we  may 
strive  to  lift  our  minds  above  this  necessity,  we 
shall  still  find  ourselves  compelled  to  conceive 
of  any  event — for  example,  the  creation  of  the 
world — which  with  us  is  past,  as  past  also  with 
God,  and  as  future  with  him  before  it  took 
place.  Most  writers,  however,  will  admit  of  no 
succession  of  time  in  God;  they  justly  consi- 
der that  this  succession  as  it  exists  in  us  in- 
volves imperfections  of  various  kinds,  and  espe- 
cially dependence  and  limitation,  and  cannot 
tht-refore  be  admitted  to  have  existence  in  the 
divine  nature.  But  it  is  best  to  pass  by  this 
metaphysical  subtlety,  and  to  represent  God  to 
our  minds  as  existing  without  beginning  or 
en'l,  as  coeval  through  all  time,  past,  present, 
ani  future,  with  all  the  creatures  of  his  hand. 
In  intimate  connexion  with  this  doctrine  is  that 
of— 

II.  The  Immutability  of  God. 

Since  the  existence  of  God  is  necessary,  we 
cannot  suppose  that  his  nature  possesses  any 
attribute  at  one  time  of  which  it  is  destitilte  at 
another.  If  he  changes,  it  must  be  for  the  bet- 
ter or  for  the  worse;  neither  of  which  can  be 
supposed  with  regard  to  him.  Accordingly,  his 
ridation  to  his  creatures,  which  first  arose  on  the 
creation  of  the  world,  can  have  produced  no  al- 
teration in  God  himself;  he  continues  the  same 
amidst  all  the  changes  of  created  things.  'I'o 
doubt  this  truth  would  involve  us  at  once  in 
contradiction.  We  must  therefore  believe  it, 
although  we  have  no  analogy  fur  it,  and  of 
course  cannot  form  any  clear  conception  of  it. 


This  immutability  relates  to  tne  decrees  and  thfl 
actions,  as  well  as  to  the  nature,  of  God.  Cf 
Morus,  p.  53,  s.  15,  n.  1.  The  immutability  of 
God  in  respect  to  his  actions  is  most  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Bible ;  nor  is  this  attribute 
denied  by  those  passages  which  affirm  that 
God  repents,  &c.  When  God  appears  to  be 
displeased  with  anything,  or  orders  it  diiTer- 
ently  from  what  we  expected,  we  say,  after  the 
manner  of  men,  that  he  repents.  That  this  is 
the  meaning  is  plain  from  other  texts,  in  which 
the  immutability  of  the  divine  decrees  is  ex- 
pressly asserted.  Vide  s.  25,  which  treats  of 
the  will  of  God,  and  Morus,  p.  45,  n.  5. 

In  these  attributes  which  have  just  been 
named,  two  others  are  involved — viz.,  self-exist- 
ence (aseilas),  by  which  is  meant  that  God  has 
the  ground  of  his  existence  in  no  other  being 
than  himself;  and  independence,  by  which  is 
meant  that  God  cannot  be  determined  or  con- 
trolled, either  as  to  his  existence,  his  will,  or 
his  actions,  by  any  other  being.  Morus,  p.  -15, 
s.  8. 

III.  The  Biblical  representation  of  these  Attributes. 

The  pure  idea  of  eternity  is  too  abstract  to 
have  been  conceived  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
world,  and  is  not  accordingly  found  expressed 
by  any  word  in  the  ancient  languages.  But  as 
cultivation  advanced,  and  this  idea  was  more 
distinctly  developed,  it  became  necessary,  in 
order  to  express  it,  either  to  invent  new  words, 
or  to  eiTiploy  old  words  in  a  new  sense,  as  was 
done  with  the  words  wternilas,  perenuilas,  &c. 
The  Hebrews,  like  otiier  nations,  were  destitute 
of  any  single  word  to  express  the  idea  of  eter- 
nity. The  word  s"";*,  like  oiwr  and  aiwiio;,  sig- 
nifies any  duration,  especially  a  long  period, 
whether  past,  present,  or  future.  They  were 
compelled,  therefore,  to  have  recourse  to  circum- 
locution. To  express  tetemitas  d  parte  ante, 
they  said,  before  the  world  wait;  sctcrnitas  h 
parte  post,  when  the  world  shall  be  no  more. 

Soin«  of  the  principal  texts  of  scripture  re 
specting  these  attributes. 

1.  liespecting  the  eternity  of  God.  God  is 
said  to  bfe  the  first  and  the  last — i.  e.,  the  being 
who  existed  before  the  world  began,  and  who 
will  continue  when  it  shall  be  destroyed,  Isaiah, 
xliv.  G,  coll.  xli.  4.  The  same  meaning  is  con- 
veyed when  God  is  said  to  he  A  xai  Q,  a,>;^>7  xaL 
Tt'xoj,  Kev.  i.  8;  or,  as  the  Rabbins  say,  from 
N  to  n — i.  e.,  ab  initio  usque  ad  cxtrcmuin.  In 
Psalm  xc.  the  eternity  of  God  is  described  in  a 
very  sublime  manner.  The  length  of  h\iman 
life,  which  had  previously  been  from  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  to  one  hundred  and  thirty 
years,  had  been  suddenly  abridged  in  the  desert 
to  seventy  or  eighty  years.  Moses  hence  takes 
occasion  to  compare  the  perishable  nature  of 
man   with   the  eternal   nature  of    God.     Th« 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


101 


phrase  "before  the  mountains  were  brought 
forth"  is  a  periphrasis  for  xfernt'tas  a  porte  ante, 
Jii<e  rtpo  xaraSoX^jj  xoouov,  John,  xvii.  24.  In 
the  phrase  sS;?  -^jj  o^^j-p,  the  former  word  denotes 
past,  the  latter,  future  time;  like  art'  oiciiuji',  fi; 
rovi  atdiva^  in  the  New  Testament,  John,  vi. 
51,  seq.  The  meaning  of  the  Psalmist,  ver.  3, 
seq.,  is  briefly  this  :  short  and  transitory  is  the 
life  of  man  ;  but  it  is  otherwise  with  God  :  the 
being  who  made  us  mortal  is  himself  immortal. 
Of  the  same  import  is  the  passage,  Ps.  cii. 
24 — 28.  "Thy  years  are  throughout  all  gene- 
rations (a>-)ii  ii'is)."  "Of  old  (s'Jo'^)  hast  thou 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth" — i.  e.,  Ood 
existed  before  the  creation  of  the  world.  Verse 
27,  "  Thou  art  the  same" — i.  e.,  God  himself  is 
immutable  amidst  the  alterations  of  the  world  ; 
he  changes  not  with  the  changing  universe. 
"Thy  years  shall  have  no  end" — i.  e.,  God  is 
immortal — a  periphrasis  for  xternitas  h  parte 
post.  So  Paul  describes  God,  1  Tim.  vi.  IG, 
as  o  ^ovo^  kx<^v  d^ai'O'n'av — i.  e.,  immortal  in 
a  peculiar  sense,  nccesmrily  so — a  being  who 
can  have  no  end.  Cf.  1  Tim.  i.  17.  The  pas- 
sage, Rom.  i.  20,  tttSioj  avrov  ^vra.utj  xa.1  ^norr^ii 
belongs  in  this  connexion. 

2.  Respecting  the  immutability  of  God.  This 
attribute  is  described  by  the  text  before  quoted, 
Ps.  cii.  28,  (Nin  nns,  avroj,  semper  idem.')  It  is 
also  implied  in  the  names  n-nx  -«rx  n^px,  and 
nm^  in  the  Pentateuch.  Vide  s.  17.  In  Ps.  xc. 
4,  it  is  expressly  said,  that  tiine  produces  no 
alteration  in  God,  as  it  does  in  creatures:  "A 
thousand  years  pass  away  before  thee  like  yes- 
terday, or  like  a  watch  in  the  niirht."  Vide 
Uebersetxung  der  Psalmen.  Parallel  with  these 
texts  is  that  in  2  Pet.  iii.  8,  9,  "  Be  not  ignorant 
of  this  one  thing,  that  one  day  is  with  the  Lord 
as  a  thousand  years,  and  a  thousand  years  as 
one  day."  If  it  appears  (ver.  9)  that  God  does 
not  immediately  accomplish  his  promises  and 
threats,  we  may  yet  be  certain  that  he  will  not 
forget  to  accomplish  them.  For  (ver.  8)  he  is 
not  mutable.  Length  of  time  makes  no  altera- 
tion in  him,  that  he  should  forget  anything,  as 
we  do.  What  took  place  a  thousand  years  ago, 
is  as  new  and  as  present  to  him  as  what  takes 
place  to-day.  This  is  the  proper  practical  view 
of  this  subject.  In  other  texts  the  immutability 
of  the  divine  decrees  is  spoken  of,  arid  they  are 
called  aixtiauiXr^ra.,  Rom.  xi.  29  ;  also,  to  dufra- 
^froV  rr;<;  j3oiXrj  ai'Toi,  Heb.  vi.  17,  18  ;  Mai. 
iii.  C;  Ps.  xxxiii.  10,  11.  The  passage,  James, 
i.  17,  may  be  connected  with  these,  as  it  does 
not  properly  treat  of  the  immutability  of  the  na- 
ture, but  of  the  purposes  and  dispositions  of 
God.  He  is  there  said  to  be  the  creator  and 
preserver  of  the  lights  of  heaven,  (rtar?;,!  z^v 
tiorcji',)  with  whom  is  no  variableness  (.-ropaX- 
Jiayjj,)  nor  shadow  of  alteration  (rportr?  a.-toizt- 
ao^ia) — i.  e.,  his  favour  is  not  changeable,  like 


that  of  a  prince,  but  he  is  always  equally  irra- 
cious  to  men. 

3.  Respecting  the  self-existence  of  God.  The 
passages  Ps.  xc.  cii.  &c.,  which  speak  of  liie 
eternity  of  God,  leach  this  attribute  implicitly, 
and  by  way  of  consequence.  Vide  also  Acts, 
xvii.  24,  25.  Cf.  Philo,  De  Opif.  mundi,  p.  28, 
ed.  Pf.     MjjSfvoj  rtpooSfOjtu  105  txvt.ov, 

4.  Respecting  the  independence  of  God.  Here 
belongs  the  text  just  quoted  from  Acts.  Tiiis 
attribute  is  also  exhibited  very  intelligibly  aiid 
plainly  in  Rom.  xi.  33 — 3G.  Ti'j  (jv/x,3oi7.oj 
avtov  iyii'ito't  »j  Tij  rtpotScoxtr  avrcj,  xai  ai-ar.Q- 
bo^r^nfrai  aitu.  Cf.  Isaiah,  xl. ;  13,  seq.  Mo- 
rus,  p.  46,  note. 

Morus,  p.  44,  s.  6,  coll.  p.  53,  s.  15. 

SECTION  XXI. 

THE  OMNIPOTENCE  OF  GOD. 

I.  DtfinUion,  Gruimd,  and  Proof  of  this  Attribute. 

The  omnipotence  of  God,  defined  in  philoso- 
phical language,  is  that  attribute  by  which  he 
can  bring  to  pass  everything  which  is  possible. 
It  is,  then,  nothing  else  than  an  exertion  of  the 
divine  will.  But  since  its  object  is  rather  ptiy- 
sical  than  moral  good,  it  is  here  placed  among 
the  physical  attributes  of  God.  The  ground  of 
this  attribute  lies  in  the  supreme  perfection  and 
infinity  of  the  divine  nature.  Since  God  is  in- 
finite, his  power  cannot  admit  of  bounds  or 
limitations.  But  that  God  can  do  only  what  is 
possible,  as  they  say  in  the  schools,  is  still  true  in 
itself,  and  perfectly  consistent  with  his  infinity. 
For  an  impossibility,  in  the  philosophical  sense 
of  the  word,  is  something  which  implies  a  con- 
tradiction, and  is  a  nonentity.  One  who  should 
contend  that  God  could  perform  what  is  impos- 
sible, would  contend  that  he  could  act  contra- 
dictorily, which  would  be  an  imperfection  not 
ascribable  to  the  most  perfect  being.  This 
metaphysical  definition  should,  however,  never 
be  used  in  popular  instruction,  since  it  can  never 
be  made  sufficiently  intelligible;  and  the  words 
possible  and  impossible  are  not  used  in  the  same 
sense  in  common  life,  and  in  the  schools  of  phi- 
losophers. Common  people,  who  are  unaccus- 
lomed  to  reflection,  will  always  find  difl^cuhy 
in  the  assertion,  that  God  can  do  only  what  is 
possible.  To  them,  therefore,  this  attribute 
should  be  described,  according  to  the  language 
of  scripture,  to  be  that  by  which  God  can  do 
everything  which  lie  tvill.  This  definition  com- 
prehends the  whole,  since  God  can  never  will 
anything  which  is  impossible. 

In  proof  of  the  unlimited  power  of  Cod.  we 
may  here  mention  the  greatness  of  his  works. 
Vide  Rom.  i.  20;  Job,  xl.  41. 

The  omnipotence  of  God  is  divided,  in  the 
philosophical  and  theological  schools,  into  ab- 
I  2 


*02 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


ioluia  and  ordinala.  The  absolute  omnipotence 
of  (Jod  is  tliat  immediate,  miraculous  exertion 
of  iiis  pov%'er,  which  is  seen  in  the  creation  of 
the  world,  &C.  His  omnipotenlia  ordinala  is 
that  common,  regular  exercise  of  his  power,  by 
wiiii'h  he  makes  use  of  the  course  of  nature, 
wliich  he  himself  has  established  for  the  promo- 
tif':i  of  his  own  designs.  Thus  he  produces  the 
Wiiriiitii  of  the  atmosphere,  not  per  polentinm  ab- 
itihifain.  but  ordinulain,  in  causing  the  sun  to 
shiiie.  The  same  thing  is  expressed  by  saying, 
he  acts  per  eausas  seeundas. 

II.  Tlie  Biblical  Representations  of  Ihe  Omnipotence 
of  God. 

1.  The  common  ///era/ representations  which 
the  Bible  <jives  of  the  omnipotence  of  God,  are 
no  and  n-'^3J,  ivifiyfia,  6vrautj,  ^oi'oj,  ivvuarr^. 
'  ih"  Almighty.  .Ter.  X.  12,  "  He  created  the  earth 
by  hi*  power  (no)."  The  plural  rn>3J  is  ap- 
plied to  the  actual  exertions  of  the  divine  power, 
and  so,  like  hwdufii,  signifies  miracles. 

'2.  Besides  tliese  literal,  there  are  mTiny  figu- 
rnlire,  ant/iropomnrp/iical  representations  of  the 
divine  power  contained  in  the  Bible.  Amoni: 
these  are  the  following:  the  hand,  strom^  hand, 
ritih!  hand,  (f  God ;  also,  the  arm,  the  long  arm 
(/(a;.,io;^n^.).  of  God,  in  opposition  to  a  short  arm, 
the  index  of  weakness,  &c.  Vide  Deut.  xxxii. 
Srt;  Isa.  lix.  1,  seq.  The  representation  that 
GmI  works  jiy  speaking,  by  his  word,  or  his 
C(;»/.v<rtn!/,  is 'also  figurative.  Vide  the  history 
of  tlie  creation,  Gen.  i.  3,  seq.  In  Ps.  xxxiii. 
6,  it  is  said,  "by  the  word  of  the  Lord  the  hea- 
vens were  formed;"  and  in  ver.  9,  "He  spake, 
and  it  was  done;  he  commanded,  and  it  stood 
fast."  In  this  sense ,!,>;;ua0foij  is  used,  Heb.  xi. 
3;  and  Ir^ua,  hwauno^  (6viaroi')  a-vrov,  the  word 
of  his  posver,  his  command,  Heb.  i.  3.  All  these 
are  fig'irative  expressions,  intended  to  shew  the 
ease  and  certainty  with  which  God  performs  his 
works  and  executes  his  will.  He  is  represent- 
ed by  ibis  image  as  a  powerful  ruler,  to  whose 
mere  word  and  command  everything  is  subject. 
He  doe3  not  need  to  give  his  own  hand  to  the 
work  :  it  costs  him  only  a  word.  In  other  pas- 
sages, we  find  that  what  is  done  is  ascribed  more 
directly  to  the  will  of  (Jod  (for  the  language  of 
the  Bible  is  wisely  varied) — e.  g..  Rev.  iv.  11, 
"  Thfiu  hast  created  all  things,  xa.i  Sii  to  ^^\r^u.d 
u'lv  ^Kii,"  i.  e.,  they  owe  their  existence  to  thy 
mere  will. 

3.  The  following  are  some  of  the  texts  in 
which  unlimited  power  is  ascribed  to  God  in  llie 
clearest  manner:  Ps.  cxv.  3,  "Our  God  is  in 
heaven;  he  does  whatsoever  he  will."  Rom. 
IV,  17,  KaXfliiwroj  rc'i  ^>j  ovra,  toj  oi'to,  he  called 
them  from  nothing;  he  created  what  did  not 
exist.  Jer.  xxxii.  17,  "Thou  hast  made  the 
heaven  and  the  earth  with  thy  great  power,  and 


thine  outstretched  arm."  In  Ephts.  in.  20,  '*aii. 
describes  the  infinity  of  the  divine  power  by 
saying  that  God  is  able  vntp  nuvxa.  noi^acu  vrttf 
ix  Ttffiiafov  wv  rooii^fj — i.  e.,  to  do  infinitely  more 
than  all  that  we  imagine.  In  Ephes.  i.  19,  he 
speaks  of  i-Tti^i^uy.Xov  fiiyi^i  bwauiu^  avroii. 
The  phrase  oix  d^vrarrsfi  Ttapa  to  0f 9  itai'  h'T/**^ 
Luke,  i.  37,  is  to  be  classed  among  the  preceding. 
It  is  a  proverbial  phrase,  which  conveys  the 
meaning  that  God  can  perform  what  may  ap- 
pear to  us  impossible,  or  rather,  that  God  is 
never  unable  to  fulfil  his  promise,  (,!.i;,ua  lai.) 
Cf.  Gen.  xviii.  14,  whence  these  words  are 
taken. 

Morus,  p.  50,  s.  13. 

SECTION  XXIL 

OF  THE  o:mmscie>'ce  of  god. 

This  attribute  is  ascribed  to  God,  to  denote 
that  he  possesses  the  most  perfect  knowledge. 
That  it  is  rightly  ascribed  to  him  n)ay  be  easily 
shewn,  even  by  reasoning  a  priori.  Since  God 
is  a  Spirit,  he  possesses  cognitive  power,  and 
of  course  knowledge.  And  since  he  is  the  most 
perfect  Spirit,  he  possesses  the  most  perfect  in- 
tellect and  intellection,  which  is  called  omni- 
sciej\ce. 

I.  The  Extent,  or  the  Objects  of  the  Dlrine 
Knowledge. 

How  the  divine  intelligence  can  comprehend 
and  survey  so  vast  a  number  and  exhaustless  a 
variety  of  objects,  is  quite  inconceivable  to  our 
finite  and  feeble  capacities.  Paul  speaks  of  the 
.5u>05  yi'uiofwj  0£ov,  Rom.  xi.  33.  The  Bible 
often  says,  "liiere  is  no  searching  of  his  under- 
standing," Is.  xl.  2S;  "his  understandino  is  in- 
finite," Ps.  cxlvii.  5.  The  ancient  Grecian 
philosophers  frequently  express  very  just  and 
pure  conceptions  of  the  omniscience  of  God. 
When  Thales  was  asked  if  some  of  the  actions 
of  men  were  not  unknown  to  G"d,  lie  answered, 
"  Xi)t  even  their  thoughts."  Xenophon  records 
similar  sentiments  of  Socrates,  which  are  re- 
peated by  Plato  in  Parmenides.  The  objects 
of  the  divine  knowledge  have  sometimes  been 
divided,  in  accommodation  to  the  weakness  of 
human  understuiding,  into  several  classes. 

1.  Ilis  own  nature  is  one  object  of  the  know- 
ledge of  God.  And  from  this  knowledge  it  re- 
sults that  he  must  have  had  from  all  eternity  the 
ideas  of  the  things  which  he  has  made,  and 
which  were  then  only  possible.  Tiiis  know- 
ledge is  called  by  Iheolngians  coguitio  nalura- 
lis — (i.  e.,  naturffi  sua\)  It  is  this  of  wliich 
Paul  speaks  in  1  Cor.  ii.  II,  "  Nn  man  know- 
eth  the  thoughts  of  a  man,  but  the  spirit  of  a  man 
which  is  in  him.  Oitw  xa.i  xa.  xov  t)tov  ov8tj{ 
u6f»',  £1  /ij;  To  niii/ia  toi'  0fot." 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


10.> 


2.  .'?//  ohjects  EX'miNsic  to  himself  zre  also  in- 
cluded in  the  knowledge  of  God.  These  may 
be  divided  into 

(a)  Possible  thing»,vih.\c\i  are  known  by  God, 
although  they  may  never  become  real.  The 
Knowledge  which  respects  these  subjects  is 
called  scientia  simpUcis  inteUigentise,,  because  it 
remains  in  the  mind  of  God,  without  calling 
forth  the  exercise  of  his  will.  In  close  con- 
nexion with  this  knowledge  is  what  is  called 
tcientia  Dei  media,  or  conJilionafa,  or  scientia  de 
futuro  cunditiouato,  the  knowledge  of  what  is 
conditionally  possible — i.  e.,  the  knowledge  of 
those  things  which,  although  they  have  never 
come  to  pass,  might  have  taken  place  under 
certain  presupposed  possible  conditions.  For 
example :  God  foresees  that  this  youth,  if  he  had 
lived  to  a  certain  age,  would  have  become,  under 
particular  circumstances  and  in  a  particular  situ- 
ation, a  very  bad  man.  He  therefore  takes  him 
from  life  at  an  early  period,  or  brings  him  into 
a  situation  in  which  he  is  unable  to  do  the  in- 
jury foreseen.  This  injury,  therefore,  never 
becomes  real;  but  God  foresaw  nper  scienliam 
mediarn,  and  prevented  it  from  taking  place. 
This  scientia  media  must  necessarily  be  ascribed 
to  God,  since  many  other  divine  attributes  de- 
pend upon  it — e.  g.,  the  wisdom  of  God,  which 
consists  in  his  determining  which  is  the  best 
among  many  possible  things,  and  his  choosing 
according  to  this  determination.  Examples  of 
the  exercise  of  this  scientia  media  are  furnished 
in  the  Bible,  Jer.  xxxviii.  17 — 20;  1  Sam.  xxiii. 
5 — 14;  Malt.  xi.  21 — 23.  The  term  media  was 
first  employed  by  Fonseca,  a  Portuguese  Jesuit, 
and  an  Aristotelian,  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
But  its  use  in  theology  was  principally  author- 
ized by  Lud.  Molina,  a  Spanish  Jesviit  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  a  disciple  of  Fonsvca, 
in  his  book,  De  concordia  graiiie  et  liberi  arbitrii. 
He  intended,  by  the  introduction  of  this  term, 
to  obviate  the  objections  which  had  arisen  to  the 
doctrine  of  Au'justine  concerning  predestination. 
The  thing  itself,  however,  which  is  designated 
by  this  term,  did  not  originate  with  him,  but  is 
found  in  the  writings  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
Augustine,  (De  dono  perseverentiaj,  c.  t1,)  and 
oth^'r  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers. 

(ft)  Real  thini^s.  God,  accordingly,  knows 
the  nature  of  all  things,  animate  and-inanimate, 
physical  and  moral,  lie  knows  the  thoughts 
and-  desires  of  the  human  heart.  This  know- 
ledge is  called  scientia  libera,  or  rrnVnu's — ini- 
mediate,  intuitive  knowledge.  It  is  involved 
'.n  the  idea  of  the  most  perfect  being;  it  was  re- 
quisite in  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  is  essen- 
»ial  to  the  rule  and  providence  which  God  exer- 
cises over  the  works  of  his  hand.  He  who  cre- 
ated, constructed,  and  preserves  the  universe, 
must  necessarily  understand  it  perfectly ;  and 
especially  the  moral  Governor  of  the  world -must 


perfectly  understand  the  moral  character  of  hie 
subjects,  in  order  to  the  just  distribution  of  re- 
wards and  punishments.  This  doctrine  is  one, 
therefore,  of  the  highest  practical  importance. 
It  is  calculated,  on  the  one  hand,  to  imparl  con- 
solation to  the  pious,  and,  on  the  other,  to 
awaken  a  salutary  dread  in  the  thoughtless  and 
impure,  and  to  urge  them  to  repentance.  On  this 
account  it  is  often  exhibited  in  the  holy  scrip- 
tures. We  read  in  1  .lohn,  iii.  20,  Otoj  yuJioxtt. 
ridvta,  and  in  Heb.  iv,  13,  navra  6i  yvf^va  xai 
ttr\iaxrJKLijfiiva.  Totj  6^^a>.;uo«5  av-roi;.  The  Bible 
frequently  enters  into  a  specific  enumeration  of 
the  dilTerent  classes  of  objects  which  are  com- 
prehended in  the  knowledge  of  God.  He  knows 
things  animate  and  inanimate.  Matt.  vi.  2G;  x. 
29 ;  the  destinies  of  men,  Matt.  vi.  32 ;  their 
thoughts  and  secret  purposes,  Jer.  xi.  18 — 20  ; 
Psa.  xciv,  11 ;  their  sufferings  and  sorrows,  Psa. 
Ivi.  8 ;  their  virtues  and  vices,  1  Pet.  iii.  12,  &c. 
One  of -the  most  sublime  descriptions  of  the 
knowledge  of  God  is  contained  in  Psa.  cxxxix. 

But  in  consequence  of  the  form  of  time  which 
is  inherent  in  our  constitution,  we  are  compelled 
to  regard  objects  as  past,  present,  and  future; 
and,  the  same  being  transferred  to  God,  his 
knowledge  has  been  differently  denominated,  as 
it  respects  the  first,  second,  or  third  of  these 
classes,  rcminisctntia,  visio,  and  pncscientia. 
ThatGod  should  possess  recollection  and  vision, 
we  may  easily  understand,  from  the  analogy 
which  we  find  for  these  attributes  in  our  own 
minds.  But  he  also  possesses  pjrescience,  and 
this  relates  to  future  objects  of  three  different 
classes.  (1)  Futura  necetsaria — those  things 
which  result  from  the  established  course  of  na- 
ture, or  from  a  fixed  divine  decree;  (2)  futura 
condi/ionata — those  things  which  will  take  placff 
only  on  certain  conditions, — the  evil  or  goo^ 
that  will  be  done  by  a  person  under  given  cir- 
cumstances; (3)  futura  ci)ntini;entia — those 
events  which  depend  on  the  free  will  of  man. 
or  other  rational  beings,  ajid  therefore  may  or 
may  not  come  to  pass.  The  knowh'djje  of  God 
relating  to  the  last  of  these  classes  is  called  zo*' 
i^oyrv,  his  prescience. 

'i'liis  divine  foreknowledge  of  the  evfsnts  de- 
pending upon  the  free  will  was  denied  by  some 
of  the  ancient  philosophers.  [Cicero  uses  the 
following  argument: — "  Si  praescita  sunt  omnia 
futura,  hoc  ordine  venient,  quo  ventura  esse 
pr;escila  sunt.  Va  si  hoc  ordine  venient,  certus 
est  ordo  rerum  pra;scienli  Deo.  Ei  si  est  certus 
ordo  rerum,  est  certus  ordo  causarum  ;  non  enim 
aliquid  fieri  potest,  quod  non  aliqua  efficiens 
causa  praecesserit.  Si  aulem  certus  est  ordo 
causarum,  quo  fit  omne  quod  fit,  fato  fiunt  om 
nia,  quae  fiunt.  Quod  si  ita  est,  nihil  est  in 
nostra  potestate,  nullumque  est  arbit;iuni  volun- 
tatis." De  Divinatione,  II.  5 — 7.]  The  same 
ground  is  taken  by  some  of  the  schoolmen,  and 


104 


HRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


by  Socinus  and  his  followers.  [Socinus  says: 
— "Animadvertendum  est,  infallibilern  islam  Dei 
pr»  nolionem  a  nobis  non  adtuitli,  nisi  prius 
probetur." — "  Qucedam  sunt  quae  Deus  scire 
nulla  ratione  dici  potest,  nee  tamen  ipsius  oinni- 
scientioe  quidquam  derog-atur." — "  De  fiituris 
continjpntibus  non  est  detenninata  Veritas." 
Prfplec.  Theol.  c.  8 — 11.]  The  common  argu- 
ment is  briefly  this  :  the  foreknowledge  of  God, 
which  is  contended  for,  invades  the  freedom  of 
the  will  in  man  and  other  moral  beings.  For 
if  God  foreknows  all  things,  and  is  infallible  in 
his  knowledge,  whatever  he  foreknows  must 
take  place,  is  therefore  necessary,  and  no  longer 
dependent  on  the  freedom  of  man. 

But  this  reasoning  is  fallacious  ;  for  man  does 
not  perform  one  action  or  another  because  it  was 
foreknown  by  God ;  but  God  foreknew  the  ac- 
tion, because  man,  in  the  exercise  of  his  free  will, 
would  ])erform  it.  Our  own  knowledge  of  the 
future  bears  some  analogy  with  this,  since  it  is 
always  founded  u|)on  a  knowledge  of  the  past 
and  present.  But  on  account  of  the  imperfection 
and  limitation  of  our  view,  the  future  is  to  us 
only  prnlmhlr:,  and  our  knowledge  of  it  only 
conj xtural ;  while  to  God  the  future  is  certain, 
and  his  knowledge  with  respect  to  it  infallible. 
[Tlie  same  answer,  in  substance,  was  given  by 
Augustine  to  the  passage  above  cited  from  Ci- 
cero:  "Non  est  consequens,  ut  si  Deo  certus 
est  omnium  ordo  causarum,  ideo  nihil  sit  in  nos- 
trffi  voluntatis  arbitrio;  et  ipsir,  quippe  vohinlates 
noxfrie  in  causarum  ordine  sttnt,  qui  certus  est 
Deo,  pjusque  praescientja  continetur,  quoniam 
et  humanae  voluntates  humanorum  operum  cau- 
sae sunt.  Atque  ita,  qui  omnes  rerum  causas 
praescivit,  profecto  in  iis  causis  eliam  nostras 
volunlatcs  igiiorare  non  potuit.  Interim  nullo 
modo  cogimur,  aut  pr<escienii.l  Dei  retent.l  tol- 
lere  voluntatis  arbiirium,  aut  retento  voluntatis 
arbitrio  Deum  negare  pra;scium  futurorum,  sed 
ulruniquc  ampleclimur,  illud,  ut  bene  credamus, 
hoc,  ut  bene  vivamusy  Augustine,  De  Civ.  D. 
V.  c.  9,  10.  The  same  distinction  between 
fiirefcnnivin^ 7ir\(\  foreordainini^  is  also  suggested 
by  John  of  Damascus:  "Xpj;  yi.vJjr:xnv,  Jjj 
ftdvYa  fiiv  rtpoyi^'w'jxf  t  o  ©roj,  ov  rtuvta  bi  Tt^ioo^)i- 
iff I.  npwyu'w'JXf t  ya|)  xai  r«  ii|>  ruiv,  ov  rtpoopi^f  i 
6f  avra,  ov  yap  ^iXfi  triv  xaxiuv,  yivtn'^ai,  ovht 
jiidl^rtac  Ttju  d^iftr^v  Cjritf  trif  ^Fia{  rtpoyrwjrtx^i 
xfX'Vlfcoj  ?(>yoi'  intiv  o  rfpoOjiuTuoj.  lIpoopi^EC'  be 
rn.  ovx  fj)  ruiv  xata  trv  rtpoyfujiip  avfoi;*  rbrj 
yftp  xata,  rrjv  rtpoyviofliv  avrov  rtpos'xptvc  rtUfra  u 
©foj  xara  Trjv  aya^(>T>jra  xai  r^i'  bixaionvvr^v 
avrou."    "Rxbotii  axpi;jjjj,  x.  r.  x.    L.  ii.  c.  30.] 

Bf>sido9,  the  free  actions  of  men  are  never 
wholly  arbitrary,  but,  on  the  contrary,  are  per- 
formed in  view  of  some  motive,  which,  however 
concealod  it  may  he  from  our  short-sighted  eyes, 
is  visible  to  God,  who  knows  intuitively  the 
whole  extent  of  the  present  and  future;  who  is 


the  author  of  the  laws  by  which  we  act;  and 
who,  without  this  knowledge,  would  be  incom- 
petent to  the  government  of  the  world,  which 
must  then  be  abandoned,  in  a  great  measure,  to 
the  control  of  chance.  [This  appears  to  be  the 
most  perfect  solution  of  the  difficulty  in  question. 
So  long  as  liberty  was  supposed  to  consist  in  a 
choice  undetermined  by  motives,  there  remained 
an  irreconcilable  disagreement  between  the  di- 
vine prescience  and  human  freedom;  and  con- 
sistent writers  saw  themselves  compelled  to  re- 
ject the  one  or  the  other.  But  when  freedom 
came  to  be  considered  more  justly,  as  the  power 
which  we  possess  of  determining  our  actions  by 
the  ideas  of  reason,  this  disagreement  was  re- 
moved. Cf.  Bretschneider,  Dogmalik,  b.  i.  3. 
40G;  Leipzig,  1828.] 

This  doctrine  must  therefore  be  admitted  to 
be  true,  although  the  mode  of  it  must  be  forever 
unintelligilile  to  us,  who  look  at  everything  un- 
der the  limitations  of  time  and  space.  The  mis- 
takes into  which  we  fall  on  this  subject  are  owing 
to  the  words  which  we  employ,  and  to  the  po- 
verty of  our  conceptions.  Tiie  terms  chance  and 
contini;enl  may  facilitate,  to  our  minds,  theimder- 
standing  of  certain  ideas,  and  are  intended  for 
the  illustration  of  certain  attributes  of  things; 
but  to  the  divine  intelligence,  in  which  there 
is  no  succession  of  time,  and  by  which  the  past, 
present,  and  future  are  immediately  compre- 
hended, nothing  can  appear  rontimccnt.  Since 
every  event  takes  place  according  to  fixed  laws, 
the  infinite  intelligence  must  perceive  what  is 
free  and  contingent  to  be  as  certain  in  the  course 
of  future  events  as  what  is  necessary  or  less  con- 
tingent. The  Stoics  were  accustomed  to  say 
that  the  actions  of  men  were  rendered  certain, 
but  not  nieessary,  by  the  divine  foreknowledge. 
[On  this  subject  Augustine  inquires,  "Quid 
est  praiscientia,  nisi  i^cicntla  futurorum  1  Quid 
autem/i//Hru7«  est  Deo,  i\\\\  omnia  supergreditur 
tempora  ?  Si  enim  scientia  Dei,  res  ijiMs  habet, 
non  simt  e'lfnlur.c  sed  pru^scntes ;  ac  jier  hoc  non 
jam  prafscientia,  sed  tantuin  scientia  dici  po- 
test," De  diversis  qucest.  1.  ii.  (T.  Bocihius, 
De  consol.  philos,  1.  v.  pr.  6.  "  Scii  ntia  Dei 
omnem  temporis  sujiergrossa  niotionem,  in  sue 
maiut  siin|>licitate  pra^sentitc,  inrinil;ii)ue  prK- 
teriii  ac  fuluri  spatia  comph-ctens,  omnia  quasi 
jam  gerantur  in  sua  simplici  cognitione  eonsi- 
derat.  It.ique  si  pra^scientiam  pensnre  velis, 
qu^  cuncta  dignosrit,  non  esse  prssrieniiam 
ijuasi  futuri,  sed  scientiam  nunqiiam  deficieniift 
inst.iniise,  reciiiis  KStimahis.  Undo  non  prx- 
videntia,  sed  />n(videntia  potiua  dicilur,  quod 
porro  ab  rebus  infimis  conslituta,  (juasi  aL 
excelso  rerum  cacumine  cuncta  prospiciat."j 
Vide  Leibnitz,  Tlieodicee,  under  the  lilies,  pre 
viaion  ami  sciinec  de  fJieu.  Cf.  Kberhard,  Vet 
mischleSchriften,  Num.  5,  I'crschiedcm  .Jufudtzt 
itbcr  die  Frtyluitdcs  Willcnsi  Halle,  1778,  8vo. 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


lOS 


Callisen,  Beytrag  die  Lehre  von  der  Alhvissen- 
heit  Gottes,  und  die  Lehre  von  der  mensclilichen 
Freilieit  in  Harmonie  zu  bringen,  in  Schmidt's 
Bibliolheiv  der  theo'ogischen  Literatur,  b.  viii. 
s.  217;  Giessen,  1805,  8vo. 

We  can  therefore  bring  no  objection  against 
the  Bible,  when  it  ascribes  to  God  this  scictitia 
futurorum  cont{ns;ent{itm.  Vide  Psalm  cxxxix. 
IG,  "  Thou  knewest  the  whole  course  of  my  life, 
when  thou  sawest  me  in  the  first  stages  of  ex- 
istence." Cf.  V.  2,  "Thou  understandest  my 
thought  afar  off," — i.  e.,  before  I  myself  think 
it.  Isaiah  adduces  it  as  a  proof  of  the  greatness 
of  God,  that  he  foresees  and  announces  to  his 
prophets  tiiose  future  contingent  things  which 
are  beyond  the  reach  of  the  human  understand- 
ing, ch.  xli.  26;  xliv.  8;  xlviii.  4 — 8. 

II.   The  Mude  of  the  Divine  Knowledge, 

The  faculties  which  we  possess  for  the  acqui- 
sition of  knowledge  are  very  limited,  and  the 
knowledge  which  we  acquire  in  the  use  of  them 
is  very  imperfect.  In  forming  conceptions, 
therefore,  of  the  divine  intelligence,  we  must  ab- 
stract all  those  limitations  which  relate  to  time 
and  space;  and  in  this  way  we  obtain,  for  the 
most  part,  merely  negative  ideas.  The  difference 
between  our  understanding  and  that  of  God  may 
be  rendered  evident  by  the  following  particu- 
lars : — 

1.  Our  knowledge  is  mostly  derived  from  sen- 
sation,  from  which  we  obtain,  either  directly  or 
indirectly,  all  our  ideas.  This  is  a  limit  beyond 
wliich  w-e  cannot  pass;  and  being  such,  it  is 
wholly  inapplicable  to  the  mind  of  God.  Our 
souls,  in  the  jiresent  life,  act  and  feel  through 
the  body  and  its  senses.  But  as  these  do  not 
belong  to  God,  he  cannot  be  supposed  to  have 
either  sensation  or  passions.  Vide  Morus,  p. 
54,  s.  15,  not.  extr. 

2.  Our  knowledge  is  obtained  gro(/«ff//y.  \Vc 
first  receive  our  notions  from  sensation ;  we 
then  treasure  them  in  our  memory ;  and  after- 
wards compare  them  with  one  another,  and  form 
judgments  concerning  them.  We  then  proceed 
gradually,  by  means  of  the  conclusions  to  which 
we  have  arrived,  from  one  truth  to  another,  at- 
taining sometimes  to  ?^  prohahility  in  our  know- 
ledge, but  remaining  often  uncertain  and  wholly 
uninformed.  But  this  process  of  acqursition  is 
in  various  ways  imperfect,  and  cannot,  tiierefore, 
be  attributed  to  God.  He  does  not  recollect 
what  is  past,  nor  form  images  or  symbols  in  his 
mind,  nor  come  to  the  conclusions  of  reason. 
He  does  not  form  abfirad  ideas ;  for  to  his  mind 
each  particular  tiling  is  equally  present;  he  re- 
gards all  thinijs  with  immediate  intuition;  and 
is  independent  of  the  aid  of  memory.  Every- 
thing like  succession  in  knowledge  must  be 
absolutely  excluded  from  the  knowledge  of  God. 
This  is  ^aWcd  scieittia  simultanea  i  and  God  Is 

14 


said  by  the  schoolmen  to  know  immediate,  situ 
di-scursu,  una  actu.  Vide  Castner,  Wie  die  allge- 
meinen  Begriffe  im  gottlichen  Verstande  sind  ; 
Altenburg,  1768. 

When  every  imperfection  is  abstracted  from 
the  divine  understanding,  it  appears,  from  what 
has  been  said,  to  surpass  human  understanding 
in  the  following  respects: — (a)  It  is  simulta- 
neous,— God  knows  by  one  act  ,•  (i)  most  true, 
without  error  or  mistake  ;  (c)  most  cltar, — with- 
out darkness  or  confusion;  ((/)  vwst  certain, — 
without  doubt  or  ambiguity. 

But  those  who  live  in  the  sphere  of  sense, 
and  are  limited  by  time  and  space,  are  unable  to 
form  distinct  conceptions  of  the  perfection  and 
immeasurableness  of  the  divine  understanding. 
There  is,  therefore,  in  all  the  languages  of  men, 
especially  the  more  ancient,  an  entire  destitution 
of  terms  which  literally  express  these  ideas ; 
and  even  had  such  terms  existed  in  former 
times,  they  would  have  been  unintelligible. 
There  is  no  way,  therefore,  when  this  subject  is 
mentioned,  but  to  take  language  borrowed  from 
the  objects  of  sense,  and  to  eniploy  it  with  a 
purer  and  more  refined  meaning  This  is  the 
method  of  the  Bible.  It  speaks  of  God  as  re- 
membering either  in  a  good  sense,  meaning  that 
he  bestows  favours  after  he  has  for  a  long  time 
inflicted  punishments,  (e.  g.,  Gen.  viii.  1 ;  Acts, 
X.  4;)  or  in  a  bad  sense,  meaning  that  he  calls 
to  mind — i.  e.,  punishes,  the  sins  of  men,  (e.  g., 
Psalm  XXV.  7;  ciii.  9.)  In  the  same  manner  it 
speaks  of  God  ?is  far  get  ting — i.  e.,  leaving  men 
without  help,  or  suffering  their  sins  to  pass  un- 
punished. It  speaks  too  of  his  hoping  and  ex- 
pecting, and  finding  his  hope  and  expectation, 
as  it  seems  to  us,  disappointed.  On  the  same 
principle,  the  terms  taken  from  the  bodily  or- 
gans, through  which  we  obtain  all  our  know- 
ledge, are  applied  to  God — e.  g.,  n.-;-;,  yru;,  i.^Hv, 
axoi'iiv,  which  are  synonymous  with  j'T,»  yivJjo- 
xnf,  "^Pp,  ipfiiar,  &C. 

INIorus,  p.  46,  s.  10. 

SECTION  XXIII. 

OF  THE  OMNIPRESENCE  OF  GOD. 

I.  Statement  of  the  Doctrine. 

The  nmnipro^ence  of  God  is  that  power  by 
which  he  is  able  to  act  everywhere.  This  attri- 
bute, when  correctly  viewed,  cannot  be  distin- 
guished from  the  divine  omnipotence  and  omni- 
science taken  in  connexion;  and  so  it  is  exhibit- 
ed by  Morus.  We  justly  conclude,  that  he  who 
knows  all  things  (s.  22),  and  whose  p.-wer  is 
so  unlimited,  that  he  does  what'^oever  he  will 
(s.  21),  must  be  present  in  ail  things,  and  can- 
not be   separated  from  them  by  time  or  space. 

In  thinking  on  this  subject,  we  have  need  to 
o-uard  against  gross  conceptions,  and  especially 


106 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


against  tlie  danger  of  predicating  of  God  what 
tan  only  be  said  of  the  presence  of  body.  'I'liis 
caution  is  particularly  necessary  here,  since  we 
are  apt  to  transfer  the  forms  of  time  and  space, 
which  are  applicable  only  to  the  sphere  of  sense, 
into  the  world  of  spirits;  and  in  so  doing,  to 
come  to  conclusions  which  are  false  and  contra- 
dictory, and  dishonourable  to  the  purely  spi- 
ritual nature  of  God,  Vide  s.  20,  I.  'J'he  fol- 
lowing points  should  be  considered  in  reference 
to  this  subject : — 

1.  Extension  is  not  predicable  of  God,  who 
is  a  Spirit.  To  say.  therefore,  that  he  is  in  infi- 
nite space,  or,  with  Pliilo,  the  Cabbalists,  and 
many  modern  writers,  that  he  is  himself  infinite 
space,  is  altogether  erroneous.  Such  expres- 
sions necessarily  involve  a  material  and  limited 
nature.  Space  is  a  mode  of  thought,  in  which, 
as  in  a  frame,  we  must  range  every  tiling  wiiich 
belongs  to  the  sphere  of  sense,  hut  within  which 
nothing  relating  to  the  spiritual  or  moral  world 
can  be  brought.  The  omnipresence  of  God  was 
often  mentioned  by  the  ancient  philosophers 
who  ascribed  to  him  a  corporeal  nature,  or  who 
regarded  hiin  and  the  world  as  composing  one 
whole.  He  was  called  by  Novatianus  and 
other  Grecian  writers,  fdrtoj  rwi-  67.toi',  or  tov 
oXov,  locus  unitiitim  rcrum ;  and  by  the  Rabbins, 
DVi??  i^palium  universale.  But  this  is  an  incor- 
reft  notion  of  the  divine  omnipresence.  Baier 
and  many  of  ::.v  older  theologians  spoUe  of  tlie 
omnipresence  of  God  as  subslnntialia,  or  essen- 
iialis,  in  opposition  to  that  which  was  merely 
operaliva,  or  aclualis.  This  substantial  presence 
of  God  tliey  called  dSta-jtaita,  or  in  Latin,  «/i- 
distantia,  or  adesacntia  sttbslantins  divimr.  These 
expressions,  however,  convey  no  distinct  idea, 
and  often  lead  to  erroneous  conceptions. 

[3o/e. — Some  of  the  older  theologians  enter- 
tained the  more  scriptural  opinion,  that  both  the 
•ubstantial  and  efficient  presence  of  God  were 
involved  in  his  omni|)rPsence.  Thus  Calovius 
defines  the  omnipresence  of  (iod  to  be  that  att'i- 
'  bote,  '■  vi  cujus  tile,  non  tantum  sul)Staniia^  |)ro- 
pinquitate,  sed  etiam  elTicacia  ac  operaiione, 
adest  creaturis  omnibus."  System,  tom.  ii.  p. 
C12.  He  adds,  p.  613,  '•  Omnipra>senlia  Dei 
est  altrib'.itum  ^vr^)yr;rlx6l•,  nee  solum  uiia'STa- 
Oiac,  iwliitauliftin  adrsscnliir,  sed  etiam  ivii^yyfiav, 
operationeiii  pntstnlis  Dei,  subinfert,"  In  this 
view  of  the  subject  Calovius  was  followed  by 
Qiienstedt,  who  writes  that  this  attriiiute,  »'non 
solum  essentiae  divina;  propinquitatem,  sive 
adessetiti  iin  Dei  ad  creatnras,  sed  etiam  opera- 
tionem  (luandam,  importel."  He  therefore  dis- 
tinsrnislies  between  the  iniFneunili/  and  the  onuii- 
prcsffic-,  of  God.  the  t'oriner  of  which  he  supposes 
to  be  absolute  and  eternal,  the  latter  relative, 
And  coeval  only  with  the  creation. 

Hahn  remarks,  that  from  the  history  of  the 


various  opinions  which  have  prevailed  respecV 
ing  the  omnipresence  of  God,  it  appears  that 
most  of  the  errors  have  arisen  from  confound- 
ing the  ideas  of  body  and  substance.  In  doing 
this,  our  author  has  followed  the  example 
of  Reinhard,  Morus,  Doederlein,  and  others, 
who  adopted  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  and 
Wolf.  In  denying  to  God  a  body,  and  thus 
avoiding  the  errors  of  pantheism,  they  seemed 
at  the  same  time  unconsciously  to  deny  him 
substance,  and  to  transmute  him  into  an  unessen- 
tial thought,  and  then  to  locate  him  somewhere 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  universe,  from  whence 
he  looks  forth,  and  exerts  his  power  upon  all 
his  works  ;  in  which,  therefore,  he  is  no  other- 
wise present  than  by  his  knowledt^e  and  a<^ency.'\ 
2.  By  the  presence  of  a  spiritual  being  with 
us,  we  mean,  that  he  fltinJts  of  us,  and  in  this 
way  acts  upon  us.  But  in  order  to  this,  we  need 
not  suppose  his  local  presence,  or  the  approxima- 
tion of  the  spiritual  substance.  We  are  present 
in  s))irit  with  an  absent  friend,  when  we  think 
of  him,  and  thus  act  upon  him.  Paul  says,  1 
Cor.  V.  3,UiTCuiv  r9  0u)^art,  rtapuji/^f  ro  rti'fvuort, 
cf.  V.  4.  We  see  thus  that  our  minds  have  an 
agency,  and  an  agency  dilTennt  from  that  of 
matter,  though  we  are  ignorant  of  the  mode  of 
their  operation.  How,  then,  can  we  hope  to 
understand  the  manner  in  which  God  acts? 
From  what  we  observe  of  the  operation  of  our 
own  minds,  we  may,  however,  reason  with  re- 
spect to  God,  if  we  are  on  our  guard  against 
transferring  to  him  the  imperfectinn  and  limita- 
tions which  we  perceive  in  ourselves.  He  sees 
and  knows  all  things;  nor  is  he  removed  from 
objects  extrinsic  to  himself  in  respect  either  of 
time  or  space,  as  we  are,  the  operation  even  of 
wh<')se  minds  is  limited  by  the  sphere  of  sense, 
to  which  we  are  chained  by  our  connexion  with 
our  bf)dies.  The  power  of  his  Spirit,  or  rather, 
the  power  of  him,  as  the  most  perfect  S|)irit,  is 
infinite;  that  of  our  sj>irits,  finite.  He  therefore 
understands  and  controls  all  things;  which  is 
the  same  as  to  say,  he  is  present  in  all  things. 
If  we  attempt  to  go  beyond  this,  we  fall  at  once 
into  fruitless  stibtilties.  We  should  be  content 
to  say  with  Morus,  J)eus  rebus  prxsena,  est  Deua 
in  res  a^cns. 

II.  The  Scriptural  Kepresenlalions. 

These  are  accordant  with  the  views  which  we 
have  hero  expressed.  The  Bible  exhibits  this 
attribute  of  (Jod  in  such  a  manner  as  to  lead  us 
to  reverence  his  character,  to  place  our  confi- 
dence in  him,  and  to  walk  circumspectly  before 
him.  And  it  accomplishes  this  practical  end 
without  the  aid  of  metaidiysical  siibtiliies.  In 
Psalm  cxxxix.  7 — 10,  the  lkUinr.'fd;re  and  power 
of  (iod  are  mentioned  in  close  and  inseparable 
connexion  with  his  presence — "  Whither  shall 

i.:T 


I 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


107 


I  go  from  thy  spirit]  If  I  ascend  up  into  hea- 
ven, thou  art  there;  if  I  dwell  in  the  uttermost 
parts  of  the  sea,  even  there  shall  tliy  hand  lead 
me,  and  thy  rifjht  hand  shall  hold  me."  The 
omniscience  and  omnipresence  of  God  are  con- 
nected in  the  same  manner  in  Jer.  xxiii.  23,  21, 
♦'  Am  I  a  God  who  is  near,  and  far  from  no  one ; 
and  can  any  hide  iiimself  in  secret  places  that  I 
shall  not  see  liim?"  For  other  passages,  cf. 
Morus,  p.  52,  and  Hahn,  S.  188,  s.  13. 

The  Bible  contains  some  figurative  represen- 
tations of  the  omnipresence  of  God,  which  are 
indeed  perfectly  adapted  to  popular  discourse, 
but  which  seem,  if  not  properly  understood,  to 
contradict  the  true  idea  of  this  attribute.  Among 
these  representations  we  may  mention  the  fol- 
lowing:— 

1.  God  Jills  (n'i'd)  heaven  and  earih — i.  e.,  the 
universe.  Vide  Jer.  xxiii.  24.  This  representa- 
tion does  not  involve  the  notion  of  that  .spiritual 
extensiim  of  which  the  Rabbins  and  some  of  the 
schoolmen  speak,  but  is  intended  to  expose  the 
error  then  prevalent  in  the  east,  that  God  dwelt 
in  heaven,  removed  from  the  affairs  of  the  world, 
and  unconcerned  in  what  might  befal  the  chil- 
dren of  men. 

2.  He  dwells  in  heaven,  or  in  his  temple.  We 
find  it  very  difficult  to  conceive  that  it  should 
be  otherwise  with  the  presence  of  God  than  with 
our  bodily  presence.  We  cannot  understand 
how  it  is,  that  iiis  presence  should  not  bear 
some  relation  to  a  particular  place,  or  how  it 
should  be  possible  for  him  to  be  at  the  same 
time  in  different  places.  We  are  under  the  neces- 
sity of  using  expressions  borrowed  from  space, 
because  it  is  a  form  cf  thought  inherent  in  our 
minds.  Hut  we  should  always  remember  that 
these  expressions,  in  application  to  God  and 
divine  things,  are  figurative.  Accordingly, 
we  represent  God,  in  general,  as  at  least  more 
present  in  one  place  than  in  another;  we  make 
him  in  our  apprehensions  to  resemble  ourselves  ; 
and  are  unable  to  conceive  that  he  should  act 
upon  natur(\  when  at  a  great  remove,  or  that  he 
should  not  be  materially  present,  although  invi- 
sible, wherever  his  power  is  exerted.  We 
therefore  assign  to  him  an  abode,  wher^  he  is 
at  least^ eminently  present. 

(«)  He  dwells  jn  heaven.  There  he  gives 
the  most  awful  displays  o^his  power,*  in  the 
lightnings  and  flying  tempests,  and  thence  he 
send's  down  tlie  most  visible  marks  of  his  favour 
in  the  light  and  vital  warmth  of  the  sun.  The 
heavens  are  therefore  called  \.\\f.  palace,  throne,  or 
temple  'f  God ;  and  the  earth,  in  contradistinction. 
i\\s  footstool.  For  this  reason,  the  face  and  hands 
were  directed  heavenwards  in  prayer,  and  the 
temples  and  altars  of  God  were  built  upon 
mountains  and  hills.  W'hat  is  intended  by  these 
figurative  representations  may  be  literary  ex- 


pressed after  the  example  wh  ch  is  given  even 
in  the  scriptures,  by  the  phrase,  God  is  exalted 
over  all.  We  sometimes  find  the  phrase,  he  dwells 
on  high,  instead  of  the  phrase,  he  dwells  in  hea- 
ven.    Vide  Psalm  cxv.  3 ;  Job,  xvi.  19. 

(i)  He  dwells  i.\  his  temple,  which  is  some- 
times called  his  dwelling-place.  The  Jews  be- 
lieved that  prayer  offered  there,  where  they  sup- 
posed God  to  be  specially  present  among  his 
worshippers,  would  be  more  certainly  heard 
than  when  offered  elsewhere;  and  they  there- 
fore turned  their  faces  and  hands  thitherward 
when  absent  from  Jerusalem.  They  represent- 
ed God  as  sitting  on  a  throne  above  the  ark  of 
the  covenant,  and  placing  his  feet  upon  its  lid. 
This  representation,  which  occurs  frequently  in 
the  Bible,  and  especially  in  the  Old  Testament, 
was  doubtless  believed  literally  by  some  of  the 
Jews.  The  prophets,  however,  improved  every 
opportunity  of  teaching  them  to  raise  their 
thoughts  above  the  mere  sensible  representation, 
and  to  connect  with  these  figures  those  just  and 
worthy  apprehensions  of  God  which  they  were 
intended  to  convey.  At  the  consecration  of  the 
temple,  (1  Kings,  viii.  2T,)  Solomon  inquires, 
"  But  will  God  indeed  dwell  on  the  earth  ]  Be- 
hold the  heaven  and  heaven  of  heavens  cannot 
contain  thee;  how  much  less  this  house  that  I 
have  builded  V  Cf.  Is.  Ixvi.  1,  and  Acts,  xvii. 
21,  ovx  ev  ;^nportot7;roi5  j'aoij  xaroixit.  Even 
Homer  appears  to  have  had  some  just  views  of 
the  presence  of  God.  In  II.  xvi.  515,  Glaucus 
thus  addresses  Apollo : 

Eii,  i)  hi  Tpoirj'  ivnaaai  6i  ai  ffatroj'  d«ciir£ij'. 

The  opinion  of  some  of  the  Jews  that  God 
could  be  rightly  worshipped  only  at  Jerusalem, 
which  was  contradicted  by  Christ,  (John,  iv. 
20 — 21,)  originated  partly  from  their  erroneous 
views  of  the  presence  of  God,  and  partly  from 
that  prejudice  so  dishonourable  to  him,  that  they 
alone  had  any  title  to  his  love  and  fovour. 

3.  He  approaches  his  pc'>])le,  or  tvithdrawa 
from  them.  These  also  are  figurative  expres- 
sions, adapted  to  popular  discourse.  \\  ht-n  they 
wished  to  describe  God  as  knowing  anything 
perfectly,  they  said,  he  drew  near,  and  closely  ity 
spccted  it.  The  representation  that  God  draws 
ntar  to  any  one,  or  dwells  with  him,  is  also  used 
to  designate  the  support,  love,  and  special 
favour  of  God,  Psalm  xci.  15  ;  Matt,  xxviii.  20; 
John,  xiv.  23,  24.  It  likewise  denr>tes  the 
hearing  of  prayer.  Matt,  xviii.  20.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  God  is  said  to  withdraw  from 
his  people,  and  to  be  far  off,  the  meaning  is, 
that  he  withholds  his  assistance  and  support, 
and  leaves  them  helpless.  Cf.  s.  22,  ad  finem. 
and  ^lorus,  p.  52,  note  4.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  51, 
seq.  s.  14. 


loe 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


SECTION    XXIV. 


THE  WISDOM  OF  GOD. 


I.  Statement  of  the  Doctrine. 

This  attribute  of  God,  as  well  as  his  omni- 
presence, stands  in  the  closet  connexion  with 
his  omniscience,  and  can  be  directly  derived 
from  it.  The  omniscience  of  God  implies  that 
he  possesses  the  clearest  knowledge  of  the  con- 
nexion of  ail  things,  and  therefore  of  their  rela- 
tions as  means  and  ends,  and  this  knowledge  is 
commonly  called  wisdom.  And  because  God  pos- 
sesses the  most  perfect  knowledg-e  of  this  kind 
he  is  said  to  possess  supreme  wisdom.  He  is  ac- 
cordinofly  styled  by  Paul,  (I  Tim.  i.  17),  uovo^ 
oo<j)oj.  Me  all-wise,  snpientissimus ;  cf.  Jude,  v. 
25.     The  wisdom  of  God  implies  two  things : — 

1.  God  proposes  to  himself  the  best  ends 
(fines,  consilia.)  The  question  is  here  asked, 
what  is  the  end  of  God  in  the  creation  and  pre- 
servation of  the  world  ?  The  earlier  theologians 
generally  assign  the  glort/  and  majesty  of  God  as 
the  final  cause  of  the  creation,  and  refer  to  the 
texts  which  speak  of  him  as  doing  everything 
for  his  own  glori/ — i.  e.,  that  it  might  be  seen 
and  acknowledged.  And  we  may  say,  indeed, 
that  in  relation  to  men  and  other  rational  beings, 
who  are  bound  to  acknowledge  the  glory  of  God, 
this  is  one  end  of  the  creation.  But  glory,  in 
itself  considered,  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  the 
sole,  universal  end,  for  which  the  world  exists. 
For  God  himself  can  be  in  nothing  dependent 
on  the  glory  which  others  ascribe  to  him,  nor 
can  he  receive  any  increase  of  honour  from  their 
praises.  Other  theologians,  therefore,  say  that 
the  welfare  of  men  was  the  object  of  God  in  the 
creation  of  the  world.  This  may  be  true,  if  it 
is  not  understood  to  mean  that  God  created 
everything  solely  for  this  object.  It  were  judg- 
ing very  proudly  concerning  ourselves  and  very 
poorly  concerning  God  to  suppose  that  he  pro- 
posed to  himself  no  other  object  than  this,  and 
had  created  everything  for  our  sake  who  consti- 
tute so  small  a  part  of  tiie  boundless  universe. 
We  prefiT  the  following  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion: The  end  of  God  in  the  creation  of  the  world 
was  to  impart  to  all  his  creatures  that  degree  of 
perfection  of  which  they  are  severally  suscepti- 
ble; in  accomplishing  this  end  he  employs  the 
most  suitable  means,  and  thus  displays  before 
our  eyes  his  wisdom,  power,  and  goodness. 
This  is  what  is  meant  when  it  is  said  in  the 
scriptures,  he  made  everything  for  his  own  glory. 
We  should  learn  the  majesty  and  glorious  attri- 
butes of  the  Creator  from  the  creatures  of  his 
hand.  But  this  can  be  done  only  by  moral 
beings  like  ourselves.  Vide  Psalm  xix.,  et 
alibi.  Cf.  s.  18,  I.  Note.  Also  s.  4S,  IV. 
Hahn,  Lehrbuch,  s.  271.  Bretschneider,  Hand- 
buch,  band.  i.  s.  5S1. 


2.  He  chooses  the  best  means  (media,  in>tru- 
menta)  for  the  attainment  of  these  ends.  Hf 
not  only  knows,  as  omniscient,  what  the  best 
means  are,  but  is  able,  as  omnipotent,  to  employ 
them.  In  the  ciioice  of  means  he  cannot  be  de- 
ceived, since  he  is  omniscient,  and  consequently 
infallible.  Hence  he  will  never  choose  unsuit- 
able, ineffective,  or  injurious  means;  nor  will 
he  employ  means  which  are  superfluous,  or 
more  than  are  necessary  for  the  attainment  of 
his  object  in  the  shortest  way.  To  suppose  this 
would  be  to  impeach  his  omniscience.  This  is 
sometimes  expressed  as  follows  :  God  acts  by 
the  rule  of  economy,  (ex  lege  ajconomiae;)  Dium 
ire  via  brevissimd ;  according  to  the  axiom: 
Quod  fieri  potest  per  pauca,  non  debet  fieri  per 
plura.  That  God  acts  upon  this  maxim,  both 
in  the  material  and  moral  world,  we  see  from 
innumerable  observations.  But  since  we  are 
unable  to  survey  the  whole  system  of  things  we 
cannot  and  should  not  presume  to  decide  in 
given  cases  what  might  be  the  shortest  way  and 
what  might  be  the  best  means  for  attainincf  the 
divine  ends.  Many  things  appear  to  us  useless, 
unsuitable,  or  superfluous.  The  observation  of 
Paul,  (I  Corinthians,  i.  25,)  that  even  those 
actions  and  works  of  God  which  appear  to  us 
foolish  and  unwise  far  surpass  all  human  wis- 
dom is  abundantly  confirmed  both  in  the  physi- 
cal and  moral  world.  Vide  Reimarus,  Abhand- 
lungen  uber  die  Wahrheiten  der  natiirlichen 
Religion,  s.  206  ;  and  Jacobi,  Betrachtunsren 
iiber  die  weisen  Absichten  Gottes,  4  thle.  Hano- 
ver, 1765,  8vo.  The  science  in  which  the  ends 
and  objects  of  God  are  investigated  is  called 
teleology.     Vide  s.  15,  68,  ad  finem. 

II.  Scriptural  Representations. 

The  doctrine  of  the  wisdom  of  God  is  in  a 
high  degree  practical.  It  is  calculated  to  inspire 
our  hearts  with  pious,  thankful,  and  reverential 
feelings  towards  God.  It  offers  to  us  an  unfail- 
ing source  of  consolation  and  peace  in  the 
midst  of  our  cares  and  sufferings,  and  is  there- 
fore frequently  exhibited  by  the  sacred  writers. 
The  most  important  texts  relating  to  this  attri- 
bute xnay  bo  divided  into  two  classes. 

1.  The  texts  which  treat  of  our  knowledge 
of  the  wisdom  of  God  derived  from  the  creation 
and  presprvation  of  the  physical  world.  These 
are.  Psalm  civ.,  especially  ver.  21;  Prov.  iii. 
19,  seq. ;  Is.  xl.  13,  seq. ;  also  Prov.  viii. 
22 — 30,  where  the  wisdom  of  God  is  personi- 
fied, and  in  which  Solomon  bestows  upon  it  all 
possible  praises,  and  shews  that  it  is  that  attri- 
bute by  which  God  so  especially  glorifies  him- 
self in  the  creation  and  preservation  of  tlie 
world.  In  the  preceding  and  succoedinj  con- 
text he  describes  folly  and  ignorance  by  way  of 
contrast. 

2.  The  texts  which  treat  of  the  wisdom  of 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


109 


God  as  displayed  in  the  various  institutions  of 
the  mural  world,  especially  those  which  he  has 
established  to  promote  the  moral  perfection  and 
happiness  of  the  human  race.  For  moral  per- 
fection, and  the  happiness  which  stands  in  an 
immediate  connexion  with  it,  are  the  ultimate 
destination  of  men  and  of  all  moral  creatures. 
The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  especially 
love  to  dwell  upon  these  great  plans  of  God. 
Christ  says,  (Matt.  xi.  19,)  r^  (jo4>i.o  (©sou)  £'61- 
xaitilir  drto  -fwr  rixviov  ovtjjj — i.  e.,  the  wisdom 
of  Goa  (as  displayed  in  the  calling  and  prepara- 
tion of  teachers,  and  in  the  publication  of  their 
doctrines)  is  ai)proved  by  all  the  wise.  Paul 
says  the  same  respecting  the  wisdom  of  God  as 
displayed  in  the  Christian  doctrine  so  generally 
condemned  at  that  time,  1  Cor.  i.  ii.  Those 
very  doctrines  which  appeared  the  most  revolt- 
ing to  Jews  and  heathen  contained,  in  his 
view,  the  greatest  proof  of  the  divine  wisdom. 
He  calls  the  doctrine  of  redemption  ao<j>ia,  by 
way  of  eminence,  (1  Cor.  1.  25,  seq.  coll.  Rom. 
xi.  33  :)  although  it  appeared  foolishness  to  men. 
Morus.  p.  47,  note  7.  A  taste  for  these  moral 
subjects,  and  a  perception  of  the  wisdom  of  God 
in  the  provisions  he  has  made  for  the  moral 
improvement  and  for  the  recovery  of  our  race, 
is,  as  it  were,  the  test  by  which  we  can  judge 
of  the  degree  of  moral  improvement  to  which 
any  one  has  attained.  He  who  has  no  taste  for 
these  objects  has  made  as  yet  but  little  pro- 
gress: for  the  Bible  assures  us  that  the  most 
pure  and  perfect  of  the  moral  creatures  of  God 
— the  angels  in  heaven,  admire  the  wisdom  dis- 
played in  his  plan  for  the  redemption  of  men, 
and  ponder  them  with  delight,  and  inquire  into 
them  with  earnestness,  Ephes.  iii.  10;  1  Pet. 
i.  12.  In  Col.  ii.  3,  Paul  says  that  in  this  plan 
lie  concealed  all  the  treasures  of  the  wisdom  of 
God. 

Note. — The  Hebrew  son,  and  the  Greek  (5o<j)os, 
signified  originally,  skilful,  expert,  and  were 
ap^)lied  especially  to  artificers i  cf.  Ex.  xxxi.  3; 
Homer.  11.  xv.  412.  They  signified,  seconda- 
x\\y,  able  and  knowing  in  any  way.  Thus 
c-rpn  are  dodi,  Eccl.  i.  18;  Is.  xix.  11 ;  1  Cor. 
i.  20.  (nov  ao^bi;  tCov  ypaju/uaTtvj.)  They  came 
gradually  to  have  that  more  general  significa- 
tion which  belongs  to  them  in  all  the  ancient 
languages.  The  same  is  true  of  the  correspond- 
ing substantives  ncsn,  and  so^^o. 

SECTION  XXV. 

INTRODICTORY     REMARKS    RESPECTING    THE    NA- 
TURE AND  PERFECTIONS  OF  THE  DIVINE  WILL. 

I.   What  w  meant  by  the  IV///  of  God. 

We  derive  our  notions  and  expressions  re- 
specting this  divine  attribute,  as  well  as  the 
otiiers.  from  what  we  know  of  the  human  soul ; 


rejecting  here,  as  before,  all  imperfection. 
This  is  the  only  way  in  which  we  can  come  to 
a  knowledge  of  God.  Vide  s.  18,  ad  finem. 
Now  we  ascribe  to  the  human  soul  two  powers, 
or  rather,  a  twofold  modification  and  exercise  of 
its  power — viz.,  thinking  and  chousing,  or  inlel' 
ligence  and  will.  And  we  call  the  attributes  of 
God  which  are  analogous  to  these  by  the  same 
name.  Of  the  understanding  of  God,  and  of 
the  attributes  in  which  it  is  principally  deve- 
loped, we  have  before  treated.  We  now  come 
to  speak  of  the  divine  will,  and  the  attributes 
which  belong  to  it.  The  will  with  us  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  understanding.  We  are  said 
to  will,  when  we  feel  an  inclination  for  any- 
thing which  appears  agreeable,  and  disinclina- 
tion for  anything  which  appears  disagreeable. 
And  it  is  the  same  with  God.  ^Vhat  the  will 
either  of  men  or  of  God  is,  must  be  learned 
from  its  eflfects,  or  by  the  actions. 

The  following  words  are  used  in  the  Bible  to 
designate  the  will  of  God.  sen  and  the  sub- 
stantive xcn;  also  ni-',  and  the  substantive  psi. 
The  former  words  are  translated  in  the  Septua- 
gint  by  ^£/^,  ^ovXofiai,  ^b.rj.i.a,  fSovXj;,  and  the 
latter  by  siboxi-lv  and  dboxia.  The  last  word 
often  denotes  the  sovereignty,  or  rather,  the 
freedom  of  the  divine  will  (hti'  P^"^-)  These 
are  the  senses,  therefore,  in  which  these  words 
are  used  by  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  and  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament.  Cf.  Ephes.  i. 
11 ;  Ps.  cxv.  3.  These  words,  moreover,  often 
designate  the  thing  itself  which  God  reveals  as 
his  will,  or  which  he  commands  by  his  pre- 
cepts; as,  y(vr;^r;t^^  to  ^i7.rua  001;  Luke,  xi.  2. 
Cf.  Ephes.  V.  17  ;  Romans,  xii.  2.  BoiXj;  Oiou 
(n\-i'  iCTi,  Is.  liii.  10,)  means  the  decree  of  God, 
or  his  plan  for  the  good  of  men ;  and  so  denotes, 
by  way  of  eminence,  the  dispensation  of  grace 
through  Christ,  Acts,  xx.  27,  coll.  ver.  20.  Con- 
nected with  this,  there  is  one  more  signification 
of  these  words,  which  deserves  to  be  noticed. 
When  the  verbs  volendi  and  eligendi  are  con- 
strued, in  Hebrew  with  3,  or  in  Greek  with  iv 
or  f  li",  (as  D  3  Jcn  or  nna,  and  ii-hoxilv  iv  n'vt,) 
they  signify,/©  be  well-disposed  towards  any  r/ne, 
to  love  him,  to  shtw  him  favour  ,•  i.  q.,  bene  cuptre, 
telle,  to  wish  well ;  also,  to  like  to  do  anything; 
in  short,  i.  q.,  ^o^iv.  Indeed,  the  latter  word 
is  used  in  Luke,  xx.  46,  instead  of  ^txav,  which 
occurs  in  the  parallel  text,  Mark,  xii.  3S.  The 
same  meaning,  to  love,  to  have  pleasure  in  a  thing, 
belongs  also  to  Itixtiv  with  the  accusative.  Matt, 
xxvii.  43.  Hence  ^h.r^ua.  fiov\r;,  ftSozia,  often 
signify  the  graciois  will  of  God,  his  benevolence, 
the  proofs  which  he  gives  us  of  his  friendship. 

II.  Divisions  of  the  \Mlt  of  God,  and  Divine 

Decrees. 
The  will  of  God  that  anything  exterior  to  him- 
self should  take  place,  is  called  his  determina- 
K 


110 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


tion,  or  decree.  Morus,  p.  51,  note.  The  ob- 
jects of  tlie  divine  will  are  as  many  and  various 
AS  the  objects  of  the  divine  knowledge.  Cf.  s. 
22, 1.  For  God,  like  all  rational  beintrg,  chooses 
only  such  things  as  are  perceived  by  his  under- 
standing- to  be  good.  His  will,  therefore,  as  well 
as  that  of  others,  depends  always  upon  his  know- 
ledge. And  he  chooses  or  rejects,  as  the  objects 
which  are  prrsented  to  his  mind  appear  in  his 
Judgment  desirable  or  otherwise.  Since  now 
his  knowledge  is  the  most  perfect,  his  will  must 
be  the  best. 

God  is  frequently  represented  in  the  Bible  as 
favourably  inclined  towards  all  men,  and  as  de- 
siring their  happiness.  But  in  some  passages 
it  seems  to  be  intimated  that  he  does  not  desire 
the  welfare  of  some  men,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
their  condemnation.  Now,  many  things  which 
we,  in  our  philosophical  style,  should  say  took 
place  under  the  divine  permission,  or  with  the 
distant  concurrence  of  his  will,  were  ascribed 
by  the  ancient  world  to  the  immediate  agency 
and  express  decree  of  God.  Traces  of  this  com- 
mon opinion  appear  in  Homer  and  other  ancient 
writers.  Passages  occur  which  exhibit  the  most 
ex  ilted  and  worthy  conceptions  of  the  Deity, 
w  liie  other  ])assages  ascribe  to  him  the  design- 
ing and  performance  of  such  actions  as  are  in- 
consistf'nt  with  his  perfections.  Those  of  the 
latter  kind,  which  occur  in  the  holy  scriptures, 
being  taken  by  themselves,  and  considered  by 
those  who  were  unacquainted  with  this  ancient 
mode  of  thinking  and  speaking,  were  made  to 
contain  a  sense  which  was  never  intended  by 
the  original  writers.  This  mistake  gave  rise  to 
the  vehement  controversies  respecting //rcf/ds//- 
nafion,  which  continued  in  the  IJomish  church 
from  the  fifth  even  to  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  which  raged  with  great  violence  between 
the  Lutheran  and  Unformed  churches,  especially 
during  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the  progress 
of  these  controversies  it  was  found  convenient, 
in  order  to  remove  the  apparent  contradiction  in 
these  texts,  and  to  render  the  whole  subject  more 
intellirrjble,  to  introduce  various  divisions  into 
the  divine  will.  The  following  are  the  most 
common  : — 

1.  ^^ nt rcfkivi  (in<\  entiscquens.  Voluntas  anfc- 
cedcns  is  also  called  prima,  or  primitiva ;  and 
volitnliis  c'jnuequens  is  called  iiccHn(Ia,Jinalts,  or 
dfcrcforin.  This  division  is  very  ancient,  and 
occurs  not  only  in  John  of  Damascus,  in  the 
eighth  century,  (since  whose  time  it  has  been 
always  preserved  by  the  schoolmen,)  but  even 
in  Chrysostom,  in  the/ourth  century,  who  dis- 
tinguishes between  "^it.r^ua.  ftpwror  and  Sfvrfpoi-, 
npor^yov^fvov  and  t,t6ufi'oi',  (Homel,  I.,  in 
Ephes.,)  and  who  is  said  by  Semler  to  have  de- 
rived it  from  Plato.  This  division  is  derived 
from  the  analogy  of  the  human  mind.  We  pos- 
sess a  certain  original  bias,  or  impulse,  which. 


as  long  as  it  is  not  directed  to  any  particular  oh« 
ject,  is  called  voluntas  antecedetis  ani mi  humani  i 
but  as  soon  as  it  is  directed  to  definite  objects, 
is  called  voluntas  eonsequtns.  Thus  love  anrl 
hate,  while  not  directed  to  particular  objects, 
belong  to  the  former;  when  so  directed,  to  the 
latter.  If  we  apply  this  to  God,  we  say  that  he 
wills  the  happiness  and  perfection  of  all  his 
creatures  by  his  voluntas  antecedens,-  and  that 
he  makes  application  of  this  general  will  to 
particular  objects,  by  his  voluntas  con.v:qutns. 
Now  when  God  bestows  upon  any  individual 
all  the  good  of  which  he  is  susceptible,  he  is 
said  to  treat  him  according  to  his  consequent  or 
determining  tvill.  This  voluntas  consei/utns  is 
therefore  principally  exhibited  in  the  decrees  of 
God.  These  two  volitions  thus  often  tliiler  in 
their  results,  although  they  do  not  clash  among 
themselves;  although  there  may  be  succession 
in  the  objects  of  the  divine  will,  there  can  be  no 
succession  in  his  will  itself;  for  as  God  knows, 
so  he  wills  everything  instanlaneousli/.  Now, 
if  I  say  God  wills  to  make  all  men  happy,  (1 
Tim.  ii.  4,)  this  is,  in  the  language  of  the 
schools,  the  voluntas  antecedens  Dei — the  end  or 
object  of  God  ;  but  if  1  add  the  distinction,  that 
he  actually  bestows  tiiis  happiness  only  on  the 
pious,  they  alone  being  susceptible  of  it,  (Mark, 
xvi.  16,)  this  is  th& voluntas  consequent.  God, 
then,  ex  volunlafc anfeeedente,  wills  the  happiness 
of  all  men,  without  exception  ;  but,  ex  roluntate 
consequente,  he  wills  the  condemnation  of  the 
wicked. 

With  regard  to  the  propriety  of  this  division 
we  would  say,  that  so  far  as  it  helps  us  to  under- 
stand and  express  many  things  relating  to  the 
attributes,  decrees,  and  providence  of  God,  it 
may  be  allowed,  if  what  is  intended  by  it  be 
considered,  and  not  the  form  of  expression. 
For  the  language  in  which  it  is  ex|)ressed  is  very 
inconvenient,  and  conveys  the  idea  of  succes- 
sion and  mutability  in  the  divine  decrees. 
Literally  understood  it  involves  a  cnntraiiiciion; 
for  God  never,  in  fact,  willed  a  thing  wiiich  he 
is  said  to  have  willed  antecedtnttr,  hut  which 
has  never  taken  place  constquenter  ,■  since  he  has 
no  ends  which  he  does  not  attain.  This  lan- 
guage must  be  understood,  therefore,  to  represent 
this  thing  as  it  appears  to  us.  Vide  Toilner, 
Vermischte  Aufsiitze,  Samml.  II.,  No.  1.  Kann 
Gott  Kndzwecke  haben,  die  er  nicht  erreicht? 

2.  Vohtntas  absolula,  and  eonditinnata  or  ordi 
nata.  This  division  relates  principally  to  the 
will  of  (Jod  in  regard  to  moral  beings.  He  is 
said  to  will  nbvdutehj  when  he  determines  any- 
thing without  connecting  it  with  a  condition, 
or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  without  havintr  re- 
spect to  the  free  actions  of  moral  beings.  Thus, 
for  example,  he  frequently  allots  the  external 
con<iition  of  particular  men,  or  of  whoic  nations, 
without  reference  to  their  moral  worth.     Vide 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


Ill 


Rom.  IX.  On  the  other  hand  he  wills  condition- 
ally when  he  determines  anything  on  certain 
conditions,  or  in  respect  to  the  free  actions  of 
moral  beings.  Thus  he  declares  o  rttsrfvoaj 
owJ>^>;iJ5Ttti.'  L  <V  ' rfe -rf/jcjaj  xataxpi.^r^'^itai,  Mark, 
xvi.  16.  When  the  annexed  condition  is  ful- 
filled on  our  part,  and  the  will  of  God  thus  ac- 
complished, his  will  is  said  to  be  efficacious 
(efficax);  when  the  condition  is  not  fulfilled, 
and  the  thing  falls  out  ditierently  from  what 
God  appeared  to  have  designed,  his  will  is  said 
10  be  ineffectual  (non  efficax.)  Here  again  the 
language  employed  is  very  inconvenient;  for 
God  always  willed  that  which  he  foresaw  would 
take  place,  ancf  never  willed  that  which  he  fore- 
saw would  not  take  place.  Many  other  divi- 
sions have  been  adopted  by  theologians,  to  all 
of  which  the  remarks  made  at  the  close  of  the 
first  division  may  be  applied.  Vide  Morus,  p. 
47,  s.  11,  p.  51,  s.  13,  note. 

SECTION  XXVI. 

OF  THE  FREEDOM,  IMMUTABILITY,  AND   EFFICACY 
OF  THE  DIVINE  WILL. 

I.  The  Freedom  of  the  Divine  WilL 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  freedom  of  the  di- 
vine will  (libertas  voluntatis,  arbitrium  Dei), 
and  why  is  this  attribute  ascribed  to  God  1 

To  us  in  our  present  circumstances,  as  related 
to  the  two  spheres  of  sense  and  spirit,  this  sub- 
ject is  encompassed  with  difficulties.  To  in- 
vestigate 'and  remove  these  difficulties  is  not, 
however,  so  much  the  province  of  theology  as 
of  philosophy.  The  latter  has  of  late  done  much 
towards  clearing  up  the  ground,  by  the  inqui- 
ries instituted  in  the  critical  school.  \ihy  free- 
dom is  meant  a  power  of  choosing  between  dif- 
ferent objects  presented  to  the  mind,  without 
any  motive  for  the  choice  of  one  rather  than  an- 
other, then  the  will  of  God  is  not  free.  But 
freedom  is  not  such  a  power,  and  to  act  in  this 
way  is  not  to  act/ree/y  but  arbitrarily,  pro  lubitu, 
arbitrio,  tit  stet pro  ratione  voluntas;  and  to  sup- 
pose this  of  God  is  to  ascribe  to  him  the  greatest 
imperfection,  and  to  transform  him  into  a  fearful 
tyrant,  who  pardons  or  condemns  ivitliout  reason, 
and  may  thus  make  the  pious  eternally  misera- 
ble, and  the  wicked  eternally  happy.  The 
freedom  of  a  moral  being  consists  rather  in  his 
being  able  to  choose  and  to  act  according  to  his 
vieics,  without  being  forced  to  do  otherwise, 
either  from  an  internal  or  external  necessity ; 
but  he  cannot  choose  without  having  a  motive 
for  his  choice.  For  every  act  of  the  will  in  a 
moral  being  there  must  be  some  ground,  and 
this  ground  is  to  be  sought  in  the  understanding. 
The  understanding  discerns  what  is  good  and 
bad  ;  this  knowledge  awakens  affection  or  aver- 
•'•n;  tMs,  in  its  turn,  moves  the  will  to  elect  or 


reject;  and  the  will  then  determines  itself  to  act 
accordingly.  Whenever,  then,  any  one  has 
chosen  according  to  the  dictates  of  his  under- 
standing, without  feeling  compulsion  from  with- 
in or  from  without,  he  has  willed friely  ;  and  if 
under  the  same  circumstances  he  has  acted,  he 
has  then  acUd  freely.  Rut,  on  the  contrary, 
when  he  has  been  compelled  to  choose  or  to  act 
by  passions  from  wilhih,»or  by  unconquerable 
difficulties  or  irresistible  power  from  without, 
he  has  not  willed  or  acted /ree/y. 

J'reedom  of  will  and  action,  thus  explained, 
must  necessarily  and  in  the  highest  degree  be- 
long to  God,  as  a  pure  moral  being;  in  such  a 
manner,  however,  as  not  to  imply  any  succession 
of  acts  in  his  mind,  s.  25.  This  freedom  must 
be  ascribed  to  him,  (1)  hecause  he  is  a  spiritual 
being,  and  possessed  of  the  purest  moral  will. 
Vide  s.  19.  We  regard  it  as  the  greatest  per- 
fection that  we  and  other  moral  beings  are  able 
to  choose  and  act  freely,  and  as  the  greatest  im- 
perfection to  be  compelled  to  choice  and  action 
either  from  within  or  from  without.  We  there- 
fore justly  conclude,  via  cminenfiiv,  that  God 
must  choose  and  act  with  the  highest  degree  of 
freedom.  (2)  Because  he  is  perfectly  inde' 
pendent,  which  he  could  not  be  without  freedom. 
Throughout  the  sphere  of  sense  the  law  of  ne- 
cessity prevails  ;  but  in  the  moral  world,  the 
law  of  freedom.  In  the  former,  everything  is 
limited,  conditioned,  and  subjected  to  the  vicis* 
situdes  of  time  and  space ;  but  everything  in  the 
latter  is  unlimited,  free,  and  independent  of  time 
and  space.  Of  this  moral  world  we  ourselves 
are  members  in  the  better  portion  of  our  natureyf 
and  as  such  we  are  possessed  of  freedom  and 
are  capable  of  understanding  what  it  is,  although 
our  connexion  with  the  bodily  world  makes  it 
difficult  for  us  not  only  to  exercise  it,  but  even 
to  obtain  any  clear  conception  of  its  nature. 
(3)  Because  he  is  the  creator,  preserver,  and 
wise  ruler  of  the  world,  which  character  he  could 
not  sustain  unless  he  were  possessed  of  freedom. 
He  has  so  constituted  and  ordered  the  world 
that  none  of  his  creatures  are  able  to  disturb  or 
destroy  it  with  all  their  skill  or  power.  Cf. 
what  was  said  respecting  the  omnipotence  and 
the  wisdom  of  God,  s.  21,  24. 

Against  this  view  of  the  subject  the  objection 
has  sometimes  been  made,  that  God  never  can 
act  otherwise  than  from  a  regard  to  the  ends 
which  he  has  in  view,  and  ca7i  only  choose  what 
is  the  best;  that  he  thus  acts  and  chooses  neces- 
sarily,  and  that  necessity  therefore  must  be 
predicated  of  him  instead  of  freedom.  Bit  therb 
is  a  fallacy  in  this  argument,  arising  from  the 
improper  use  of  words.  That  is  here  supposed 
to  be  necessary  which  has  its  ground  in  the  es- 
sential and  infallible  knowledge  of  God.  He, 
like  every  other  rational  spirit,  chooses  only 
what  his  understanding  acknowledges  as  good. 


lit 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Since  cow  hi?  cndersunding  is  int^ilibte,  mnd 
ks  sees  erefythiBir  as  h  aetoallT  is,  his  choice 
is  called  meatmy,  aad  boC  mt  all  because  it  in- 
sults fraataayeoaipalakM.  The  hoaaa  ander- 
tanding  is  oafcjtn  to  ■iatikff,  aai  ov  choice 
is  freqaeatl  J  firee  only  in  appeanaee  ;  bat  a/n^F* 
to  will  and  to  do  that  whidi  the  oadoistandiag 
diaeens  as  best  is  the  higlwst  degaee  of  fimedoai 
in  a  mocal  beings.        • 

^  Tie  dteiiimeaf  ike  BikkrofteAtg  ike  free- 
djm  tftht  iitiae  wiiL 

This  leato  apoa  Ae  principles  above  stated, 
aad  is  to  be  explained  in  the  same  way ;  espe- 
ciallj  as  far  as  it  relates  to  the  freedom  with 
which  God  bestows  or  withhokds  his  faToots. 
In  the  aacieat  laf^aages,  howerer,  there  were 
no  ^eiaite  lenas  answerin*  to  the  pore  idea  of 
£:eedoai;  and  if  there  had  been  sach  tenns  in- 
Teatod  forihe  nse  of  the  schools  of  phUowphy, 
they  woold  have  been  ill  adapted  to  popalar  in- 
BUBLiion.  Bat  th^  had  Dot  leaned,  at  Aat 
eariy  penod,  to  discriwaate  with  safieieat  ao- 
eaacy  befeea  their  ideas,  aad  they  thereHtne 
oAea  eaiployed  words  which  indicate  e^pnee  to 
expieastheideaoffieedaai.  We  observe,  bow- 
ever,  that  jBst  coteptioos  oo  this  subject  are 
foaad  ertay  where  ia  the  Bible,  althoogfa  they 
are  expreaaed  in  popular  rather  than  in  philoso- 
phical laagoage.  So,  whea  God  is  said  in  the 
Bible  to  bestow  blessings  token  he  will,  and  to 
he  severe  token  ie  will,  the  ineaaing  is,  not  that 
be  acts  like  a  tyrant,  in  passion,  or  according  to 
biind  caprice,  bot  that  he  does  that  which  in  his 
infinite  wisdom  he  sees  to  be  best.  Tlios  I  Cor. 
xii.  1 1 ;  IsAiah,  xlr.  9,  10.  We  regard  human 
relers  as  happy  on  aeeoant  of  the  great  freedom 
they  possess,  and  their  indepeadeace  (^  external 
eoaml;  they  possess  the  right  of  pardoning,  of 
ruadfmaiiig,  &%.  Now  the  popalar  bngnave 
of  the  Bible  ascribes  to  God  this  unlimited  use 
of  CreedoflB,  which  we  consider  as  the  prerogative 
of  earthly  priaees  and  relets.  Bot  this  language 
mast  be  interpreted  in  soeh  a  way  as  not  to  in- 
volve those  imperfeetioBS  which  belong  only  to 
men.  From  this  langaage  it  arast  not  be  sop- 
pssed  that  when  God  pardons  or  condemns  ac- 
eofdiag  to  his  own  will,  he  acts,  as  human  rulers 
often  do,  from  pawion  or  caprice ;  for  there  is  no 
tiae  freedom  where  the  will  is  not  obedient  to 
the  aadetstaading.  When  God,  therefore,  pros- 
pen  aad  exalts  one  paitiealar  individaal  or  a 
whole  aatioa,  aad  afflieta  and  depresses  another, 
in  so  d  line  he  acts  freely— 4.  eu,  for  wise  reasons, 
uiouTti  Ui-y  may  be  inscrutable  to  us,  and  not 
froai  wi.fulneas  or  caprice.  But  from  the  fact 
that  we  cannot  see  the  reasons  for  what  God 
does,  we  are  soaaetimes  disposed  to  think  that 
he  has  none  in  hu  own  mind,  aad  thst  he  acts 
La  an  arbitrary  manner;  and  as  we  think  we 
■saally  express  onrselves.  The  popalar  Uo- 
gasge,  therefore,  which ssens  toaftna  that  Gjd 


deddes  aad  acts  in  an  arbitrary  manner,  oftoa 
means  no  more  than  that  wc  are  ignorant  of  the 
roaoeaa  which  indueoce  his  oecisions  and  con> 
dacL  Vide  Morus.  p.  51,  note.  And  in  thia; 
seaae  God's  government,  even  in  the  initlittiual 
aad  mtarai  world,  is  free ;  to  one  people  he  aires 
more  religious  knowledge  and  more  advantages 
for  mental  improvemeDt,  to  another  less ;  and 
what  he  bestows  at  one  time  he  takes  away  at 
another.  Ct.  Epbes.  i.  4 — 14.  To  as  short- 
sighted beings  there  often  appears  to  be  some- 
t^ng  onjQst,  cootradictory,  and  inexplicable  in 
all  this.  .A.t  such  times  there  is  nothing  more 
quietin?  than  the  firm  eoDviction  that  God  wills 
aad  acts  with  the  most  perfect  freedom — i.  e., 
aeeording  to  the  views  of  his  undersundiog.  by 
which  he  always  knows  infallibly  what  is  best. 
The  passage  Rom.  is.  is  one  oi  tne  roost  im- 
poitaat  ia  relation  to  this  subject.  Paul  here 
contends  against  the  error  of  tne  Jews,  that  God 
preferred  their  nation  to  all  others,  and  looked 
upon  them  with  exclusive  favour.  The  Jews  be- 
lieved that  God  could  not  reject  them,  and  could 
not  transfer  to  othera  the  blessings  he  had  be- 
stowed apoa  them.  Paul  undertakes  to  shew 
that,  on  the  contrarr,  God  proceeded  frttly  in 
the  dispensation  of  his  benefits;  that  he  did  not 
govern  himself  by  the  supposed  deserts  or  the 
personal  efforts  of  men  ;  and  that  men  could  not 
presume  in  this  matter  to  prescribe  to  him,  or 
to  complain  of  his  government.  Verse  ILCra 
r  xar  txXoyiJT  nf><4x9t;  rov  0k>v  airj— 1.  e..  the 
will  of  God  (jkxXorjT,  libtrtat  in  eiisendo^  as  Jo> 
sephus  OSes  it)  must  be  acknowledged  to  be 
free,  (Cf.  the  phrase  (v^iojcia  ^Xraarof,  Epfa. 
i.  5,  11.)  Ver.  7,  seq.,  Abraham  had  many  chil- 
dren, but  Isaac  only  received  the  promise.  Ver. 
10,  seq.,  Isaac  had  two  sons,  Jacob  and  Esao, 
bom  at  the  same  time.  God  made  the  posterity 
of  the  one  to  be  subject  to  that  of  the  other 
From  these  and  other  examples  Paul  now  con- 
cludes, ver.  18,  that  God  tW  bixtt,  o^i >■  ur  i* 
>t>jt.  9xXr-v>virt»,  (Job,  xxxix.  16.)     Cf.  ver.  15. 

i'UT^fui  Itr  or  (X;u>,  ziu  (KXTlt^rria  or  or  oixTtt^- 
quoted  from  Exod.  xxxiii.  19,  I  bestow  bless- 
ings at  pleasure  (pro  lubitu),  on  whomsoever  I 
will,  according  to  my  infallible  wisdom.  Paul 
afterwards,  ver.  •2-2,  mentions  some  reasons  why 
God  frequently  proceeds  in  this  way.  He  does 
so  sometimes,  to  deter  men  from  wickedness,  bj 
a  display  of  his  anger,  or  in  some  manner  to  pro- 
mote the  general  good ;  but  should  we  in  any 
case  be  anable  to  discover  these  reasons,  wa 
must  humbly  acquiesce  in  the  divine  will,  ver. 
'20,  21.  Tliis  passage,  therefore,  does  not  treat 
of  the  predestination  o(  paniealar  men  to  happi- 
ness or  misery  by  an  abmthtU  decree.  This  pre- 
desiinatioa  is  n<^.t  alnuhtie,  but  dependent  on  the 
fulfilment  of  certain  conditions  on  the  part  of 
man.  In  this  pa<i*age  Paul  is  sp*^akin?  of  the 
general  government  of  the  world,  end  oi  the  oi* 


DIVLN'E  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


in 


ieting  of  tne  external  cirtnunstanees  nf  indiTi* 
daals  and  nations;  and  be  sajs  that  in  this  mat- 
ter God  is  not  confined  to  those  rules  bj  which 
ve  might  think  his  conduct  should  be  regulated. 
He  acts  on  principles  and  maxims  which,  iboaeh 
perfectly  wise,  are  often  whollj  beyond  oar  cotn- 
piehension.  Vide  Noesselt,  Opasc  ad  Inter. 
S.S. — Interpr,  Gramm.  c.  ii.  ep.  ad  Rom. — 
Fasc.  1,  p.  1-25,  seq. 

n.  Lnmutabiliiy  of  the  Dirint  WJL 

The  immaubility  of  the  will  of  God  resalts 
from  that  of  his  natnre ;  ride  s.  20,  ad  finem. 
Since  his  will  is  always  founded  upon  bis  per- 
fect knowledge,  and  his  judgment  is  in£iiiible 
with  regard  to  whatever  it  may  relate,  he  caoaoC 
be  supposed  to  fluctuate  in  his  choice.  The  mo- 
tabiiity  of  the  human  will  is  owing  to  the  on- 
eertainty  and  defectireness  of  human  knowledge. 
Tne  Bible  often  speaks  of  the  nncbangeableoesB 
of  the  dirine  will.  Psalm  rsxiil.  10,  11,  »  Je- 
hovah bringeth  the  counsel  of  the  heathen  to 
nought;  but  his  counsel  standeth  for  ever." 
Ps.  ciix.  59 — 91,  Rom.  li.  29.  autrauixrra. 
t«^5uaro  ©K>v.  1  Sam.  xv.  29,  •*  He  is  not  a 
man.  that  he  should  repent ;''  coil.  s.  20.  When 
therefore  we  meet  with  texts  in  which  God  is 
said  to  lepent,  (as  Gen.  vi.  7.}  or  in  which  he  is 
said  to  have  done  differently  from  bis  intentioas, 
(as  Isa.  xssviii.  1,  seq. ;  Jonah,  iii.  9.)  we  mast 
interpret  them  so  as  to  be  consistent  with  bis  per- 
fections ;  tor  Moses  and  the  prophets  well  knew 
that  Got/ ir<::^  no/ a  man,  fAo/ Ae  sAodAfnpeti/,  N  0  m . 
xxiii.  19.  These  representations  become  consist- 
ent when  we  consider  that  whenever  an  event 
occurred  otherwise  than  had  been  expected,  or  af- 
fairs took  a  turn,  under  the  divine  ffovemment  or 
permission,  didferent  from  what  had  been  com- 
mon in  human  experience,  then,  in  the  customary 
dialect  of  antiquity,  God  was  said  to  repaU  and 
alter  his  purpote. 

IIL  EJieaey  of  the  Divine  WJL 

Whatever  God  wilh,  that  he  can  atemmfSak  ; 
•nd  his  power  has  no  limitations.  And  this  is 
kis  omnipotence,  which,  as  a  necessary  attribute 
of  the  divine  nature,  was  considered  in  s.  21. 

SECTION  XXYII. 

GENERJO.  RCXARES  OS  THE  MORAL  ATTRIBnTS 
or  THE  DIVINE  WILL. 

1.  Wk  ascribe  truih  or  reraci'tf  to  God,  so  far 
«s  whatever  he  reveals  or  declares,  directly  or 
indirectly,  is  true  and  certain,  s.  2S. 

2.  We  ascribe  gotdmen  or  benevoknce  to  G^. 
so  far  as  he  is  disposed  to  bestow  upon  his  crea- 
tnres  all  that  happiness  of  which  they  aie  sus- 
ceptible; s.  2S. 

3.  We  ascribe  hoUnets  to  God,  ao  far  as  be 
possesses  all  moral  perfections,  and  coosequent- 

15 


]j  lore*  what  b  good,  and  hales  what  is  eri! ; 
s.  29. 

4.  We  9scnbejudiet  to  God,  so  far  as  he  ex- 
hibil*  his  lore  of  goodaeaa  and  hatied  of  wick- 
edacsB,  is  his  dealing  with  his  cfeatmes ;  s. 
30,  31. 

yuc — Leibnits,  in  bis  Theodieee,  (p.  iL  s 
161,)  eonsideis  the  iWiaeas  of  God  as  nothias 
else  than  bis  tatpremu  goodnen,  or  bemewokKte. 
In  the  same  laanner  be  explains  the  jmaHae  ci 
God,  and  in  this  respect  is  icilowed  by  Wolf. 
Baamgaiten,  Ebeihaid,  and  many  other  aiadeni 
philosophers  and  theologians,  esp«>ciall  j  thoee 
belonging  to  the  school  of  Wol  f.  Tne  last  mm- 
tioned  writer,  following  the  example  of  Ldb- 
nitx,  defines  the  justice  of  God,  ienigmUma  ad 
leget  tapientiae  tempo  mtm ;  otheia  define  it  still 
more  briefly,  tie  nlalut  gmiutm  tf  Gitd. 

These  philoaophers  were  led  thus  to  refine 
apoo  the  idea  of  jastice,  by  the  desire  to  obriate 
the  objections  to  which  the  coouBon  idea  of  it 
appeared  to  be  exposed.  Tbereeaabenodoabt 
of  the  truth  which  they  affirm,  that  the  goodness 
of  God  is  relative;  and  whoKTer  we  ^eak  of 
the  divine  holiness  or  jastaee,  we  mast  proceed 
on  the  principle,  that  the  goodneas  of  God  is 
always  directed  by  bis  wisdoas,  and  is  alway- 
and  wholly  relative,  sinee  he  bestows  blessiags 
apoB  his  creatures  in  exact  proportion  to  their 
soseepiibiiity  for  receiving  thoa.  Bnt  whil<' 
this  is  true,  the  de&ailion  of  divine  jastice  grren 
by  Leibnitz  is  not,  eonsidered  as  a  defiaition. 
safieteatly  precise  and  accniate,  as  Kaat  has 
shewn.  Witboat  going  at  larze  into  the  objec- 
tions which  might  be  urged  as^icst  it,  it  will  be 
enough  for  oar  present  purpose  to  observe,  in  the 
first  place,  that  it  is  not  sofficiently  iateiSgHle, 
and  cannot  be  conveniently  used,  at  least  in 
popular  instroetion :  and.  in  the  second  phee, 
tbat  it  does  not  exh^t  the  comoMin  idea  con- 
nected with  this  ters[  which  is  of  itself  proof 
enough  that  it  is  not  jast  as  a  definition.  We 
feel  at  once,  on  bearing  this  definition,  that  there 
is  something  wanting  to  c— ipkte  the  idea. 
When  we  are  contemplaiia^  the  nalare  of  God, 
we  eanaider  it,  after  the  analogy  of  haman  be- 
ings, as  different  aeeordiag  to  the  difopat  a^ 
/etft  aboot  which  it  is  employed.  Oa  thb  com- 
mon mode  of  conception  the  eommonase  of  lan- 
gnage  is  built,  and  in  conformity  with  this  usage 
we  mnst  make  a  distinction  between  the  good- 
ness, holiness,  and  justice  of  God,  especially  as 
the  scripture  fidlows  this  common  asaige.  Now 
the  objeetof  tbebtdinesBof  GodiBtgaMraAMH- 
sena/  ^«atf ,-  of  bis  jastice  and  benevolence,  tie 
wefan  tf  Us  ereatem.  We  here  see  how 
donely  connected  these  ideas  are,  and  wha  h^ 
dnced  Ltsbnits  to  define  them  as  be  did.  Bat, 
following  the  general  asage,  we  amke  the  fol- 
lowing distinction  in  the  employment  of  these 
terms :  oae  is  called  etW  or  btrntwluU  who  is 


114 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


incliricd  to  benefit  another,  qui  bene  ctipil,  vult  ,- 
one  is  cvilleJ  Iwly,  in  respect  to  the  purity  and 
blamelessness  of  his  disposition, — one  who  loves 
what  is  good,  and  hates  what  is  evil,  qui  rectc, 
sentil,  satietits  est ;  just,  who  acts  according  to 
this  disposition,  qui  rcctc  a<^it,  and  who  there- 
fore activchj  exhibits  his  pleasure  in  what  is 
good,  and  displeasure  at  what  is  evil.  But 
since  Cod  has  no  other  end  but  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  his  creatures,  he  acts,  even  when  he 
proceeds  with  yws/ice,  at  the  same  time  benevo- 
knily  ;  and  even  those  things  which  we  call  evils 
znd  punishments,  from  the  manner  in  which  they 
affect  us,  are  only  so  many  results  and  proofs 
of  the  divine  goodness,  as  we  shall  shew  here- 
after. 

SECTION  XXVIII. 

OF  THE  VERACITY  AND  THE   GOODNESS    OF  GOD. 

I.  The  Truth  or  Veracity  of  God. 

This  attribute  of  God  is  sometimes  divided 
into  metaphysical  (interna)  and  moral  (externa). 
By  the  former  is  meant  merely  that  he  is  the 
true  God,  in  opposition  to  false,  imaginary  dei- 
ties ;  and  in  tliis  sense  he  is  called  p-tn  "^n,  pnx  'tn, 
Is.  xlv.  21  ;  0f6j  rlx>;;>ii'6j,  I  John,  v.  20;  John, 
xvii.  3.  But  we  here  speak  of  the  truth  of  God 
in  the  wora/ sense;  and  by  this  is  meant  that  he 
is  true  in  all  which  he  declares  or  reveals,  and 
that  he  does  not  alter  from  what  he  has  once 
spoken ;  ah-iivatov  ■^tvna'^^a.L  Qiov,  says  Paul, 
Heh.  vi.  H.  This  attribute  is  also  designated 
in  the  Bible  by  the  words  rrs,  nji^s,  ^-t,  nr', 
a.\r^:ia.'  and  opposed  to  it  is  falsehood,  varia- 
'biuness  in  speech,  trustlessness,  v'-"»  «<^'>-^  ^^^\i 
4.fv8oj,  X.  t.  >..     Tliis  attribute  implies, 

1.  That  the  instruction  which  God  gives  us 
contains  no  untruths  occontradictions.  Hence 
it  is  called  in  the  scrfjitures,  xat'  i^oxr;!',  nr^, 
aXr^na-  and  Christ  says,  John,  xvii.  17,  o  Xoyoj 
o  (j6jd>.ri>fiafiri.    Cf.  Fs.  xix.  8  ;  cxix.  75,  138. 

2.  That  all  the  divine  promises  and  commi- 
nations  are  sure,  and  will  be  accomplished  with- 
out fail.  Since  the  will  of  God  is  immutable, 
(8.  26,  No.  II.),  whatever  he  has  once  an- 
nounced as  his  will  must  inevitably  take  place. 
So  far  as  he  fulfils  his  promise  or  threatening, 
he  is  called  jti'jroi,  i^.nj,  and  truth  rc«,  nj^cx, 
fCi'jrij,  is  ascribed  to  him.  Ps.  xxxiii.  1,  "The 
promise  of  the  Lord  is  faithful,  and  ctrrythim; 
which  he  dues  is  truth."  2  Cor.  i.  18,  rtcrroj  i 
©foj,  and  ver.  20,  "  the  divine  promises  which 
are  given  through  Jesus  Christ  (iv  ai-ry,  sc. 
X<)iir9,  ver.  19),  are  to  vai,  xai  t6  o-ur^v — i.  o.. 
firm,  sure,  nnrif  dtov  is  oppose<i  to  the  artnrto 
avj>puirtwi',  Rom.  iii.  3.  An  important  passatrp 
in  this  connexion  is  found  in  Ps.  cxix.  89 — !)1. 
This  passage  contains  a  proof  of  the  certainty 
of  the  divine  promise,  and  the  immutability  of 


the  divine  laws  drawn  from  a  comparison  of 
them  with  the  laws  of  t.ie  natural  world.  Sure 
and  immutable  as  are  the  laws  of  the  material 
world,  so  sure  are  those  laws  by  which  God 
proceeds  in  fulfilling  his  declarations,  in  reward- 
ing virtue  and  punishing  vice;  and  foolish  as  it 
would  be  to  blame  the  former,  equally  foolish 
is  it  to  blame  the  latter.     Cf.  Prov.  viii.  22 — 20. 

The  Bible  gives  great  prominence  to  this  at- 
tribute of  God,  and  justly,  considering  the  in- 
fluence which  a  belief  in  it  must  have  in  pro- 
moting piety  and  godliness.  Vide  Heb.  xi.  (5, 
seq. ;  Rom.  iv.  3.  This  conviction,  and  the 
confidence  flowing  from  it,  is  called  by  the  very 
same  name  as  the  attribute  itself, — viz.,  jtiirij* 
the  opposite  of  which  is  drtt/jria.  But  the  Bible 
represents  God  as  faithful  in  fulfilling:  his  threats 
as  well  as  his  promises.  Heb.  iv.  12,  is  a  class- 
ical text  upon  this  subject.  ZCJv  yap  o  Xoyoj  rov 
&(ov,  xai  fifpy?;;,  xai  TouiJrjpoj  V7tf|)  nw^av  fiu^oj.- 
pav  diirouof,  x^  t.  X.,  xat  xpirtxbf  nij^iurifwr  xou) 
ivvoiZiV  xap6t'aj,  "The  thealening  of  God,  (Xoyoj 
Toii  ©fov)  is  active  and  efTicaciou"*,  (^wv  xa* 
ti^fpyj;?,  not  vain  and  empty,)  and  sharper  than 
any  two  edged  sword,  &c. ;  and  he  sits  in  judg- 
ment on  the  thoughts  and  purposes  of  the  heart." 
The  gospel  is  not  more  full  and  exi>licit  in  its 
promises  to  those  who  comply  with  its  condi- 
tions, than  in  its  threatenings  against  those  who 
reject  them. 

2\ote. — Some  passages  of  the  Bible  seem,  at 
first  view,  to  be  inconsistent  with  tlie  veracity 
of  God.  On  this  point  we  may  n-niark  that 
there  are  some  truths  which  are  not  intended  for 
all  men  of  all  ages,  and  which  would  do  more 
hurt  than  good  if  exhibited  indisrriininately, 
without  regard  to  the  circumstances  of  those  to 
whom  they  may  be  addressed.  The  question 
therefore  arises,  whenever  we  undertake  to  in- 
struct our  fellow-men,  whether  this  or  that 
truth  will  be  useful  to  them;  whettier  they  are 
able  to  bear  it;  or  whether,  considering  their 
circumstances,  it  may  not  do  thfni  more  hurt 
than  good  ]  To  teach  men  those  truilis  which 
they  are  not  prepared  to  receive,  is  like  putting 
useful  instruments  into  the  hands  of  a  child, 
who  can  turn  them  to  no  account,  and  may  per- 
haps injure  himself  by  using  them,  and  is  there- 
fore inconsistent  with  true  prudence,  and  with 
an  enlightened  regard  for  their  welfare.  This 
is  a  maxim  which  must  he  adopted  by  all  who 
engage  in  the  work  of  instruction  and  educa 
tion,  or  who  are  in  any  way  conversant  with 
men.  It  is  indeed  liable  to  abuse,  and  has  been 
abused  by  human  teachers,  but  it  is  true  not 
withstanding;  and  we  are  warranted  by  all  the 
divine  perfections  to  believe  that  it  will  not  be 
abused  by  God,  while,  at  the  same  time,  we 
believe  that  his  wisdom  and  goodness  must  lead 
him  to  proceed  in  accordance  with  it,  in  his  deal- 
ings with  men.     And  so  we  find,  that  God  has 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


IIS 


sometimes  withheld  particular  trutlis  from  men, 
or  has  indulired  them  in  particular  prejudices 
and  errors,  and  this  in  perfect  consistency  with 
his  veracity;  since  it  would  have  been  attended 
with  injury  for  him,  considering  the  circum- 
stances of  men  at  that  particular  period  of  the 
world,  to  have  substituted  better  views  in  place 
of  those  which  prevailed  among  them.  Tiie 
Old  Testament  furnishes  many  instances  in 
which  prevailing  prejudices  were  indulged,  and 
many  truths  were  left  for  a  time  in  comparative 
obscurity,  and  a  more  clear  revelation  was  de- 
ferred to  a  distant  period,  when  men  should  be- 
come more  capable  of  receiving  it.  Thus  God 
sometimes  exhibits  in  his  dealings  with  men 
what  the  Grecian  philosophers  call  avyxatdjiaaii, 
a  condescension  to  the  views  and  capacities  of 
men,  which  is  as  indispensable  in  the  education 
of  nations,  and  of  the  whole  human  race,  as  in 
that  of  individuals.  Vide  Dr.  SenlT,  Von  der 
Herablassung  Gottes. 

As  an  instance  of  this  condescension,  we  may 
mention  the  fact,  that  God  sometimes  appears 
to  remit  something  of  the  severity  of  his  threat- 
enings.  And  this  he  does  in  accommodation  to 
our  views  of  his  character;  somewhat,  in  this 
case,  as  the  father  remits  the  severity  of  the 
punishment  which  is  duo  to  his  child,  in  order 
to  inspire  him  with  more  confidence,  and  to  con- 
vince him,  in  an  unexpected  manner,  of  his  entire 
affection.  Cf.  Jonah,  iii.  4,  coll.  ver.  9,  10,  and 
iv.  2,  !) — 11.  Add  to  this,  that  while  some  of 
the  promises  and  threatenings  of  God  are  uncon- 
ditional and  absolute,  (such  as  the  promise  of  a 
numerous  posterity  to  Abraham,  and  the  threat- 
ening of  the  servitude  of  the  posterity  of  Esau,) 
most  of  them  ar#  conditional,  and  depend  upon 
the  obedience  or  disobedience  of  those  to  whom 
they  are  address<^d;  but  that  this  condition  is 
sometimes  so  obvious  from  the  nature  of  the 
case,  or  in  some  other  way  so  well  known,  that 
it  is  not  expressed  in  words,  but  only  tacitly 
implied— e.  g.,  Jonah,  iii.  iv.  Another  example 
which  must  be  explained  on  this  principle  of 
the  condescension  of  God  to  the  views  of  men, 
and  the  conceptions  prevailing  in  any  parti- 
cular age,  is  the  sacrifice  which  Abraham  was 
required  to  make  of  his  son  Isaac,  Gen.  xxii. 
2,  stq.  Morus,  p.  54.  Still  another  instance 
of  the  condescension  of  God  to  human  opinions 
and  customs :  men  are  accustomed  to  regard  an 
oot/i  as  preeminently  sacred ;  God,  therefore,  in 
order  to  shew  that  his  declarations  agree  per- 
fectly with  his  mind  and  will,  swears  that  they 
are  true,  Heb.  vi.  13,  seq. 

It  may  be  remarked,  in  general,  that  the  more 
any  one  is  acquainted  with  the  history  of  men, 
and  with  the  mode  in  which  they  expressed 
themselves  in  ancient  times,  and  which  still  pre- 
vails among  the  common  people  at  the  present 
day,  the  less  will  the  phraseology  of  the  Bible 


appear  obscure,  strange,  or  revolting.  In  this 
view  the  study  of  Homer  may  be  highly  rerom- 
mended  to  theologians.  For  they  are  peculiarly 
liable,  from  their  familiarity  with  technical  and 
philosophical  phraseology,  to  misunderstand 
such  representations  as  those  under  considera- 
tion, and  which  are  perfectly  intelligible  to  plain 
and  practical  men.  The  latter  find  little  diifi- 
culty  in  understanding  the  most  figurative  re- 
presentations of  the  Bible,  and  in  enterinsr  into 
their  full  spirit,  because  they  are  familiar  with 
such  representations;  whereas  men  of  learned 
pursuits  find  great  difficulty  even  in  obtaining 
the  meaning  of  a  figurative  and  popular  phrase- 
ology, and  greater  still  in  making  use  of  it  in 
their  instructions.  They  have  too  little  inter- 
course with  men  in  the  common  walks  of  life. 
This  is  a  common  fault  with  us  all. 

11.  The  Goodness  or  Love  of  God. 

This  attribute  consists  in  the  deterniination 
or  inclination  of  the  will  of  God  to  bestow  upon 
his  creatures  all  the  good  of  which  they  are  sus- 
ceptible. It  is  ascribed  to  God,  because  it 
forms  an  essential  part  of  that  character  which 
we  must  asfribe  to  him  as  the  most  perfect  be- 
ing. It  is  proved  in  the  clearest  manner  by  the 
fact,  that  God  has  so  created  and  constituted  the 
universe,  that  the  whole,  and  each  particular 
portion,  possesses  that  degree  of  perfection  and 
well-being  of  which  it  is  susceptible.  It  is  also 
proved  in  the  preservation  and  government  of 
the  world,  in  a  manner  which  must  be  perfectly 
satisfactory  to  every  rational  being.  The  proof 
of  the  divine  goodness  derived  from  the  benevo- 
lent constitution  of  nature  may  be  exiiibited  in 
a  very  intelligible  and  practical  manner,  and  on 
this  account  is  frequently  employed  in  the  holy 
scriptures.  The  passage  in  which  this  proof  is 
exhibited  most  fully  and  distinctly  is  Psalm 
civ.,  a  good  commentary  on  which  may  be 
found  in  Cicero,  Nat.  Deor.  ii.  39.  Cicero 
says,  very  truly,  (Nat.  Deor.  i.  44,)  that  all  re- 
ligious and  pious  feeling  would  cease,  if  love 
and  benevolence  were  denied  to  God.  If  we 
would  excite  the  heart  to  affection,  obedienc*', 
and  gratitude  towards  God,  and  warm  it  with 
religious  sentiments,  we  nmst  bring  to  view  the 
divine  benevolence.  John  therefore  declares,  in 
his  first  epistle,  iv.  8,  16,  ©foj  r;  aydnr;,  and 
Plato  says,  God  is  beauty  and  love  ifsc/f.  But 
in  order  that  this  truth  may  have  its  full  effect, 
every  one  should  consider  how  much  goodness 
God  has  shewn  to  him  as  an  individual.  The 
Bible  directs  our  attention  particularly  to  those 
proofs  of  the  divine  benevolence,  commonly  less 
regarded,  which  appear  in  all  which  God  has 
done,  from  time  to  time,  to  bring  men  to  happi- 
ness, in  his  great  plan  of  instruction  and  salva- 
tion. The  texts  which  treat  of  the  blessings 
conferred  by  Christianity  belong   to  this  coi^ 


116 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


nexion — viz.,  John,  iii.  16;  1  John,  iv.  9,  10; 
Rom.  V.  6—12;  Tit.  ii.  11—14.  This  great 
proof  of  the  love  of  God  is  called,  by  way  of 
eminence,  r;  aydxr;,  ;^aptj.  Morus,  p.  56,  n.  7. 
For  a  further  discussion  of  this  subject,  vide  the 
Articles  concerning  Divine  Providence,  and  con- 
cerning Christ. 

The  love  of  God  has  different  names  given  it 
in  the  Bihle,  according  to  the  dilTerent  ways  in 
which  it  is  expressed,  and  the  dilTerent  relations 
which  it  bears  to  his  creatures,  and  their  condi- 
tion. -iDH  ]n,  ;tapij,  tXfoj,  are  very  common 
names,  signifying  unmerited  love  or  goodness, 
and  implying  God's  greatness,  and  our  unvvor- 
thiness.  ;^-'i  is  another  common  name  for  this 
attribute;  whence  Bixauj^itr^  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment often  signifies  benevolence.  These  He- 
brew words  are  sometimes  rendered  by  dya^- 
aiivr  and  x\>^'jt6rr;i.  So  far  as  the  love  of  God 
has  respeci  to  men  in  general,  it  is  called  phi- 
lanthropy, ^iXav'^poTtia  ©foij,  Tit.  iii.  4 ;  and 
from  the  possession  of  it,  God  is  called  the 
father  of  men.  The  texts  in  which  this  is  done 
are  cited  in  Morus,  p.  55,  n.  1.  So  far  as  the 
love  of  God  has  respect  to  the  miserable  and  the 
suffering,  it  is  called  pily  and  compassion,  mise- 
ricnrdia,  benevolentia  erga  miscros,  OTn-i,  to. 
am.dyxvo.  0fov,  tXeoj.  Men  in  this  condition 
have  the  promise  given  them  that  God  will  pro- 
tect and  comfort  them,  and  provide  a  way  for 
their  deliverance  where  they  could  see  none. 
And  to  such  persons  it  must  be  an  inexpressible 
consolation  that  God  has  not  merely  enabled 
them  to  attain  a  hope,  in  the  use  of  their  reason, 
that  he  would  assist  and  stand  by  them,  but  has 
ex|)res3ly  promised  them  that  he  will  certainly 
do  this.  To  the  afilictetl  nothing  can  be  more 
consoling  than  the  sure  promise  of  God  ;  and 
of  this  the  religious  teacher  should  be  mindful 
in  his  instructions.  So  far  as  the  love  of  God 
is  exercised  in  deferring  or  al)ating  deserved 
punishments,  it  is  called  forbearance,  long-suf- 
f  I  ring,  patience,  indulgence,  a^TN  T>"<,  juaxpo^- 
^la.  o-voxr],  Psa.  ciii.  8,  seq. ;  Rom.  ii.  4  ;  ix.  22. 

The  love  of  God  is  described  in  the  scrip- 
tures as, 

1.  Universal  and  impartial.  God  bestows 
upon  each  of  his  creatures  as  much  good  as  he 
is  capable  of  receiving.  Philo  says,  Ov  rtpoj  to 
fiiyf'^yti  fVfpyf'rfi  (u  0f6{)  Twv  avrov  ;^a()(,rwv — 
»tpoj  f>t  faj  tCjv  fvfpyfrov/itvwv  'ivfu^fij*  oii  yrlp 
taj  :ti<^x(v  o&iiii  ;v  rtotfii',  otiru)  xoi  to  yrvoufvov 
tl  nuixfn'%  X-  t'  y-'  De  0|)if.  Mnndi,  p.  13,  ed. 
Pf.  Tliis  is  the  great  principle  upon  which 
God  proceeds  in  the  distribution  of  his  favours, 
whether  greater  or  smaller,  more  or  less  fre- 
quent. Psa.  cxlv.  9,  "The  Lord  is  good  to  all; 
and  his  tender  mercies  are  over  all  his  works." 
Cf.  Psa.  xxxvi.  7;  ciii.  11 — 13,  "For  as  the 
heaven  is  high  above  the  eartti,  so  grt-al  is  his 
mercy  toward  them  that  fear  him,"  &c.     This 


doctrine  of  the  universal  and  impartial  love  of 
God,  though  it  was  believed  and  taught  by  the 
prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  was  for  the  first 
time  exhibited  in  its  true  light  and  in  its  whole 
extent  in  the  'Sq'w  Testament,  in  opposition  to 
the  prejudices  of  the  Jews,  which  very  much 
limited  the  divine  goodness.  To  assert,  how- 
ever, that  the  teachers  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  especially  Moses,  were  wholly  destitute  of 
correct  ideas  respecting  the  love  of  God,  is  very 
untrue;  and  the  contrary  may  be  proved  from 
innumerable  passages  of  scripture.  Vide,  e.  g., 
Exodus,  xxxiv.  6,  7;  Num.  xiv.  17,  18.  The 
blame  of  their  mistaken  views  of  this  subject 
rested  upon  the  great  body  of  the  Jewish  nation, 
and  not  upon  their  teachers.  The  moral  percep- 
tions of  the  Jews  were  so  perverted  that  they 
misunderstood  what  they  were  taught  respecting 
the  moral  attributes  of  God. 

2.  Unmerited,  !{ratuilotis.  And  in  this  re- 
spect, particularly,  the  love  of  God  is  called 
;^aptj,  ;n,  Rom.  iv.  4,  seq.;  xi.  5.  There  is  no 
opinion  more  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  true 
morality  than  the  opinion  so  prevalent  among 
the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ,  and  recurring 
under  different  forms  in  every  age  of  the  church, 
that  the  love  of  God  can  be  merited  or  procured 
by  men;  and  accordingly  there  is  no  opinion 
which  was  more  opposed  by  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament.  It  is  impossible  that  desert 
of  any  kind  should  come  into  consideration  with 
love,  as  such  ;  for  wherever  desert  is  regarded, 
love  must  be  exchanged  (or  oblii^al ion,  Rom.  iv. 
4,  seq.  The  free  goodness  of  God  is  never  ex- 
ercised, however,  inconsistently  with  his  wis- 
dom and  justice.  Hence  the  pious  ma^  always 
be  sure  that  rewards  will  4e  bestowed  upon 
them  by  God;  while  the  wicked  can  have  no 
such  expectation,  Rom.  ii.  4,  5.  Cf.  Thomas 
Balguy,  Divine  Benevolence  Asserted,  trans- 
lated into  German  by  J.  A.  Eberhard. 

SECTION  XXIX. 

OF    THE    HOLINESS    OF    COD. 

The  holiness  of  Goil,  in  the  general  notion  of 
it,  is  his  moral  perfection — that  attrii)Ute  by 
which  all  moral  in;perfecti<jn  is  removed  from 
his  nature.  The  holiness  of  the  will  of  God  is 
that,  therefore,  by  which  he  chooses,  necessa- 
rily and  invariably,  what  is  morally  good,  ami 
refuses  what  is  morally  evil.  The  holiness  and 
justice  of  God  are,  in  reality,  one  and  the  same 
thing;  the  distinction  consists  in  this  only,  that 
holiness  denotes  the  internal  inclination  of  the 
divine  will — the  disposition  of  God;  and  jus- 
lice,  the  expression  of  the  same  by  actions. 
Vide  p.  27,  ad  finem.     This  attribute  implies, 

1.  That  no  sinful  or  wicked  inclination  can 
be  found  in  (iod.  Hence  h'-  is  said,  James,  i. 
13,  coll.  17,  to  be  amipacroi  xaxuv,  incapable 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


117 


of  being  temptejj  to  evil,  (not  in  the  active  sense, 
as  it  is  rendered  by  the  Vulgate  and  Luther;) 
and  in  1  John,  i.  5,  to  be  light,  and  without  dark- 
ness— i.  e.,  holy,  and  without  sin.  In  this  sense 
he  is  called  -(inj,  xcij«ip6j  ayi'oj,  1  John,  iii.  3; 
also  ='cn,  an^ooi,  integer,  Psa.  xviii.  31.  The 
older  writers  described  this  by  the  word  dia- 
fnuarr^roiriffip^cabilis.  [The  sinlessness  of  God 
is  also  designated  in  the  New  Testameatby  the 
words  rixstoj,  Matt.  v.  IB ;  and  oaioj,  Rev. 
xvi.  5.] 

2.  That  he  never  chooses  what  is  false  and 
deceitful,  but  only  what  is  truly  good — what 
his  perfect  intelligence  recognises  as  such  ;  and 
that  he  is  therefore  the  most  perfect  teacher, 
and  the  highest  exemplar  of  moral  goodness. 
Hence  the  Bible  declares  that  he  looks  with 
displeasure  uponwicked,  deceitful  courses,  Psa. 
1.  IG,  seq. ;  v.  5,  (Thou  hatest  all  workers  of 
iniquity  ;)  hut  that,  on  the  contrary,  he  regards 
the  pious  with  favour,  Psa.  v.  7, 8  ;  xv.  1,  seq. ; 
xviii.  2G,  seq. ;  xxxiii.  18.  Cf.  the  texts  cited 
by  Morus,  p.  47,  s.  11,  note  3 — 5.  The  ground, 
therefore,  of  the  holiness  God  is  in  his  under- 
standing and  the  freedom  of  his  will.  Vide 
s.  26. 

As  to  the  use  of  the  words  u'l-ip  ^^^  a-yio^, 
some  philologists  (particularly  Zacharia,,  Bi- 
blische  Theologia,  th.  i.  s.  2 10,  f.)  remark,  that 
they  are  never  used  in  the  scriptures,  with 
reference  to  God,  in  the  sense  here  ascribed 
to  them,  but  rather  describe  him  as  the  object 
of  fltt'fi  and  veneration.  And  it  is  true  that  this 
is  their  prevailing  meaning — e.  g.,  Isa.  vi.  9; 
John,  xvii.  11,  (aytf  rta'rfp  ;)  and  that  accord ing- 
1}'  ttyta'^fo^tti  signifies,  fu  be  esteemed  venerable,  to 
be  reverenced.  Still  these  words  are  in  many 
passages  applied  to  God  undeniably  in  a  moral 
sense — e.  g.,  Lev.  xix.  2,  "  Be  ye  holy,  for  1  am 
holy;"  cf.  1  Pet.  i.  14 — 16.  Thus  also  oniotr;^ 
Eph.  iv.  24,  and  iyttocvvjj,  ayio^^uoj,  by  which 
all  moral  perfection  is  so  frequently  designated, 
especially  in  the  New  Testament.  The  differ- 
ent meanings  of  the  words  r^ipi  and  aytoj  stand 
connected  clearly  in  the  following  manner  (cf. 
s.  126) — viz.  these  words  signify  (n)  the  being 
externally  pure — e.  g.,  2  Sam.  xi.  4;  Lev.  xi. 
43,  44  ;  XX.  7,  25,  26,  &c. ;  (b)  the  being  scpa- 
cate,  since  we  are  accustomed  to  divide  what  is 
pure  from  what  is  impure,  and  to  castaway  the 
.'atter ;  and  therefore  (c)  the  possessing  of  any 
l.-ind  (f  external  advantage,  distinction,  or  worth  ; 
CO  the  Jews  were  said  to  be  holy  to  God,  in  op- 
position to  others,  who  were  xonoi,  profane, 
tommon,  unconscerated.  Then  everything  which 
was  without  imperfection,  disgrace,  or  blemish, 
vvas  called  holy  ;  and  i;''>i-<,  ayio^,  sncrosancttis, 
2ame  thus  to  signify  what  was  inviolable,  Isa. 
iv.  3  ;  1  Cor.  iii.  17,  (hence  r-ifr,  asylum.) 
They  were  then  used  in  the  more  limited  sense 
f>^ rha-ite,  (like  the  Latin  sanctitas) — a  sense  in 


which  they  are  sometimes  used  in  the  New 
Testament — e.  g.,  1  Thess.  iv.  3,  7,  (cf.  W.lf, 
in  loc. ;)  but  not  always,  as  Stange  suppose?, 
(Symmikta,  II.  268,  f.)  They  then  came  to 
denote  any  or  all  internal,  moral  perfection; 
and  finally,  perfection,  in  the  general  notion  of 
it,  as  exclusive  of  all  imperfection.  Cf.  Moru3, 
p.  47,  s.  11. 

SECTION  XXX. 

OF    THK    JUSTICE    OF    GOD. 

The  justice  of  God  is  that  attribute  by  which 
he  actively  exhibits  his  approbation  of  w!  at  is 
good,  and  his  disapprobation  of  what  is  evil. 
It  is  therefore  the  same  in  essence  with  hij>  holi- 
ness, vide  s.  29.  So  far  as  (;.ii  ha--,  compla- 
cency in  what  is  good  he  is  called  holy  ;  so  far 
as  he  exhibits  this  complacency  in  his  actual 
procedure  in  the  irovernmeni  of  the  world  be  is 
called  just.  The  word  holiness,  accordin'jfiy, 
refers  rather  to  the  internal  disposition  of  Hod  ; 
and  justice,  to  the  display  or  outward  manifesta- 
tion of  this  disposition  in  his  actual  irovernment. 
Both  of  these  attributes  fetand  in  close  connex- 
ion with  the  divine  benevolence;  they  may  be 
deduced  from  it,  and  indeed  must  be  regarded 
as  expressions  of  it.  Cf.  the  remarks  made  on 
this  subject  and  on  the  definition  of  Leibnitz,  s. 
27,  note. 

Respecting  the  biblical  use  of  the  words  y^^s, 
p"is,  and  bixaioc.  In  its  primary,  original  mean- 
ing, |i"ix  doubtless  denotes  what  is  Jit,  suitrd, 
adapted  to  a  particular  end,  appropriate,  riisht. 
The  Greek  bixaioi  has  the  same  signification  as 
Sixatoj  lUTioi,  hixaLov  ap,Ma,  x.  -t.  %.,  also  the 
Latin  y«s/«s,  the  German  gerecht,  and  the  Eng- 
lish right.  These  words  came  afterwards  to 
denote  one  icho  acts  justly  and,  rightly,  a  virtuous 
man  in  the  moral  sense.  Accordingly  p-'X.  and 
hixai-oovvr^  (both  in  the  Septuagint  and  in  the 
New  Testament)  signify  virtue,  piety,  also 
truth,  (Isaiah,  xlii.  6,)  veracity,  Jidelity,  honesty, 
goodness,  benejiccnci,  alms,  and  then  what  is 
more  properly  called  justice,  as  exerciser!  in 
courts.  Hence  ."'tin,  hixaioiv,  signify,  to  arijuit, 
pronounce  innocent,  pardon,  and  in  general,  to 
favour.  The  proper  meaning  must  in  each  case 
be  determined  by  the  connexion. 

God  exhibits  to  men  his  complacency  in  what 
is  good  and  useful,  and  his  disapprobation  of 
what  is  evil  and  injurious,  in  two  ways  : — (I) 
By  latcs  and  various  institutes,  which  are  in- 
tended to  teach  us,  on  the  one  hand,  what  is 
good  and  salutary,  and  on  the  other,  what  is 
evil  and  injurious,  in  firder  that  we  may  know 
how  to  regulate  our  feelings  and  our  conduct. 
This  is  called  legislative  justice  (Justitia  le-sinln- 
toria,  sive  antccedens.  sive  dispositiva.)  (2)  By 
actions,  in  which  he  manifests  his  approhation 
of  what  is  good,  and  of  those  who  practise  it: 


118 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


and  h,s  disapprobation  ofwliat  is  evil,  ami  of 
thos'i  who  live  vvinkediy.  This  is  called  ritri- 
buHre  jtisiice,  (^jtmlitia  rtlributica,  judiciaria, 
rec'-ria,  distrihulica,  ci>/iiptii.iatrix,  cuit-setjuenn.) 
Since  this  division,  which  has  lonij  been  com- 
mon in  the  schools  of  theology  and  philosophy, 
is  t  ■iindt'd  in  truth,  we  shall  here  adopt  it,  after 
the  example  of  Morns.  The  same  thing  may 
be  fVpressed  in  other  words,  as  follows  : — God, 
as  tie  is  holy,  accurately  estimates  the  distinc- 
tion between  what  is  morally  good  and  evil, 
ann  accordingly  between  the  good  and  evil  ac- 
tions of  men  ;  he  has  made  known  to  men  this 
distinction  by  means  of  his  laws,  (to  a  know- 
ledge of  which  we  are  led  by  reason,  scripture, 
and  experience,)  and  upon  this  he  insists  ;  and 
that  men  may  not  only  know  tiie  difference  be- 
tween good  and  evil,  but  experience  and  feel  it, 
he  has  inseparably  connected  certain  necessary 
advantages  (rewards)  vviih  what  is  good,  and 
dis  idvantages  (punishments)  with  what  is  evil. 
We  proceed,  therefore,  to  treat, 

I.  The  Legislative  Justice  of  God. 

All  the  divine  laws  have  respect  to  the  true 
welfare  of  men,  since  they  prescribe  what  is 
gO'id  and  useful,  ami  forbid  the  contrary.  Vide 
Psalm  xix.  8 — 12;  Rom.  xii.  2,  0t'xj;ua  ©fov  to 
ayoJoi/  xai  iva^nfj-eov  xai  TiXfiov,  The  divine 
iaws  are  commonly  divided  into — 

1.  Natural — i.  e.,  such  as  necessarily  flow 
from  the  constitution  of  human  nature.  They 
may  be  learned  from  human  reason  and  con- 
srience,  and  are  constantly  alluded  to,  repeated, 
exphiined,  and  enlarged  by  the  Bible.  Cf. 
Introduction,  s.  3. 

'J.  Arbilrary,  or  positive.  Such  are  those 
which  stand  in  no  necessary  connexion  with 
hum.in  nature,  and  cannot  therefore  be  discover- 
ed or  demonslraled  by  reason,  hut  depend  mere- 
ly upon  the  express  command  of  God.  They 
are  not  written  upon  the  human  heart,  but  made 
known  to  us  by  God  from  without.  Among 
positive  laws  may  be  counted  those  which  con- 
cern the  institution  of  public  worship  and  the 
ritual,  also  the  political  precepts  of  Moses,  and 
many  other  precepts  and  doctrines  of  religion 
contained  in  the  scriptures  uf  the  Old  and  New 
Testament. 

The  common  belief  is,  that  such  positive  pre- 
cepts have  been  jjiven  bv  (Jod  both  to  .lews  and 
Christians.  And  this  belief  is  justified  by  the 
followinjr  reasons: — (I)  Positive  precepts  are 
useful  as  afff>rding  to  men  an  exercise  of  ot)eili- 
ence,  piety,  and  devotion.  A  father  oficn  im- 
poses upon  a  chiltl  an  arbitrary  rule  in  order 
tn  accustom  it  to  nbedience,  or  with  some  other 
wis<»  intent;  but  always  with  the  jjood  of  the 
child  in  view,  although  the  child  may  not  be 
able  to  understand  the  trhtf  and  the  vhirrforr. 
Positive  precepts  should  therefore  always  be 


obeyed,  although  they  may  not  appear  to  ua  to 
have  any  natural  or  obvious  connexion  with  our 
welfare;  for  they  are  given  by  God,  who  can- 
not command  anything  without  reference  to  our 
good.  ("2)  All  experience  shews  that  even  the 
most  cultivated  rnen,  when  left  to  themselves, 
fall  into  absurd  religious  observances  and  forms 
of  worship.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  improper 
for  (iod  to  prescribe  even  arbitrary  services, 
and  to  give  positive  laws  and  doctrines  re- 
lating to  religion.  (3)  By  being  expressly 
revealed  and  positively  prescribed,  even  natu- 
ral laws  may  obtain  a  positive  authority,  re- 
ceive a  more  sulemn  sanction,  and  thus  exert 
a  better  influence.  They  may  be  explained, 
confirmed,  enlarged,  and  enforced  by  positive 
precepts.  But  since  positive  precepts  are  de- 
signed in  many  cases  to  promote  particular  ob- 
jects, which  cannot  be  known  from  the  nature 
of  tilings,  they  are  not  necessarily  universal  and 
u;i«7/e;v/i/e,  unless  they  are  declared  to  be  so  by 
(iod:  nor  are  they  binding  upon  persons  who, 
without  any  fault  of  their  own,  remain  unac- 
quainted with  them. 

Many,  on  the  contrary,  deny  that  God  has 
given  any  jiositive  precepts,  and  consider  them 
all  as  i)f  human  origin.  They  pretend,  that 
much  harm  lias  been  and  will  be  done  in  human 
society  by  pleading  a  divine  origin  for  positive 
precepts  and  doctrines.  So  thought  Tindal,  and 
many  of  the  Knglish  rationalists,  and  the  same 
oj)inion  has  lately  been  expressed  by  Dr.  Siein- 
bart  in  his  System  der  rcinen  Gliickseligkeits- 
Ichre,  s.  GG — 71,  130,  IT.  Many  of  the  ancient 
Grecian  philosophers,  too,  believed  that  the 
supposition  that  (iod  had  given  positive  precepts 
was  merely  a  popular  error,  since  all  which  wr^re 
alfirmed  to  be  such  were  obviously  contrived  by 
men,  and  promulgated  under  the  divine  authori- 
ty. In  ojiposition  to  this  argument,  Krnesli 
wrote  his  Vindicite  arl>iirii  divini  in  religiime 
constittUMida,  Opusc.  Theol.,  p.  187,  seij.  He 
was  strongly  opposed  by  Tollner,  in  his  In- 
quiry, Dlruin  Ueus  ex  inero  arbitrio  potesta- 
lem  siiamlegislaioriam  exerceat ;  also  by  Kber- 
liard  in  his  Apologie  des  Sokrates,  th.  i.  But 
no  objections  m  hich  are  merely  ii  priori  can  dis- 
prove the  existence  of  positive  precepts. 

The  following  arguments  have  been  used  to 
render  the  objection  to  positive  laws  somewhat 
plausible: — (1)  It  is  thought  that  PX|>eri»'nco 
proves  that  the  promulgation  of  positive  lawt 
which  are  received  as  of  divine  origin,  exposes 
natural  laws  to  be  nesriertrd  and  traitsijrcssed, 
and  in  proof  of  this  the  exam|>le  of  the  Isr.ieliies 
and  Christians  is  ailducfd.  To  this  it  is  justly 
replieil,  titat  ilie  abuse  of  a  thinsr  does  not  pre- 
vent its  proper  use.  The  fart  that  many  have 
made  an  improper  use  of  |)osiiive  precepts  can» 
not  prove  that  they  are  without  use,  injurious, 
and  reprehensible,  and  that  they  cannot  be  of 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


Il9 


divine  orii^in.  The  most  useful  objects  and  the 
most  benevolent  arranjfements  in  the  natural 
world  have  often  been  abused  by  men;  but  this 
is  no  proof  that  they  were  not  made  and  appoint- 
ed by  God.  ("J)  Oppressive  burdens  and  severe 
and  intolerable  laws,  it  is  said,  will  be  imposed 
upon  men,  on  pretence  of  divine  authority, 
whe'ever  the  existence  of  positive  laws  is  ad- 
mi  ttea ;  and  in  proof  of  this,  the  history  of  the 
Jews  is  ai^ain  referred  to.  To  this  it  may  be  re- 
plied, that  these  very  pretended  divine  laws  have 
made  it  so  much  the  more  necessary  for  God  to 
interpose  in  our  behalf  by  his  own  positive  com- 
mands. Ao^ain:  the  evil  consequences  spoken 
of  do  not  flow  from  positive  divine  ordinances, 
but  from  arbitrary  human  ordinances,  which 
men  have  falsely  pretended  to  be  divine.  In 
reply,  it  is  said  that  both  experience  and  his- 
tory teach  that  it  must  be  difficult  to  distin- 
guish between  those  laws  which  are  really  of 
divine  origrin  and  those  which  are  only  pretended 
to  be  such.  (3)  God  founded  and  arranged 
everything  so  wisely  in  the  beginning  that  no 
alterations  or  additions  in  the  established  natural 
laws  are  necessary  ;  and  that  he  should  do  what 
is  unnecessary  cannot,  it  is  said,  be  supposed. 
To  this  it  may  be  replied,  that  positive  divine 
precepts  do  not  alter,  contradict,  annul,  or  in 
any  way  repeal,  the  natural  laws.  To  prove, 
h  priori,  either  that  positive  laws  do  not  exist  or 
are  unnecessary,  is  quite  impossible.  Whether 
there  are  or  are  not  positive  laws  is  a  question 
of  fact;  and  if  it  can  be  shewn  that  |)ositive  di- 
vine precepts  actually  exist,  all  reasoning  to  the 
contrary,  ii  priori,  is  of  no  avail.  If  no  evil  ex- 
isted in  the  world,  our  philosophers  would  prove 
d  priori,  from  all  the  attributes  of  God,  that  a 
world  in  which  evil  should  exist  was  utterly 
impossible.  But  since  the  existence  of  evil  is 
beyond  a  doubt,  they  must  be  content  to  shew 
how  it  is  reconcilable  with  the  divine  attributes. 
Cf.  Morus,  p.  48—50,  s.  12. 

Aole. — The  following  remarks  shall  suffice 
us,  without  going  further  into  the  philosophical 
investigation  of  this  disputed  point.  The  his- 
tory of  man  in  all  ages  shews  that  the  natural 
obligation  to  perform  certain  duties  cannot  be 
made  intelligible  to  the  greater  part  of  mankind 
by  merely  rational  considerations  and  proofs. 
They  depend  upon  authority;  and  if  authority 
be  wisely  employed,  more  influence  over  their 
minds  is  obtained  than  in  any  other  way.  Nor 
is  this  the  case  with  the  ignorant  and  illiterate 
only,  but  almost  equally  witii  the  learned  and 
educated,  though  tlu^y  are  unwilling  to  acknow- 
ledge or  believe  it.  The  authority  of  God  must, 
of  course,  exfert  a  more  powerful  influence  over 
tne  mind  than  any  other  authority.  Hence  from 
the  earliest  times,  and  even  among  the  heathen 
nations,  the  natural  law  has  been  promul^ed,  as 
if  expressly  and  orally  given  by  God.     Men  felt 


the  necessity  of  having  positive  divine  precepts. 
They  must  also  of  necessity  have  some  external 
rites  and  ceremonies  addressed  to  ihe  senses  in 
their  worship  of  Cod.  But  to  sicure  to  these 
rites  and  ceremonies  (so  necessary  and  beneficial 
to  men)  the  needful  authority,  and  a  truly  so- 
lemn sanction,  they  were  prescribed  even  among 
the  heathen,  by  those  who  contrived  them,  aa 
coming  directly  from  God.  The  ancient  legis- 
lators published  even  their  cmV  laws  in  the  same 
way,  and  with  a  similar  intention.  Hence 
among  the  Grecians,  Romans,  and  Mahom- 
medans,  as  well  as  the  Israelites,  the  civil  and 
religious  laws  were  interwoven  and  united. 
Can  it  now  appear  surprising,  inconsistent,  or 
contrary  to  the  natural  expectations  of  men,  for 
God  to  publish  positive  laws  among  the  Israel- 
ites, under  his  own  authority,  by  Moses  and  the 
prophets  1  By  his  doing  so,  the  Jews  might  be 
preserved  from  all  the  positive  laws  which  men 
would  otherwise  have  imposed  upon  them,  if 
it  is  once  conceded  that  authority  is  necessary 
for  men,  and  that  the  authority  of  God  has  and 
must  have  greater  weight  than  any  other,  then 
for  God  to  publish  laws  on  his  own  authority 
must  be  considered  as  highly  beneficial.  Whe- 
ther he  has  actually  done  so,  by  means  of  im- 
mediate revelation;  whether  universally  or  to  a 
particular  people;  are  questions  of  fiict  which 
depend  upon  testimony,  and  cannot  be  deter- 
mined h  priori.     Vide  Introduction,  s,  2,  3. 

The  writers  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
consider  the  fact,  that  God  made  known  his  will 
to  the  Israelites,  and  gave  them  laws,  as  one  of 
their  principal  advantages  over  other  people, 
Psalm  cxlvii.  20 ;  Rom.  iii.  2.  But  the  positive 
laws  given  to  the  Israelites  are,  in  part,  of  such 
a  nature,  that  they  cannot  and  ought  not  to  be 
universally  observed.  They  were  mostly  in- 
tended only  for  a  particular  age,  a  single  people, 
country,  and  climate.  By  degrees,  as  circum- 
stances changed,  they  were  found  deficient  and 
inadequate,  and  gave  occasion  to  various  abuses. 
At  tliis  juncture  Christianity  appeared.  It  pro- 
mulgated the  law  of  nature  on  divine  authority, 
as  had  been  done  in  the  former  dispensation. 
But  with  this,  jts  founder  enacted  various  posi- 
tive religious  precepts  and  laws,  which,  how- 
ever, were  few  in  number,  and  of  a  nature  to  be 
easily  and  universally  obeyed.  He  then  de- 
clared men  free  from  all  those  positive  laws  of 
the  Mosaic  dispensation  wliich  had  not  at  the 
same  time  a  natural  obligation,  or  were  not 
again  enacted  by  himself.  The  ceremonial  law 
had  now  performed  its  service.  It  was  not  in- 
tended to  be  of  perpetual  and  universal  obliga- 
tion. But  during  that  state  of  isjnorance  and 
superstition  into  which  Europe  relapsed,  this 
religion,  which  was  simple  in  its  nature  and  be- 
ni<rn  in  its  influence,  as  established  by  Christ, 
became  so  overloaded  and  corrupted  by  poeitir* 


IW 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


precepts,  for  which  divine  authority  was  pre- 
tended, that  Christian  nations  were  in  a  state 
little  better  than  that  of  the  Jews  at  the  cominjj 
of  Christ.  This  fact,  however,  so  far  from  dis- 
provinirthe  claims  of  Cliristianify  to  be  retjarded 
as  ffiven  by  God,  proves  only  the  perversions 
of  those  to  whom  it  was  entrusted.  The  best 
gifts  of  Heaven  have  been  abused  by  men  ;  but 
this  abuse  does  not  disprove  their  divine  ori- 
ginal. 

SECTION  XXXI. 

OF  THE  JUSTICE  OF  GOD — (continued.) 

II.  The  Retributive  Justice  of  God. 

When  God  exhibits  his  approbation  of  such 
actions  as  correspond  with  his  laws,  and  his 
displeasure  at  such  actions  as  he  has  forbidden, 
we  see  his  retributive  justice.  This  approbation 
which  he  expresses  of  what  is  morally  good,  is 
called  reward;  his  disapprobation  expressed 
against  what  is  evil,  punishment.  The  former 
is  frequently  called  in  the  Bible  by  the  figure 
synecdoche,  uya'.t);  0fov,  and  the  latter,  6,)yr 
©foii,  IN,  M-n,  vn,  Rom.  i.  18;  ii.  8.  Those  who 
believe  in  the  existence  of  God  will  generally 
allow  that  he  is  not  only  the  supreme  ruler,  but 
also  the  disposer  oi  our  destiny  ;  that  our  happi- 
ness and  misery  are  in  his  power.  And  since 
we  find,  both  by  experience  and  observation, 
that  obedience  to  the  divine  commands  h.is 
happy  consequences,  and  disobedience  unhappv 
consequences,  we  conclude  that  God  rewards 
virtue  and  punishes  vice;  that  happiness  is  a 
proof  of  his  love,  and  misery  a  proof  of  his  dis- 
pleasure and  anger.  According  to  this  simple 
notion,  by  which  God  is  represented  as  acting 
after  the  manner  of  men,  the  language  of  the 
IJible  on  this  subject  is  to  be  understood  and 
explained.  This  notion  which  we  form  of  God, 
as  acting  after  the  manner  of  men,  and  which 
we  express  in  the  language  common  to  men, 
gives  rise  to  the  scholastic  division  of  the  di- 
vine justico,  into  rcmuneratiiria  and  punitiva. 
We  shall  here  exhibit  only  the  general  princi- 
ples upon  which  we  shall  procee4l  in  the  further 
discussion  of  this  subject  in  the  Article  on  Sin, 
s.  8t),  87,  where  a  history  of  this  doctrine  will 
be  given. 

1.   linnunrrfilirc  justice. 

When  God  rewards  good  actions  by  favours 
immediately  bestowed  or  promised  hereafter,  he 
ex'-rcisfs  his  remunerative  justice.  From  these 
blessings  bestowed  upon  tis  as  rewards,  we 
justly  conclude  that  our  actions  agree  with  the 
divine  will,  and  that  (Jod  loves  and  ajiproves  ns; 
and  by  these  blessings  we  are  thus  induced  to 
regulate  our  coniliiet  accoriling  to  the  divine 
commands:  this,  th<'n,  we  may  suppose  to  be 
the  obicct  which  God  has  in  view  in  the  bestow- 


ment  of  these  rewards.  Here  belong  the  follow- 
ing texts  of  scripture :  Ps.  xxxvii.  37  ;  Ixxiii.  24, 
spq.;  Hom.  ii.  (> — 10;  1  Cor.  iii.  8;  Hebrews, 
vi.  10 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  8,  &:c.  The  rewards  bestow- 
ed by  God  are  commonly  divided  into  natural 
and  positive.  Xatural  rewards  may  be  explained 
a^  follows  : — God  has  so  wisely  constituted  the 
natural  world,  that  good  actions  have  happy 
consequences ;  that  there  is  a  nexus  comnwdi 
NECESSARii  cum  bono,  sii'e  recte  facto,  as  .Morus 
expresses  it.  The  advantages  spoken  of  have 
their  ground  in  the  wise  constitution  which  ( Jod 
himself  has  given  to  the  natural  world,  and  are 
therefore  called  pricmia  naturolia,  sive  ordinnria. 
Among  these  natural  rewards  may  be  enume- 
rated, peace  and  tranquillity  of  mind,  the  appro- 
bation of  the  good,  the  enjoyment  of  external 
advantages,  bodily  strength  and  health,  increase 
of  possessions,  &c.  Vide  Ps.  xxxvii.  l(i — 10; 
cxii.  This  is  what  is  meant  by  saying,  Virtue 
rcirards  itself.  Positive  rewards  are  those  which 
stand  in  no  necessari/  connexion  with  the  actions 
of  men,  but  are  conferred  by  an  express  and 
particular  divine  appointment,  constitutiirg  what 
Morns  calls  the  nexus  cominodi  non  NECEssAtm 
cunt  bono,  sive  rede  facto.  The  question  is  here 
asked,  if  positive  rewards  are  ever  conferred 
(luring  the  present  life;  and  if  so,  what  they  are? 
'I'o  this  we  may  answer,  that  in  the  Christina 
dispensation  positive  rewards  during  the  jireaent 
life  are  not  universally  promised,  as  in  the  an- 
cient dispensation;  and  that  it  is  impossible  to 
determine,  in  any  particular  cases,  whether  a 
re\v;ird  is  positive  or  natural.  The  texts  com- 
monly cited  in  proof  of  present  positive  rewards 
refer  either  to  the  natural  consequences  of  virtue, 
(e.  g.,  1  Tim.  iv.  8;  Mark,  x.  2J»,  30;  Prov.  iii. 
2,  seq.,)  or  to  the  particular  promises  made  to 
the  .lews,  which  are  no  longer  valid,  (e.  g., 
Num.  xxviii.  5,  29;  Exod.  x.  23;  Ephes.  vi. 
2.)  But  when  speaking  of  the  rewards  of  the 
future,  world,  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament 
plainly  declare,  that  besides  the  natural  conse- 
quences of  good  actions  which  the  righteous 
will  enjoy,  God  will  bestow  upon  them  posiiivii 
rewards,  which  cannot  he  considered  as  the  nu 
/(/rff/ consequences  of  virtue.  Vide  Article  xv 
ThisreiTiunerative  justice  of  God  may  be  farlhei 
described  as  universal ;  the  smallest  virtues  of 
►■very  individual  man  rt'ill  be  rewarded,  for  they 
are  all  known  to  God,  Matt.  x.  42;  I  Cor.  iv. 
T);  Heb.  vi.  10.  It  is  n]so  impartial.  This  is 
called  in  the  Bilile,  arr|ioiu)rto>.r4ia  OfoO,  R"m. 
ii.  10,  II.  I'niike  human  judges,  who  are  ot'len 
deceived  by  external  appiarances,  (ind  rewards 
actions  according  to  their  iiiKri  worth,  and 
real,  internal  excellence.  The  fiill  display  of 
the  divine  justice,  either  in  rewards  or  pimish- 
ments,  is  not  seen  in  the  present  life;  but  is  re- 
served, as  we  are  laurrhl  in  the  Bible,  for  the 
future  world.     In  the  Bible  we  arc  also  taught 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


131 


that  our  present  life  is  but  the  feeble  commence- 
ment of  our  being;  and  that  by  far  the  largest 
und  most  important  part  of  our  existence — our 
Vila  vere  vitolis — will  hereafter  commence;  and 
we  are  thus  enabled  to  comprehend  what  would 
otherwise  be  inscrutable,  how  it  is  consistent 
with  the  justice  of  God  to  appoint  aflliciion  to 
the  righteous  and  prosperity  to  the  wicked,  as 
he  often  does  in  the  present  world.  Vide  the 
excellent  parable  of  the  tares  among  the  wheat, 
l\Iatt.  xiii.  21—30,  coll.  ver.  3G— 40;  Cf.  Rom. 
ii.  5— 12;  2  Thess.  i.  4—12;  Luke,  iv.  13,  14. 

2.  Penal  Justice. 

When  we  say  the  justice  of  God  is  exhibited 
in  punishment,  it  is  as  much  as  to  say  that  he 
causes  unhappiness  to  follow  upon  moral  evil, 
in  order  to  convince  men  that  he  disa|)proves  of 
disobedience  to  his  commands.  Ntclit  commoda 
bono,  sive  rectefuctis  ,•  incommodo  malo,  sive  male 
factis, 

1.  The  ends  of  God  in  punishing. 

God  punishes,  («)  in  order  to  prevent  or  di- 
minish moral  enl,  with  reference  therefore  to 
the  good  of  the  whole,  and  of  particular  indivi- 
duals. 1  Cor.  xi.  32,  KiJti'o^tffoi.  vno  Kl^>l.ov 
rtcubivo/xf^a,  liu  ftv  avv  79  xoaixa  xataxpi^uifuf — 
i.  e.,  the  divine  punishments  suspended  over  us 
are  intended  for  our  improvement,  and  unless, 
warned  by  tliem,  we  really  become  better,  we 
shall  fail  of  eternal  blessedness,  and  share  the 
fate  of  the  unbelieving  world.  Isaiah,  xxvi.  9, 
JVIien  thif  judgments  are  in  the  earth,  the  inhuhit- 
ants  V'ill  learn  rightcaiisness.  Ps.  cxix.  G7,  Be- 
fore I  WIS  ajji/cted  I  went  astray  ;  hut  now  have 
I  kept  thy  laiv,  lest  I  should  draw  upon  myself 
additional  ^'Jlictions.  Ver.  71,  It  is  good  for  me 
that  I  have  been  afflicted,  that  I  might  learn  thy 
statutes.  God  punishes  (i)  in  order  to  shew 
that  sin  is  displeasing  to  him,  and  that  only  the 
truly  obedient  can  count  upon  his  approbation; 
in  order,  therefore,  to  preserve  inviolate  among 
men  the  authority  of  his  benevolent  laws,  in- 
tended for  their  best  good.  And  since  nothing 
v,'an  be  more  important  or  desirable  to  men  than 
the  approbation  of  God,  he  is  actuated  by  the 
same  bcnevnience  in  punishing  with  this  intent 
as  with  the  former.  The  Bible  teaches  us  that 
God  has  this  end  in  view  in  the  punishments 
which  he  inflicts,  by  saying,  he  will  be  sanctified 
by  means  if  his  judgments.  Lev.  x.  3.  'J'his  is 
the  same  as  to  say  that  by  punisiring  men  he 
designs  to  be  seen  and  acknowledged  by  them 
as  a  holy  God.  or  as  one  who  disapproves  of 
wickedness.  The  same  thing  is  taught  in  Rom. 
1.  18,  AnnxaXvHTttai  opy^  @ioi — ini  nixnav 
a(ji'3feav  xal  ixhixuav  acjjotirtui'.  But  the  justice 
of  God  also  ref|iiires  that  as  he  rewards  tlie  good 
which  others  do  to  us  (s.  30),  he  should  also 
punish  the  evil  wiijcb  they  bring  ujion  us,  (2 
Th?s*  i.  6,  7 ;  Ps.  ix.  5,  seq.;'>  and  this  is 
16 


called,  in  the  popular  language  which  the  Bible 
employs,  his  revenge,  ixhixr^'^i.u  Rom.  xii.  19. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  true  final  cause  of 
the  divine  judgments  upon  men  is  their  moral 
improvement;  and  in  this  respect  it  may  bo 
said,  with  entire  truth,  that  the  penal  justice  of 
God  is  his  goodness,  wisely  proportioned  to  the  \ 
capacity  of  its  objects.  But  it  is  not  the  im- 
provement of  those  only  whom  he  punishes 
which  God  intends  in  the  judgments  which  he 
inflicts,  but  that  of  others  also,  who  may  take 
warning  from  these  examples.  So  that  even 
should  God  fail  of  his  object  in  reforming  the 
offender  himself,  he  would  still  benefit  others 
who  might  witness  the  punishntents  inflicted 
upon  him.  Vide  Ps.  1.  Ifi,  seq.;  lii.  0,  seq.; 
Rom.  ii.  4—6;  2  Pet.  ii.  lii.;  1  Cor.  x.  11, 
Now  all  these  punishments  were  infiictcd\i]wn  the 
Israelites  as  examples  (rvTtoi,  see  ver.  6)''to  us, 
who  live  in  the  latest  period  of  the  \Vorld,  (in 
New-Testament  times.)  Some  think,  with 
Michaelis,  (Gedanken  iiber  die  Lehre  der  beili- 
gen  Schrift  von  der  Siinde,  u.  s.  w.  Gottingen, 
1779,  Svo,)  that  the  final  cause  fif  tiie  divine 
judgments  is  not  so  much  to  benefit  and  reform 
the  offender,  as  to  terrify  and  deter  others  from 
the  commission  of  crime.  Michaelis  does  not 
indeed  deny  that  punishment  mi^ht  be  made  to 
promote  the  reformation  of  tiiose  who  are  the 
subjects  of  it;  but  he  still  tliinks  that  the  great 
end  which  is  contemplatrd  by  all  judicatories 
in  the  punishments  which  they  inflict  is  to  ter- 
rify and  deter  from  crime,  sometimes  the  male- 
fiictor  himself,  as  well  as  others,  but  more 
frequently,  others  only,  who  may  witness  his 
punishment.  And  this  is  indeed  true  with  re- 
gard to  human  judicatories,  which  have  no  such 
means  of  punishment  within  their  power  as  are 
calculated  for  the  reformation  of  the  culprit, 
and  can  therefore  only  hold  him  forth  as  an  ex- 
ample for  the  warning  of  others;  but  this  is  an 
imperfection  which  is  inevitable  to  these  judi- 
catories as  human,  and  ought  not  therefore  to  be 
transferred  to  the  divine  government.  It  is  in 
consequence  of  this  imperfection  incident  to 
human  judicatories,  by  wliich  they  are  driven 
to  consult  for  the  good  of  the  whnle,  exclusive 
of  that  of  the  crimtnal,  that  they  must  often  in- 
flict upon  him  severer  penalties  than  his  own 
benefit  would  require,  iperely  f"r  the  sake  of 
the  salutary  influence  of  his  punishment  on  the 
minds  of  others.  That  tliey  are  thus  compelled 
to  sacrifice  an  individual  to  the  general  gO(..d 
is  certainly  an  evidence  of  imperfection.  Just 
at  that  point  where  punishment  ceases  to  be 
salutary  to  the  person  who  endures  it,  however 
salutary  it  may  be  to  others  as  an  example — 
just  at  that  point  does  it  become  an  evidence 
of  the  ignorance  and  imperfection  of  those  by 
whom  it  is  inflicted.     But  how  can  we  suppose 


U2 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGV 


hat  Goil,  who  knows  what  kinds  of  piinish- 
mer.>  \re  necessary  for  the  benefit  of  the  offend- 
er, and  who  has  every  mode  of  punishment  at 
command,  would  ever  punish  any  one  more  se- 
verely than  was  necessary  for  his  own  profit, 
merely  for  the  sake  of  makin<j  hiin  a  terrible 
example  to  others T  None  upon  whom  he 
inflicts  punishment,  with  their  good  in  view, 
will  fail  of  being  benefited  by  it,  unless  througii 
their  own  fault;  for  he  employs  those  means 
only  which  are  calculated  to  produce  this  effect, 
and  is  liable  in  the  choice  of  means  to  none  of 
those  mistakes  and  imperfections  to  which 
human  judicatories  are  subject.  We  cannot, 
therefore,  make  these  human  judicatories  our 
standard  of  judging  respecting  the  divine  go- 
vernment. The  Judicial  aulhority  of  God  does 
not  rest  on  the  same  basis  as  that  of  human 
rulers;  and  in  the  judgments  which  he  intlicts 
none  of  the  imperfections  of  human  judgments 
appear.  We  should  avoid  many  mistakes  if, 
when  we  speak  even  of  the  justice  of  God,  we 
should  represent  him  less  under  the  image  of  a 
judge  than  of  a  father,  who,  as  we  are  taught 
in  the  Bible,  is  "good  even  in  his  judgments," 
Ps.  cxix.  .'J9.  The  benevolence  by  which  God 
is  actuated  in  his  severest  inllietiuns  is  im])lied 
in  the  very  words  by  which  his  chastisement  is 
denoted — e.  g.,  rtaibna,  Hebrews,  xii.  5 — 11; 
and  dnoTouta,  Rom.  xi.  22.  The  representation 
of  God  under  the  image  of  a  judge  is  not,  how- 
ever, in  itself  objectionable,  hut  only  on  account 
of  its  liability  to  abuse.  It  is  very  natural  to 
men,  as  we  see  from  the  present  example,  to 
transfer  to  God  the  extremely  defective  ideal 
which  they  have  derived  from  human  rulers; 
and  i-t  will  therefore  be  wiser  for  religious 
teachers  to  re|)respnt  God  under  the  image  of  a 
father,  at  least  to  those  who  ^tjp  virtuous,  and  of 
a  nature  to  be  influenced  by  kindness  and  love, 
and  to  reserve  the  image  of  a  severe  and  right- 
eous judge  for  rude  and  intractable  men,  who 
are  incapable  of  being  influenced  by  anything 
but  terror. 

Xiite  1, — Persons  cannot  be  said  to  be  punish- 
ed when  they  suffer  without  any  fault  of  their 
own,  but  only  when  they  suffer  in  consefjuence 
of  their  wick^-dness.  The  v^elrhedness  which 
the  prodigal  son  brought  upon  himself  (Luke, 
XV.)  is  properly  called  punishment ;  while  the 
same  wretchedness  befalling  an  innocent  person 
would  properly  be  denominated  cfiluniiti/.  The 
Bible  teaches  us  very  justly  and  satisfactorily 
how  such  evils  aiwl  sufferings  as  befall  the  vir- 
tuous must  be  understood  and  improved  by  them 
and  by  others.  'I'he  wise  father,  in  the  educa- 
tion of  his  children,  often  finds  it  necessary  to 
treat  even  the  dutiful  with  severity,  in  order  to 
promote  their  present  advantage  ami  real  per- 
manent welfare.  In  the  same  manner  does  (Jod 
often  set;  it  necessary,  for  wise  reasons,  to  exer- 


cise severity  towards  those  whom  he  is  edu» 
eating,  and  to  im|)ose  suflerings  u|)on  them.  Ho 
sees  that  afflictions  will  tend  to  promote  their 
holiness,  strengthen  their  faith,  and  restrain  theii 
sinful  propensities,  llabeni  taliu  vim  di>>ciijlinx, 
Morus,  p.  50.  This  is  the  view  of  the  chastise- 
ment we  receive  from  God,  which  is  given  U8 
by  Paul  in  that  excellent  passage,  Heb.  xii. 
J — 11.  He  there  calls  the  discipline  which  we 
receive,  rta.ibft.av,  falhcr/y  correction,  znd  com- 
pares the  conduct  of  God  towards  men  with 
that  of  a  father.  Ver.  C,  "0»'  oYartui  Kvptoj, 
rtttiSfvft.  Ver.  7,  Tij  iativ  vi6j,  uv  ov  rtowSfVft 
rtarrfi.  In  ver.  10  the  apostle  teaches  that 
God  punishes  ini  to  av/x^tpov  and  proceeds, 
ver.  11,  to  say,  rt(u8tt.a  ov  6oxfi  ^jofaj  ilfoi, 
vTrfpoc  6i  xapriou  ii(irjvi,x6v  urto6i.6io'?i,  x.  t.  X. 
The  goodness  and  justice  of  God  which  appear 
in  the  allotment  of  such  evils  to  men,  is  hence 
called  by  some  theologians,  ^ws/i/ia  paejeutica, 
or  pxilaguirica.  The  justice  of  God,  when 
thus  exercised,  has  the  same  object  with  his 
penal  justice — viz.,  the  improvement  and  moral 
perfection  of  men;  but  it  differs  from  that  in  its 
internal  nature  and  character,  as  appears  from 
what  has  been  said,  'i'here  is  an  endless  diver- 
sity in  the  characters  of  men;  and  in  his  treat- 
ment of  them  God  governs  himself  according  to 
this  difference  of  their  characters,  and  guides 
them  to  happiness  through  different  ways,  and 
by  different  means  ;  and  in  doing  this  he  clearly 
exliil)its  his  wisdom  and  goodness.  This  truth 
is  strikingly  illustrated  in  Isa.  xxviii.  -^3 — H'J. 
As  the  husbandman  cannot  treat  all  his  lands 
and  all  his  fruits  in  the  same  manner,  so  neither 
can  God  treat  all  men  alike  ;  but  while  he  seeks* 
for  the  improvement  of  all,  he  promotes  it  in  one 
by  prosperity,  in  another  l)y  adversity. 

[.Vo/c  2. — The  causes  for  which  God  does 
anything,  and  also  the  enda  which  he  would  at- 
tain, may  be  sought  either  in  himself  ox  wil/tuut 
himself,  in  the  world  which  he  has  made ;  in 
other  words,  they  are  either  stthjective  or  ohjec 
live.  But  because  he  is  entirely  independent 
and  absolutely  perfect,  the  highest  and  last 
grounds  of  what  he  does  must  be  sought  in  his 
own  nature ;  and  to  these  the  objective  reasons 
of  his  conduct  must  be  subordinate.  And  so, 
when  we  inquire  for  the  final  cause  of  the  re- 
wards and  |)unishinents  which  (fod  distributes 
in  the  exercise  of  his  retributive  justice,  we  must 
look  for  it  in  God  himself;  and  to  this  we  must 
suborilinate  any  ends  for  this  exercise  which 
may  be  derived  from  the  world  which  ("od  has 
created.  Now  the  nature  of  (Jod,  in  which  tlie 
last  ground  of  his  retributive  justice  is  to  be 
sr)uglit,  has  infinite  moral  perfection;  for  this 
perfect  moral  excellence  residing  in  his  nature 
God  must  have  supreme  regard  and  ansoluie 
love,  and  conse(jnenlly  he  must  feel  an  absolute 
pleasure  in  what  is  morally  good,  and  displea 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


133 


Bure  in  what  is  morally  evil.  This  necessary 
love  to  what  is  morally  perfect  is,  then,  the  last 
ground  oi  the  divine  justice.  But  in  order  to 
be  consistent,  he  must  act  accordinjj  to  this  love, 
and  exhibit  to  the  view  of  his  moral  creatures 
his  approbation  of  good  and  disapprobation  of 
evil  ;  and  this  is  the  last  end  oi  the  retribution 
which  he  awards.  And  if  there  were  no  refor- 
mation of  the  individual  otTender,  no  warning- 
of  others,  or  any  objt  ctive  ground  for  the  exer- 
cise of  retributive  justice,  there  would  be  suffi- 
cient ground  for  all  that  God  does  either  to 
punisii  or  reward,  in  his  own  absolute  love  of 
moral  good  and  hatred  of  moral  evil.  The  re- 
presentations of  the  Bible  would  certainly  lead 
us  to  think  that  the  feelings  which  prompt  him 
in  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  are,  his  holy 
disapprobation  of  their  conduct — his  necessary 
hatred  of  their  moral  ciiaracter.  And  Avhen  we 
enter  into  the  feelings  of  the  guilty  subject  of 
the  divine  judgments,  does  he  not  find  reason 
enough  in  his  own  ill-desert  for  all  which  God 
inflicts  upon  him  ;  and  would  not  all  which  he 
endures  be  sufficiently  understood  by  him,  if  no 
advantage  to  himself  or  others  occurred  to  his 
mind  ]  The  justice  of  God  is  an  absolute  attri- 
bute, and  demands  itself  to  be  satisfied  ;  and  mo- 
ral evil  has  a  real,  intrinsic  ill-desert,  and  ought 
to  be  ])unished.  That  (iod  has  sometimes  the 
reformation  of  the  offender  in  view  in  the  pu- 
nisiiment  which  lie  inflicts,  and  that  he  seeks 
the  moral  perficiion  of  men  in  the  displays  of 
his  attributes,  is  perfectly  true;  these  ends,  how- 
ever, so  far  from  being  the  only  or  the  highest 
reasons  of  retribution,  are  subordinate  to  the  sa- 
tisfaction of  divine  justice. — Tr.] 

2.  The  different  kinds  of  punishment  which 
God  inflicts. 

(«)  Aalural — i.  e.,  such  unhappy  conse- 
quences as  flow  from  the  internal  nature  of  sin- 
ful actions;  incommoda  nccessaria  vialo,  site 
mule  fadis,  ncxa,  as  Morus  describes  them. 
These,  like  natural  rewards,  have  their  ground 
in  the  wise  constitution  which  God  himself  has 
given  to  the  natural  world.  That  natural  pu- 
nishments are  really  inflicted  is  shewn  by  daily 
experience.  Sin  everywhere  draws  upon  itself 
remorse,  disgrace,  bodily  disease,  &c.  And 
these  natural  consequences  of  sin,  like  the  na- 
tural conseijuences  of  virtue,  are  greater  than  is 
commonly  supposed,  and  often  unlimited  in  their 
extent,  as  will  bo  hereafter  shewn  in  connexion 
with  the  doctrine  of  endless  future  punishment. 
•'  S;n  punislies  itself." 

(/;)  Fosilive,  arbilrary — i.  e.,  snch  as  stand 
in  no  natural  and  necessary  connexion  with  the 
binful  actions  of  men,  or  which  do  not  flow 
from  the  internal  nature  of  such  ac  lions,  but  are 
connected  with  liiem  by  the  mi  re  will  of  the 
legislator,  and  are  additional  to  tin-  natural  con- 
sequeices  of  sin.     According  tu  the  common 


theory  on  this  subject,  with  which  the  Bible 
agrees,  such  positive  divine  judgments  are  in- 
flicted by  God,  on  account  of  tlie  inadequacy  of 
natural  judgments  alone  to  eflect  the  moral  im- 
provement of  men,  and  to  deter  them  from  sin. 
In  order,  therefore,  to  preserve  in\iolate  the 
authority  of  his  law,  he  connected  positive  judg- 
ments with  the  natural  consequences  of  sin, 
which  alone  were  insuflicient  for  this  purpose. 
In  the  infliction  of  these  arbilrary  sufferings,  he 
is  governed  by  the  rules  of  infinite  wisdom  and 
love,  and  not  by  blind  caprice. 

Positive  punishments  are  divided  \x\\.o  present 
and  future.  The  present  are  those  which  take 
place  in  this  life;'  and  in  proof  of  them  we  may 
refer  to  the  passages  of  the  Old  Testament 
where  they  are  threatened  to  the  disobedient  Is- 
raelites— e.  g.,  2  Sam.  xii.  10,  11,  14;  Acts,  v 
5,  9;  1  Cor.  vi.  3—5. 

Future  positive  punishments  are  those  which 
are  threatened  in  the  next  world.  From  many 
expressions  of  the  New  Testament  we  are  un- 
doubtedly led  to  expect  positive  punisiiments  in 
the  future  world.  Cf.  Art.  xv.  It  must  cer- 
tainly be  considered  inconsistent  for  any  one  to 
object  to  positive  ])unishments  in  anotiier  world 
who  expects  positive  rewards.  Such  an  one 
has  certainly  very  much  the  appearance  of  con- 
forming his  belief  to  liis  wishes,  and  of  admit- 
ting positive  rewards  because  he  desires  them, 
and  denying  positive  punishments  because  he 
fears  them. 

It  was  with  reference  to  the  positive  punish- 
ments of  sin  tiiat  the  atonement  of  Christ  was 
principally  made;  for  the  natural  coiisciiuences 
of  sin  are  not  wlioliy  removed  by  virtue  of  his 
death.  The  bodily  disorders  incurred  by  the 
sinner  in  consequence  of  his  vices  do  not  wholly 
cease,  though  they  may  indeed  be  abated  and 
alleviated  by  his  becoming  a  sincere  believer  in 
Christ  as  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  Those  who 
deny  the  existence  of  positive  ))unisiiments 
hereafter  consider  that  Christ  by  his  atonement 
has  freed  us  merely  from  they". ar  of  punish- 
ment— a  notion  w  hich  is  inconsistent  with  the 
declarations  of  the  New  Testament,  as  will  be 
shewn  in  the  Article  respecting  Christ. 

In  speaking  of  ihe  jjositive  divine  judgments 
which  take  place  in  thin  life,  the  teacher  of  reli- 
gion is  liable  to  do  injury,  and  should  therefore 
wisely  consider  his  words.  It  is  true,  doubt- 
less, that  positive  punishments  do  take  place  in 
the  present  world  ;  but  it  is  also  true  that  we  are 
unable,  in  given  cases,  to  determine  decisively 
whether  the  sufferings  which  we  witness  are,  or 
are  not,  positive  judgments  from  the  hand  of 
God.  To  consider  plague,  famine,  and  physical 
evils  of  every  sort  befalling  an  individual  oi 
nation  as  in  every  case  the  consequence  of  moral 
evil,  is  an  error  to  which  the  multitude  is  much 
inclined.     They  Irequently  refer  in  these  cases 


124 


CHRISTIAN  TFlEOLOrn. 


to  the  very  sins  which  have  occasioned  these 
divine  judo^ments,  as  thej'  denominate  the.cala- 
miiies  which  befall  their  fellow  men.     And  this 
injurious  prejudice  has  been  not  a  little  strength- 
ened by  the  incautious  manner  in  which   the 
teachers  of  relinrion  have  sometimes  spoken  on 
this  subject.     It  is  perfectly  right  to  consider 
pestilence  in  general  as  a  divine  judgment,  and 
for  the  religious  teacher,  during  such  visitations 
from  God,  to  remind  men  of  their  sins ;  but  it  is 
not  right  to  pronounce,  as  it  were,  a  definite 
judicial  sentence  upon  the  guilt  of  a  particular 
person  or  country   visited  in  such  a  manner. 
Experience  and  scripture  both  disapprove  of 
this ;  for  we  often  see  that  these  calamities  cease 
before  the  alleged  cause  of  them  is  removed; 
and  they  befall  the  good  and  bad  equally,  and 
without  distinction.     As  God  causes  the  sun  to 
shine  and  the  rain  to  descend  upon  the  evil  and 
the  good,  so  he  sends  tempest,  flood,  and  con- 
flagration, upon  one  as  well  as  the  other.     In- 
deed, the  best  men  often  suffer,  while  the  worst 
prosper;  from  which  the  fair  conclusion  is,  that 
nothing  can  be  determined  concerning  the  moral 
character  of  men  from  the  allotment  of  their  ex- 
ternal fircumstances.     Vide  No.  I.  of  this  sec- 
tion.  The  sacred  writers  concur  entirely  in  these 
views.     The  friends  of  Job  concluded  from  his 
bodily  ills  that  he  must  have  committed  great 
sins;  but  Job  shews  (v.  10,  12)  that  God  often 
visits  persons  with  suflerings   which   are  not 
occasioned  by  their  sins.     Christ  says,  Luke, 
xiii.  2,  1,  that  the  Galileans  whom  Pilate  had 
caused  to  be  executed   at  Jerusalem,  and   the 
eighteen  men  upon  whom  a  tower  had  fallen, 
were  not  sinners  more  than  others  because  they 
had   suffered   these  things.     He  corrected  his 
disciples  when  they  ascribed  the  misfortune  of 
the  man  born  blind  to  the  sin  of  his  parents, 
and  taught  them  that  they  ought  not  to  conclude 
that  |)arii''ular  misfortunes  were  the  sure  conse- 
quence of  particular  crimes,  John,  ix.  3.     Those 
who  advocate  the  practice  to  which  allusion  has 
been  made  cannot  justly  plead  in  their  defence 
the  pass;ifTes  in  the  Old  Testament,  where  pest, 
famine,  failure  of  the  harvest,  destruction  by 
enemies,  and  various  other  positive  punishments 
in  this  life  are  frequently  threatened  for  certain 
definite  transgressions  of  the  divine  commands  ; 
for  we  have  now  no  prophets  to  come  forth  among 
us, as  among  the  Israelites, as  the  messengers  and 
authorized  ambassadors  of  God.     The  civil  go- 
vernment of  the  Israelites  was  theocratic — i.  e., 
God  was  acknowledged  by  the  Israelites  to  he 
their  civil  ruler ;  and  the  leaders  ofnbeir  armios, 
their  earthly,  kings,  their  priests  and  prophets, 
were  considered  by  them  as  his  authorized  ser- 
vants.    Hence  all  their  laws  were  published  in 
the  name  of  God — i.  e.,  at  the  divine  command, 
and   under  the  divine  authority.     And  in   the 
same  manner  the  temporal  rewards  connected 


with  obedience,  and  the  temporal  punisliinentfi 
connected  with  disobedience,  were  announced 
as  coming  from  him.  From  what  has  been 
said,  we  draw  the  conclusion,  that  external 
blessings  or  calanjities  are  not  to  he  considered 
in  particular  cases  as  the  reward  of  good  actions, 
or  the  punishment  of  bad,  except  where  (Jod  has 
expressly  declared  that  these  very  blessings,  or 
these  very  calamities,  are  allotted  to  this  indivi- 
dual person,  on  account  of  tlie  good  or  bad  ac- 
tion specified  ;  as  Lev.  xxvi..  Ueut.  xxviii..  Re- 
velation, ii.  22,  23.  Additional  remarks  con- 
cerning natural  and  positive  punishments  will 
be  made  in  the  Article  on  Sin,  s.  80,  bT. 


APPENDIX. 
SECT.  XXXII. 

OF    THE    DECREES    OF    GOD. 

The  doctrine  of  the  divine  decrees  depends 
upon  the  freedom  of  the  will  of  God,  and  upon 
his  wisdom,  goodness,  and  justice.  It  may 
therefore  properly  succeed  the  discussion  of 
these  subjects  in  the  foregoing  sections. 

I.  General  Statement,  and  Scholastic  Didsion.f. 

1.  /)c^;w7»t;nof  the  decrees  of  God.  By  these 
we  mean,  l/ie  will  of  God  t/ial  anylhitu:  shmild 
come  into  existence,  or  be  accomplished,  (Morus, 
p.  51,)  or,  the  free  determinations  of  God  re- 
specting the  existence  of  any  object  extrinsic  to 
himself. 

2.  The  nature  and  attributes  of  the  divine  de- 
crees. These  are  the  same  as  were  ascribed  to 
the  divine  will,  because  the  decrees  of  (rod  are 
only  expressions  of  his  will.  The  decrees  of 
(«od  are,  properly  speaking,  (rt)  only  ow  sfin^le 
decree.  They  were  all  made  at  one  and  the 
same  time.  Before  we  can  come  to  a  determina- 
tion of  the  will,  it  is  often  necessary  for  us  to 
institute  laborious  investigations  and  inquiries, 
since  we  cannot  survey  all  the  reasons  gn  both 
sides  of  a  subject  at  a  single  glance.  And  it  is 
on  account  of  this  limitation  of  our  understand- 
ings that  all  our  determinalicms  are  successive. 
Hut  no  such  succession  takes  place  in  the  inind 
of  God  ;  he  knows  all  things  at  once.  Vidt  s. 
22.  And  90,  properly  sjieaking,  the  decree  to 
make  the  world,  and  every  single  decree  re- 
specting everything  which  exists,  or  has  been 
done  in  it  from  the  beginning,  are  only  "ue  tn- 
lire  decree.     Mut  we  represent  to  our  minds  a« 

I  many  diflerent  decrees  as  there  are  particuhira 

I  comprehended  in  this  one  univers.il  decree.     {Ii) 

I  The  divine  decrees  nre  free.     Nothing  can  cnni- 

I  * 

I  |>el    God    lo   decree    what   is   c<mtrary    ti>    h\% 

will  or  understanding.     His  decrees,  however. 

I  though  free,  are  never  blind  and    •^ruundlcsa. 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATrRIBUTES. 


125 


VWc  s.  -26.  Cf.  Eplies.  i.  5 ;  2  Tim.  i.  9.  (c) 
They  are  benevolent,  always  intended  for  the 
good  of  the  creatures  of  God,  Ephes.  i.,  Rom. 
viii.,  ix.  That  they  are  so  follows  from  the 
goodness,  holiness,  and  justice  of  God;  s. 
28 — 31  inclusive,  {d)  Eternal  and  unalterable. 
Vide  s.  20,  and  especialijr  s.  26,  ad  finem.  Cf. 
Morus,  p.  53,  s.  15.  Whence  the  Bible  often 
says,  God  determined  such  a  thing,  npo  xata- 
PoXr-c  xo'juov,  Ephes.  i.  4  ?  dn'  or  rt\>6  oiwi'wv. 
npo,  ill  rtpoyivwtjzfiv,  rtpoopi^fij',  x.  T.  X.,  denotes 
the  same  thing.  God  existed  from  eternity; 
and  as  he  exists  without  succession  of  time,  all 
of  his  decrees  must  be  as  eternal  as  himself, 
and  as  immutable  as  his  own  nature.  Rom. 
xi.  29,aueraft.iXr]ra.  Heb.  vi.  IT, to  a^if rd^erov 
Tr^i j3ov7:YJiQeov.  (e)  Unsearchable,  avt^f^^ivvr^ra, 
ii.v(%iyji.a(ita.,  Romans,  xi.  33 — 36  ;  /3ai»;  0fov, 
1  Cor.  ii.  10  ;  Isaiah,  Iv.  8.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  46, 
6.  10.  note  4.  We  see  but  a  small  part  of  the 
immeasurable  whole  which  God  surveys  at  a 
glance,  and  are  incapable,  therefore,  of  compre- 
hendiii;X.  in  its  whole  extent,  the  immeasurable 
and  eturnal  plan  of  God,  or  of  determining  a 
priori  what  he  ought  to  have  decreed.  The 
attempt  to  decide  what  God  has  determined  to 
be  done  by  conclusions  drawn  from  particular 
attributes  of  his  nature,  of  which  we  have  such 
imperft-ct  notions  in  our  present  state,  is  attend- 
ed with  tiie  greatest  danger  of  mistake.  For  us 
to  undertake  to  say  that  this  and  the  other  thing 
is  good  and  desirable,  and  therefore  must  be, 
or  has  been,  done  by  God,  is  what  the  Bible 
calls  wishing  to  teach  God,  1  Cor.  ii.  16.  We 
can  learn  what  God  has  actually  decreed  only 
from  seeing  what  events  have  actually  taken 
place.  From  the  existence  of  the  world,  we 
conclude  that  God  decreed  to  create  it;  from  the 
existence  of  evil,  we  conclude  that  God  decreed 
to  permit  it,  &c.  And  although  we  are  taught 
expressly  in  the  Bible  that  God  decreed  to  send 
Christ  into  the  world,  (1  Cor.  ii.  9,  seq.,)  we 
are  also  taught  to  note  the  event,  the  rfficts  of  his 
mission,  and  from  thence  to  conclude  what  the 
will  and  purpose  of  God  is. 

3.  Division  of  the  divine  decrees.  They  are 
divided,  as  far  as  they  relate  to  moral  beings, 
into  absolute  and  conditional,  like  the  divine 
will.     Vide  s.  25,  II.  2. 

(a)  Absolute  decrees  are  not  such  as  are  made 
without  reason  in  the  exercise'  of  arbitrary 
power,  but  such  as  are  made  without  reference 
to  the  free  actions  of  moral  beings,  or  without 
being  dependent  for  their  accomplishment  upon 
a  condition.  The  decrees  of  God  to  create  the 
world,  to  send  Christ  to  redeem  it,  to  bestow 
external  prosperity,  advantages  for  intellectual 
improvement,  or  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel, 
upon  one  people  or  individual,  and  to  deny  them 
to  another,  and  all  his  determinations  of  this 
nature,  are  called  absolute  decrees;  because. 


though  made  in  view  of  wise  and  good  reasons, 
they  do  not  depend  for  their  accomplishment 
upon  the  free  actions  and  the  true  character  of 
moral  beings.  In  the  allotment  of  temporal  or 
earthly  good,  riches,  honour,  health,  k.c.,  tlie 
rule  by  which  God  proceeds  is  not  always  the 
worthiness  of  men.  We  do  not  mean  thai  virtue 
always  and  necessarily  induces  suffering  and 
persecution,  (as  some  have  concluded,  from  a 
false  interpretation  of  such  texts  as  Matt.  v.  10, 
seq.;  2  Tim.  iii.  12,  &.c.)  Pure  Christian  vir- 
tue, on  the  contrary,  often  brings  along  with  it 
great  temporal  advantages,  Rom.  xii.  IT,  seq. 
We  simply  mean,  that  in  imparting  these  exter- 
nal advantages,  God  is  often  governed  by  olliei 
principles  than  regard  to  the  obedience  or  dis- 
obedience of  his  moral  creatures. 

(i)  Conditional  decrees  are  those  in  making 
which  God  has  respect  to  the  free  actions  of 
moral  beings.  These  conditional  decrees  are 
founded  u|)on  that  fore-knowledge  of  the  free 
actions  of  men  which  we  are  compelled  to  as- 
cribe to  God.  Vide  s.  22.  God  foresaw  from 
eternity  how  every  man  would  act,  and  whether 
he  would  comply  with  the  conditions  nnder 
which  the  designs  of  God  concerning  him  would 
take  effect,  or  would  reject  them  ;  and  upon  this 
fore-knowledge  he  founded  his  decree.  Of  litis 
cl<iss  are  the  decrees  of  God  respecting  the 
spiritual  and  eternal  welfare  of  men.  They  are 
always  founded  upon  the  free  conduct  of  men, 
and  are  never  absolute,  but  always  conditional. 
We  are  not,  however,  to  regard  these  spiritual 
gifts  as  in  any  sense  deserved  by  the  moral 
agent,  when  he  coinplies  with  the  prescribed 
conditions ;  Luke,  xvii.  10.  The  decree  re- 
specting the  eternal  welfare  of  men  is  called,  by 
way  of  eminence,  predestination,  in  the  limited 
sense;  for  all  God's  eternal  decrees  are  called 
predestination  in  the  larger  sense.  This  name 
has  been  used,  in  this  more  limited  sense  espe- 
cially, since  the  time  of  Augustine;  from  the 
fact  that  the  word  prscdestinarv  was  employed 
by  the  Vulgate  to  render  the  Greek  rt|joo,)(^fir, 
in  Rom.  viii.  29,  30,  which  was  then  referred 
to  the  decrees  of  God  respecting  the  salvation 
and  condemnation  of  men.  The  decree  of  God 
respecting  the  eternal  blessedness  of  the  pious, 
was  then  called  eleetio,  decretum  electionis,  pre- 
destinatio  ad  vitam.  The  decree  respecting  the 
punishment  of  sinners  in  the  future  world  was 
called  reprobntio,  decretum  reprobationis,  prcdes- 
tinatio  ad  mortem.  These  words  too  are  de- 
rived from  the  New  Testament,  especially  from 
Rom.  viii. ;  where,  however,  they  are  used  in  a 
different  sense.  The  election,  ixXoyr,  there 
spoken  of,  is  the  gracious  reception  ot  Jews  and 
heathen  into  the  Christian  society;  and  the  re- 
jection is  the  denial  or  withdrawment  of  this 
and  f.ther  divine  blessings,  as  will  appear  trom 
No.  II. 

l2 


12f5 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


II.  Scriptural  Rrprenenfaiinn,  and  the  Errors  occa- 
sioned by  False  Interpretation. 

1.  Scriptural  representalian. 

The  following  are  the  principal  expressions 
employed  in  the  Bible  in  relation  to  the  decrees 
of  God.  (ff)  All  the  words  which  signify  to 
say,  speak,  command.  The  phrase,  God  says, 
often  means,  he  vills,  lie  decrees,  Ps.  xxxiii.  9. 
So  frequently  lat,  rnx*;,  iji.  (/y)  The  words 
which  signify  to  think,  are  often  used  to  denote 
the  divine  decrees;  as  n::^,  r>3rnr,  StaXoytiuoi, 
Ps.  xxxiii.  10,  1 1 ;  Is.  I  v.  8.  Hence  the  phrases, 
to  sp^ak  wilk  one's  self,  to  say  tn  one's  heart,  often 
mean,  to  consider,  determine.  Sayin<r  in  his 
heart,  was  the  manner  in  which  the  Hebrew  de- 
noted thinking — an  instance  of  the  ancient  sim- 
plicity of  lann^uatre,  corresponding  with  the 
phrase  of  the  Otaheitans,  speakinir  in  one\'i  belly. 
(c)  Kpi,ua,  STC*!:,  sen/ence  ,•  representing  God  as 
a  judge  or  ruler,  who  publishes  edicts  and  pro- 
nounces sentence;  Ps.  xxxvi.  6,  7;  Rom.  xi. 
33.  (f/)  OSoj,  T(i,  icay.  The  ivay  of  God  sig- 
nifies  his  manner  of  thinking  or  acting,  his  con- 
duct ;  Ps.  cxlv.  17,  "  Gracious  is  Jehovah  in  all 
his  wnys'^ — i.  e.,  decrees;  Rom.  xi.  33,  oSot 
f&roO  a.i'f?i;^i'i.a'7-j'06. 

(e)  The  following  occur  more  frequently  in 
the  New  Testament:  ei-Krjua,  fvSoxc'a,  in  He- 
brew, ycri,  )ii-\,  used  particularly  to  denote  God's 
gracious  purpose.  Vide  s.  25.  ripo^fjij,  Ephes. 
i.  11,  where  it  is  synonymous  with  jiovXr^  ^i%ri- 
fiaroi,  2  Tim.  i.  9,  scq.,  and  Rom.  ix.  11,  iW  r 
tov  &fov  ^-fpo!^€3tf  xat'  (xXoyriv  f^ii'y] — i.  e.,  so 
that  the  (iivine  purpose  must  remain  free,  must 
be  acknowledged  to  be  according  to  his  own 
choice,  npoyivw-yxiiv.  This  verb,  like  the  He- 
brew ?■",  and  yi'tliiai  and  nfiivai,  very  frequently 
Bignifies  to  decree,  (metonymia  caussae  pro 
effectu.)  In  this  sense  it  is  often  used  by  Philo. 
In  Acts,  ii.  23,  it  is  used  to  denote  the  purpose 
of  God,  that  Christ  should  suflTer  and  die. 
Now  since  the  verba  cognoscendi  frequently  sig- 
nify, among  the  Hebrews,  to  love,  to  wish  well, 
jtpoyvuiii  very  often  signifies,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, t/ie  i^aciints  and  benevolent  purpose  of 
God,  which  he  entertained  from  eternity  for  the 
welfare  of  men.  Thus  rtpoyiuTi;  in  1  Pet.  i.  2, 
denotes  the  gracious  purpose  of  God  respecting 
the  admission  of  men  to  the  privileges  of  the 
Christian  church ;  Rom.  viii.  29,  ovj  rrpofyiu, 
/(/.<  beloved,  those  whose  welfare  he  seeks  ;  Rom. 
xi.  2.  'Opi'C'H'  and  Tt^ioopi^nv,  commonly  ren- 
dered in  the  Vulgate  pr.rdestinare.  '0|)iCft>'  is 
to  d  tcrmine,  in  the  general  sense;  and  in  this 
sense  it  is  said.  Acts,  xi.  29,  that  the  apostles 
wpt-iav  X.  r.  X.  The  divine  purpose  is  therefore 
called  itpiifiivr;  3(n'>.»;,  dicretum  voluntatis  divin;r. 
Acts,  ii.  23.  In  the  classics,  opinuof  is  purpose, 
determination,  npoopi^fiv  is  properly  decernrre 
antrquam  existal ;  because  the  dt'crees  of  Go«l 
are  eternal,  as,  Acts,  iv.  28,  the  Jews  conspired 


to  do  »*  whatever  thy  counsel  jtpoiipcjf  yjvf  jS<u, 
b'fore  determined  to  be  done.''''  The  won!  ?r,-iOopi- 
ffH',  when  used  in  refi?rence  to  men,  never  de- 
notes exclupively  the  divine  purpose  respecting 
lhe\T  eternal  salvation  or  condemnulion,  but  rather 
respecting  their  admission  to  the  Christian 
church,  to  partake  both  of  the  rights  ami  privi- 
leges, and  also  of  the  sorrows  and  sutlVrin^s  of 
Christians.  So  it  is  used,  Ephes.  i.  5,  n  joopi^aj 
rua^  ti^  vto^fltai'  Sia  'Ir^/jov  XpcjToi' — i.  C,  lie 
purposed  to  bring  us  into  the  Christian  church, 
and  thus  to  make  us  his  children — his  beloved 
friends.  That  this  is  the  meaning  of  the  apos- 
tle appears  from  verses  II,  12.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  passage,  Romans,  ix.,  which  does 
not  treat  of  the  eternal  salvation  or  condemnation 
of  men,  but  of  the  temporal  benefits,  and  the  ex- 
ternal civil  and  church  privileges,  which  God 
confers  upon  particular  persons  and  nations  in 
preference  to  others.  Vide  s.  26.  The  passage, 
Rom.  viii.  28,  29,  seq.,  so  often  and  entirely 
misunderstood,  must  be  interpreted  in  a  similar 
manner.  Paul  had  spoken,  verses  19,  20.  seq., 
of  the  sufferings  and  persecutions  which  Chris- 
tians were  at  that  time  called  to  endure.  He 
endeavours  to  console  them  in  the  midst  of  their 
distresses,  and  to  show  the  blessedness  in 
which  their  afflictions  might  result.  "  We  are 
confident  that  all  things  (even  afflictions  and 
persecutions)  will  conspire  for  the  good  of  those 
who  love  God,  and  are  called,  in  j)ursuance  of 
the  purpose  of  God,  to  partake  of  Christian  pri- 
vileges, [toi^  xara.  rtjiobfatr  x>.>;Totj  ov'^iv.)  For 
he  has  predestinated  (rtpowpcif)  us,  whom  he 
thus  graciously  regarded  from  eternity  (rtjiotyru), 
to  be  conformed  to  the  example  of  his  Son, 
(viz.,  as  in  suffering,  so  in  reward,)  whom  God 
has  designed  to  be  the  forerunner  (rtporoToxoi) 
of  his  many  brethren,  (first  in  suffering,  then  in 
reward.)  But  those  whom  he  thus  destined 
(to  a  fellowship  in  the  sufferings  of  Christ)  he 
adopts  as  members  of  the  Christian  church 
(rovronj  fxaXfcif),  and  alleviates  the  sorrows 
which  they  endure  (for  the  sake  of  Christ)  by 
granting  forgiveness  of  their  sins,  and  the  hope 
of  that  future  glory,  (which  Christ  their  fore- 
runner has  received,  and  to  which  he  will  raise 
them.)"  This  passage,  therefore,  does  not  te-ach 
that  God  elects  men  to  salvation,  or  dooms  them 
to  destruction,  without  respect  to  their  moral 
conduct,  but  that  the  present  sufferings  of  Chris- 
tians are  alleviated  by  the  external  advantages 
which  they  enjoy  as  members  of  Christian  so- 
ciety.    Vide  No.  I. 

In  the  bestowment  of  spiritual  and  eternal 
blessings,  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  God 
should  be  governed  solely  by  the  moral  condiic. 
of  men.  His  goodness,  justice,  indeed,  all  his 
mon\l  perfections,  are  infringed  by  the  contrary 
supposition.  We  are  taught  hIso  by  the  expt«»s9 
assurances  of«cripture,  standing  on  almost  every 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  AlTRIBUTES. 


1S7 


page  of  the  New  Testament,  and  especially  of 
the  epistles  of  Paul,  that  God  will  reward  and 
punish  every  man  according  to  his  works,  Rom. 
ii.  G— 1 1 ;  Matt.  xvi.  27 ;  2  Cor.  v.  19.  The  de- 
crees of  eUciion  and  reprobaiion,  then,  according 
to  the  doctrine  of  scripture,  are  not  absolute,  but 
eondi'.ional,  Mark,  xvi.  16. 

The  terms  commonly  employed  in  the  schools 
respecting  the  decrees  of  God  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  following  syllogism: — Major:  whoever 
believes  in  Christ  to  the  end  of  his  life,  shall  be 
saved,  (this  is  rt|)o5>f(ji{,  or  txVvyjj,  the  voluntas 
Dei  antccudcns.)  Minor:  Paul  will  believe  to 
the  end  of  his  life  (this  is  nfoyvuoii,  prxvisio.') 
Conclusion  :  Therefore  Paul  will  be  saved,  (this 
is  rtpoopt^uoj,  vohintai  Dei  consequens,  decretum.) 
Since,  now,  the  major  term  is  here  an  universal 
proposition,  but  the  minor  particular,  it  is  easil}' 
seen  in  what  sense  the  grace  of  God  can  be 
scripturally  denominated  universal  and  particu- 
lar. It  is  the  same  with  the  decree  of  reproba- 
tion. 

2.  Errors  occasioned  principally  hy  false  inter- 
pretation. 

The  opinion  has  long  existed  in  the  church, 
that  the  decrees  of  election  and  reprobation  were 
absolute — i.  e.,  that  without  respect  to  their  mo- 
ral character,  God  selected  from  the  human  race 
a  certain  number,  (many  say  very  few,)  and 
destined  them  to  eternal  happiness;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  rejected  others  (by  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  human  race, — seven  perhaps  in  ten) 
in  the  same  arbitrary  manner,  and  destined  them 
to  eternal  condemnation.  This  error  is  called 
predestination,  and  the  advocates  of  \i  predestina- 
tionists,  OT  parlicutarists.  This  doctrine,  it  has 
been  justly  remarked,  if  carried  out  into  all  its 
logical  consequences,  would  destroy  the  freedom 
of  the  human  will,  and  thus  undermine  the  foun- 
dations of  morality.  But  it  has  not  been  carried 
out  to  its  legitimate  consequences,  in  theory  or 
practice,  by  those  who  have  professed  it.  And 
many  of  the  soundest  moralists  and  most  vir- 
tuous men  are  found,  by  a  happy  inconsistency, 
among  the  advocates  of  this  doctrine. 

The  principal  sources  of  this  error  are  the  fol- 
lowing: (a)  False  opinions  respecting  the  free- 
dom of  the  divine  will,  by  which  it  is  represented 
as  a  blind  caprice,  in  the  exercise  of  which  God 
pardons  or  condemns  without  reason,  like  a  hu- 
man despot,  (vide  s.26,)  and  in  comiexion  with 
these,  false  conceptions  of  the  goodness,  justice, 
and  other  moral  attributes  of  God,  and  of  their 
connexion  with  his  natural  attributes.  (6)  The 
■want  of  discrimination  between  the  decrees  of 
God  respecting  the  allotment  of  temporal  and 
earthly  good,  and  those  respecting  the  gift  of 
spiritual  blessings  and  eternal  life.  But  more 
than  all,  (c)  the  misinterpretation  of  Rom.  viii. 
3.  by  which  these  passages  are  made  to  relate 
\o  eternal  salvation  and  condemnation,  instead 


of  temporal  privileges.  This  Interpretation  was 
introduced  by  Augustine,  who,  however  excel-  • 
lent  in  other  respects,  was  deficient  in  his  ac- 
quaintance with  the  language  of  scripture,  and 
therefore  exhibits  here  none  of  his  usual  ability. 
Vide  s.  2C}.  (rf)  A  similar  n./sunderstanding 
of  other  texts  of  scripture,  especially  of  the  de- 
claration of  Christ,  Matt.  xx.  16,  no7.y.oi  aii 
xXjjtoi,  6x(yot  S«  ixXfxroi'  This  has  been  sup- 
posed to  mean,  that  there  are  many  who  are 
nominally  and  externally  Christians,  but  few 
only  who  are  chosen  to  eternal  salvation.  But 
the  ix'Kty.rol  are  here  only  the  more  eminent, 
select  saints,  (the  Hebrew  o^^nn.)  Thus  the 
passage  would  mean :  among  the  many  who  are 
externally  Christians,  (admitted  into  tiie  Chris- 
tian church,)  there  are  only  a  few  tvhom  God 
counts  as  his  peculiar  people — i.  e.,  few  who  live 
conformably  to  the  precepts  of  Christianity,  and 
are  in  all  respects  such  as  they  should  be.  That 
this  is  the  true  sense  of  these  words  appears 
from  the  parable.  Matt.  xxii.  2 — 13.  at  the  end 
of  which  (ver.  14)  they  are  repeated. 

Again :  the  text,  Acts,  xiii.  48,  has  been  ap- 
pealed to  in  proof  of  this  doctrine,  from  igno- 
rance of  the  usus  loqucndi  of  the  Bible;  xai 
ertiatcvjav  o^ot  j^iov  Ttta-yutiot,  fcj  ^i-irv  aiwfiof. 
Those  who  believed  are  here  opposed  to  those 
who  (ver.  4G)  made  themselves  unworthy  (f  eter- 
nal life — (viz.  by  unbelief.)  The  phrase  is  syno- 
nymous with  01  iavTovf  ra^arrf  5  f  ij  Cujjc  anLviov, 
those  who  prepared  themselves  for  eiirnal  life — the 
pious,  virtuous.  The  Greeks  frequently  express 
reciprocal  action  by  passive  verbs,  especially  in 
the  preter.  The  meaning  here  becomes  suffi- 
ciently evident  by  a  comparison  of  ver.  46. 

Brief  history  if  the  doctrine  of  xniconditional 
decrees. 

The  controversy  in  which  Augustine  engaged 
with  the  Pelagians  led  him  to  maintain  the  doc- 
trine of  absolute  decrees.  In  contending  against 
the  errors  of  his  opponents  he  fell  into  the  oppo- 
site extreme,  and  asserted  the  doctrine  of  uncon- 
ditional decrees  concerning  salvation  and  con- 
demnation, and  then  his  doctrine  de  gratia 
particulari  et  irresistibili,  (s.  132.)  In  conse- 
quence of  the  high  authority  of  Auijustine,  this 
doctrine  prevailed  extensively  in  the  African  and 
Latin  churches  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  centu- 
ries. During  the  former  part  of  this  period, 
particularly,  it  was  urged  against  the  doctrine 
of  the  Pelagians  by  Prosper  of  Aquitania  and 
Lucidus,  presbyter  in  France.  An<l  indeed  it 
was  alternately  defended  and  opposed  in  the 
western  church  during  the  whole  of  this  and 
the  following  century. 

This  doctrine  was  again  maintained  in  the 
ninth  century  by  Gottschalk,  a  monk  at  Orbais, 
in  France,  and  a  zealous  follower  of  Augustine. 
It  became  the  S)ibject  of  vehement  discussion, 
and  was  at  length  condemned  as  heretical  by  a 


123 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


council  at  Cfiiersy,  in  the  year  849.  But  tliis 
decision  was  not  universally  accepted  ;  and  the 
doctrine  of  predestination  still  had  many  advo- 
cates, amontr  whom  were  Thomas  A'juinas,  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  his  followers,  the 
Dominicans  and  other  Thomists. 

This  controversy  was  renewed  with  great 
vehemence  in  the  Romish  church  during  the 
seventeenth  century,  on  occasion  of  the  writings 
of  Jansenius,  Hishop  at  Ypern,  in  the  Nether- 
lands. Tlie  Jesuits  and  the  Pope  took  sides 
against  the  doctrine  of  absolute  decrees.  But 
the  Dominicans,  and  other  warm  admirers  of 
Augustin<',  agreed  with  Jansenius,  and  there  are 
many  stanch  Jansenists  in  France  at  the  pre- 
Rent  day. 

This  doctrine,  which  owes  its  origin  to  Angus- 
tine,  was  adopted  again  in  the  sixteenth  century 
by  Calvin  and  Beza,  the  Swiss  reformers,  and 
by  them  disseminated  through  their  church. 
[The  symbols  of  the  reformed  church,  in  which 
the  doctrine  of  Calvin  is  acknowledged,  are, 
the  Contcwius  pastornm  eccl.  Genev.,  (1551  an 
1554,) — Conf.  Galicana,  Art.  xi.,  (1559,) — 
I'onf.  Belgica,  Art.  xvi,, — Catechismus  Ihidtl- 
ber^ensig,  (151)2  and  151)3.)]  At  first,  this  doc- 
trine was  at  least  partially  believed  even  by 
Luther  and  Melancthoii,  but  there  is  no  trace  of 
il  in  the  writings  of  Zuingle. 

It  was  not  without  controversy,  however,  that 
'  the  doctrine  of  Calvin  prevailed  in  the  reformed 
church.  During  the  seventeenth  century  it  was 
opposed  by  Arminitis  and  his  followers.  But  it 
was  at  length  established  as  an  article  of  faith 
in  the  reformed  church  by  the  national  synod  at 
Dor.lrechl,  in  the  years  ICIB,  1G19,  and  thf  Ar- 
minians  wore  planed  beyond  the  pale  of  the 
cliurch.  liv  degrees,  liowever,  this  severe  doc- 
trine has  bf-en  abandoned  even  in  the  nformed 
church,  its  har  lest  features  being  first  softened 
down  throu'/h  the  iriiluence  of  the  doctrine  of 
universal  redemption.  It  was  maintained  for  the 
longest  time  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Switzer- 
land ;  tliDugh  it  has  but  few  advocates  in  the  Ne- 
therlands at  the  present  day.  In  Kngland  the 
number  of  its  friends  is  still  considerable.  Cf. 
the  history  of  the  doctrine  of  grace,  s.  1.?'2. 

Note. — In  the  above  statement  of  the  Lutheran 
view  of  the  df)Ctrine  nf  divine  decrees,  there  is  of 
course  much  which  must  be  objectionable  to  a 
Calvinist;  far  less,  however,  than  in  the  state- 
ment of  this  subject  usually  made  by  Lutheran 
writers.  Our  author  treats  the  doctrine  of  bis 
Calviiiistic  opponents  with  a  justice  and  mild- 
ness quite  unusual  with  the  theologians  of  his 
church.  In  general,  tiiere  are  no  epithets  ton  vio- 
lent fur  them  to  heap  upon  the  doctrine  of  abso- 
lute decrees,  an<i  no  evasions  too  weak  for  tliem 
to  emplny  to  escape  the  force  of  the  arguments 
by  which  it  is  supported.  That  the  Calvinistic 
doctrine    ^f  decrees  should  be  rejected  and  ca- 


lumniated by  men  who  reject  those  scriptunu 
truths  upon  which  it  depends,  might  be  expected; 
but  that  it  should  be  thus  treated  by  those  who 
hold,  in  common  with  its  advocates,  those  doc- 
trines of  grace  from  which  it  inevitably  results, 
is  somewhat  surprising.  After  taking  the  li- 
berty to  make  a  few  general  remarks  upon  some 
particular  representations  of  our  author,  I  shall 
endeavour  to  shew,  that  the  Lutherans  are  char  st- 
able with  obvious  iuco/iaistenci/  in  opposimr  the 
Calcini.stic  thenri/  of  decrees,  while  they  adhere  to 
the  slatulfird  cunj'ession  nf  their  church.  W  ith  re- 
gard to  the  representations  of  Dr.  Knapp,  it  may 
be  remarked, 

First.  That  he  is  not  exactly  just  in  describ- 
ing the  theory  of  absolute  decrees  as  involving 
the  election  and  reprobation  of  men  luithout  re- 
sped  to  conditioixs.  The  advocates  of  this  theory 
insist,  equally  with  others,  that  nien  must  be- 
lieve in  order  to  be  saved;  and  the  question  be- 
tween them  and  their  opponents  is.  In  what  re- 
lation this  faith,  which  is  essential  to  salvation, 
stands  to  the  purpose  of  God? 

Secondly.  When  he  describes  the  called, 
chosen,  elect,  so  often  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament  as  those  who  were  made  partakers 
only  of  the  external  privileges  of  (/hristianity, 
and  not  those  who  were  heirs  of  future  happi- 
ness, does  he  not  violate  the  whole  spirit  and 
usage  of  the  New  Testament,  without  yet  avoid- 
ing the  dilTiculty  ]  If  the  intimate  connexion  be- 
tween the  enjoyment  of  the  external  privileges  of 
Christianity  and  securing  its  spiritual  and  ever- 
lasting blessings  is  considered,  will  there  not  be 
the  same  objections  to  the  sovereign  appointment 
of  men  to  one  as  to  the  other  ? 

Thirdly.  Instead  of  saying  that  predestina- 
tionists  are  distinguished  for  depth  of  religious 
sentiment  and  strictness  of  moral  practice  not' 
irithslanding  their  principles,  as  our  auiber  and 
others  generously  concede,  is  it  not  apparent 
that  lliey  are  so  in  cotiscquence  of  their  principles^ 
The  perfect  safly  of  their  theory  of  election  has 
been  often  satisfactorily  proved  by  reformed  the- 
ologians in  answer  to  the  objections  urged  against 
its  moral  tendencies.  But  its  diricl  bearing 
\ipon  the  religious  life  has  not  been  so  often  ex- 
hihiti'd.  It  is  therefore  the  tnore  worthy  of  no- 
tice, that  Tholuck  (whose  Commentary  on  the 
ninth  of  Romans  will  sulTuMently  free  biin  from 
any  suspicion  of  leaning  towards  Calvinism) 
concedes,  in  hisTreatise  on  Oriental  Mysticism, 
that  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  so  far  from 
producing  the  <lespondency  and  inaction  often 
ascribed  to  it,  on  the  contrary,  moves  and  excites 
the  inmost  soul,  by  the  self-surrender  which  it 
demands  to  the  all-prevailing  will  of  Cod.  To 
the  influence  of  this  doctrine  he  attributes  what* 
ever  of  religious  life  there  exists  among  those 
who  receive  the  sensual  dogmas  of  tiie  Koran. 
Kvery  one,  he  says,  acquainted  with  east'^rn  lite- 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


129 


nture,  knows  that  the  most  strong  and  vivid 
religious  experiences  are  connected  with  and 
arise  from  the  belief  in  predestination.  And 
Calvinism,  he  allows,  is  incomparably  more  fa- 
vourable to  the  deeper  religious  life  than  that 
doctrine  by  which  the  will  of  God  is  limited  or 
conditioned  by  the  human  will — i.  e.,  the  syn- 
cretism of  the  Lutheran  church. 

Fourthly.  The  suggestion  of  Dr.  Knapp,  that 
Augustine  was  first  induced  to  adopt  his  theory 
ol  election  by  his  controversy  with  Pelagius, 
contains  the  implication  that  this  theory  owes 
its  origin  to  polemical  excitement,  and  was 
adopted  by  its  author  in  order  to  extricate  him- 
self from  some  embarrassments,  or  as  the  oppo- 
site extreme  of  the  theory  against  which  he  con- 
tended. But  this  is  not  only  wanting  in  historical 
evidence,  but  is  in  itself  improbable.  The  De- 
eretum  Absolulum  o(  Angnstine  is  the  direct  result 
of  his  views  of  the  natural  character  of  man,  and 
is  necessary  to  complete  that  system  of  truth 
which  he  adopted.  To  the  belief  of  this  doc- 
trine he  would  naturally  be  led  by  the  cool  deli- 
beration of  the  closet,  and  it  therefore  more  pro- 
bably belonged  to  those  original  convictions 
which  impelled  him  to  the  controversy  with  Pe- 
lagius, and  animated  him  in  prosecuting  it,  than 
to  any  after  convictions  to  which  he  might  have 
been  driven  by  opposition.  Which  now,  it  may 
be  asked,  looks  most  like  the  offspring  of  the 
contrivance  and  heat  of  controversy,  the  theory 
of  Augustine,  coming  forward  with  direct  affirm- 
ations, and  belonging  essentially  to  his  system, 
or  the  opposite  theory,  consisting  mostly  of  eva- 
sions, negations,  and  limitations'?  To  assert 
the  doctrine  of  the  divine  sovereignty  and  of  the 
all-controlling  will  of  God  would  seem  to  be  the 
part  of  the  consistent,  philosophical  theologian ; 
to  deny  it,  the  business  of  a  timorous  modera- 
tion, of  a  time-serving  policy,  or  of  the  native 
pride  and  self-sulficiency  of  man. 

The  inconsistency  chargeable  upon  the  Lu- 
theran theologians  who  oppose  the  Calvinistic 
theory  of  decrees  may  be  briefly  stated  thus: 
According  to  their  theory,  God  ordains  to  salva- 
tion those  of  wjiom  he  foresees  that  they  will 
believe;  but  according  to  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession, it  is  the  Holy  Spirit  ^hj  efkicit  fidem, 
Qi'ANDo  et  LBi  visum  est  Bto,  who  produces  faith 
when  and  where  it  seems  good  to  God;  both  com- 
bined, therefore,  furnish  us  the  doctrine  that  God 
ordains  to  salvation  those  of  whom  he  foresees  that 
he  who  causes  faith  to  exist  tchen  and  where  it 
seems  good  to  him,  will  give  them  the  Holy  Spirit 
to  produce  faith  in  their  hearts,  which  is  the  Cal- 
vinistic doctrine  so  often  opposed  and  denounced 
by  the  Lutherans.  They  join  together,  in  their 
Book  of  Concord,  the  Jugshurs  Confession,  in 
which  man's  moral  inability  and  entire  depend- 
ence on  divine  grace  are  strongly  asserted,  and 
their  Declaration,  in  which  the  absolute  decrees 
17 


of  God — an  inevitable  consequence  of  these  doc- 
trines— is  denounced  as  unseriptural  and  dan- 
gerous.    Surely  here  Concordia  is  discors. 

This  discrepancy  could  not  long  remain  unno- 
ticed in  a  country  where  theological  opinions  are 
subjected  to  so  rigid  a  scrutiny.  The  Lutheran 
theologians  appear,  however,  to  have  imagined, 
for  a  time,  that  they  could  reconcile  the  opposing 
tendencies  of  their  system,  and  attempted  so  tc 
modify  the  doctrine  of  man's  moral  inability  as 
to  guard  against  any  approach  to  Calvinism. 
The  best  attempt  of  this  nature  is  exhibited  by 
Storr,  in  his  Biblical  Theology ;  but  it  cannot 
be  thought  successful.  To  many  it  soon  became 
evident  that  they  were  reduced  to  the  alternative 
of  retaining  the  Augsburg  Confession  and  the 
doctrine  of  man's  moral  inability,  and  then  ad- 
mitting, as  its  inevitable  consequence,  the  Cal- 
vinistic doctrine  of  election,  or  of  rejecting  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  and  thus  escaping  the 
necessity  of  Calvinism. 

During  the  recent  attempt  to  unite  the  Lu- 
theran and  reformed  churched,  their  doctrinal  dif- 
ferences came  of  course  into  new  consideration ;. 
and  Dr.  Bretschneider,  in  his  .'Iphorimns  pub- 
lished on  that  occasion,  frankly  acknowledged^ 
what  had  not  been  done  before,  the  inconsistency 
now  charged  upon  the  theologians  of  his  church ;. 
and  being  himself  somewhat  inclined  towards 
Pelagianism,  unhesitatinglY  chose  the  second 
of  the  two  courses  above  stated,  and,  in  order 
to  avoid  Calvinism,  willingly  surrendered  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  with  the  doctrine  of  man's 
inability  and  entire  dependence  on  divine  grace. 
But  the  Augsburg  Confession  had  long  been  es- 
teemed the  palladium  of  the  Lutheran  church; 
and  the  doctrine  of  man's  inability  and  depend- 
ence was  dearer  than  almost  any  other  to  the 
heart  of  Luther,  and  was  too  firmly  believed  by 
the  most  distinguished  theologians  of  his  church, 
and  had  become  too  thoroughly  interwoven  with 
their  system  of  faith,  to  be  thus  easily  aban- 
doned. The  only  course  remaining  for  those 
who  wished  to  be  consistent  seemed  therefore 
to  be,  to  hold  fast  to  the  Augsburg  Confession 
and  its  Anti-Pelagian  doctrines,  and  to  admit 
the  Calvinistic  theory  of  election  as  their  natu- 
ral consequence.  And  this  course  was  boldly 
adopted  by  Schleiermacher,  one  of  the  pro- 
foundest  theologians  of  his  church,  and  strenu- 
ously recommended  by  him  in  the  first  article 
of  his  "  Theologische  Zeilschrift."  He  there 
acknowledges  that  he  had  long  been  unable  to 
sympathize  with  most  of  his  contemporaries  in 
condemning  the  theory  of  Augustine  and  Calvio 
as  irrational  and  unseriptural. 

This  unexpected  publication  gave  a  new  im- 
pulse to  the  discussion  of  this  doctrine,  and  some 
of  the  most  distinguished  theologians  of  Ger- 
many have  been  enlisted  as  disputants.  Whether 
under  the  auspices  of  Schleiermacher  thif»  dec- 


130 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


trine  will  fare  belter  than  under  Goltschalk  and 
Jansenius  cannot  be  foretold,  Lonjr  established 
prejudice  may  yet  prevail  over  the  love  of  truth 
and  consistency.  But  whatever  may  be  the  re- 
sult of  this  local  controversy,  the  doctrine  has 
nnthincr  to  fear,  being  based  on  the  triple  found- 
ation of  sound  reason.  Christian  experience,  and 
the  word  of  God. — ^Tr.] 


ARTICLE  IV. 

or  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  FATHER,  SOX,  AND 
HOLY  GHOST. 


SECTION  XXXIII. 

INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

1.  It  is  an  established  truth,  that  there  are 
many  tliinirs  in  the  divine  nature  which  are  un- 
like any  tiling  which  belongs  to  us,  and  of  which, 
therefore,  we  have  no  knowledge.  For,  as  has 
been  already  shewn,  s.  18,  II.,  it  is  impossible 
for  us  to  form  a  distinct  notion  of  any  attributes 
or  perfections  which  we  ourselves  do  not  pos- 
sess, 01  even  to  see  at  all  how  such  attributes 
can  exist.  To  conclude,  therefore,  that  any  par- 
ticular attribute  could  not  belong  to  the  Divine 
Being,  simply  because  we  might  be  unable  to 
understand  it  wholly,  or  perhaps  at  all,  would  be 
extremly  foolish.  Vide  Introduction,  s.  (5,  ad 
Anem.  If  the  Bible  contains  a  more  particular 
revelation  of  God,  and  if 'his  revelation,  in  a  clear 
and  incontrovertible  manner,  proposes  a  dnctrinc 
of  faith,  then  must  such  doctrine,  however  incom- 
preheiuiible  and  inexplicable,  be  received  by  us  as 
true.  That  the  Bible  does  contain  such  a  reve- 
lation has  already  been  maintained  in  the  Intro- 
duction, and  in  the  Article  on  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures; that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  taught 
in  this  revelation  remains  now  to  be  proved  ;  and 
iipon  the  truth  of  these  two  propositions  the 
whole  subject  depends. 

2.  The  doctrine  of  a  Trinity  in  the  godhead 
includes  the  three  following  particulars,  (vide 
Morus,  p.  G'J,  H.  1.3,) — viz.,  («)  There  is  only 
OIK  God,  one  divine  nature,  s.  16 ;  (//)  but  in  this 
divine  nature  there  is  the  distinction  of  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  (ihost,  as  three,  (called  subjects, 
persons,  and  other  names  of  similar  import  in 
the  language  of  the  schools ;)  and  (c)  these  three 
have  equally,  and  in  common  with  one  another, 
the  nature  and  perfections  of  supreme  divinity. 
This  is  the  true,  simple  do<rtrine  of  the  Trinity, 
when  stripped  of  refined  and  learned  distinctions. 
According  to  this  doctrine  there  are  in  the  divine 
nature  three,  inseparably  connected  with  one 
another,  possessing  equal  glory,  but  making 
unitedly  only  onb  God. 


This  doctrine  thns  exhibited  is  called  a  myf 
tery  (in  the  theological  >ense),  because  there  in 
much  in  the  mode  and  manner  of  it  which  is 
unintelligible.  The  obscurity  and  mystery  ot 
this  subject  arise  from  our  inability  to  answe: 
the  question,  In  what  sense  and  in  what  manner 
do  these  three  so  share  the  divine  nature  as  to  makt 
only  one  God?  But  as  the  learned  employed 
themselves  in  attempting  to  answer  this  ques- 
tion, and  endeavoured,  by  thehelpof  philojwiphy, 
to  establish  certain  distinctions,  they  fell,  of 
course,  into  explanations  more  or  less  opposed, 
and  from  this  diversity  of  opinion,  into  strife  and 
contention.  They  began  to  persecute  those  who 
dissented  from  some  learned  distinctions  which 
they  regarded  as  true,  to  denounce  them  as  he- 
rectics,  and  to  exclude  them  from  salvation. 
In  their  zeal  for  their  philosophical  theories, 
they  neglected  to  inculcate  the  practical  conse- 
quences of  this  doctrints  and  instead  of  joyfully 
partaking  of  the  undeserved  bent  fits  which  are 
bestowed  by  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost, 
they  disputed  respecting  the  manner  of  the 
union  of  three  persons  in  one  God. 

Jesus  requires  that  all  his  followers  should 
profess  their  belief  in  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Spir't,  (Matt,  xxviii.  19;)  and  by  so  doing,  he 
places  this  doctrine  among  the  first  and  most  es- 
sential doctrines  of  his  religion.  That  it  is  sc 
is  proved  froiti  many  other  declarations  both  of 
Jesus  and  his  apostles.  The  doctrine  is,  more- 
over, intimately  connected  with  the  wliolc  exhi- 
bition of  Christian  truth.  It  is  not,  tlierefore,  a 
doctrine  which  any  one  may  set  aside  at  plea- 
sure, as  if  it  were  unessential,  and  wholly  dis- 
connected with  the  system  of  Chri-^tianity.  But 
while  Jesus  requires  us  to  believe  in  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  he  has  nowiieie  taught  us 
or  reijuircd  us  to  believe  the  learned  distinctions 
respecting  this  doctrine  which  have  bien  intro- 
duced since  the  fourth  century.  The  unde- 
served benefits  which  they  had  recfived  from 
the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  were  the 
gn^at  subjects  to  which  Jesus  pointed  his  fol- 
lowers in  the  passage  above  cited,  and  in 
others;  that  they  were  now  able  to  understand 
and  worship  (iod  in  a  more  perfect  manner, 
to  approach  him  as  their  father  and  benefactor 
in  spirit  and  in  tnilh;  tiiat  their  minds  were 
now  enlightened  by  the  instructions  given 
thorn  by  the  Son  of  God,  who  had  lieen  sent 
into  the  worhl  to  be  their  teacher,  and  that  their 
souls  were  redeemed  by  his  death ;  that  in  con- 
sequence of  what  Christ  had  already  done,  and 
would  yet  do,  ihcy  niiglit  be  advancfd  in  moral 
perfection,  and  made  holy — a  work  specially 
ascribed  to  the  aids  and  influence  of  the  [Inly 
Spirit;  these  arc  the  great  truths  whicli  Jesus 
requires  his  followers  to  believe  from  the  heart, 
in  being  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.     He  did  not  reveal  thii 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


131 


doct;;ne  to  men  to  furnish  them  with  matter  for 
speculation  and  dispute,  and  did  not,  therefore, 
prescribe  any  formulas  by  which  the  one  or  the 
other  could  have  been  excited.  The  same  is 
true  of  this  doctrine  as  of  the  Lord's  supper. 
Those  who  partake  of  this  ordinance  in  the  man- 
ner which  Christ  commanded,  answer  the  ends 
for  which  it  was  instituted,  and  secure  their 
spiritual  profit,  however  much  their  views  may 
differ  with  reirard  to  the  manner  of  Christ's  pre- 
sence in  the  symbols. 

Besides,  it  is  certain  that  no  particular  distinc- 
tions respecting  this  doctrine  were  enforced  by 
the  church  as  necessary  conditions  of  commu- 
nion during  the  first  three  centuries.  And  ac- 
cordingly we  find  that  Justin  the  Martyr,  Cle- 
ment of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and  other  distin- 
guislied  men  of  the  catholic  party,  made  use  of 
expressions  and  representations  on  this  subject 
which  are  both  discordant  with  each  other,  and 
which  dider  totally  from  those  which  were 
afterwards  established  in  the  fourth  century. 
Then  for  the  first  time,  at  the  Nicene  Council, 
under  the  influence  of  Athanasius,  and  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  Arians,  were  those  learned  and 
philosophical  formulas,  which  have  since  been 
retained  in  the  system  of  the  church,  established 
and  enforced.  That  a  belief  in  these  formulas 
should  be  declared  essential  to  salvation,  as  is 
done  in  the  Athanasian  creed,  cannot  but  be 
dis  i|>pioved.  This  creed,  however,  was  not 
Ci'tnpiised  by  Athanasius  nor  was  it  even 
ascribed  to  him  before  the  seventh  century, 
though  it  was  probably  composed  in  the  fifth. 
The  principle  that  any  one  who  holds  different 
views  respecting  the  Trinity,  salvvs  esse  non 
palcril,  (to  use  the  language  of  this  symbol.) 
wo\ild  lead  us  to  exclude  from  salvation  the 
grt-at  majority  even  of  those  Christians  who  re- 
ceive the  doctrine  and  language  of  the  Council 
of  Nice;  for  common  Christians,  after  all  the 
efforts  of  their  teachers,  will  not  unfrequently 
conceive  o^  three  Gods  in  the  three  persons  of  the 
Godhead,  and  thus  entertain  an  opinion  which 
the  creed  condemns.  But  if  the  many  pious 
believers  in  common  life  who  entertain  this 
theoretical  error  may  yet  be  saved,  then  others 
who  believe  in  Christ  from  the  heart,  and  obey 
his  precepts,  who  have  a  personal  experiepce 
of  the  practical  effects  of  this  doctrine  may 
also  be  saved,  though  they  may  adopt  other 
particular  theories  and  formulas  respecting 
the  Trinity  different  from  that  commonly  re- 
ceived. These  particular  formulas  and  theo- 
ries, however  much  they  may  be  regarded  and 
insisted  upon,  have  nothing  to  do  with  salva- 
tion. And  this  leads  us  to  remark,  that  learned 
hypotheses,  refined  distinctions,  and  technical 
phrases,  should  never  be  introduced  into  popu- 
lar instruction.  They  will  never  be  intelligible 
to  a  common  audience,  and  will  involve,  the 


minds  of  the  common  people  and  of  the  young 
in  the  greatest  perplexity  and  contusion.  So 
judged  at  one  time  the  Emperor  Constantine: 
ov  bet  Toi'oi  ^r^rr^rsct,^  roixov  tivo^  aiayxf  nporvTat'- 
rstj',  ov6f  raiinuvfuv  axoatj  (itipoiorruji  rtioTfrfiv, 
Epist.  ad  Arium,  Ap.  Socr.  i.  7.  Would  that 
he  himself  had  afterwards  remained  true  to 
these  principles  !  [Vide  Neander,  Allg.  Gesch. 
Christ,  Rel.,  b.  i.  Ablh.  2.  s.  61G.] 

Plan  pursued  in  this  Article. 

The  theologians  of  former  times  generally 
blended  their  own  speculations  and  those  of 
others  on  the  subject  of  the  Trinity  with  the 
statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible.  Within 
a  few  years  a  belter  plan  has  been  adopted, 
which  is,  to  exhibit  first  the  simple  doctrine  of 
the  Bible,  and  afterwards,  in  a  separate  part, 
the  speculations  of  the  learned  respecting  it. 
In  pursuance  of  this  plan  we  shall  divide  the 
present  Article  into  two  chapters,  of  which  the 
FIRST  will  contain  the  Biblical  Doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  and  the  second,  the  History  tf  this 
Doctrine,  of  all  the  changes  it  has  undergone, 
and  of  the  distinctions  and  hypotheses  by  which 
the  learned  in  different  ages  have  endeavoured 
to  define  and  illustrate  it. 


CHAPTER  I. 

BIBLICAL  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  TRINITY. 

SECTION  XXXIV. 

IS  THIS  DOCTRINE  TAUGHT  IN  THE  OLD 
•      TESTAMENT  ? 

It  has  always  been  allowed  that  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  was  not  fully  revealed  before  the 
time  of  Christ,  and  is  clearly  taught  only  in  the 
New  Testament.  But,  at  the  same  time,  it  was 
supposed  from  some  passages  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment that  this  doctrine  was  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  known  to  the  Israelites  at  the  time  when 
the  New  Testament  was  written,  at  least  that  a 
plurnli/y  in  the  godhead  was  believed  by  them, 
although  perhaps  not  exactly  a  TVinity.  In 
proof  of  this  opinion,  such  passages  as  Gen.  i. 
26  were  cited  by  Justin  Martyr,  Irenseus, 
Tertullian,  Origen,  Eusebius,  Theodoret,  Gre- 
gory of  Nyssa,  Basil,  and  other  ecclesiastical 
fathers.  Vide  Mangey  on  Philo,  De  Opif. 
mundi,  p.  17. 

This  opinion  was  universal  in  the  protestant 
church  during  the  sixteenth  century,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth.  The  first  irho 
questioned  it  was  G.  Calixtus,  of  Helmstadt, 
who  in  1615  published  an  Essay,  Dp  Trinitate, 
and  in  1619,  another,  De  mysier.  Trmitnth,  an 


.92 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ex  suHus  J'.  T.  librta  possit  demonslrarl  ?  lie 
was,  however,-  vehemently  opposed  by  Alir. 
Calovius,  and  others.  And  the  opinion  fi)r- 
merly  held  by  the  theologians  continued  to 
prevail  even  into  the  eighteenth  century.  But 
the  opinion  of  Calixtus  has  since  been  revived, 
and  has  gradually  obtained  the  approbation  of 
most  theologians  of  the  present  time,  although 
there  are  still  some  who  declare  themselves  in 
favour  of  the  ancient  opinion. 

The  truth  on  this  subject  will  probably  be 
found  in  a  medium  between  the  extreme  to 
which  writers  on  both  sides  have  frequently 
gone.  (I)  It  is  true,  that  if  the  New  Testa- 
ment did  not  exist  we  could  not  derive  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  from  the  Old  Testament 
alone.  But  ("2)  it  is  equally  true,  that  by  the 
manner  in  which  God  revealed  himself  in  the  Old 
Testament,  the  way  was  prepared  for  the  more 
full  disclosure  of  his  nature  that  was  afterwards 
made.  The  Fatlier,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  are 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  the  Son  is  represented  as  one  through 
whom  God  will  bestow  blessings  upon  men, 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  is  said  to  be  granted  to 
tliern  for  their  sanclification.  Vide  Morus,  p. 
59,  s.  1,  note  1,  2.  But  (3)  respecting  the  in- 
timate connexion  of  these  persons,  or  respecting 
othnr  distinctions  which  belong  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  there  is  nothing  said  in  the  Old 
Testament. 

Many  objections  may  be  made  against  each 
parlicular  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  which 
an  allusion  is  perceived  to  a  trinity  or  plurality 
in  God.  But  these  texts  are  so  many  in  num- 
ber and  so  various  in  kind,  that  they  impress 
an  unprejudiced  person,  who  considers  them 
all  in  connexion,  with  the  opinion  that  such  a 
plurality  in  God  is  indicated  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, though  it  was  not  fully  developed  or 
cl'-arly  defined  before  the  Christian  revela- 
tion. 

These  texts  may  be  arranged  in  the  following 
classes : — 

1.  Those  in  which  the  names  of  God  have 
the  form  of  the  plural,  and  in  which,  therefore, 
a  plurality  in  his  nature  seems  to  be  indicated. 
The  names  S'n"^,  'Jtn,  a'r'"»r',  \}\  are  cited  as 
examples  ;  but  they  afford  no  certain  proof,  as 
they  may  bo  only  the  pltiralis  majestaticus  o(  the 
Oriental  languages.     Vide  s.  17. 

2.  Texts  in  which  God  speaks  of  himself  as 
many.  But  the  plural  in  many  of  these  cases 
can  he  accounted  for  from  the  use  of  the  plural 
nouns  O'n-w,  'J"»<,  iJ'.  Philo  thinks,  (De  Opif. 
Mundi,  p.  17,  ed.  Mangey,)  that  in  the  pas- 
sage, Gen.  i.  26,  Let  I's  ntdfcr  man,  (Jod  ad- 
dresses the  angels.  Maimonides  thinks  the 
same  of  the  passage.  Gen.  xi.  7,  Let  I's  i;n  down 
and  confound  their  Ian<^Hn>re.  Vide  M.ingey, 
in  loc.     It  is  not  uncommon   in  Hebrew   for 


kings  to  speak  of  themselves  in  the  plural— 
e.  g.,  1  Kings,  xii.  9;  2  Chron.  x.  9;  Ezra,  ir 
18.  In  Isaiah,  vi.  8,  God  asks,  who  will  go  fof 
us  ('J"')^  where  the  plural  form  maybe  explain- 
ed either  as  the  pluralis  mnjestaticus,  or  as  de- 
noting an  assembly  for  consultation.  The 
chiefs  of  heaven  (s'citr)  are  described  as  there 
collected  ;  and  God  puts  to  them  the  question, 
whom  shall  we  make  our  messenger?  as  1  Kings, 
xxii.  20,  seq. 

3.  Texts  in  which  m,-i>  is  distinguished  from 
HCT",  and  3"n-'s  from  D'htn.  Jehovah  rained  brim- 
stone  and  fire  from  Jehovah,  Gen.  xix.  24.  0 
our  God,  hear  the  prayer  if  thy  servant,  for  the 
Lord's  (Christ's?)  sake,  Dan.  ix.  17.  But  these 
texts,  by  themselves,  do  not  furnish  any  deci- 
sive proof;  for  in  the  simplicity  of  ancient  style 
the  noun  is  often  repeated  instead  of  using  the 
pronoun;  and  so, from  Jehovah  may  mean  y/-o/n 
himself;  and  for  the  Lord^s  sake  may  mean  for 
thine  own  sake — i.  e.,  on  account  of  thy  promise. 
Many  other  texts  may  be  explained  in  the  same 
way;  as  Hosea,  i.  7;  Zach.  x.  12.  In  this  Cfm- 
nexion  the  passage,  Ps.  xlv.  7,  is  often  cited : 
therefore,  0  God  (Messiah?),  thy  God  (the  Fa- 
ther) hath  anointed  thee.  But  the  name  a^■^^v  is 
sometimes  given  to  earthly  kings.  It  does  not, 
therefore,  necessarily  prove  that  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  here  given  must  be  of  the  divine  na- 
ture. The  passage,  Ps.  ex.  1,  'jis|'  nn'  csj, 
"Jehovah  said  to  my  Lord,"  &c.  is  also  cited. 
But  'jns  (Messiah)  is  here  distinguished  from 
Jehovah,  and  is  not  described  as  participating 
in  the  divine  nature,  but  only  in  the  divine  go- 
vernment, as  far  as  he  was  constituted  Messiah 
by  God. 

4.  Texts  in  which  express  mention  is  made 
of  the  Son  of  God,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

(a)  Of  the  .S''>?i  of  God.  The  principal  text 
in  this  class  is  Ps.  ii.  7,  Thou  art  my  Son;  this 
day  have  I  begotten  thee,  coll.  Psalm  Ixxii.  1  ; 
Ixxxix.  27.  This  Psalm  was  always  under 
stood  by  the  Jews,  and  by  iho  writers  of  the 
New  Testament,  to  relate  to  the  Messiah.  But 
he  is  here  represented  under  the  image  of  a 
king,  to  whose  government,  according  to  the 
will  of  God,  all  must  submit.  And  it  is  tho 
dignity  of  this  office  of  king,  or  Messiah,  of 
which  the  Psalmist  appears  here  to  speak.  The 
name  Son  if  God  was  not  unfrcquently  given  to 
kings;  it  is  not,  therefore,  nomen  c^sentix,  but 
dif^nitatis  messian.r.  The  passage  would  then 
mean,  Thou  art  the  kins;  (Messiah)  of  my  ap- 
pointment :  this  day  have  I  solemnly  declared 
thee  such.  Tliat  the  phrase  to-day  alludes  to  the 
resurrection  of  Christ  is  proved  by  a  reference 
to  Acts,  xiii.  30 — 34.  The  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  everywhere  teach  that  Christ  was 
proved  to  lie  the  Messiah  by  his  resurrection 
from  the  dead.  Cf.  Rom.  i.  3,  4.  In  this 
Psalm,  therefore,  the  Messiah  is  rather  cxbibiled 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


133 


as  King,  divinely-appointed  ruler,  and  head  of 
the  church,  than  as  belonging  to  the  divine 
nature. 

(b)  Of  the  Holy  Spirit.  There  are  many  texts 
of  this  class,  but  none  from  which,  taken  by 
themselves,  the  jKrsonality  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
can  be  proved,  as  it  can  easily  be  from  passages 
in  the  New  Testament.  The  term  Hvly  Spirit 
may  mean,  in  these  texts,  (1)  The  divine  nature 
in  general ;  (2)  particular  divine  attributes,  as 
omnipotence,  knowledge,  or  omniscience  ;  (3) 
the  divine  agency,  which  is  its  more  common 
meaning.  Vide  s.  19,  II.  The  principal  pas- 
sage here  cited  is  Isaiah,  xlviii.  IG,  where  the 
whole  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  supposed  to  be 
taught;  inni  ^irhv  r\'\r\;<^  'lis  nn>'i,  And  noic  Jthovah 
(the  Father)  and  his  Spirit  (the  Holy  Ghost) 
hath  sent  me  (the  Messiah),  inn  has  usually 
been  rendered  as  if  it  were  in  the  accusative; 
but  it  is  more  properly  rendered  as  a  nominative 
in  the  Septuagint,  the  Syriac  Version,  also  by 
Luther,  and  the  English  translators.  It  means 
here,  as  it  always  does  when  used  by  the  pro- 
phets in  this  connexion,  the  direct,  immediate, 
command  o{  God.  Cf.  Acts,  xiii.  2,  4.  To  say, 
then,  the  Lnrd  and  his  Spirit  hath  sent  me,  is 
tlie  same  as  to  say,  the  Lord  hath  sent  me  by  a 
direct,  immediate  command. 

5.  Texts  in  which  three  persons  are  expressly 
mentioned,  or  in  w-hich  there  is  a  clear  reference 
to  the  number ///)-ee.  In  this  class  the  text,  Ps. 
xxxiii.  6,  was  formerly  placed  :  the  heavens  were 
made  by  the  word  (Aciyoj,  ^Messiah)  of  Jehovah 
(the  Father)  ;  and  all  the  host  of  them  by  the 
spirit  if  his  mouth.  But  by  the  word  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  spirit  of  his  mouth,  nothing  more  is 
meant  than  by  his  command,  will,  as  appears 
from  the  account  of  the  creation.  Cf.  verse  9, 
"  He  spake  and  it  was  done;  he  commanded, 
and  it  stood  fast."  The  threefold  repetition  of 
the  wTima  Jehovah  in  the  benediction  of  the  high 
priest.  Num.  vi.  24,  is  more  remarkable:  Jiho- 
vah  bless  thee,  and  keep  thee ;  Jehovah  be  gracious 
to  thee  ;  Jehovah  give  thee  peace.  But  the  know- 
ledge of  the  Trinity  at  that  early  period  cannot 
be  concluded  from  a  mere  threetbld  repetition 
of  the  name  of  Jehovah,  unless  it  is  elsewhere 
exhibited  in  the  writings  of  the  same  author. 
Of  the  same  nature  is  the  threefold  repetition  of 
the  word  holy  by  the  seraphs,  the  invisible  ser- 
vants of  God,  Isa.  vi.  3.  To  account  for  this 
repetition  we  might  suppose  there  were  three 
heavenly  choirs;  but  the  question  mi<iht  then 
be  asked,  why  these  choirs  were  exactly  three? 
It  is  certainly  not  impossible  that  the  idea  of  a 
trinity  in  the  godhead  may  be  here  presupposed, 
and  also  in  the  threefold  benediction  of  the  high 
priest.  These  choirs  are  represented  in  the  com- 
mencement of  the  verse  as  singing  one  after 
another,  in  alternate  response,  ^•-^s  -i?  s^i.  The 
word  riTp  might  have  been  sung  by  each  choir 


separately,  and  the  last  words,  the  whole  earth 
isfull  of  tny  glory,  by  the  three  ciioirs  united. 

Thus  it  appears  that  no  one  of  the  passpiges 
cited  from  the  Old  Testament  in  proof  of  the 
Trinity  is  conclusive,  when  taken  by  itself;  but, 
as  was  before  slated,  when  they  are  all  taken 
together,  they  convey  the  impression  that  at 
least  a  plurality  in  the  godhead  was  obscurely 
indicated  in  the  .Jewish  scriptures. 

SECTION  XXXV. 

OF  THOSE  TEXTS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  IN 
WHICH  FATHER,  SON,  AND  HOLY  SPIRIT  AKK 
MENTIONED  IN  CONNEXION. 

Since  the  Old  Testament  proves  noihing 
clearly  or  decidedly  upon  tl,i»  .si.,  jcci,  we  must 
now  turn  to  the  New  Testament.  The  texts 
from  the  New  Testament  which  relate  to  the 
doctrine  in  question  may  be  divided  into  two 
principal  classes:  (a)  Those  in  which  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  are  ntentioned  in  connexion  ; 
(6)  Those  in  which  these  three  subjects  are  men- 
tioned separately,  and  in  which  their  nature  and 
mutual  relation  is  more  particularly  described. 
In  this  section  we  shall  treat  only  of  the  first 
class.  But  the  student  will  need  to  be  on  his 
guard  here,  lest  he  should  deduce  more  from 
these  texts,  separately  considered,  than  they 
actually  teach.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
in  all  its  extent  and  in  all  its  modifications  is 
taught  in  no  single  passages  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  writings  of  the  apostles  always 
presuppose  the  oral  instructions  which  they  had 
given  to  the  Christians  whom  they  addressed, 
and  do  not  therefore  exhibit  any  regular  and 
formal  system  of  doctrines.  Hence,  in  order 
to  ascertain  what  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel 
are,  we  must  compare  dillerent  texts,  and  form 
our  conclusion  from  the  whole.  The  first  class 
of  texts,  taken  by  itself,  proves  only  that  there 
are  the  three  subjects  above  named,  and  that 
tjiere  is  a  difference  between  them ;  that  the 
Father  in  certain  respects  differs  from  the  Son, 
&c. ;  but  it  does  not  prove,  by  itself,  that  all  the 
three  belong  necessarily  to  the  divine  nature, 
and  possess  equal  divine  honour.  In  pmof  of 
this,  the  second  class  of  texts  n.ust  be  adduced. 
The  following  texts  are  placed  in  this  class: — 
I  Matt,  xxviii.  18—20.  While  Jesus  con- 
tinued in  the  world,  he,  and  his  disciples  by  his 
direction,  had  preached  the  gospel  only  among 
the  Jews,  Matt.  x.  5.  But  now,  as  he  is  about 
to  leave  the  earth,  he  coinmissions  them  to  pub- 
lish his  reli<;ion  everywhere,  without  any  dis- 
tinction of  nation.  He  hid  received  authority 
from  God  to  establish  a  new  church,  to  receive 
all  men  into  it,  and  to  exhibit  himself  as  Lord  of 
all,  ver.  18  ;  cf.  John,  xvii,  2,  i^ovjia  nuara 
riapx6i.  Wherefore  he  requires  his  disciples, 
ver.  19,  to  "-o  forth  and  proselyte  all  nations, 
M 


131 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


(uaI^>jrfv(Torf  rtavta  ta  T^vt]  )  They  were  to 
do  this  in  two  ways, — viz.,  by  baptizing  (3art- 
ri^oirfjt  ver.  19),  and  by  instructing,  (iiSuazoi-- 
Tfj.  ver.  20.)  They  were  re(|uired  to  baptize 
thi'ir  converts,  fij  rooioaa  (="'3)  rov  Ilarpoj  xeu 
rov  Tlov,  xcu  rov  ayiov  flrf  vuaroj — I.  e.,  lii  rov 
Ila-tpa,  X.  r.  X.  To  baptize  in  the  name  of  a 
per-iin  or  thinir,  means,  according  to  tlie  usus 
loijuendi  of  the  Jews,  to  bind  one  by  baptism  to 
prifess  his  beliif,  or  gii-e  his  assent,  or  yield  obc- 
di'  nre,  to  a  certain  person  or  thini^,  Tiie  Tal- 
niudists  say,  the  Samaritans  circumcise  their 
Children  in  the  name  of  Mount  Gerizira,  and 
Christians  are  asked,  1  Cor.  i.  13,  15,  were  ye 
baptized  in  the  name  of  Paul?  In  1  Cor.  x.  3, 
it  is  said,  rtavtfj  (rtartpfj)  fSartri^ai-ro  fij 
Mcj'jri ,  and  in  Acts,  xix.  4,  that  John  the  Bap- 
lii^t  t iuTtnif  ilirbv  ((txojxfvov.  This  text,  taken 
by  itsidf,  would  not  prove  decisively  cither  the 
p-rs'iunlity  of  the  three  subjects  mentioned,  or 
their  (quality,  or  divinity.  For  («)  the  subject 
into  which  one  is  baptized  is  not  necessarily  a 
ptrsiin,  but  may  be  a  doctrine,  or  reli<j;ion ,-  as, 
to  circumcise  in  the  name  of  Mount  Gerizim. 
(6)  The  person  in  whom  one  is  baptized  is  not 
necessarily  God,  zsSartriiinv  fij  Mua^i',  IIaii>^i', 
X.  T.  >..  (c)  The  connexion  of  these  three  sub- 
jects does  not  prove  their  personality  or  equality. 
A  subject  may  swear  fealty  to  his  kins;,  to  the 
ojfic'r  under  whose  immediate  government  he  is 
placed,  and  to  the  laws  of  the  land.  But  does 
this  prove  that  the  king,  officer,  and  laws  are 
three  persons,  and  equal  to  one  another]  And 
so.  ilie  objector  might  say,  the  converts  to 
Christianity  might  be  required  to  profess  by 
baptism  their  acknowledgment  of  the  Father,  (the 
author  of  the  great  plan  of  salvation  ;)  of  the  Son, 
(w!io  had  executed  it;)  and  of  the  doctrines  re- 
vealrd  1)y  God  {jtvtvua  ayiov),  for  the  knowledge 
of  which  they  were  indebted  to  both  the  Father 
and  the  Son.  But  let  it  be  once  shewn  from  other 
texts  that  these  subjects  here  mentioned  are 
persons,  and  that  they  are  equal  to  one  another, 
and  this  construction  is  inadmissible.  One 
thinir.  however,  is  evident  from  this  text — viz., 
th.it  Christ  considered  the  doctrine  respecting 
Father,  Son.  and  Holy  Ghost  as  a  fundamental 
doctrine  of  his  relijrion,  because  he  requires  all 
his  followers  to  be  bound  to  a  profession  of 
It  immediately  on  their  being  admitted  as  mein- 
berft  of  his  church,  by  the  initiatory  rite  of  bap- 
tism.    Vide  Morus,  p.  59,  s.  2. 

9.  1  Pet.  i.  2.  I'eter  sends  his  salutations 
to  Christians,  and  says  to  them,  that  they  were 
admitted  into  the  Christian  church  xari  rtpo- 
yvu-^iv  0IOU  7ior,)6y,  (i.  ••,,  accordincr  to  the  gra- 
cious decree  of  God,)  iv  dytaiuy  (for  fij  ayta-j- 
liov)  rtvfvuaroi,  ftj  vrtoxojji'  xai.  (fif)  fjixvriiuov 
luuaroj  'I);iov'  X|)tTrou,  |)lainly  referring  to  the 
auove-mentioned  obligations  assumed  by  Chris- 
tians at  biijitism.     The  sense  is,  Ye  are  become 


Christians  according  to  the  eternal  decree  of  God 
the  Father,  to  the  intent  that  ye  should  be  made 
holy  (morally  pf^rfect)  through  the  Holy  Spirit ; 
and  that  ye  should  obey  Jesus  Christ,  and  obtain 
forgiveness  through  faith  in  his  bliod.  But  from 
what  is  here  said  of  the  Holy  .Spirit,  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  he  is  a  personal  subject; 
nor  from  the  predicates  here  ascribed  to  Christ, 
that  he  is  necessarily  divine;  and  so  this  pas- 
sage also,  taken  by  itself,  is  insufficient. 

3.  2  Cor.  xiii.  11,  The  grace  of  the  LordJesin 
Christ,  the  love  of  God,  and  the  cooimunion  (f  tie 
Holy  Sj)irit,  be  with  you  all.  From  the  paraK 
lelism  of  the  third  member  of  this  passage  with 
the  two  former,  we  might  perhaps  infer  the 
personality  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  But  from  the 
mere  collocation  of  the  names  of  these  persons, 
we  could  not  justly  infer  that  they  possessed 
equal  authority,  or  the  same  nature. 

•1.  John,  xiv.  2().  Here  are  three  different 
personal  subjects, — viz.,  o  riapax^rro;, 
nvfv^a  ro  ayiov,  o  rtfu4"  o  Tlar  r^f>  ti> 
ro  6v6f.iari  ^ov  (Xpiiroil).  But  that  these 
three  subjects  have  equal  divine  honour,  and  be- 
long to  one  divine  nature,  is  not  sufficiently 
proved  from  tliis  passige,  and  can  be  argued 
with  certainty  only  from  texts  of  the  second 
class. 

5.  Matt.  iii.  l(j,  IT.  where  the  baptism  of 
Jesus  by  John  is  narr.'.ted.  has  been  considered 
as  a  locus  classicus  upon  this  subject.  So  the 
ecclesiastical  fathers  considered  it.  Whence 
the  celebrated  (oriuuVd,  I  ad  Jordanam,  et  vidC' 
bis  Trinitatrm.  This  text  was  called  by  the 
ancients  ^enfavfid.  Three  personal  subjects 
are  indeed  here  mentioned — viz.,  the  voice  of 
the  Father,  the  symbol  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
(rifpiTTfjia),  and  Christ;  but  nothing  is  here 
said  respecting  their  nature ;  and  the  phrase, 
Tioi  &IOV  (ver.  17)  does  not  always  indicate  the 
divine  nature  of  Christ.  This  passage  then, 
taken  by  itself,  does  not  contain  the  tvholc  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity. 

But  the  sense  of  all  these  texts  can  be  fully 
detertnined  by  the  texts  of  the  second  class. 

As  to  the  passage  1  John,  v.  7,  8; — the  words 
from  li-  r(^  oiyaio,  to  it-  rw  y^,  must  be  allowed, 
on  all  critical  principles,  to  be  spurious.  But 
even  allowing  the  text  to  be  genuine,  it  would 
afford  no  strong  proof  of  the  entire  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity.  Three  subjects  are  indeed  eninne- 
rated,  u  Ilarrp,  u  Aoyoj,  and  ro  aytor  ricfviia" 
but  their  niture  and  essential  connexion  are  not 
determined  ;  for  the  expression,  oiVot  oi  rpftj  tv 
fill,  at  the  entl  of  ver.  7,  does  not  refer  ad  liiii- 
tutem  essentl.r.  and  thus  signify  that  they  make 
together  one  rlivine  beinij;  but  ad  unitntem  vo- 
luntatis, and  so  means,  as  appears  from  lite  con- 
text, that  they  are  agreed,  unanimous,  idun  r  »i- 
firmant.  This  is  lli<«  meaning  at  the  end  of  ver. 
8,  as  all  are  compelled  lo  admit,  and  it  i«  the 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTE^>. 


13S 


meaning  of  tv  ilvcu,,  whenever  it  occurs  in  the 
writinirs  of  John,  as  John,  x.  30;  xvii.  11,  &e. 
Ui.  on  these  verses:  Sernler,  Hisiorische  und 
kriiische  Sammlungen  iiber  die  sogenannlen 
Beweisstellen  der  Dogmatiii,  Erstes  Stiick ; 
Halle,  17()4,  8vo;  also  his  Vertheidigung  und 
Zusatze,  2n  St.  17G8.  Michaelis,  Einleit.  ins 
N.  T.,  th.  ii. ;  and  especially  Griesbach,  Dia- 
tribe in  loc.  1  John,  v.  Appendix,  N.  T.  Ed.  ii. 

SECTION  XXXVI. 

OF  THOSE  TEXTS  IN  WHICH  THE  FATHER,  SON, 
AND  HOLY  GHOST  ARE  SEPARATELY  MENTIONED, 
AND  IN  WHICH  THEIR  NATURE  AND  MUTUAL 
RELATION  ARE  TAUGHT. 

These  texts  form  the  second  class  above  men- 
tioned, s.  35;  and  they  shew  how  the  texts  of 
the  first  class  are  to  be  understood.  They  prove 
(fi)  that  tlie  Son  and  Holy  Spirit,  according  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament,  are  divine, 
or  belong  to  the  one  divine  nature;  and  (i)  that 
the  three  subjects  are  personal  and  equal.  In 
popular  instruction  it  will  be  found  best  to  ex- 
hibit this  class  of  texts  before  the  other.  In 
examining  these  texts  we  shall  exhibit  (1)  those 
which  teach  the  divinity  of  the  Father;  (2)  of 
the  Son;  (3)  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

The  Deily  of  the  Father. 

When  the  term  Father  is  applied  to  God  it 
often  designates  the  whole  godhead,  or  the  whole 
divine  nature;  as  ©foj  o  Ilarr^^u  1  Cor.  viii. 
4 — G  ;  John,  xvii.  1 — 3.  He  is  often  called  0f6{ 
xai  JlaTir^i — i.  e.,  ©foj  o  Xlarjjp,  or  Ofoj  bj  iati- 
riar^p,  as  Gal.  i.  4,  (a  Hebraism,  like  the  use 
of  1  for  the  relative  tj'n.)  All  the  arguments, 
therefore,  which  prove  the  existence  of  God  (vide 
e.  15 — 17),  prove  also  the  deity  of  the  Father. 
In  the  scriptures  God  is  called  Father, 

1.  Inasmuch  as  he  is  the  creator  iind preserver. 
Deut.  xxxii.  6,  Is  he  not  thy  Father,  who  hath 
made  thee  and  established  thee?  I  Cor.  viii.  6, 
Sfoj  o  IlaTTjp  f?  ov  ra  rtavta.,  Ephes.  iv.  6,  o 
Uarrfi  TtavTuiv.  The  Hebrews  call  the  author, 
inventor,  teacher  of  anything,  the  father  of  it; 
as  Gen.  iv.  20 — 22,  Juhal,  the  father  of  all  who 
piay  on  the  harp,  &c. ;  Job,  xxxviii.  28,  God,  the 
Father  of  rain. 

2.  Inasmucli  as  he  is  the  benefactor,  guardian, 
and  guide  of  men.  Psalm  Ixviii.  5,  The  father 
if  the  fatherless.  Job  says  of  himself,  (xxix.  IG,) 
I  was  the  father  of  the  poor.  Isaiah,  Ixiii.  10, 
''Thou  (God)  ar'  our  father  and  redeemer." 
Psalm  ciii.  13,  "  As  a  father  pitielh  his  chihlren, 
so  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that  fear  him."  It  was 
a  great  object  with  Christ  to  dilTuse  just  appre- 
hensions respecting  the  universal  paternal  love 
of  God  to  men.  Cf.  Romans,  viii.  15,  10,  also 
s.  28,  30,  31.  Hence  he  frequently  calls  God, 
talker,  heavenly  Father,  &c.     Tlie  name  chit 


dren  of  God  sometimes  denotes  \\\s  fa<ouri  ts, 
those  beloved  by  him;  sometimes  those  who  en- 
deavour to  resemble  him,  especially  in  purity, 
love,  and  beneficence;  sometimes  both  those 
who  love  and  follow  him  as  children  a  father, 
and  those  whom  he  loves  as  a  father  does  duti- 
ful children.  In  this  respect,  too,  God  is  often 
called  the  Father  of  men — i.  e.,  their  example, 
pattern,  the  being  whom  they  imitate.  When 
the  name  Father  is  apjjlied  to  God  in  either  of 
these  respects,  as  creator  or  as  benefactor,  the 
whole  godhead  is  intended. 

3.  God  is  frequently  called  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, o  0f6j  xat.  naT>;p  rov  Kvpiov  'Ir^aov  Xpia- 
tov,  Romans,  xv.  0;  2  Cor.  xi.  31 ;  Ephes.  i.  3, 
&c.  This  expression  in  many  texts  indicates, 
(ff)  The  relation  in  which  Christ,  as  the  Sa- 
viour of  men,  stands  to  God;  in  which  relation 
he  is  frequently  called  the  Son  of  God,  s.  37. 
God  is  represented  in  the  Bible  as  properly  the 
author  and  institutor  (riatjjp)  of  Christianity; 
and  also  as  the  father  of  Christ,  in  that  he  sent 
him  into  the  world,  and  commissioned  him  as  a 
man  to  instruct  and  to  redeem  our  race.  It  is 
clear  from  John  that  Christ  himself  often  calls 
God  his  father,  in  reference  to  this  charge  and 
commission  which  God  had  given  him.  John, 
xvii.  1 — 3,  Ilatf  p, — bo^anov  aov  rov  Tibv — cSuxa; 
aijro  (^ov(5iav  naar^^  oojixoj  Iva  yii'iooxwoi  oi,  rov 
fxovov  dxj^^ii'oi'  Qiov,  xai  ov  urttoTf t7.aj,  'Ir^oovv 
XpidTOK.  This  is  quite  accordant  with  that 
scriptural  usage  before  specified,  by  which  the 
author  of  a  thing  is  called  its  father.  And  be- 
sides, teachers  were  called  by  the  }e\\s  fathers, 
and  those  taught  by  them,  children.  2  Kings, 
ii.  12;  vi.  21.  Christ  says  to  his  disciples, 
Matt,  xxiii.  !),  Let  none  call  you  father  (as 
teachers  are  called),  for  one  is  your  Father, 
(teacher,  instructor,)  w^ho  is  in  heaven. 

{b)  This  phrase,  the  Father  of  Jesus  Christ,  in 
many  passages,  undoubtedly  indicates  a  certain 
internal  relation  existing  in  the  godhead  of  the 
deity  of  Christ  to  the  deity  of  the  Father,  the 
peculiar  nature  of  which  relation  is  nowhere  dis- 
closed in  the  Bible,  and  probably  cannot  be 
clearly  understood  by  men.  We  know,  how- 
ever, that  while  Christ  always  acknowledged 
that  he  derived  everything  from  the  Father,  he 
made  himself  equal  to  him.  Vide  Morus,  p. 
f)3,  s.  8.  In  this  sense,  Christ  uses  the  phrase 
in  many  passages,  and  among  others,  in  his 
discourse,  John,  v.  This  even  the  Jews  noticed, 
and  accused  him  of  blasphemy,  because  he 
called  God  Jlarfpa  ihiov,  and  so  made  himself 
fxiual  to  God,  (ver.  18.)  Nor  does  Christ  blame 
them,  in  his  answer,  for  understanding  him  i- 
this  way  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  goes  on  lo  say, 
ver.  23,  that  all  should  honour  the  Son  even  a$ 
they  honour  the  Father.  Cf.  John,  x.  30,  seq. ; 
Luke.  ii.  49.  Theologians  therefore  say  :  Fatef 
dicitur  duplicitcr  ;  («)  irto^ranxui,  personaliter 


?36 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


xncnmwunicah! lifer,  (de  prima  persona;)  (b) 
»uaito6u.{,  fssenlialiier ;  sic  tribus  personis  esse 
eommune.     Morus,  p.  GO,  note  ad.  s.  4. 

SECTION  XXXVII. 

OF  THE  TEXTS  IN  WHICH  DIVINE  NAMES  ARE 
GIVEN  TO  CHRIST. 

The  deity  of  Christ  is  proved  from  three 
classes  of  texts.  Morus,  p.  GO,  seq.  s.  5 — 9. 
(a)  Texts  in  which  divine  names  are  ascribed  to 
him,  s.  37.  But  from  most  of  these  texts,  in 
themselves  considered,  we  can  derive  no  very 
stronof  arijument  for  the  supreme  or  essential 
deity  of  Clirist.  They  rather  prove  his  divine- 
ness  than  his  dtity.  In  order  to  prove  the  deity 
of  Christ,  we  depend  upon  (b)  texts  in  which 
divine  atlributns  and  vorAs,  and  (f)  divine  honour 
or  worship  (cultus  divinus)  are  ascribed  to  him. 
Both  of  these  classes  will  be  considered  in  s. 
38,  coll.  s.  100.  From  all  these  texts  in  con- 
junction the  result  is,  that  Christ  is  called  God 
on  account  of  his  divine  attributes  and  works. 
Morus,  p.  G3. 

Niile  1.  Works  in  defence  of  the  deity  of 
Christ.  Amonjr  the  more  ancient  writers,  Ca- 
lixtus,  Whitby,  Spener,  Venema,  defended  this 
doctrine.  Among;  the  more  modern,  G.  F.  Seller 
has  written,  and  with  reference  to  the  present 
controversies,  Ueber  die  Gottheit  Christi ;  Leip- 
zicr,  1775,  8vo.  vSemler,  Ueber  die  Bewcisstellen 
u.  8.  w.  1772,  4to;  particularly  his  historical 
notes.  "Gottheit  Christi,  1st  sie  wohl  aus 
seinon  ein^nen  Reden  zu  erweisenr'  (printed 
without  name  of  the  place,  1790,  8vo.)  In  the 
year  17S6,  the  King  of  England  pave,  as  the 
subject  of  a  premium-essay,  the  proof  of  the  divi- 
nitij  of  Christ  (in  the  sense  of  the  Lutheran 
church),  and  ajipointcd  the  theolnnrical  faculty 
at  flottiniTon  to  award  the  prize,  (a  medal,  worth 
50  ducats.)  This  gave  occasion  to  the  follow- 
ing work  of  Semler,  Vorbereitung  auf  die 
Kunipl.  Grossbrit.  Proisfraorfi  von  der  Gottheit 
Christi ;  Halle,  1787,  8vo.  From  twenty-seven 
essays  that  were  offered,  none  were  judged  wor- 
thy of  the  prize.  The  faculty,  however,  pub- 
lished the  following  essay  as  the  best:  Jo,  Frid. 
Flatt,  Commentatio,  in  qua  symbolica  ecclesia; 
nostrm  dei  deitate  Christi  senteiitia  probatiir  et 
rindicalur;  Gottingas,  1788,  8vo.  The  follow- 
ing able  and  intelligent  letters,  written  under 
fictilinus  names,  owed  their  origin  to  this  prize  : 
lo.  Aspontani  ad  Rud.  I'limmelium,  de  deiiate 
Jesu  Christi,  epistola;  quatuor;  Lips.  1789, 
8vo.  Martini,  Versurh  einor  pragmatischen 
Geschichte  des  Dogma  von  der  Gottlieit  f'hristi, 
in  den  vier  ersten  Jahrhunderlen;  Roslock  und 
Leipzig,  1800. 

\ote  2.  Morus,  p.  fi5,  s.  9.  makes  the  follow- 
ing just  observation  *  Christ  has  laid  the  human 


race  under  infinite  oblisr?flons,  by  the  specjai 
blessings  relating  lo  our  salvation,  which  he 
has  bestowed  upon  us.  But  these  benefits  de- 
rive an  additional  value  from  the  exalted  cha- 
racter of  the  person  to  whom  we  owe  them. 
And  the  gratitude  which  we  shall  feel  towards 
him,  and  our  willingness  to  obey  his  precepts 
and  to  believe  his  doctrine,  will  therefore  proba- 
bly be  in  proportion  to  the  idea  we  form  of  his 
character.  It  is  not  then,  as  many  would  have 
us  suppose,  a  matter  of  no  consequence  to  un- 
dervalue the  character  of  Christ,  or  degrade  him 
to  the  level  of  a  man.  The  truth  of  this  obser- 
vation is  abundantly  confirmed  both  by  scripture 
and  experience  ;  and  it  should  he  seriously  pon- 
dered by  every  teacher  of  religion. 

The  following  are  the  principal  texts  in  which 
the  names  of  deity  are  given  to  Christ; — 

I.  John,  i.  1,  2.  Christ  is  here  called  o 
Tioyoj-  Morus,  p.  71,  note.  John  is  the  only 
f)ne  of  the  New-Testament  writers  who  applies 
tills  name  to  Christ.  He  wrote  among  the 
Grecian  Jews,  and  for  the  Hellenistic  Chris- 
tians, among  whom  probably  this  appellation 
of  Christ  must  at  that  time  have  been  very  com- 
mon ;  which  is  the  reason  why  he  does  not  more 
fully  explain  it.  It  signifies  among  the  Jews 
and  other  ancient  people,  when  applied  to  God, 
every thinis  by  which  God  reveals  hiiii^if  to  men, 
and  >nii/ii's  known  to  fhein  his  will.  Hencs  these 
who  made  known  the  divine  will  to  men  were 
called  by  the  Hellenists  Xoyoi,  otherwise  tiyyfXot, 
boi'-Koi  0fov'  as,  0f o?  ;^|jrrtti  ?.oyotj,  Philo,  Migrat. 
Abrah.  Vide  Book  of  Wisdom,  xviii.  15,  on 
which  cf.  Grotius.  Now  this  word  was  proba- 
bly applied  to  the  Messiah,  by  way  of  eminence, 
because  he  was  considered  as  the  greatest  divine 
messenger;  Rev.  xix.  13. 

The  Hellenists,  however,  frequently  asso- 
ciated very  erroneous  ideas  with  this  word  ;  and 
on  this  account  John  undertakes  here  to  correct 
their  mistakes  respecting  it,  and  gives  it  a  very 
elevated  meaning.  He  says;  o  Acr/oj  {the  de- 
clarer, rcvcaler  of  Cind)  existed  tv  a^^xf — viz.,  rou 
xdiuov  (r'cS{"«3,  Gen.  i.  1 — i.  e.,  ab  iFternu.) 
Did  he  exist  before  the  creation  of  the  world,  he 
must  be  God;  for  before  the  creation  nothing 
but  God  himself  existed.  This  pre-exisience 
of  Christ  is  also  taught  in  his  discourses,  John, 
viii.  58;  xvii.  5,  2L  .Ind  the  \6yoi  was  tvith 
God — viz.,  before  he  revealed  himself  to  men. 
Ktii  0f6f  ^^v  o  Aoyof.  propositio  inversn,  as  in 
John.  iv.  24.  O  Aoyoj  is  the  subject ;  the  I^^ros 
was  God.  Crell's  conjectural  reading,  «foi>  ^ 
o  Xoyoj,  must  bo  rejected  at  once,  since  all  the 
M.SS.  agree  in  the  common  readiiiu,  which  is 
undoubtedly  correct.  Vide  a.  100.  In  ihi? 
passage  the  |>riiicipal  proof  does  not  lie  in  tho 
word  Xfiyof,  nor  even  in  the  wnnl  i>fo;,  whicli  in 
a  larger  sense  is  often  applied   to  kings  and 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


137 


earthly  rulers,  but  to  what  is  predicated  of  the 
Aoyoj — viz.,  that  he  existed  fi-om  elen^ity  with 
Gud  ;  that  the  world  was  made  by  him,  &c.  This 
text  belongs,  therefore,  to  the  following  general 
^ss,  as  well  as  to  this. 

2.  John,  XX.  28.  Here  Thomas,  at  last  con- 
-inced  that  Christ  was  actually  risen  from  the 
dead,  thus  addresses  him  :  o  Kvpioifiov  xai  u  ©foj 
fiov.  The  nominative  instead  of  the  vocative. 
H  av,  or  some  similar  phrase,  must  be  supplied, 
in  order  to  complete  the  sense  :  "  Thou  art  truly 
he,  my  Lord  and  my  God."  It  is  not  an  ex- 
clamation of  wonder,  as  some  have  understood 
it;  for  it  is  preceded  by  the  phrase  elniv  avta, 
he  said  this  to  him;  addressed  him  in  these 
words.  In  the  same  manner  tlie  Romans,  after 
tlie  time  of  Tiberius,  used  the  expression  Domi- 
nus  ae  Detis  noater,  in  relation  to  the  emperors, 
whom  tlicy  deified.  Thomas  probably  remem- 
bered what  Jesus  had  often  said  respecting  his 
superhuman  origin,  John,  v.  8,  10,  17,  seq. ;  and 
he  now  saw  it  all  confirmed  by  his  resurrection 
from  the  dead.  Christ  seems  to  have  approved 
of  the  manner  in  wliich  he  was  addressed  by 
Thomas. 

3.  Philip,  ii.  6,  where  it  is  said  of  Christ  that 
he  is  iott  ©f9,  Deu  scqualis ;  not  ofioioi  Q:Z>,  di- 
rii>£oj,  5>£Of(XfXo5,  similis  Deo — terms  applied  by 
Homer  to  kings  and  heroes.  The  term  iaoj 
Qia,  or  the  contrary,  is  never  applied  to  a  finite 
or  created  being.  Hence  the  Jews,  John,  v. 
18,  considered  it  as  blas|)hemy  in  Christ  to  make 
himself  1501' ©f 9     Vide  s.  38. 

4.  Rom.  ix.  5.  Paul  is  speaking  of  the  privi- 
leges of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  mentions  among 
others  the  circumstance,  that  Christ  was  derived 
from  tiiem,  as  to  his  bodily  nature,  <;  Cjv  u  Xpo- 
roj  ro  xata  aupxa'  and  then  adds,  o  wv  ini  nav- 
Tuv  ©foj,  ivWoyr^tbi  ti;  rouj  atuJiaj !  If  this  re- 
fers to  Christ,  it  is  a  very  strong  proof  of  his 
divinity.  For  the  phrase  ©toj  svXoyrjtbi  is  ap- 
plied only  to  the  supreme  God,  Romans,  i.  25; 
Mark,  xiv.  Gl.  Besides  o  Zv  is  used  for  6j  i^ti, 
which  usually  relates  to  the  immediate  antece- 
dent. 

But  the  passage  is  sometimes  diflTerently 
pointed,  a  full  stop  being  placed  after  oapxa, 
and  then  this  whole  proposition  is  referred  to 
the  Father.  So  Origen,  Eusebius,  and  many 
of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers;  vide  Wetstein  and 
Semler.  But  (a)  it  must  then  reaxl,  according 
to  the  usiis  loquendi  of  the  Greeks  :  o  inl  Ttdvmv, 
without  Civ  or  6  0f6j,  i>t:il  rcdvrwv  (lor)  ;  though 
in  answer  to  tliis,  it  might  indeed  be  said  that 
Paul  was  little  versed  in  the  Grecian  idiom, 
and  has  many  ungrammatical  constructions. 
But  an  unsirammatical  construction  of  such  a  na- 
ture is  found  nowhere  else,  either  in  Paul,  or 
the  other  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  (b) 
In  all  the  passages,  without  exception,  in  which 
18 


these  words  are  used  as  a  doxohgy,  tv^.oyjjroj 
(1113)  stands  first  in  the  clause;  accordingly,  if 
it  referred  to  the  Father,  it  would  read  t v?.oy>;Toj 
o  ©£05  o  irtt  Ttarrtor.  This  usage  is  as  fixed  and 
invariable  in  Greek,  as  in  German  to  say  Gott- 
luh  I  instead  of  Lobgott!  (c)  Since  Paul  has 
elsewhere  ascribed  divine  perfection  to  Christ 
in  the  distinctest  manner,  as  will  be  proved  3. 
33,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  natural  meaning 
of  his  language  in  this  passage  should  be  per- 
verted. And  if  this  passage  were  road  in  an 
unprejudiced  manner,  it  would  undoubtedly  be 
referred  by  every  one  to  Christ. 

5.  John,  x.  28 — 30,  iyw  xai  u  Ilar^p  iv  iauiv. 
These  words  are  not  to  be  understood  to  denote 
so  much  an  equality  of  nature,  as  unanimity  of 
feeling  and  purpose ;  s.  35,  note,  ad  finem.  Still 
the  passage  is  quite  remarkable  ;  because  Clirist 
professes  to  do  his  work  in  common  with  his 
Father;  and  this  is  more  than  any  man,  pro- 
phet, or  even  angel,  is  ever  said  in  the  Bible  to 
do.  These  perform  their  works  through  God, 
and  by  his  assistance.  Indeed,  they  do  nothing 
themselves,  and  God  does  everything.  That 
being  one  ivith  God,  therefore,  which  Jesus  here 
asserts  for  himself,  is  something  peculiar,  and 
which  belongs  to  him  only  as  he  is  a  being  of  a 
higher  nature.     Cf.  John,  v.  18,  seq. 

6.  Some  of  the  texts  in  which  Christ  is  called 
the  Son  if  God.  It  is  evident  that  this  name  is 
given  in  the  New  Testament  to  Christ  in  more 
than  one  relation,  and  consequently  is  used  in 
more  than  one  signification ;  vide  s.  36,  ad 
finem.  Morus,  p.  G3,  note  2.  Three  diflerent 
senses  of  this  name  may  be  distinguished. 

(a)  In  many  passages  it  is  synonymous  with 
Xpi-atoi,  Messiah,  or  king.  In  the  oriental  lan- 
truanfes,  kings  are  commonly  called  the  sons 
of  God,  by  way  of  eminence,  (so  in  Greek 
6toy£i'fi.';  and  Storpffffif;)  and  tiie  most  distin 
guished  among  them  his  Jirst-burn,  Ps.  Ixxxix. 
27.  They  were  considered  as  the  vicegerents 
of  God  upon  earth, — as  his  representatives, 
bearing  his  image,  and  entrusted  with  his  autho- 
rity, Ps.  Ixxii.  2.  The  idea  of  a  hing,  there- 
fore, is  frequently  implied  in  the  appellation 
Sod  rf  Go(/,  applied  to  Christ;  which  then  is 
synonymous  with  n^rc,  XpiorcK,  Xpi-jroj  0fov. 
This  title  was  very  commonly  given  to  the  Mes- 
siah by  the  Jews;  vide  Matt.  xvj.  IC:  Luke, 
ix.  20;  Matt,  xxvii.  40;  Luke,  xxiii.  35;  also 
the  Talmud  and  Rabbins.  It  was  undoubtedly 
taken  originally  from  Ps.  ii.  7,  and  2  Sam.  vii. 
14,  both  of  which  texts  were  referred  by  the 
Jews  to  the  Messiah.  If  this  title  is  understooil 
in  this  way,  it  is  easy  to  Sf  e  how  Paul  can  say, 
1  Cor.  XV.  28,  that  hereafter,  when  the  church 
on  earth  shall  cease,  the  Son  of  Gnd  will  lay 
down  his  ^a-jiXfiar,  and  as  Ti6$  become  subject 
to  the  Father.  In  this  same  sense— namely,  to 
m2 


138 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


denote  his  Messiahsliip — Jesus  also  sometimes 
appropriates  this  name  to  himself.  He  says, 
Mark,  xiii.  32,  that  Ae  himself,  as  Ttoj, /ihcu?  not 
the  lime  <>f  th':  judi^ment  (f  Jtniitaleni.  To  con- 
tend, therefore,  that  this  appellation  always  de- 
notes tlie  divine  nature  of  Christ,  would  involve 
us  in  unnecessary  difficulty.  But  the  meaning 
wiiich  we  have  now  given  will  hy  no  means 
apply  in  all  the  cases  in  which  this  appellation 
occurs.     It  sometimes  denotes, 

(//)  The  hii^her  naliire  (f  Christ — e.  g.,  Rom. 
i.  3,  4..  Christ  is  here  spoken  of  in  two  re- 
S()ects  :  first,  xara  adpxa,  in  his  inferior  nature, 
liis  humanity,  and  in  this  he  is  called  Tioj 
Aavi6 :  secondly,  xata  rtvivua  ay.wjvpr^^,  as  1u 
his  hi<rher,  more  pr.rfcct  nature,  to  '^ttov,  and  in 
this  he  is  called  Tib;  Qiov,  and  solemnly  de- 
clared to  be  such  by  God  in  his  resurrection 
from  the  dead.  Jesus,  moreover,  uses  this  title 
of  himself  in  this  sense,  John,  v.  17,  seq. :  and 
the  Jews  well  understood  that  by  thus  using  it 
he  made  himself  equal  to  God;  cf.  x.  30,  33. 
Nor  did  Christ  charge  them  with  misunder- 
standing him,  but,  on  the  contrary,  admitted  the 
sense  they  had  put  upon  his  words;  cf.  ver.  18, 
23  ;  and  x.  31.  Again,  the  predicates  connected 
with  this  appellation,  John,  i.  and  Ileb.  i.  ii., 
are  such  as  are  never  used  in  respect  to  any 
man,  or  any  created  spirit.  Thus  Christ  is 
called  /toroyfirj.  Moreover,  Xiinro;  is  often 
distinguished  from  Tio;  0foD.  Thus,  Matt.  xvi. 
1(),  where  Peter  answers  a  question  of  Jesus, 
by  saying,  thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  nf  God: 
cf.  John,  XX.  31. 

(c)  He  is  also  called  Son  nf  God,  Luke,  i.  35, 
to  designate  the  immediate  power  of  God  in  the 
miraculous  production  of  his  human  nature.  In 
the  same  sense,  Adam,  who  was  immediately 
created  by  God,  is  called  the  Son  (f  God,  Luke, 
iii.  38. 

7.  Tit.  ii.  13,  JVe  expect  the  glorious  appear- 
ante,  the  trtt^avnav  rjjj  6d*>;j  t  ov  fAcyuV.ov 
&!ov  xai.  nu>Trpoi  r;uCjv  'irjfsov  Xpicrrov.  Here 
it  is  objected,  that  if  ©foj^iyaj  related  to  Christ, 
the  xai  would  be  omitted.  But  since  rov  is 
omitted  before  (jcor>;po{,  both  ^fya'7w>v  ©foil  and 
(jujr);()0{  must  be  construed  as  in  apposition  with 
Ir^ioi'  Kfiirjrov,  according  to  a  known  usage  of 
the  Greek  language;  and  so  they  are  construed 
by  many  of  the  ancient  writers.  Besides,  irti- 
fayfia.  is  the  word  by  which  the  solemn  coming 
of  (^lirist  is  ap|>ro|)riately  designated.  The  pas- 
saire  tlii^refore,  is  regarded,  even  by  Henke,  as 
referring  to  (Christ. 

These  are  the  most  important  texts  of  tliis 
class.  Other  texts  are  sometimes  placed  in  con- 
nexion with  ihese,  which  are  less  capai)le  of  de- 
fence, either  on  critical  or  phili)logical  grounds. 
Such  are  1  John,  v.  "20;  I  Tim.  iii.  IG;  Acts, 
XX.  2^ 


SKCTIOX  XXXVIII. 

OF  THF:  texts  in  which  divine  ATTRIBl'TES 
AND  WORKS  ARE  ASCRIBED  TO  CHRIST  ;  AND  !!» 
WHICH  DIVINE  HONOUR  IS  REQUIRED  FOR  HIM. 

I.   Texts  in  which  Divine  Attributes  and  Works  are 
(uscribcd  to  Christ. 

This  is  the  second  class  of  the  division  men- 
tioned in  the  first  part  of  s.  37.  Many  doubtful 
texts  are  often  placed  in  this  class,  in  order  to 
make  out  the  proof,  that  all  the  divine  attributes 
are  ascribed  to  Christ  in  the  Bible.  But  the 
proof  of  this  is  not  at  all  important.  For  if  it 
be  allowed  that  one  single  divine  attribute  is 
ascribed  to  Christ  in  the  Bible,  the  conclusion  is 
inevitable,  that  he  must  possess  all  the  rest. 
The  divine  attributes  cannot  be  separated  or 
disjoined  ;  where  one  of  them  exists,  all  of 
them  must  be  found.  And  the  truth  of  this 
cannot  be  disputed.  Vide  s.  18.  The  follow- 
ing divine  attributes  and  works  are  distinctly 
ascribed  to  Christ  in  the  scriptures — viz., 

1.  Eternity.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  GO,  Gl,  s.  6. 
This  attribute  is  ascribed  to  him  in  those  texts 
in  which  he  is  said  to  have  existed  before  the 
founddiion  of  the  world ;  for  ttiis  is  the  way  in 
which  eternity  li  parte  ante  is  always  described. 
Vide  s.  20.  Here  belongs  the  text,  John,  i.  I 
(s.  37);  and  also  John,  xvii.  .5,  Glorify  me 
with  that  glory  which  I  had  with  thee  n/o  tov 
rbv  xo'^uov  (liai.  The  glory  here  spoken  of 
could  not  be  that  derived  from  the  government 
of  the  kingdom  of  God,  or  of  the  church;  be- 
cause neither  of  them  existed  before  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world  ;  it  can  therefore  be  nothing 
else  than  divine  glory.  Here,  two,  belongs  the 
passarre,  John,  viii.  58,  where  Christ  describes 
his  higher  nature,  by  saying.  Before  Mraham 
was,  I  AM  (fiui) ;  for  by  this  same  verb,  in  the 
present  tense,  does  God  describe  his  own  un- 
changeable being.  Accordingly  the  Jews  un- 
derstood him  to  assert  for  himself  a  divine  attri- 
bute, and  therefore  charged  him  with  blasphemy, 
and  sought  to  stone  him,  (ver.  5'.1.)  And  so  fre- 
quently, according  to  ths  testimony  of  John  and 
the  other  evangelists,  Christ  spoke  of  himself, 
in  a  manner  in  which  it  would  have  been  pre- 
sumption and  blasphemy  for  a  prophet  or  any 
created  being  to  speak. 

2.  'JVie  creation  and  preservation  nf  thi  ti'orld. 
This  is  ascribed  to  him,  John,  i.  1 — 3,  Wdvra. 
hi  avrov  iyiyrro,  xai  x^(>ii  avroii  iyivrro  ovSi  *'»•, 
o  yiyovfit'  ^  fr.  10,  O  jtoiuo;  ^t'  ovTov  tyivtro. 
Col.  I.  15 — 17,  npujToroxoj  ftHTrj  xTiTw^,  not, 
prinnts  inter  rrs  crralas,  which  would  be  incon- 
sistent with  the  context,  ver.  IG,  where  the  rea- 
son is  given  why  he  was  jrpcororoxoj*  but,  rri, 
the  ruler  or  governor  (jtpurfi'wr  iv  nd^iv,  prii.ei' 
palum  tenena,   Col.   i.    18) ;    in   which   sense 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


139 


Christ  is  also  called  rtpwrotoxoj  in  Ileb.  i.  fi,  and 
a^iX^i  ('•  e.,aj:);^tov)  trj  xfi'ijfwj  0fov,  Rev.  iii.  14. 
£1/  him  were  all  thitigs  in  the  universe  created, 
{iv  av-tc^  tx-ti(5^Yi  rii,  ndvta.  to,  tv  T015  oapai'otj  xai 
ini  rri  y;?')  '^'fi  material  and  spiritual  world, 
(ra  o|jata  xal  aopara ,-)  everything  which  is  ele- 
vated, great,  and  powerful,  (^povot  xvptorr/rfj, 
dp;^at,  X.  -t.  "K.  0  O-ll  things  were  created  by  him 
{hi  avrov)  and  on  his  account,  or  for  his  service 
(•ij  avroi').  He  exists  fruvi  eternity  (rfpo  ndv- 
rtJi),  and  from  him  everything  derives  its  exist- 
ence (ra  rtuvta.  iv  avf  9  avviorr^xi).  Pliiio  and 
Joseph  us  often  speak  of  God,  the  Creator,  in 
the  same  way.  Heb.  i.  2,  3.  Christ  is  here 
described  as  <pi^Mv,  (i.  e.,  conservans;  cf.  Nt:*:,  Is. 
xlvi.  3  ;  and  the  phrase  '?33  oS-y  ap|)lied  to  God) 
ra  ncrra  ta  ^jr^fxatt,  -rjjj  Swaufui?  avTov-  i.  e.,  by 
his  almiirhty  will  or  command.  That  in  the 
clause,  6t'  ov  xai  rovj  aiuJi-aj  iTtoir^aiv,  the  word 
6ia  may  denote  not  merely  the  instrv mental,  hut 
also  the  efficient  cause,  is  evident  from  many 
texts — e.  g.,  John,  iii.  17  ;  Romans,  i.  5  ;  1  Cor. 
i.  9  ;  and  especially  from  Heb.  ii.  10,  where 
the  same  word  is  used  in  reference  to  the  Fa- 
ther, fit'  oil  Ttt  iidvia..  And  that  the  meanintj  of 
Paul  was,  that  the  Son  himself  was  tlie  creator 
of  the  universe,  is  placed  beyond  a  doubt  from 
the  text,  Heb.  i.  10,  where  Ps.  cii.  26  {Thou, 
Lord,  hast  founded  the  earth  ,•  the  heavens  arc  the 
work  of  thy  haitds,)  is  quoted  and  applied  to 
Christ.  Therefore  inasmuch  as  the  eternal 
power  and  majesty  of  the  Father  are  declared 
by  the  creation,  so  far  as  it  is  his  work  (Rom. 
i.  20)  ;  the  eternal  power  and  majesty  of  the 
Son  are  declared  by  this  same  creation,  so  far 
as  it  is  his  work.  For  further  remarks  respect- 
ing the  creation  of  the  world  by  the  Son,  vide 
6.47. 

3.  Omnipotence  is  ascribed  to  Christ,  Phil.  iii. 
21 ;  omniscience,  Matt.  xi.  27.  John,  vi.  40, 
He  only,  swpazj  tbv  rtaripa.  John,  ii.  24,  25. 
He  is  also  described  as  the  searcher  of  hearts, 
who  knows  and  will  bring  to  light  the  7Uost  hid- 
den things,  1  Cor.  iv.  5.  Indeed,  it  follows  of 
course,  that  if  Clirist  has  created,  governs,  and 
preserves  all  things,  he  must  possess  omnipo- 
tence and  omniscience.  Here  it  is  objected, 
that  from  other  texts  it  is  clear  that  Christ  re- 
ceived both  bis  doctrine  and  his  power  from  the 
Father — e.  g..  Matt.  xi.  27,  nuira  uol  napfSo^;- 
4rt6  Tou  rtttTpoj.  John,  viii.  20;  xii.  49;  Matt, 
xxviii.  18,  all  power  in  heaven  and  in  earth  is 
GIVEN  me.  John,  iii.  35 ;  v.  20  ;  the  Father  hath 
given  power  to  the  So7%  to  raise  the  dead,  &c. 
But  in  these  passages  Christ  is  spoken  of  as 
Messiah,  or  as  an  ambassador  appointed  by 
God.  And  here  it  is  evident,  that  he  is  consi- 
dered in  the  New  Testament  botli  as  God,  and 
ns  God  united  with  man.     Vide  s.  100,  seq. 

Note. — The  passage  Col.  ii.  9,  f  1  ai-ro  xaroixn 
nav  TO  ,nX>;pw,tta  rrj  ^f  brrroj  (jw,uar  ;xu)5,  is  quoted 


to  prove  that  Christ  possesses  all  divine  perfec- 
tions. But  the  text  must  be  explained  by  the 
parallel  texts.  Col.  i.  19,  a'  avrci  f\huy.r,6i  ndv 
ro  rtX?;pco,ua  ;!caTotx;;i5a£,and  Ejihes.  iii.  19,  where 
the  phr.ise  nx»;pw/xa  Qtov  occurs  instead  0^ 
nX-/;pio^a  ^foTJ^Toj,  so  that  ^f 6r>;j  is  abstract  foi 
concrete,  like  xv\-iiotr^i  instead  of  Kvpioj.  II>.^- 
p<o,ua  means  multitude,  collection  ;  as  rtXj;ptJia 
■fuiv  t^vuv,  Rom.  xi.  25.  By  the  phrase,  then, 
rtdv  to  TiXrpioua  tr-i  ^lorrjToi,  the  whole  multi- 
tude of  men  living  under  the  divine  government 
are  intended,  and  when  of  these  it  is  said,  that 
they  iv  avTu  (Xptortj)  xarotxil,  it  is  the  same  as 
to  say,  All  men  without  distinction,  Avhether 
Jews  or  Greeks,  have  citizenship  in  the  Chris- 
tian church, — all  are  the  people  of  God.  2w/ia- 
Tczwf  is  equivalent  to  wj  oCjua,  and  must  be  ex- 
plained by  the  parallel  texts.  Col.  i.  18;  Ephes. 
i.  22  ;  iv.  15;  according  to  which  the  meaning 
of  the  phrase  is,  they  compose  the  body,  orchurch, 
of  which  Christ  is  the  head  {xfrpuXr^.)  Ncesselt, 
in  his  Weihnachts  programm.  of  1785,  gives 
another  explanation.  He  supposes  the  allu- 
sion is  to  the  perfect  divine  instruction  which 
is  given  by  Christ,  and  that  in  a  real  and  dis- 
tinct manner  (ato/«anxu<5) ;  and  not  in  symbols 
and  images,  as  iu  the  Mosaic  religion. 

II.  Texts  in  which  Divine  Honour  is  required  for 
Christ. 
This  is  the  third  class  of  texts  in  proof  of  the 
divinity  of  Christ.  Christ  and  his  apostles  ex 
pressly  teach  that  divine  honour  and  worship 
must  be  paid  to  God  only.  Vide  xMatt.  iv.  10, 
coll.  Deut.  vi.  13;  Rev.  xix.  10.  And  in  this 
they  agree  entirely  with  the  prophets  of  the  Old 
'I'estament.  Vide  Isa.  xlii.  8  ;  xlviii.  11.  Hence 
it  is  just  to  conclude,  that  when  Christ  himself 
and  his  apostles  require  that  divine  worship 
should  be  paid  to  him,  they  acknowledge  that 
he  is  God  ;  otherwise  they  would  require  what, 
according  to  their  own  principles,  would  be 
blasphemy.  'I'he  following  are  the  principal 
texts  of  this  class  : — 

1 .  John,  V.  23,  Jll  should  honour  the  Son,  even 
as  they  honour  the  Father  ;  whoso  honours  not  the 
Sun,  honours  not  the  Father  who  hath  sent  him. 
We  reason  thus: — If  the  worship  Hue  to  the 
Father  should  be  paid  to  ihe  Son,  and  if  he  who 
withholds  from  the  Son  such  worship  as  is  due 
to  the  Father,  is  regarded  as  if  he  honoured  not 
the  Father,  it  follows  that  equal  honour  is  duo 
to  the  Son  with  the  Father.  But  Christ,  ac- 
cording to  his  own  maxims,  could  have  laid  no 
claim  to  this  honour  if  he  were  less  tlian  the 
Father,  or,  whicli  is  the  same  thing,  were  not 
God.  Now  the  Son  is  honoured  as  the  Father, 
his  instructions  and  precepts  are  embraced  and 
obeyed  as  those  of  the  Father ;  when  the  same 
unlimited  confidence  is  placed  in  him  as  ia 
placed  in  the  Father;  when  all  our  salvation  is 


140 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


expected  from  him  as  it  is  from  the  Father:  and 
this  is  what  Jesus  requires  of  his  disciples. 

2.  Tiiat  the  apostles  and  primitive  Christians 
must  have  understood  and  explained  these  and 
Bimilar  expressions  of  Christ  in  this  manner, 
appears  from  their  example.  For  («)  tiie  apos- 
tles and  first  Christians  directed  their  prayers 
to  Christ — e.  j.,  in  the  choice  of  an  apostle, 
Acts,  i.  2t:  Si),  Ki'ots,  xapStoyrtidra  Tidvti^v, 
coll.  V.  21,  where  Jesus  is  called  Kvptoj.  The 
o  Kvpioj,  whom  Paul  invoked,  2  Cor.  xii.  8,  was 
Christ;  for  it  was  that  the  power  of  Christ 
(Sviaiu,-  XiH^roD)  might  be  manifested  in  sup- 
porting him  that  he  was  willing  to  sutler;  cf. 
Acts,  vii.  50.  Besides,  in  the  early  ages  of 
Christianity,  it  was  well  known  even  among 
the  heathen,  that  Christians  worshipped  Christ 
as  a  God.  Pliny  (X.  Epist.  97)  says,  he  was 
assured  that  in  their  meetings,  carmen  Chrivto 
quasi  Den  suli'li  esseni  dicerc  sccum  inviccm.  (i) 
The  ajjostles  freriuently  refer  to  Christ  the  texts 
of  the  Old  Testament  which  speak  of  the  honour 
and  worship  of  God — e.  g.,  Heh.  i.  6,  Let  all 
the  nji'^ch  of  God  tcorship  him,  from  Psalm 
xcvii.  7;  also  Rom.  xiv.  11,  from  Is.  xlv.  3. 

3.  Phil.  ii.  10,  M  the  name,  of  Jtcus  (i.  e., 
when  they  hear  the  name  of  Jesus,  o  Kv'ptoj,  the 
Lord  orer  all,  ver.  9,  11,)  evert/  knee  should  bow, 
of  nnircls,  (or  the  inhabitants  of  heaven,)  (f  the 
inhabitants  if  earth,  and  the  inhabitants  if  the 
Iciniidom  of  the  dead,  [xatax^fia;)  in  short,  all 
in  the  universe,  without  exception.  Should  it 
be  objected  here  that  these  words  do  not  re({uire 
that  dirin"  honour  should  be  given  to  Jesus,  but 
that  adoration  only  which  is  due  to  him  as  hini;. 
Messiah,  head  of  the  church,  (since  in  ver.  9,  11, 
he  is  spoken  of  in  the  latter  character,  and  not 
as  God,)  it  might  he  replied,  that  in  the  pre- 
ceding context  he  is  expressly  described  as  Iia 
0fcj.  So  that  Paul  here  requires  that  same  di- 
vine honour  to  be  paid  to  Christ  which  he  re- 
quires elsewhere,  and  wliich  he  himself  ren- 
dered :  All  should  worship  as  God  this  equal  of 
God  (ver.  r>),  whenever  they  heard  his  name, 
which  is  above  every  other. 

4.  Here  belong  also  the  texts  in  which  the 
apostles  sl)ew  that  they  place  their  whole  reli- 
ance on  Christ;  looked  to  him  for  all  temporal 
and  spiritual  blessings,  those  relating  to  time 
and  to  eternity ;  and  in  which  they  exhort  all 
Christians  to  do  the  same  ;  an<l  this  reliance  on 
Christ  is  expressed  by  them  in  the  same  lan- 
giiaa-p  in  which  they  speak  elsewhere  of  their 
confidence  in  God  and  his  providence,  and 
which  is  never  employed  in  reference  to  men  or 
angfls;  2  Cor.  v.  8—11;  2  Tim.  iv.  17,  IS. 
The  texts  in  which  the  apostles  profess  to  work 
miracles  iv  ovo^ari  Xpisrov,  as  his  messengers, 
and  btf  his  junoer,  are  to  be  reckoned  among  the 
foregoing  proofs — e.  g.,  Acts,  iii.  G,  seq.  &c. ; 


also  the  oat/is  and  protestations  which  the  apos- 
tles uttered  by  Christ,  since,  according  to  Chris- 
tian rules,  they  could  swear  by  God  alone— 
e.  g.,  Rom.  ix.  1,  tv  Xpiur^,  by  Christ .'  2  Tim. 
ii.  7 ;  finally,  the  texts  in  which  the  apostles 
supplicate  grace  from  Christ,  as  well  as  from 
the  Father,  for  all  Christians. 

We  see,  then,  from  all  these  texts,  that  wliile 
the  Bible  always  teaches  that  Christ  receives 
all  his  endowments /ro/rt  the  Father,  (vide  Mo- 
rns, p.  G3,  s.  8,)  and  that  the  Father  acts 
through  him ;  and  bestows  all  good  through 
him;  it  still  describes  him  as  literally  God,  and 
equal  with  the  Father.  And  this  is  sutTicient 
to  establish  our  faith;  and  further  than  this  we 
should  not  attempt  to  go. 

SECTION  XXXIX. 

OF    THE    HOLT    SPIRIT    AND    HIS    PERSONALITY. 

I.  Meaning  of  t lie  term  Holy  Spirit. 

One  of  the  principal  difTiculties  in  the  discus- 
sion of  this  doctrine  arises  from  the  various 
meanings  of  the  words  nn  and  rti'ivfta,  and  of 
the  compounds  n-ip  nn,  a\-iSs  nn,  isi,  Il^'ci.ua 
aytoi;  Ili'fvua  QfoO,  x.  t.  %.  Tiiese  meanings, 
however,  are  needlessly  multiplied  by  the  sub- 
tleties of  interpreters  and  lexicographers.  It 
may  also  be  remarked  that  the  terms  U'^-":^  nn 
and  n\i^s'  nn,  Ilifvutt  ayioi/  and  IIifv/taQfov,  are 
interchanged  as  synonymous,  since  ayior,  '■1'^"^, 
signify  ivkut  is  reverenced,  venerable,  and  then 
more  specifically  what  is  divine.  Hence  the 
expression  occurring  1  Pet.  iv.  14,  to  tr;<  6o$rj, 
(i.  e.,  IVSo^ov  or  ayio^)  xai  (i.  e.)  to  rov  t^iov 
Ttvdfia, 

In  order  to  understand  thoroughly  the  ironnd 
of  the  various  significations  of  this  term  as  used 
in  the  Bible,  and  especially  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  reader  must  consult  the  general  re- 
iparks  respecting  the  use  of  those  word-,  and 
respecting  the  derivations  of  their  significations 
contained  in  s.  19,  II.;  col.  s.  9,  III.  IV.  In 
continuation  of  what  is  there  said,  (supposing 
it  now  to  be  understood  by  the  student.)  the  fd- 
lowing  remarks,  relating  particularly  to  the  New 
Testament,  are  here  added. 

u'np  nn  frequently  signifies,  the  divine  nature, 
or  God  himself;  but  it  also  denotes  the  divine 
power,  as  displayed  both  in  the  material  and 
spiritual  world  ;  also  the  divine  understanding 
and  knowledge,  and  the  communication  of  it  to 
men.  But  in  speaking  of  the  efTects  of  the  di- 
vine power,  there  was  not  in  ancient  times  that 
nice  distinction  which  is  now  made  betWHen 
what  is  mediati'ly  an<l  immediately  done  by  God, 
since  his  agency  is  not  less  real  in  one  case  tbnn 
in  the  other.  This  distinction  is  not  therefore 
i  found  in  the  lioiy  scriptures;  no  practical  pur- 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


141 


pose  could  Lave  been  answered  by  introducing 
it;  and  indeed,  to  have  made  it  would  often  have 
been  injurious. 

Accordingly,  throughout  the  Old  Testament, 
the  trnp  nn,  or  D'h-'S  nn,  is  represented  as 
havino-  an  agency,  sometimes  mediate,  some- 
times immediate,  in  everything  which  is  done; 
and  to  it  everything  great  and  elevated — know- 
ledge, talents,  discoveries,  arts,  great  actions, 
good  governments,  exemplary  virtue  and  piety, 
&c.,  are  uniformly  ascribed.     Vide  s.  9,  III. 

Tlio  same  mode  of  expression  and  representa- 
tion is  adopted  in  the  New  Testament,  and  was 
common  among  the  first  Christians.  As  the 
people  of  God,  they  were  bound  to  distinguish 
themselves  from  other  men  by  their  knowledge 
of  the  sacred  truths  of  religion;  they  were 
bound  to  live  in  a  virtuous  and  truly  pious  man- 
ner; to  place  their  confidence  in  God  and  in 
Jesus  Christ;  with  the  promise  that  thus  they 
should  enjoy 'in  an  eminent  degree  the  blessing 
of  God  and  the  grace  of  Christ,  and  be  greatly 
prospered  in  their  endeavours  for  tiie  promotion 
of  Christianity.  Now  all  this  knowledge,  holi- 
ness, faith,  and  success  in  their  undertakings 
was  ascribed  by  them  UvBi\uati  aytcj  or  Orov. 
Vide  1  Cor.  xii.  3,  seq.;  from  which  passage 
^•e  also  learn  that  the  influences  and  operations 
of  this  divine  Spirit  were  different,  according  to 
the  difference  found  in  individual  Christians. 

(a)  It  was  the  duty  of  «//  Christians  to  possess 
a  fundamental  knowledge,  and  a  firm  and  un- 
wavering belief  of  the  principal  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity; to  live  in  a  manner  corresponding  to 
this  knowledge ;  to  have  a  faith  in  God  and  in 
Jesus  Christ,  made  active  by  love.  And  so  this 
knowledge  of  the  truths  of  religion,  and  this 
correspondent  Christian  temper  and  disposition, 
were  ascribed  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  were  called 
TlveviMO.  dyiov,  Ili'evva  etov,  XpWT'ov,  or  Tiov. 
Vide  Rom.  viii.  9  ;  Gal.  v.  16,  22,  23;  vi.  8. 
The  gospel  itself,  or  Christianity,  was  also  called 
by  the  same  name,  it  being  the  most  perfect,  and 
a  divine!)/  insliiuicd  religion. 

(i)  But  some  Christians  were  distinguished 
from  the  rest  by  eminent  abilities,  t.ilents,  gifts, 
and  capacities;  by  zeal,  activity,  &c.  These 
were  made  teachers  and  other  officers  of  the 
church,  according  to  their  various  gifts  and  ahi- 
litifs.  Now  all  these  various  gifts,  abilities, 
and  talents,  of  whatever  sort,  by  which  such 
persons  became  useful  to  the  church,  were 
ascribed  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  derived  and  named 
from  him  ;  for  in  these  various  endowments  the 
agency  of  this  divine  co-operating  power  was 
unusually  conspicuous.  These  extraordinary 
qualifications  are  commonly  called  miraculous 
irlj'is — the  gift  of  teaching,  of  tongues,  of  healing, 
of  working  miracles,  &c., — all  of  wliich  pro- 
moted tlie  glory  and  ad  vancement  of  Christianity. 
Vide  Mait°.  iii.  ll-'  i  Cor.  xiv.  12:  1  Thess.  v. 


19.  On  this  account  it  is  that  all  who  oppose 
the  truth  of  God,  or  persecute  the  prophets  who 
teach  it,  even  those  who  put  hindrances  in  the 
way  of  the  influence  of  religion  over  themselves 
or  others,  are  said  to  resist  the  Ilo'nj  Spirit,  to 
ajpict,  to  i^ricve  it,  &c.  Isa.  Ixiii.  10;  Ephes. 
iv.  30;  Acts,  vii.  51. 

Since  now  the  sacred  writers,  like  all  others, 
make  use  of  the  dgnre prosopopeia,  and  personify 
these  divine  influences — speaking  of  them  as 
the  Holy  Spirit,  as  they  often  do  of  the  xvisdom 
and  other  attributes  of  God— we  should  be  cau- 
tious in  the  selection  of  texts  from  which  the 
personality  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  to  be  proved. 
We  should  rest  content  with  those  which  are 
most  clear  and  explicit ;  for  nothing  is  gained  by 
collecting  a  large  number. 

Cf.  Lang,  Zur  Befordening  des  richtigen  Ge- 
brauchs  desTeller'schen  Worlerbuchs  iiher  das 
N.  T.  untor  dem  Worte  Geist.  Schleusner.  Diss, 
de  vocabuli  nnip-o.  in  lil)ris  N.  T.  vario  usu, 
Gottinga^,  1791,  4to.  Scripta  Varii  Argument!, 
No.  IV.,  De  Spiritu  Sancio  et  Chrisio  paracletis  ,- 
Halae,  1790. 


II.  Personality  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  Holy  Spirit  is  represented  in  the  Now 
Testament,  not  only  as  different  from  the  Father 
and  Son,  and  not  merely  as  the  personification 
of  some  attribute  if  God,  or  of  some  effect  which 
he  has  produced,  but  as  a  literal  person.  Vide 
Semlor,  Disp.  Spiritum  Sanctum  recte  describi 
personam.  The  proof  of  this  is  thus  made  out 
from  the  following  texts: — 

1.  From  the  texts,  John,  xiv.  Ifi,  17,  2G;  xv. 
2G.     The  Holy  Spirit  is  here  called  no.f(xy.7.r.toi, 
not  comforter,  advocate,  nor  even  merely  teacher, 
as  Ernesti  renders  it,  but  helper,  assistant,  coun- 
sellor, in  which  sense  it  is  used  by  Philo,  when 
he  says,   God  needs  no  rtapaxXr^to^,   (monitor.) 
Of  the  Faracktiis  Christ  says,  that  the  Father 
ivilt  send  him  in  his  (Christ's)  name,  (i.  e.,  in 
his  place,)  to  instruct  his  disciples.     To  these 
three  subjects   similar  personal  predicates  are 
here  equally  applied  ;  and  the  Paracletus  is  not 
designated  by  the  abstract  word  auxilium,  but 
by  the  concrete  auxiliator ,-  so  that  we  have  the 
Father,  who  sent  hirn  ;  the  Son,  in  whose  place 
he  comes  ;  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  is  sent. 
His  office  is  to  carry  forward  the  great  work  of 
teaching  and  saving  men,  which  Christ  com- 
inenced%nd  to  bo  to  the  disciples  of  Christ  what 
Christ  himself  was  while  he  continued  upon 
the  earth.     John,  xv.  26,  JVhen  the  Paracletus 
.^hall  come,  whom  I  icill  send  to  you  from  the  Fa- 
ther, {[mean,  the  Spirit— i.  e.,  teacher— rf  truth, 
who  proceeds  from  the  Father),  he  will  instruct 
you  further  in  my  reli'^ion;  where  it  should  be 
remarked,    that   the   phrase  ixnopivf'5^0.1.   rtapo 
IIarp<;j  means  to  he  sent  or  commis-ioned  hy  the 
Father.     Cf.  John,  xir.  16,  (5w<jft  i^iv  HaT/jp,) 


143 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOG\. 


and  xvi.  28,  ({'IrA.^;'  rta,m  Ilarpdj,  niissits  sum,) 
and  N>^  in  Hebrew.  This  procession  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  from  the  Father  does  not  imply, 
then,  as  it  is  used  in  the  Bible,  the  communi- 
cation of  the  divine  nature  to  the  Spirit,  or  his 
internal  connexion  with  the  Father.  Vide 
s.  13. 

•2.  1  Cor.  xii.  4 — 11,  There  are  various  a;iftx 
(;^o,it'i/iara),  but  there  is  one  and  the  same  Spirit 
(to  avTo  Ylvfvua),from  whom  they  all  proceed. 
Here  the  ;}fapiiuara  are  expressly  distinguished 
from  the  Spirit,  who  is  the  author  of  them.  In 
ver.  5,  this  same  person  is  distinguished  from 
Christ  (u  Kv,Koc),and  in  ver.  6,  from  o  ©fcij.  In 
ver.  II  it  is  said,  all  these  (various  gifts)  wnrk- 
eth  one  and  the  selfsame  Spirit,  who  impartcth  to 
every  ?nnn  his  own,  as  he  will  (xa^wj  ijovXitat.). 

3.  Those  texts  in  which  such  attributes  and 
works  are  ascribed  to  the  Holy  Spirit  as  can  be 
predicated  of  no  other  than  a  personal  subject. 
In  John,  xvi.  13,  seq.,  he  is  said  XaXftv,  axovtcv, 
Xau3dvfiv,  X.  t.  >..  1  Cor.  ii.  10,  God  hath  re- 
vealed the  doctrines  of  Christianity  to  us  BY  His 
SPIKIT,  (the  rta^idxXT^ro^  before  mentioned,  who 
was  sent  to  give  us  this  more  perfect  instruction.) 
^nd  this  Spirit  searches  (fptvm)  all  thinr^s,  even 
the  most  secret  divine  purposes,  ('3a^7  &(ov,  cf. 
Rom.  xi.  33.  seq. ;)  in  his  instruction,  therefore, 
we  may  safely  confide.  The  expressions,  the 
Holy  Spirit  speaks,  sends  any  one,  appoints  any 
one  for  a  particular  purpose,  and  others,  which 
occur  so  frequently  in  the  Acts  and  elsewhere, 
shew  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was  understood  by  the 
early  (Christians  to  be  a  personal  agent.  Acts, 
xiii.  2,  4;  xx.  28;  xxi.  11,  seq. 

4.  Tlio  formula  of  baptism,  .Matt,  xxviii.  19, 
and  otlif-r  similar  texts,  such  as  2  Cor.  xiii.  14, 
where  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  are  men- 
tioned in  distinction,  (s.  35,)  may  now  be  used 
in  proof  of  the  personality  of  tlie  Holy  Spirit, 
since  the  other  texts  upon  which  the  meaning 
of  these  depends  have  already  been  cited.  We 
may  now  safely  conclude  that  the  Holy  Spirit 
mentioned  in  these  texts  was  understood  by  the 
early  Christians  to  be  a  person;  although  this 
could  not  be  proved  from  this  class  of  texts  se- 
parately considered.     Vide  s.  35,  I. 

From  all  those  texts  taken  together,  we  may 
form  the  following  result: — The  Holy  Spirit  is 
represented  in  the  Bible  as  a  personal  subject, 
and  as  such  is  distinguished  from  the  Father 
and  the  Son.  In  relation  to  the  human  race  he 
is  described  as  sent  and  commissioned  by  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  and  as  occupying  the  place 
which  Christ,  who  preceded  him,  held.  In  this 
respect  he  depends  (to  speak  after  the  manner 
of  men)  upon  the  Father  (John,  xiv.  IG)  and 
upon  the  Son,  (John,  xiv.  ir>,  2t),  also  xvi.  14, 
ix  rov  iuov  Xr;-\frai,;)  and  in  this  seme  he  pro- 
ceeds from  them  both,  or  is  sent  by  them  both. 
This  mav   be  expressed   more  literally  as  fol- 


lows:— The  great  work  of  converting,  sanctify* 
ing,  and  saving  men,  which  the  Fiither  com 
menced  through  the  Son,  will  be  carried  on  by 
the  Father  and  Son,  through  the  Holy  Spirit. 

Xote. — The  objectors  to  this  doctrine  fre- 
quently say,  that  the  imaginative  orientalists 
were  accustomed  to  represent  many  things  as 
personal  subjects,  and  to  introiluce  them  as 
speaking  and  acting,  which,  however,  they 
themselves  did  not  consider  as  person",  and  did 
not  intend  to  have  so  considered  by  others. 
And  to  this  oriental  usage  they  think  that  Christ 
and  his  apostles  might  here,  as  in  other  cases, 
have  conformed.  But  whenever  Christ  and  his 
apostles  spoke  in  figurative  language,  they  al- 
ways shewed,  by  the  explanations  which  they 
gave,  that  they  did  not  intend  to  be  understood 
literally.  But  they  have  given  no  such  expla- 
nation of  the  language  which  they  employ  with 
regard  to  the  Holy  Spirit.  We  therefore  fairly 
conclude  that  they  intended  that  their  language 
should  be  understood  literally;  otherwise  they 
would  have  led  their  readers  and  hearers  into 
error;  and  the  more  so,  as  they  well  knew  that 
their  readers  and  hearers  were  accustomed  to 
personifications. 

SECTION  XL. 

OF  THE  DIVINITY  OF  THE    HOLY  SPIRIT. 

We  shall  now  oflTer  the  texts  from  which  the 
proof  is  drawn  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  God ;  or 
that  the  personal  subject,  called  ILfvua  riytor, 
possesses  the  same  divine  perfections  which  are 
ascribed  to  the  Father  and  the  Son.  Morus,  p. 
65,  CG,  s.  10.  These  texts  may  be  divided  into 
those  which  are  more  important,  and  those  which 
are  less  convincing,  or  which,  though  frequently 
cited,  have  no  relation  to  this  subject. 

I.  Texts  in  which  Divine  Attributes,  ffc,  are 
ascribed  to  the  Holy  Spirit. 

On  this  subject  we  reason  as  follows  : — If  the 
texts  in  which  the  Holy  Spirit  is  distinguished 
from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  in  which  he 
is  spoken  of  as  a  personal  subject,  also  ascribe 
to  him,  as  well  as  to  them,  divine  attributes  and 
perfections,  it  is  just  to  conclude  that  he  is  God 
in  the  same  sense  in  which  the  Father  and  the 
Son  are  so.  On  account  of  the  various  mean- 
ings of  the  word  tti'dua,  we  may  wot  be  able, 
nor  can  it  be  at  all  necessary,  to  olTer  a  great 
muliitude  of  texts  in  proof  of  the  divinity  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  If  one  divine  attrilmle  is  in  any 
passage  clearly  ascri!)ed  to  him,  bis  divinity  is 
as  firmly  established  as  if  it  were  proved  from  a 
great  variety  of  texts  that  all  tiie  divine  perfec- 
tions belong  to  him;  for  the  divine  perfections 
are  inseparably  connected,  and  tlie  possession 
of  one  of  them  involves  the  possession  of  all 
the  rest.     Vide  s.  19,  38. 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


141 


I  Cor.  ii.  9 — 13,  Ilrfv/na  tpfv^a  ■fa  pd^r;  ©for, 
where  omniscience  is  evidently  ascribed  to  the 
Spirit.  Vide  8.  39;  John,  xvi.  13;  where  he  is 
said  to  know  future  events,  (futura  contingen- 
tia,)  wliioh  JTe  concealed  from  every  created 
being,  Hnd  known  to  God  only,  (tv  yciviaai  '^iujv 
xftTot,  Horn.,)  except  so  far  as  he  reveals  this 
knowledge  to  men.  The  Holy  Spirit,  then,  to 
whom  they  are  known,  and  who  himself  reveals 
them  to  others,  must  be  God.  1  Cor.  xii.  4,  11. 
Omnipotence  and  omniscience  necessarily  belong 
to  an  agent,  who,  according  to  his  own  good 
pleasure,  imparts  such  various  gifts,  and  does 
all  which  is  here  ascribed  to  the  spirit  of  God. 
The  revealing  of  divine  truth  to  the  minds  of 
prophets  and  apostles ;  their  inspiration ;  the  mi- 
racles wrought  through  their  instrumentality, and 
other  things  often  spoken  of  as  the  peculiar  work 
of  God,  are  elsewhere  ascribed  to  the  Holy  Spirit 
as  the  efficient  agent,  and  considered  as  his 
proper  work;  from  which  it  justly  follows,  that 
the  Holy  Spirit  was  regarded  as  God.  Cf. 
John,  xiv.  17 ;  1  Cor.  xii. ;  1  Pet.  i.  21,  seq.  The 
improvement  of  the  moral  character  is  described 
as  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  John,  iii.  5,  seq., 
and  often  elsewhere  as  the  work  of  God,  on  ac- 
countof  the  difficulties  and  obstacles  with  which 
it  is  attended,  and  which  are  so  great  as  to  prove 
wholly  insurmountable  by  the  unassisted  efforts 
of  man. 

The  proof  that  divine  worship  was  paid  to  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  not  so  abundant  and  satisfactory 
as  that  adduced  to  prove  that  divine  worship 
was  rendered  to  Christ,  s.  38.  Still,  however, 
it  is  sufficient,  when  taken  in  connexion  with 
what  has  already  been  offered  in  proof  of  his 
divinity.  In  Rom.  ix.  1,  Paul  swears  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  iv  Hvtvfxa'tv  dyio,  as  he  does  by 
Christ  in  the  same  passage.  Tiiis  must  be  con- 
sidered an  act  of  divine  worship,  since  both 
Mosaic  and  Christian  rules  forbid  swearing  by 
any  but  the  supreme  God,  Matt.  v.  33 — 3G. 
To  swear  by  God,  and  to  honour  or  worship  him, 
were  synonymous  terms  in  the  Old  Testament. 
In  Matt.  xii.  31,  to  speak  against  the  Holy  Spirit 
is  represented  by  Christ  as  blasphemy. 

We  are  not  destitute,  then,  of  passages  which 
distinctly  ascribe  divine  attributes  and  works  to 
the  Holy  Spirit,  although  these  texts  are  not  so 
many  nor  so  clear  as  those  which  relate  to  the 
divinity  of  the  Son.  Some  have  taken  occasion 
from  this  fact  to  represent  the  doctrine  of  the 
divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  doubtful  or  unim- 
portant; but — 

(a)  In  this  connexion  we  would  repeat  the 
observation  before  made,  5.  12 — viz.,  that  we 
can  conclude  nothing  respecting  the  internal 
importance  of  a  doctrine  from  the  more  or  less 
frequent  mention  of  it  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  books  of  the  New  Testament  were  written 
'if I'll  prim^iry  reference  to  the  ctndition  of  men 


at  the  tr_ie  when  they  were  written,  and  always 
presuppose  a  more  full  oral  instruction. 

(i)  The  most  important  consideration,  how- 
ever, is  this:  that  by  the  Ylvtv/xa  ay  1.0 v^ 
something  diviiu  (ti  5>fto»')  was  always  under 
stood  by  the  Jews  and  Christians  of  ancient 
times.  So  soon,  therefore,  as  the  early  Chris- 
tians understood  that  the  rivsv/ita  u-jior  was  a 
person,  they  immediately  regarded  him  as  God— 
a  subject  belonging  to  the  godhead.  It  was  not 
necessary, therefore, in  the  first  Christian  instruc- 
tion, to  speak  often  and  expressly  of  his  divine 
nature  and  attributes.  These  were  very  easily 
understood  from  the  ideas  commonly  entertained 
in  ancient  limes  respecting  the  divine  Spirit, 
Vide  Morus,  p.  66,  Note  5.  The  case  was  dif- 
ferent with  respect  to  Christ,  since  the  Jews 
did  not  commonly  suppose  that  the  INIessiah  was 
divine,  as  appears  from  Matt.  xxii.  43—46. 
They  understood  his  title,  Hon  of  God,  in  the 
general  sense  of  a  great  king,  s.  37. 

II.  Texts  in  ivhich  the  Holy  Spirit  is  called 
God,  Ac. 

These  are  sometimes  used  to  prove  tiie  divi- 
nity of  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  are  either  inferior  to 
the  former  in  evidence,  or  have  no  bearing  upon 
the  subject.  The  observations  just  made.  No. 
I.  {a)  of  this  section,  have  not  always  been  duly 
regarded.  Writers  have  thought  too  much  of 
the  number  of  texts,  and  have  collected  indiscri- 
ininalely  many  which  have  only  an  apparent 
relation  to  the  subject.  Especially  they  have 
endeavoured  to  search  out  a  multiiude  of  texts 
in  which  the  Holy  Spirit  is  expressly  called  God, 
But  (a)  the  simple  appellation  God,  is  not  of 
itself  sufficient  to  prove  the  supreme  divinity  of 
the  subject  to  whom  it  is  given,  as  Christ  him- 
self declared,  John,  x.  34,  35,  coll.  s.  37.  The 
texts  therefore  which  ascribe  divine  attributes 
and  works  to  the  Spirit  are  far  more  important 
than  texts  of  this  class,  and  prove  all  that  is 
essential,  {b)  It  is  doubtful  in  many  of  these 
texts,  in  which  the  predicate  God  is  used,  whe- 
ther the  Holy  Spirit  as  a  person  is  intended. 
Many  of  them,  at  least,  may  be  explained  with- 
out necessarily  supposing  a  personal  subject,  ac- 
cording to  the  analogy  of  the  texts  mentioned, 
s.  39,  I. 

The  following  texts  are  often  quoted  : — Acts, 
V.  3,  4.  Peter  tells  Ananias  (ver.  3)  tiiat  Satan 
had  induced  him  ^f vsow^ot  rb  Xlrt vi"*  ayw*  ^nd 
afterwards  (ver.  4)  ovx  {4.ev(jw  a:e>,ii.lrtoij,  dxXa 
ro  Gfu.  The  same  subject  who  is  called  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  one  place  is  called  God  '.n  the 
other.  But  from  the  comparison  of  other  pas- 
sages, it  might  be  thought  that  the  IIi  fi/io  ayiw 
was  here  to  be  understood  in  the  suhjtctive  sense, 
and  denoted  the  Spirit  dwelling  in  the  apostles; 
the  higher  knowledge  and  gifts  with  which  they 
.were  endowed;  their  miraculous  powers,  as  in 


144 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Ter.  o»  and  the  passage  could  accordingly  be 
explained  thus :  your  crime  is  not  to  be  coiuiilered 
as  if  you  had  intended  to  deceive  mere  men,  be- 
cause you  knew  that  God  had  endowed  us  with 
supernatural  knowledge.  This  explanation  is 
confirmed  by  the  very  clear  text,  1  Thess.  iv,  8, 
He  who  despises  us,  despises  not  men,  but  God, 
Tov  botra  TO  n»'fv,ua  ovtov  to  dyiov  fij  r;fiai, 
Cf.  Ex.  xvi.,  where  it  is  said,  ver.  2,  that  the 
Israelites  rebelled  against  Moses  and  Aaron ;  but 
Moses  tells  them,  ver.  8,  your  rebellion  is  not 
against  us,  but  a<;;ainst  God,  whose  messengers 
we  are.  Does  this  prove  that  Moses  and  Aaron 
belong  to  the  godhead  1  But  when  it  is  proved 
from  other  texts  that  Christ,  the  apostles,  and  the 
early  Christians,  understood  thellrfvjua  ayiov  to 
he  a  personal  subject,  belonging  to  the  godhead, 
(as  those  concerned  in  this  event  undoubtedly 
did,)  then  this  text  and  many  of  the  following 
may  be  regarded  us  satisfactory  proof  of  the  divi- 
nity of  this  Spirit.  But  when  introduced  before 
tlii^se  texts,  by  which  their  meaning  is  deter- 
mined, or  out  of  their  relation  to  them,  they  prove 
nothing.  The  sense  of  the  text  in  Acts,  as  deter- 
mined by  the  preceding  texts,  is  plainly  this: 
for  you  to  intend  to  deceive  us  who  are  apos- 
tles— us,  whom  you  knew  to  be  under  the  spe- 
cial influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit — is  to  be  con- 
sidered the  same  as  if  you  had  intended  to  deceive 
God;  for  you  knew  that  he  from  whom  this 
influence  proceeds  is  regarded  by  us  as  God. 
The  same  may  be  said  with  respect  to  the  for- 
mula of  baptism.  Matt,  xxviii.  19.  It  cannot,  in 
itself  considered,  be  used  as  a  proof-text,  be- 
cause the  mere  collocation  of  the  name  Holy 
Spirit  with  that  of  the  Father  and  Son  does  not 
prove  that  he  possesses  divine  nature  in  com- 
mon with  them.  Vide  s.  35.  But  when  his 
divinity  has  been  proved  by  other  texts,  then  this 
also  may  bo  cited  ;  because  from  the  former  we 
learn  how  the  latter  must  be  understood,  and 
was  actually  understood  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
church.  The  passage,  2  Cor.  iii.  17,  'OSi  Ki'|Hoj 
TO  Hvfvud  f" TTi  has  sometimes  been  translated, 
the  Spirit  is  Jehovah  himself.  But  the  meaning 
is,  Christ  is  the  true  Spirit  of  the  Old  Testn- 
vvnt — i.  e.,  the  Old  Testament  contains  essen- 
tially the  same  doctrine  which  Christ  taught — 
viz.,  the  necessity  of  the  renewal  of  the  heart, 
and  inward  pii'ty.  Some  have  endeavoured  to 
prove  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  from  a 
comparison  of  dilTiTf^nt  texts;  but  in  doing  this 
they  have  often  resorted  to  forced  and  unnatural 
iuterprtHations.  An  instance  of  this  may  be; 
seen  in  the  comparisf)n  of  the  texts  Isa.  vii. 
8—10  and  Acts,  xxviii.  2G,  27.  In  the  former 
of  these  we  read,  Jekovaii  said,  Go  to  this  people, 
&c. ;  but  in  the  latter,  \\v i  vna,  to  ayinv  ivi>.7;'if 
8ia  Hiai/)v — x'lyov,  x.  T.  X.  Here  the  same  per- 
son who  in  the  former  text  is  called  m-i",  in  the 
'atter  is  called  rivt v/ta  oiyioi/.     But  Hvilua.  iiyiov 


may  be  used  in  its  more  general  sense  for  tha 
Deity,  and  does  not  here  necessarily  designate 
the  person  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Vide  s.  3'J,  I., 
and  s.  19,11. 

We  have  now  considered  some  of  the  most 
important  texts  of  scripture  in  which  we  are 
taught  the  doctrine  that  (1)  there  is  only  one 
God;  but  that  (2)  in  this  one  divine  nature 
there  are  also  three,  described  as  personal  sub- 
jects, and  called  Father,  Son,  and  JJoly  Ghost  ,• 
and  that  (.3)  these  three  possess  in  common  the 
divine  nature.  Respecting  the  manner  in 
which  these  three  make  one  God,  we  are  taught 
nothing  in  the  Bible,  since  the  subject  is  of  such 
a  nature  as  not  to  admit  of  its  being  explained 
to  us.  Vide  s.  33.  It  is  not  therefore  strange 
that  in  their  attempts  to  illustrate  it  theologians 
should  have  pursued  such  ditTerent  methods;  that 
in  endeavouring  to  explain  what  is  inexplicable, 
they  should  have  been  compelled  to  call  in  the 
aids  of  human  philosophy;  and  that,  for  the 
very  reason  that  the  whole  subject  is  beyond 
their  reach,  they  should  have  diflored  so  widely 
from  each  other  in  the  opinions  which  they 
have  entertained  respecting  it.  We  should  here 
therefore  refer  to  the  remarks  made  upon  this 
subject,  s.  33.  A  general  view  of  the  whole 
will  be  given  at  the  end  of  Chapter  Second,  to 
which  we  now  proceed. 


CHAPTER    II. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  TRINITV 

SECTION  XLI. 

AUE  THERE  IN  JEWISH  OR  HEATHEN  WRITINOS 
ANV  TRACES  OF  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  TRINITY 
WHICH  WERE  NOT  DERIVED  FROM  CHRISTIAN 
SOURCES  1 

I.  Traces  of  this  Doctrine  in  the  Old  Testament,  th« 
Apocrypha,  and  the  Chalduic  I'araphra^ies, 

Some  have  endeavoured  to  prove  that  the 
.lews  had  some  knowledge  of  the  Trinity,  or  at 
least  of  a  plur.ility  of  persons  in  the  godhead, 
from  all  these  sources.  But  («)  the  texts  cited 
from  the  Old  Testament  in  proof  of  this  point  do 
not  by  themselves  perfectly  establish  it,  as  has 
been  shown,  s.  31.  Neitlier  (/i)  are  the  texts 
cited  from  the  Apocrypha  altogetlier  satisfactory. 
The  apptillation  ?.dyo{  0fov,  which  occurs  fre- 
quently in  the  Hook  of  Wisdom  and  in  Sirach, 
cannot  be  clearly  proved  in  any  one  instance  to 
designate  n  person  of  the  godhead,  but  signifies 
e-ither  the  divine  oracles  and  rrvrlnlinns,  as  Sir.  i. 
^,  or  the  divine  drcrcrs  and  nill,  as  Sir.  xliii.  26, 
f I' Xoy^)  avTov  fvyxtirai  rtayra.  Book  of  \\  19* 
dom,  xviii.  15,  Xoyof  ©tov  rtavroivvofioi,  coll.  ix 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


146 


I,  Kvi.  12.  Nor  does  the  appellation  Son  of 
God,  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  ii.  13 — 20,  desig- 
nate the  Messiah,  but,  in  a  more  general  sense, 
a  favourite  of  God,  one  approved  by  Heaven,  a 
righteous  person.  The  \)\\XA%e  Holy  Spirit,  useA 
in  the  same  book,  (chap.  ix.  17,  18,)  there 
means  only  a  holy  temper,  virtue,  temperance, 
eontitiencc,  sanctitas  animi;  cf.  ix.  4,  10.  (c) 
The  terms  »  n  Nin^r,  a^n"^  N-\p"'C  are  used  very 
frequently  in  the  Chaldaic  paraphrases,  and 
6eem,  as  there  employed,  to  designate  di person, 
and  have  therefore  been  compared  with  the  ap- 
pellation Xoyoj  @cox!,  and  considered  as  indi- 
cating the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  This  is  a 
very  important  argument.  It  is  doubtful, 
however,  whether  these  terms  were  understood 
by  the  Jews  contemporary  with  the  paraphrasts 
as  titles  of  the  Messiah,  or  whether,  as  many  sup- 
pose,lhey  w-ere  regarded  as  synonymous  with 
numen,  mafestas  divina.  The  whole  subject 
needs  a  new  investigation.  Vide  Paulus,  Zum 
Anf.  des.  Evang.  .Tohannis. 

[3«/e. — Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  use  of 
the  term  xdyoj  in  the  Apocryphal  writings,  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  the  term  ao^ia,  in  the 
Book  of  Wisdom,  an  ^gyptico-Jewish  produc- 
tion, is  used  hypostatically.  Wisdom  is  there 
represented  as  a  being  of  the  purest  light,  pro- 
ceeding before  the  creation  from  the  substance 
of  God,  as  his  perfect  image,  and  the  creator 
and  governor  of  the  world.  Cf.  i.  6;  vii. 
2-2—27;  viii.  1,  3;  ix.  1,  4,  9,  10,  11,  18,  x. 
The  writer  of  this  book  had  before  him  the  per- 
sonification of  this  divine  attribute  in  the  Old 
Testament,  the  nrsn  of  Prov.  viii.  xi.;  but  his 
representations  very  much  surpass  that  in  bold- 
ness; and  this  must  be  ascribed  to  the  influence 
of  that  extravagant  philosophy,  strangely  com- 
posed of  oriental  and  Platonic  ideas,  which 
then  prevailed  at  Alexandria,  and  which,  not 
content  with  personifying,  distinctly  hyposta- 
lized  the  divine  attributes.  The  influence  of 
this  philosophy  was  more  strongly  exhibited  in 
the  hypostases  of  Philo  and  the  Cabbalists,  and 
afterwards,  in  the  peculiar  modifications  of  some 
Christian  doctrines,  adopted  by  the  Alexandrine 
ratechists.  Tliese  dilTerent  systems  of  inde- 
pendent powers,  proceeding  from  the  source  of 
all  being,  formed,  as  they  were,  upon  these 
hints  in  the  Old  Testament,  under  the  influence 
of  a  foreign  and  corrupting  philosophy,  bear  but 
little  resemblance,  indeed,  to  the  Trinity  of  the 
New  Testament.  And  notwithstanding  all 
these  presentiments  of  the  truth  found  in  unin- 
spired writers  before  the  Christian  era,  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  must  be  regarded  as  alto- 
gether an  articulus  ptirus. — Tr.] 

II.  Traces  of  this  Doctrine  in  the  Writings  of  Plato, 
the  New  Platonists,  Philo,  the  Cabbalists,  Ac- 

We  find  clear  evidence  of  a  belief  in  a  certain 
19 


sort  of  trinity  in  all  these  writers,  although  they 
differ  in  the  mode  of  explaining  it,  and  under- 
stand by  it  something  very  ditlorent  from  the 
Trinity  of  the  Bible.  This  evidence  is  as  fol- 
lows : — 

1.  Plato  believed  in  a  si  preme  being  txisting 
from  eternity,  but  he  also  believed  in  an  un- 
created, eternal  matter,  the  former  the  source  of 
all  good,  the  latter,  of  all  evil.  The  origin  of 
the  visible  world,  its  relation  to  God,  and  his 
influence  upon  it,  were  explained  by  him  from 
the  principles  of  the  system  of  emanation — a 
system  which  the  mind  naturally  adopts  when 
it  begins  to  speculate  on  subjects  of  this  nature, 
and  which  is,  accordingly,  more  ancient  and 
universal  than  any  other  system  of  philosophy. 
(It  is  probable  that,  in  conformity  with  the  ge- 
neral principles  of  this  philosophy,  the  ideas  of 
which  Plato  spake  were  material ;  though  this 
is  disputed.  Vide  Plessing,  Versuche  zur  Auf- 
klarung  der  Philosophic  des  iiltesten  Alter- 
thums;  Leipzig,  1788,  8vo.)  The  system  of 
Plato  may  be  thus  stated:  God  first  produced 
the  ideal  world — i.  e.,  his  infinite  understanding 
conceived  of  the  existence  of  the  world,  and 
formed,  as  it  w'ere,  the  plan  of  the  creation. 
The  real  world  was  then  formed  after  this  ideal 
world,  as  its  model ;  and  this  was  done  by 
uniting  the  soul  of  the  world,  which  proceeded 
from  the  Divine  Being,  with  matter,  by  which 
the  world  became  an  animated,  sensitive,  ra- 
tional creature,  guided,  pervaded,  and  held  to- 
gether by  this  rational  soul.  The  three  princi- 
ples of  Plato  were  thus,  («)  the  supreme  God, 
whom  he  calls  Ilar^p  ;  {b)  the  divine  understatid- 
ing,  which  he  calls,  rovj,  6>;tuov'pyoj,  Xoyoj,  owrjjp,. 
w^ia,  X.  f.  X. ;  and  (c)  the  soul  of  the  world. 
He  indeed  distinguished  the  two  last  principles,, 
in  some  respects,  from  the  supreme  God,  but- 
still  accounted  them  as  belonging  by  derivation, 
to  the  divine  nature.  These  views  are  fully 
developed  in  his  Timajus,  and  elsewhere.  It 
appears,  then,  that  Plato  believed  in  a  'I'rinity,. 
or  three  principles  in  the  Divine  Being;  but 
whether  he  actually  h^nostasized  these  princi- 
ples is  doubtful,  though  i.  is  affirmed  by  the 
New  Platonists. 

A  somewhat  different  statement  of  the  Pla 
tonic  system  is  given  by  Oelrich,  in  his  "  Com- 
mentatio  de  doctrina   Platonica  de  Deo,"  &c. 
According  to  him,  Plato  divided  all  things  into 
two  classes — that  which  is  real,  unproduced,  im 
mutable,  capable  of  being  discerned  only  by  the 
reason,  (coj^roj,  intelligibilis,-)  and  opjiosed  to 
this,  that  which  is  produced,  mutable,  material,, 
and  coEfnizable  by  the  senses,  aiai»;Tof.  setisibi 
lis.)     The  latter  must  have  a  cause  of  its  exist 
ence;    and    this   cause  is   the  Creator   of  tho 
world,  who,  in  imitation  of  the  perfect  ideal  in 
his  understanding,  in  which  all  the  reality,  sub 
stance,  and  true  being  of  things  was  Tontainei 
N 


li$ 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


WToutrht  niHe  matter  into  the  present  sensible 
world.  But  since  what  is  animated  is  more  per- 
fect than  what  is  inanimate,  and  God,  as  the 
most  perfect  bcinjj,  could  not  make  anything 
otherwise  than  perfect,  he  imparted  a  soul  to 
this  sensible  world.  But  this  soul  of  the  ivorld 
is  not  a  self-existing  divine  principle,  since  its 
nature  participates  in  what  is  material  and  mu- 
table, as  well  as  in  what  is  real  and  immutable, 
and  consequently  is  neither  one  thing  nor  the 
other,  but  an  intermediate  being  composed  of 
the  two.  According  to  this  statement,  Plato 
did  not  conceive  of  a  number  of  hypostases  in 
the  Deity  ;  for  the  divine  understanding  (Xoyoj) 
could  not  be  imagined  to  be  different  from  God 
himself,  and  the  soul  of  the  world  belonged  nei- 
ther to  the  being  of  God,  nor  was  regarded  as  a 
self-subsistent  principle.  Many  passages  in  his 
writinffs,  however,  were  so  perverted  and  mis- 
applied by  the  New  Platonists,  that  they  seem- 
ed to  afford  ground  for  their  assertion  that  he 
really  distinguished  a  number  of  hypostases  in 
the  Divine  Being.  Hence  the  strange  and 
tnranifold  form  in  which  the  Platonic  doctrine  of 
God  was  exhil)ited  by  Numenius,  Plotinns, 
Porphyry,  .Tamblicus,  Proclus,  Chalcidius,  Ma- 
crobius,  and  other  New  Platonists,  and  also  by 
the  Christian  fathers  of  the  second  and  third 
centjrv. 

[iVo/e. — In  favour  of  the  alleged  Triad  of 
Plato,  cf.  Souverain,  Le  Platonisme  devoile, 
translated  by  Lofller  into  the  German,  under 
the  title  Versuch  uber  den  Platonismus  der 
Kirchenvfitor.  Ben.  Carpzov,  Trini;..is  Pla- 
tonis,  k.c.\  Lipsiae,  1G93.  Cudworth,  Systema 
inteilectnale  hujus  universi.  In  opposition  to 
the  Triad  of  Plato,  cf.  Tiedemann,  Geist  der 
speculativen  Philosophic,  2  bd.  s.  118,  ff. 
Tennemann,  System  der  Platon.  Philosophic, 
3  bd.  s.  119.  Geschichte  der  Philosophic,  2 
bd.  s.  3R7.  Paulus,  Memorabilien,  an  Kssay, 
Ueber  den  gottlichen  Verstand  aus  der  Platon. 
PhiIoso|)hie. — Tr.] 

2.  The  New  Platonists  eagerly  embraced 
these  ideas  of  Plato,  and  during  the  second  and 
third  centuries  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  seemed 
to  labour  to  outdo  one  another  in  explaining, 
defending,  and  more  fully  developing  them. 
We  have,  for  example,  a  work  of  Plotinus,  jtfpi 
•'tji'  rptwv  tt(i;{'txtj»/  rrroTraTfwj' — (i.  e..  Deux  su- 
premu^,  mnui,  aniinn  inuruh'.)  These  New 
Platonists,  however,  not  only  differ  widely  from 
Plato,  but  often  disagree  among  themselves 
in  their  mode  of  thinking,  and  in  their  phraseo- 
logy. 

3.  The  lerrrneil  Jews,  who  lived  beyond  the 
^-'Mnds  of  Palestine,  especially  those  who  re- 
Bided  in  Egypt,  and  in  the  other  Grecian  pro- 
vinces, had  imbibed,  at  an  early  period,  (<lnubt- 
les*  a  considerable  time  before  the  coming  of 


Christ,)  many  of  the  principles  of  the  philoso 
phy  prevailing  in  the  regions  where  ttiey  re- 
sided, and  had  connectc,  and  as  it  were  incoi^ 
porated  them  with  their  previous  opinions,  and 
with  their  established  :tjIigiou3  system.  They 
first  received  the  principles  of  the  Grecian,  and 
especially  of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  as  then 
taught,  into  their  own  belief;  and  afterwards, 
as  is  common  with  theologians,  endeavoured 
to  find  them  in  the  ancient  sacred  books  of  their 
own  nation;  and  in  order  to  this,  thev  inter- 
preted many  expressions  of  their  sacred  books 
in  accordance  with  their  newfangled  nttions. 
They  were  encouraged  to  do  this  the  more, 
from  the  opinion  which  they  entertained  that 
Plato  had  derived  many  of  his  idea^)  Vom 
Moses  and  other  Hebrew  writers.  Thes*  fo- 
reign learned  .Tews  seem  also  to  have  been  n- 
fluenced  in  their  speculations  by  the  p.'nt^ipies 
of  the  (henry  of  emanation.  This  orieniil  ele- 
ment may  have  been  introduced  in  different 
ways  into  the  later  Jewish  philosophy.  The 
Jews  must  have  become  acquainted  with  this 
system  during  their  residence  in  Chaldtea,  where 
it  appears  to  have  formerly  prevailed ;  and  they 
probably  brought  many  of  its  principles  with 
them  on  their  return  to  Judea;  and  in  this  way 
it  may  have  passed  into  the  system  of  the  later 
philosophizing  Jews.  They  must  also  have  re- 
ceived a  large  portion  of  this  orientalism,  when 
they  adopted  the  Platonic,  or  rather  New  Pla- 
tonic philosophy,  since  the  latter  is  wli.plly  based 
upon  the  system  of  emanation.  But,  from 
whatever  source  derived,  this  system  is  found 
in  the  oldest  writinjis  of  the  Cabbalists, — those 
of  the  second  century;  and  from  these  writings 
it  is  obvious  that  it  was  not  of  recent  origin,  but 
had  been  received  by  many  learned  Jews,  before 
and  at  the  Christian  era.  Vide  Joh.  Fr.  Kleuker, 
Ueber  die  Natur  und  den  Ursprung  der  Emana- 
tionslehre  bey  den  Kabbalisten;  Riga,  1  ;86, 
ftvo.  These  principles  were  indeed  wholly  un- 
known to  most  of  the  .Tews  who  lived  within 
the  bounds  of  Palestine  during  the  lifetime  of 
Christ,  and  afterwards.  They  were  satisiied 
with  their  Pharisao-rabbinic  theology,  and  look- 
ed for  the  Messiah  as  a  religious  reformer,  hnd 
a  temporal  king.  This  was  not  the  CHse,  riow- 
ever,  with  the  Jews  who  lived  beyond  the  bounds 
of  Palestine,  and  who  were  educated  undei  the 
influence  of  the  (Grecian  philosophy:  they  foi 
the  most  part  abandoned  the  expectation  cf  a 
future  Messiah,  or  reirarded  his  kingdom  ap  en- 
tiroly  of  a  moral  nature.  It  is  among  these 
learned  Jews  out  of  Palestine  that  the  theory  of 
the  Xo^-oj  is  found  as  early  as  the  first  centuri'. 
They  regarded  the  n.yoj  as  existing-  before  the 
creation  of  the  world,  and  as  the  iiistrumen: 
through  whom  God  made  all  thinirs.  'fhcT 
entertained  also  the  same  notions  res-jjcc  Jnj  the 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES, 


147 


spirilual  woild  and  the  emanation  of  spiritual 
substances,  or  aeons,  from  the  divine  nature, 
&c.,  as  are  found  among  the  Platonists  of  that 
day.  And  entertaining  these  views,  derived 
from  the  Platonists,  they  endeavoured  to  find 
•hem  in  the  Old  Testament;  and,  as  appears  from 
the  example  of  Philo,  carried  all  their  precon- 
ceived opinions,  by  means  of  allegorical  inter- 
pretation, into  their  ancient  books.  Philo  speaks 
often  in  the  Platonic  manner  of  the  Aoyoj,  call- 
ing him  the  Stm  uf  God,  the  first-bokn  Son  of 
God,  (in  distinction  frcrn  the  world,  which  was 
the  younger  son,)  the  first  servant  of  God, 
gfvrtpoj  ©fOj,  X.  t.  X.  The  Cabbalists  fre- 
quently speak  in  thrif  writings  of  Father,  Sun, 
and  Iloli/  Spirit ;  an  J  there  are  many  passages 
in  the  books  of  Philo  in  which  a  kind  of  trinity 
is  taught,  and  in  which  his  Platonic  ideas  are 
clothed  in  Biblical  language.  Thus,  for  exam- 
ple, in  his  work  "  De  opificio  Mundi,"  there  is 
mention  of  a  yupreme  God,  and  of  one  begotten 
of  him,  (elsewhere  called  rtpwrorozoj,  Xoyoj, 
foCj,  X.  T.  X.,)  who  was  full  tov  0f I'ou  Ilff v'uaroj. 
Vide  Carpzov,  Philoniana,  p.  157. 

4.  When  now,  at  a  later  period,  the  Christian 
doctrine  became  known  to  these  Grecian  Jews, 
and  was  embraced  by  them,  they  began  to  con- 
nect with  it  the  philosophical  notions  then  pre- 
Talent  respecting  the  invisible  world,  the  gra- 
dation of  spirits,  the  superior  ajon,  who  was  of 
divine  origin,  &c.  'I'hey  affirmed  that  the  Son 
of  God  existed  long  before  the  man  Jesus,  and 
that  in  process  of  time  he  united  himself  with 
tliis  man,  in  order  that  he  might  be  better  able 
to  benefit  men  by  his  instructions,  to  exert  his 
influence  upon  spirits,  and  to  weaken  the  power 
which  evil  beings  exercised  to  the  injury  of  our 
race.  They  regarded  the  Holy  Spirit  as  the  all- 
finlivening  and  ever-active  power,  which  flows 
forth  from  God,  and  is  equally  efllcient  in  the 
physical  and  moral  world.  These  opinions,  de- 
rived partly  from  Grecian  philosoph)',  and  partly 
from  Jewish  and  Christian  theology,  grew  gra- 
dually in  favour  with  the  more  learned  Chris- 
tians; they  were  variously  developed  and  modi- 
fied by  the  different  parties  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian church;  until  at  length,  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tory,  one  party  obtained  ascendancy  for  its  own 
peculiar  theory  and  phraseology,  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  the  rest. 

From  the  foregoing  statements  we  arrive  at 
the  following  conclusion : — viz.,  (a)  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  many  of  the  ancient  heathen  phi- 
losophers (e.  g.,  the  Plaionisls^  believed  in  a 
trinity  in  the  divine  nature ;  and  that  they  were 
led  to  entertain  that  belief  by  the  principles  of 
the  theory  of  emanation,  which  they  had  first 
adopted.  From  this  source  many  learned  Jews, 
who  lived  beyond  the  bounds  of  Palestine,  drew 
their  opinions — e,  g.,  the  Alexandrine  Jews, 


Philo,  and  the  Cabbalists.  These  Grecian 
Jews  did  not,  however,  simply  adept  the  pure 
ideas  of  Plato,  which  were  variously  represerited 
even  by  the  New  Platonists,  but  they  mixed 
and  incorporated  them  with  their  own  national 
opinions  and  their  own  religious  principles,  and 
thus  endeavoured  to  reconcile  Platonism  with 
the  language  and  doctrines  of  the  Bible.  That 
a  trinity,  m  this  sense,  was  known  and  professed 
by  philosophers  and  Jews  who  were  not  Chris- 
tians, is  admitted.  But  (b")  the  representations 
of  this  subject  which  are  found  in  the  writings 
of  Plato  and  his  followers,  whether  pagans  or 
Jews,  by  no  means  agree  with  the  simple  repre- 
sentations of  the  Trinity  contained  in  the  word 
of  God,  nor  even  with  those  which  prevailed 
among  Christians  throughout  the  Roman  em- 
pire, after  the  Nicene  Council  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. For,  according  to  the  Platonists,  the 
second  and  third  principles  belonging  to  the 
Deity  were  widely  distinguished  from  the  su- 
preme God  ;  they  were  produced  from  him,  were 
subordinate  to  him,  and  altogether  less  than  he; 
though  yet,  from  their  derivation,  they  were  re- 
garded as  belonging  to  the  Divine  Being,  and 
were  often,  indeed,  called  God.  Such,  however, 
is  not  the  representation  of  the  Trinity  contained 
in  the  Bible,  or  in  the  distinctions  established  at 
the  Nicene  Council.  But  although  the  Platonic 
trinity  differs  thus  widely  from  the  scriptural 
doctrine,  and  also  from  the  established  theory 
of  the  church,  it  is  yet  possible  that  the  scho- 
lastic and  technical  language  in  use  on  this 
subject  was  originally  borrowed  by  Christians 
from  the  Platonic  theology. 

[_Xotc. — Besides  these  traces  of  a  trinity  in 
the  godhead  found  among  the  Platonists,  Alex- 
andrine Jews,  Cabbalists,  &c.,  we  may  mention 
those  found  among  the  Indians  in  their  trimurti 
(triad),  composed  of  three  spirits,  Brahma, 
Vischnu,  and  Schiva,  produced  from  the  su- 
preme Deity.  For  a  fuller  account  of  this,  cf. 
Fr.  v.  Schlegel,  Weisheit  der  Indier,  s.  108; 
Heidelberg,  1808,  8vo.  J.  K.  F.  Schlegel, 
Ueber  den  Geist  der  Religiositat  aller  Zeiten 
und  Volkcr,  2  th.  s.  7,  f . ;  Hanover,  1814,  6vo. 
Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities;  London,  1796. 
In  vols.  iv.  V.  the  oriental  triads  are  fxtensivpjy 
investigated.  The  author  finds  ^^  the  holy  Tri- 
nity'''' in  all  his  travels  in  the  East.  The 
Egyptians  also  have  a  trinity,  consisting  of 
Knuph,  the  eternal,  all-pervading  soul  of  the 
world,  connected  with  Phtha  (original  light) 
and  Neith  (Wisdom.)  For  an  account  of  this, 
cf.  besides  the  above-named  work  of  J.  K.  F. 
Schlejel,  1  th.,  s.  192,  Fr.  Kreuzer,  Symbolik 
und  Mythologie  der  alten  Volker,  ^.  78,  f.  of 
Moser's  abridsfment.  On  the  o-t^npral  subject, 
cf.  Tholuck,  Die  speculative  Trinitutslehre  dtf 
neuern  Orientalen;  Berlin,    82C,  8vo.— Th.1 


149 


CHllISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


SECTION  XLII. 

HISTORV  OF  THE  DOCTKIXE  OF  THE  TKINITY  Dl  R- 
ING  THE  SECOND  AND  THIRD  CE.NTLKIES  BEFORE 
THE  NICENE  COUNCIL. 

Notice  of  some  of  the  tvorkf  which  cast  light  on  this 
portion  of  Dogmatic  History. 

Vol.  ii.  of  the  work  of  Dionysius  Petavius, 
the  Jesuit, — ^'De  Theologicis  Dogmatibus," 
E'J.  2,  6  vols.  ;  Antwerpiie,  1700,  fol. — contains 
a  cjUection  of  passages  from  the  early  fathers 
relating  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  ;  but  should 
be  consulted  rather  for  the  passages  themselves 
than  for  the  compiler's  exposition  of  them. 
Book  ii.  of  the  work  of  Jo.  Forbesius,  h  Corse, 
"  Institutiones  historico-theologicae  ;"  Amstel. 
16 15.  Both  of  these  writers  endeavour  to  prove 
the  agreement  of  the  earliest  Christian  writers 
with  the  common  orthodox  doctrine  as  esta- 
blished in  the  fourth  century.  But  this  agree- 
ment of  the  ante  and  post  Nicene  writers  cannot 
be  proved  merely  from  their  having  used  the 
same  words  and  phrases,  as  has  often  been  very 
'^lausibly  contended  ;  for  the  earlier  writers  often 
)sed  these  words  and  phrases  in  an  entirely  dif- 
'rent  sense  from  that  in  which  they  have  been 
^p'oyed  since  the  fourth  century.  This  re- 
I  lust  b-^  kept  in  mind  in  forming  an  esti- 
mate of  tb  -'-  works  which  were  written  with 
the  professed  object  of  proving  the  entire  agree- 
ment of  th"?  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  held  by 
the  earliest  Christian  fathers  and  as  established 
in  the  fourth  century  at  the  council  of  Nice — e, 
g.,  G.  Bull,  Defensio  Fidei  Nicsenffi,  2  vols.; 
Londini,  1703.  Burscher,  Scriptorum  antiquis- 
simorum  Doctrina  de  DeoTriuno  et  J.  Christo; 
Lipsia;,  1780,  8ro. 

'I'he  following  works  are  composed  with  great 
critical  accuracy,  and  with  a  careful  regard  to 
the  peculiarities  of  the  writers  of  dilTerent  pe- 
riods— viz..  Dr.  Semler,  Einleitung  in  die 
Geschiohte  der  christlichen  Glaubenslehre,  pre- 
fixed to  the  three  parts  of  Baumgartcn's  Po- 
leniik  ;  also  his  Sainmlung  ilher  die  Beweisstel- 
len  in  der  Dogmalik,  th.  ii.  s.  1  ;  Halle,  1708, 
8vo.  Souverain,  Platonisme  devoile,  1700; 
translated  into  German,  under  the  title,  Versuch 
Qber  den  Plalonismus  der  Kirehenvuter,  wilh 
notes  and  a  preface  by  LolHer,  1782,  8vo;  re- 
published with  an  additional  Essay  by  liiiffler, 
Ueber  das  Entstehen  der  Dreycinigkeitslehre 
unter  den  Christen,  '/iillichan,  1792,  8vo.  Cf. 
the  Review  of  this  work  in  the  Lit.  Ze.it.  Nr. 
295—297,  1793.  C.  F.  Kossler,  LehrbegrilT 
der  christlichen  Kirche  in  den  drey  ersten 
Jahrhunderten  ;  Frankfort  am  ^L^in,  1775;  also 
his  greater  work,  Hibliolbek  der  Kirchenvfiter, 
10  thle;  Leipzig,  177G — 8G,  8vo ;  in  which  he 
gives  extracts  from  the  doctrinal  writings  of  the 
ecclesiastical  fathers.     The  works  of  Meiners 


and  Oelrichs  on  Platonism  must  be  noticed  here, 
though  referred  to  more  particularly  under  an- 
other division  of  this  section.  The  new  work* 
of  Lange,  Muenscher,  and  Augusii,  on  dogmatic 
history,  must  also  be  here  cited. 

^Xott. — The  latest  and  most  distinguished 
investigators  of  this  difficult  portion  of  dogmatic 
history  are,  Neander,  Gieseler,  and  Schleienna- 
cher.  Tiie  first  of  these,  in  that  portion  of  his 
Allgemeine  Geschichte  der  christlichen  iieligion 
und  Kirche,  devoted  to  the  history  of  doctrines, 
is  thought  to  have  given  the  best  history  of  this 
doctrine  yet  otVered  to  the  public.  'I'he  Kirchen- 
Geschichte  of  Gieseler  is  principally  valuable 
for  a  full  and  excellent  selection  of  extracts  from 
the  fathers.  Schleiermacher  has  entered  upon 
an  investigation  of  the  opposition  between  the 
Sabcllian  and  Athanasian  theories — a  sphere  of 
inquiry  which  had  been  nearly  overlooked  in  the 
zeal  and  diligence  with  which  every  ramification 
of  the  more  urgent  and  threatening  heresy  of 
Arius  had  long  been  examined.  , 

The  results  to  which  these  writers  have  come, 
while  they  confirm  the  general  view  of  the  his- 
tory of  this  doctrine  given  by  Dr.  Knapp,  ditTer, 
however,  in  several  important  particulars.  Some 
of  these  different  results  the  translator  had  in- 
tended to  introduce  as  notes,  in  their  appropriate 
places,  and  thus  to  render  this  history  more 
complete,  and  in  some  parts  more  correct.  But 
he  found  this  undertaking  attended  with  great 
inconveniences,  and  that  it  would  swell  this 
chapter,  already  very  much  extended,  to  an  im- 
moderate length.  He  therefore  concluded  to 
publish  this  history  as  given  by  Dr.  Knapp,  wilh 
only  an  occasional  reference  to  the  authors  where 
other  views  may  be  found,  and  with  here  and 
there  a  brief  additional  statement.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  hoped  that  some  fruits  of  the  labours  of 
Neander,  Gieseler,  and  Schleiermacher,  will  be 
reaped  ere  long  by  the  American  public. — Tr.] 

L  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  held  by  I'rimitire 
Christians. 

Christians  from  the  earliest  times  were  re- 
quired, agreeably  to  the  command  of  Jesus,  to 
profess  their  belief  in  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Spirit,  at  the  time  of  their  baptism ;  and  these 
names  were  often  used  on  other  occasions,  and 
were  introduced,  as  appears  from  the  Nrw  Tes- 
tament, as  opportunity  presented,  in  all  the  dis- 
courses intended  for  Christian  instruction  and 
edification.  It  will  of  course  be  presumed  that 
the  first  teachers  of  Christianity  did  not  merely 
repeat  these  names  before  those  to  whom  they 
administered  the  ordinance  of  baptism ;  they  must 
also  have  exhibited  the  ideas  to  be  connected 
with  these  names,  and  have  explained  the  whole 
purport  of  that  profession  which  was  required 
What  this  instruction  was  we  cannot  learn  ex- 
actly, since,  besi  le  the  New  Testament,  we  hav« 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES 


14d 


no  credible  written  records  of  the  first  century 
containing  information  on  this  point.  From  the 
New  Testament,  however,  and  from  the  frag- 
ments of  the  oldest  symbols,  (collected  by 
Walch  in  his  Bibliotheca  symbolica  vetus; 
Lemgo,  1770,  8vo,)  we  may  be  satisfied  thus 
far,  that  this  instruction  was  short  and  simple, 
and  wholly  free  from  subtle  and  learned  dis- 
tinctions. The  early  teachers  of  Christianity 
were  satisfied  with  instructing  the  people  re- 
specting the  works  of  God  (ceconomicis  operi- 
bus),  and  in  pointing  out  to  them  the  various 
and  undeserved  benefits  for  which  they  were 
indebted  either  to  the  Father,  Son,  or  Holy  Spi- 
rit, according  to  the  nature  of  these  benefits ; 
and  they  abstained  in  their  instructions  from  re- 
fined and  scholastic  distinctions.  This  is  evi- 
dent from  the  writings  of  the  oldest  church 
fathers,  Justin  the  Martyr,  Irenaeus,  and  Tertul- 
lian.  Justin  the  Martyr,  for  example,  says  that 
Christians  bound  themselves  to  believe  in  the 
Father,  as  the  supreme  God  and  the  Governor 
of  the  world  ;  in  Jesus,  as  the  Messiah  (Xpiarof) 
and  Saviour  (Swrrp),  who  had  died  for  them; 
and  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  foretold  by  the  pro- 
.ihets  everything  relating  to  Christ,  and  who 
counsels  and  guides  those  who  believe  in  him. 
These  ancient  symbols  were  gradually  enlarged 
by  various  additions  intended  to  oppose  the  va- 
rious errors  which  from  time  to  time  arose. 
Such,  however,  as  has  been  represented,  was 
the  simplicity  witb  which  this  doctrine  was  at 
first  taught.  And  even  Origen,  in  his  Books 
jtfpi  a^x'^^1  States  the  sum  of  the  doctrines  for- 
merly taught  to  the  people  to  be,  the  doctrine 
of  the  Father,  as  creator  and  preserver ;  of  the 
Son,  as  the  highest  ambassador  of  God,  and 
himself  both  God  and  man;  and  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  as  holding  a  place  beside  the  Father  and 
the  Son,  and  entitled  to  equal  honour.  As  these 
primitive  Christians  were  not,  as  a  general 
thing,  scientifically  educated,  were  wholly  un- 
accustomed to  speculate  on  religious  subjects, 
and  contented  with  those  practical  views  which 
they  obtained  from  their  teachers,  and  which 
they  found  most  conducive  to  their  comfort  and 
edification;  so  their  teachers  were  contented  to 
present  the  simple  truths  of  religion  without  any 
minute  and  philosophical  distinctions:  and  this 
was  the  right  course,  and  they  found  the  advan- 
tage of  pursuing  it. 

II.  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  held  in  the  Second 
and  Third  Centuries. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  first  century,  and 
during  the  second,  man)'  learned  men  came  over 
both  from  Judaism  and  paganism  to  Christi- 
anity. At  that  period  the  New  Platonic  philo- 
sophy was  becominci  more  and  more  prevalent 
in  the  Grecian  provinces,  and  especially  in 
Egypt,  and  indeed  had  been  embraced  before 


this,  in  the  first  century,  by  many  of  the  learned 
Grecian  Jews.  Vide  s.  41;  and  Meiners, 
Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  der  Denkart  der  ersien 
Jahrhunderte  nach  Chrisli  Geburt,  in  einigen 
Betrachtungen  iiber  die  neuplatonische  Philo- 
sophic; Leipzig,  178-2,  fivo ;  and  Jo.  Jac.  0(1- 
richs.  Comment,  de  doctrina  Platonica  de  Dt-o, 
&c. ;  Marburg,  1788,  8vo-— an  able  and  funda- 
mental work.  These  learned  Jews  and  pagans 
brought  over  with  them  into  the  Christi-.^n 
schools  of  theology  their  Platonic  ideas  and 
phraseology,  and  they  especially  borrowed  from 
the  philosophical  writings  of  Philo.  And  ;is 
they  found  in  the  religious  dialect  of  the  N'-w 
Testament  some  expressi'ms  which  appan-ntly 
resembled  those  to  which  they  had  been  before 
accustomed  in  their  philosopl.ical  diakct,  it  was 
no  difficult  matter  for  them  to  annex  their  pre- 
conceived philosophical  notions  to  the  language 
of  scripture,  and  thus  to  carry  their  whole  philo- 
sophical system  into  the  Bible ;  exactly  as 
Philo  had  before  carried  his  peculiar  system 
into  the  Jewish  scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament, 
Vide  s.  41. 

But  we  find  that  those  learned  Christians  ot 
the  second  century  confined  themselves,  in  their 
philosophizing  respecting  the  Trinity,  princi- 
pally to  the  Looos;  and  this  was  very  natural, 
since  the  name  Aoyo;  is  applied  even  in  the  New 
Testament  to  Christ,  and  since  so  much  liaa 
been  said  and  written  respecting  him  by  the  Pla- 
tonists.  These  philosophizing  Christians  con- 
nected in  general  the  same  ideas  with  the  name 
Xoyof,  as  had  been  done  before  by  Philo  and 
other  Platonists,  (vide  s.  41  ;)  and  differed  only 
in  this,  that  they  referred  the  whole  to  the  person 
of  Christ,  and  endeavoured  to  associate  their 
philosophical  speculations  with  Christian  truth. 
Such  in  general  is  the  fact  with  respect  to  the 
earliest  ecclesiastical  fathers — e.  g.,  Justin  the 
Marty,  (Dial.  cum.  Tryph.  lud.  c.  til,)  Tatian, 
Athenagoras,  (in  his  Apology,)  and  Tertullian, 
(Adv.  Praxeas,  c.  2,  seq.;)  the  latter  of  whom 
in  this  respect  follows  the  example  of  the  Gre- 
cian fathers.  On  several  smaller  points  these 
writers  indeed  differ  from  one  another;  but  in  the 
following  general  views,  all  of  which  are  based 
upon  the  Platonic  system,  they  perfectly  agree — 
viz..  The  Logos  existed  before  the  creation  of 
the  world ;  he  was  begotten,  however,  by  God, 
and  sent  forth  from  him.  By  this  Logos,  the 
New  Platonists  understood  the  infinite  under- 
standing of  tJod,  which  they  conceived  to  be, 
as  it  were,  :v  substance  which  emanated,  with 
its  functions,  from  God.  They  supposed  that 
it  belonged  from  eternity  to  his  nature  as  a;w((vr, 
but  that,  agreeably  to  the  Jivine  will,  (3oi7.ruoTi 
©fov,  as  Justin  expresses  it,  in  the  passage  above 
cited,)  it  began  to  exist  out  of  the  divine  nature, 
and  is  therefore  different  from  God  its  creatoi 
and  father,  and  yet,  as  begotten  of  him,  is  tD» 
n2 


150 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


tirely  divine.  Hence  the  Logos  is  denominated 
by  Athenagoras  rtpwroc  ytwr^ua,  the  Jirx!-bcgot- 
ten ,-  and  Justin,  in  the  passage  above  cited,  says, 
©fo,  ytyivvr^xiv  i%  tavroii  bwa-ixLv  tivo,  Xo- 
yixr^v,  which  was  sometimes  called  5o5aKtjpiov, 
Boiuetimes  Ttoj,  ao^ia,  ayyfXoj,  and  sometimes 
©fj>-,  Kv,jtoj,  and  Aoyoj.  J3y  means  of  this 
Lo>i:us  ihey  su|)|)osed  that  God  at  first  created, 
and  now  preserves  and  governs  tlie  universe. 

The  Holy  Spirit  was  more  rarely  mentioned 
by  tliese  early  fathers,  and  their  views  respect- 
inu"  him  are  far  less  clearly  expressed  than  con- 
cerning the  Son.  Most  of  them,  however,  agreed 
in  considering  him  a  substance  (the  term  used 
by  TertuUian)  emanating  from  the  Father  and 
thi-  Son,  to  whom,  on  this  account,  divinity 
must  be  ascribed.  TertuUian  says.  Est  Spiritus 
a  Pa! re  per  Filiuin.  [V'^ide  Neander,  b.  i.  Abth. 
3.  s.  1039,  tf.] 

iiespecting  these  three,  the  early  fathers  con- 
teu'ied  that  they  were  one.  Athenagoras  says, 
that  with  these  three  there  was  ii-wui^a'Sv^uu^ft, 
but  iv  tfi  rd^it  StaJpfOij.  Origen  and  Novatian 
make  exactly  the  same  representation  in  the 
third  century.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  the 
viv'fy  (svoj^Li,  unitas)  of  which  many  of  these 
nhiiosophical  fathers  speak  is  nothing  more  ihan 
unanimity,  agreement,  correspondence  infeclim^s, 
consent  in  will,  in  power,  and  in  the  application 
of  power  to  particular  objects.  They  do  not 
mean,  by  the  use  of  this  word,  to  signify  that 
the  Son  and  Holy  Spirit  were  God,  in  the  full 
meaning  of  the  word,  and  in  the  same  sense  in 
which  the  Father  is  God.  In  short,  these  phi- 
losophical Christians  asserted  rather  the  divint- 
ne»i  of  the  Son  and  Spirit,  and  their  divine  ori- 
gin, than  tlu'ir  equal  dcitij  with  the  Father. 
Justin  the  Martyr  expressly  declares  that  the 
Son  is  in  God  what  the  understanding  (i-ovj) 
is  in  man,  and  that  the  Holy  S|)irit  is  that  divini- 
power  to  act  and  execute  which  l*latocalls(X|j«r>j. 
With  ihisrepresentation,  Theophilusof  Antioch, 
Clemens  of  Alexandria,  and  Origen,  substan- 
tially agree.  The  name  Father  is  used,  according 
to  them,  in  relation  to  all  existing  things;  the 
name  Aoyoj  to  Xoyixa,  and  Holy  Spirit  to  moral 
perfections.  According  to  TertuUian,  the  per- 
sons of  the  Trinity  are  f^radus,  formic,  species 
unius  Dei.  Thus  it  is  obvious  that  these  philo- 
60|)hical  fathers  of  the  church  entertained  far 
dilferent  views  of  the  divinity  of  the  Son  and 
Spirit,  of  which  they  often  speak,  than  we  do 
at  the  present  time;  and  this  because  tliey  were 
more  influenced  by  their  Platonic  ideas  than  by 
the  declarations  of  the  holy  scriptures. 

But  when,  in  after  ages,  llie  learned  were  no 
li>ngor  familiar  with  the  I'kitonic  ideas  by  which 
tliese  early  fathers  were  influenced,  they  very 
naiiiraiiy  misund(!rstood  their  writings,  and,  de- 
?eiveil  by  some  resemblance  of  |)hraseology, 
ibuted  to  them  that  system  of  belief  which 


was  afterwards  established*  as  orthodox.  Intc 
this  mistake.  Bull,  Burscher,  and  many  ethers, 
iiave  fallen.  \'arious  causes  conspired  to  give 
the  opinions  on  the  subject  of  the  Logos,  which 
have  now  been  described,  an  extensive  influence 
among  Christians  of  a  learned  and  philosophical 
cast,  during  the  second  and  third  centuries: 
these  opinions  were  advocated  by  the  most  dis- 
tinguished teachers  of  that  period ;  and  espe- 
cially they  were  in  entire  agreement  with  the 
principles  of  the  Emanation  and  Platonic  phi- 
losophies, which  were  then  so  universally  preva- 
lent. It  thus  becomes  evident  that  Arianism 
existed  in  the  church  long  before  the  time  of 
Arius  ;  and  that  he  was  only  the  means  of  bring- 
ing to  a  more  full  development,  ai\d  to  a  more 
consistent  and  systematic  form,  a  doctrine  which 
had  arisen  in  a  much  earlier  period.  Indeed, 
the  belief  in  the  subordination  of  the  Son  to  the 
Father,  for  which  Arianism  is  the  later  name, 
flowing  as  it  did  directly  from  Platonic  prin- 
ciples, was  commonly  adopted  by  most  of  those 
fathers  of  the  second  and  third  centuries  who 
assented  in  general  to  the  philosophy  of  Plato. 
And  had  not  Divine  Providence  interposed  in  a 
special  manner,  there  is  reason  to  think  it  would 
have  been  the  established  doctrine  of  the  church. 
But  there  was  another  class  of  learned,  philo- 
sophizing Christians,  who  either  rejected  the 
principles  of  tlie  Platonic  philosophy,  or  applied 
them  dilTerently  fron)  the  orthodox  fathers;  and 
these  substituted  another  tliei)ry  in  place  of  that 
which  had  prevailed  on  the  subject  of  the  Tri- 
nity, which  however,  no  less  than  the  one  wliich 
they  rejected,  was  formed  rather  from  their  piiilo- 
sophical  ideas  than  from  the  instructions  of  the 
Bible.  Among  the  writers  of  this  class  was 
Praxeas,  of  the  second  century,  to  the  confuta- 
tion of  whose  errors  TertuUian  devoted  an  en- 
tire book.  Praxeas  contended  that  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Spirit  were  not  distinguished  from 
each  other  as  individual  subjects;  but  that  God 
was  called  Futhtr,  so  far  as  he  was  the  creator 
and  governor  of  the  world ;  Son  (Aoyoj)  so  far 
as  he  had  endoweil  the  man  J(!sus  with  extra- 
ordinary powers,  and  enableil  him  to  teach  and 
to  sulfer  for  the  good  of  tiie  world,  &.c.  In  ac- 
cordance with  this  view,  Theodotus  denied  any 
lu'i^hcr, pre-exist inir  nature  in  Christ;  and  with 
him  Artemon  agreed,  and  in  the  third  century 
Noetus  and  Beryllus  of  Bostra.  They  agreed 
in  rejecting  the  existence  of  the  Logos,  as  a 
particular  subject  in  God,  before  the  birth  of 
Jesus;  and  supposed  that  what  was  extraordi- 
nary in  tlie  person  of  Christ  was  merely  the 
divine  influence  of  the  Father,  (called  Sim, 
Loi^os,  &c.,)  which  dwelt  in  Jesus,  and  acted 
tlirougli  him.  But  among  these  opinions,  which 
arose  in  opposition  to  the  general  doctrine  of  the 
orthodox  fathers,  the  theory  of  Sahellius,  who 
flourished  in  the  third  century,  was  the  must 


DIVLNE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


151 


celebrated.  Sabellius  regarded  the  terms  Father, 
Son,  and  Iluly  Spirit,  as  merely  describing  dif- 
ferent divine  works,  and  various  modes  of  divine 
rere/alion.  According  to  him  there  is  only  one 
divine  person  (^ia  vrtoataaii),  but  a  threefold 
divine  tuork,  or  three /yr«/s  (rp/a  rtposiorta),  in 
which  God  has  revealed  himself  to  men.  With 
Sabellius  agreed,  for  the  most  part,  Paul  of  Sa- 
mosata,  who  also  flourished  in  the  third  century. 
He  rejected  the  J?erso7^a/ distinction  in  the  god- 
head, and  in  opposition  to  it,  contended  that  the 
Son  was  ouoov'jtoj  or  avvoien.oi  •fci  Ila-fpt — i.  e,, 
nnum  idenique  cum  Fatre.  It  was  in  this  sense 
of  the  word  uixoovmoi,  as  involving  the  denial  of 
a  personal  distinction  in  the  godhead,  that  it  was 
condemned  by  the  third  council  held  at  Antioch. 
In  opposition  to  these  theories,  the  disciples  of 
the  Alexandrine  school  contended  with  great 
zeal  for  the  iSiai/  vTioorarsw,  the  proper  personality 
of  the  Logos. 

\_Note. — The  seceders  from  the  catholic  faith 
here  described  were  in  the  early  ages  commonly 
denominated  MonarcJdans,  because  they  insisted 
upon  the  unity  of  God,  which  they  supposed  in- 
fringed by  the  common  doctrine  which  placed 
three  eternal  persons  in  the  divine  nature.  Mo- 
nnrchiam  tenemus,  they  said  often,  when  compar- 
ing themselves  with  the  orthodox  fathers.  But 
this  general  class  comprehended  many  who  dif- 
fered more  from  each  other  than  they  did  even 
from  those  reputed  orthodox,  and  who  indeed 
bad  nothing  in  common  but  a  great  zeal  for 
monotheism,  and  a  fear  lest  the  unity  of  God 
should  be  endangered  by  the  hypostases  of  the 
Alexandrine  fathers.  Without  any  regard,  how- 
ever, to  these  essential  differences,  all  who,  in 
hehalf  of  the  divine  unity,  in  the  first  centuries, 
rejected  the  doctrine  of  distinct  persons  in  the 
Deity,  are  here  thrown  promiscuously  together, 
as  they  have  commonly  been.  And  Theodotus, 
Artemon,  and  Paul  of  Samosata,  are  placed  by 
the  side  of  Praxeas,  Noetus,  Beryllus  of  Bos- 
tra,  and  Sabellius,  between  whom  and  them- 
selves, on  every  essential  point  of  Christian 
doctrine,  there  was  a  total  opposition.  They 
agreed  only  in  denying  that  the  prophoric  Lo- 
gos, whom  they  admitted  as  a  power  or  ma- 
nifestation of  the  Deity,  existed  before  his  in- 
carnation as  a  distinct  person;  while  with  re- 
gard to  the  manner  of  his  being  in  Christ  they 
ditTered  as  widely  as  possible.  Theodotus  and 
his  followers  supposed  this  divine  energy  to  be 
in  Christ  merely  as  influence  exerted  upon  him, 
in  the  same  way  as  upon  the  ancient  prophets, 
though  in  a  higher  decree.  They  thus  regarded 
Christ  as  a  man  inspired  and  commissioned  by 
God  ;  and  ditTered  but  little  in  opinion  respecting 
him  from  the  ancient  Ebionites,  or  from  modern 
Unitarians.  Praxeas,  on  the  contrary,  and  those 
of  his  school,  supposed  that  this  divine,  though 
impersonal  energy,  or   God   himself,   was  in 


Christ,  in  a  manner  altogether  new  and  peculiar, 
not  acting  upon,  but  dwelling  in  and  forming 
one  with  him.  In  Christ,  then,  they  saw  a  full 
and  complete  representation  of  the  Deity,  and 
went  beyond  even  the  catholic  fathers  in  the 
views  which  they  entertained  of  his  divinity; 
so  that,  in  answer  to  the  objections  urged  against 
his  doctrines,  Praxeas  is  said  to  have  asked  his 
opponents,  ri  xaxov  rtoiuj  So^a^uv  Xptorw  ;  It 
was  on  account  of  this  intimate  union,  and 
almost  identity,  for  wiiich  they  contended,  be- 
tween God  and  Christ,  that  they  were  charged 
by  their  opponents  with  teaching  that  the  Father 
himself  sulVered  in  the  passion  of  Christ,  and 
were  hence  called  ^£0rto5;ytrat,  patripaxsiani, 
patripassians.  There  is  plainly,  therefore,  oc- 
casion for  a  subdivision  among  those  who  agree 
in  rejecting  the  previous  hypostatical  existence 
of  the  Logos. 

In  the  following  table  the  writers  of  the  three 
first  centuries  on  the  subject  of  the  Trinity  are 
ranged  according  to  their  opinions. 


Catholic. 

1.  Justin  the  Martyr 

2.  Thcophiius  of  Antioch 

3.  Atlienagoras 

4.  IrenoBus 

5.  Clemens  Alexandrinus 
G.  Tertullian 

7.  Origen 

8.  Dionysius  Alexandrinus 

9.  Cyprian 

10.  Novatian 

11.  Dionysius  Romanus. 


MoXARCHIANS. 

(s)  Unitarians. 

1.  Theodotus 

2.  Artemon 

3.  Paul  of  Samosata. 

(2)  Patripassians. 

1.  Praxeas 

2.  Noetus 

3.  Heryllus  ofBostra 

4.  iSabclhus. 

Tn.] 


in.  Terms  employed  in  the  Discussio7i  of  this  Doc- 
trine  during  the  Seco7id  and  Third  Centuries. 

The  theologians  of  this  period,  in  the  learned 
discussion  and  the  scientific  statemeni  of  this 
doctrine,  made  use  of  some  peculiar  and  appro- 
priate terms,  which  they  found  convenient,  as 
concerted  watchwords,  to  distinguish  those  of 
their  own  party  from  others  who  dillered  from 
them.  Vide  INIorus,  p.  67,  G8,  s.  12.  The 
more  the  prevailing  theory  was  controverted, 
the  greater  was  the  number  of  new  terms  in- 
vented by  the  different  parlies,  who  laboured  to 
state  their  opinions  as  clearly  and  distinctly  as 
possible,  and  thus  to  secure  their  system  from 
contriidiction.  These  new  modes  of  expression 
were  first  employed  in  the  Oriental  church,  and 
were  introduced  into  it  from  schools  of  heathen 
philosophy;  indeed,  they  can  most  of  them  now 
be  found  in  the  writings  of  Plotinus,  Porphyry, 
Proclus,  and  other  Platonists  of  that  age;  and 
even  those  which  do  not  seem  to  be  directly 
borrowed  from  this  foreign  dialect,  are  yet  ana- 
h(;ous  to  the  terms  employed  by  these  Platonic 
philosophers,  and  are  used  in  the  same  sense 
and  spirit  which  they  give  to  theii  terms.  This 
newly-invented  phraseology  was  afterwards  in 


54 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


troduced  from  the  Grecian  church  into  the  Latin, 
by  TertuUian,  who  enlarged  it  by  some  terms 
of  his  own.  He  therefore  must  be  regarded  as 
tiie  principal  author  of  that  ecclesiastical  dialect 
on  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  (as  well  as  on 
the  other  doctrines,)  which  was  first  adopted  in 
the  African  diurch,  and  afterwards  generally 
throughout  the  Latin  church,  and  which  has 
come  down  to  us  improved  and  extended  by  his 
successors.  Among  the  terms  which  were  em- 
ployed in  the  discussion  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  during  the  second  and  third  centuries, 
the  following  are  the  most  common — viz. : 

1.  T,)(,'aj.  This  term  is  among  those  which 
were  employed  by  the  Platonic  philosophers, 
Plotinus,  Proclus,  &c.,  who  spoke  of  many  Iri- 
udx  in  the  Deity.  It  was  first  introduced  into 
the  discussion  of  the  Trinity  among  Christians, 
as  far  as  we  can  learn,  by  Theophilus  of  Anti- 
och,  of  the  second  century;  and  was  afterwards 
often  used  by  Origen  in  the  third  century.  It 
was  translated  into  the  Latin  by  TertuUian,  by 
the  word  triruhis ;  and  the  phrase  trinilatis 
uiiilas,  answering  to  tiie  fi'wfftj  of  Athenagoras, 
occurs  in  his  book,  Adver.  Praxeam,  c.  2,  3,  &c. 
[Of  this  word  the  English  trinity  is  the  exact 
translation.]  It  is  less  correctly  rendered  in 
German  by  the  word  Drcycinigkcil  [the  usual 
term  for  denoting  the  Trinity  among  German 
theologians;  less  accurate,  however,  than  the 
word  trinity,  because  it  expresses  a;jreement  of 
afTection  and  will  merely,  and  therefore  seems 
to  lean  towards  tritheism.  It  contains  the  same 
implication  as  would  be  expressed  in  the  Eng- 
lish word  trianiinili/,  if  such  a  word  may  be 
supposed.]  It  was  at  first  rendered  into  (ierman 
bv  the  word  Drcyfnllii^hcit  [Anglice,  trip/iciti/l, 
which,  however,  was  opposed  by  Luther,  as  fa- 
vouring the  Sabellian  view  of  the  divine  nature. 
Basedow  recommends  that  the  word  Dreyeinhcit 
\triuniiy']  be  used  to  denote  this  doctrine,  and 
to  render  the  Latin  trinitas.  And  this  word,  it 
must  be  confesst-d,  would  better  express  the 
scriptural  doctrine  and  the  theory  of  the  church 
at  the  present  day  than  the  term  commonly 
employed.  It  is  less  proper,  however,  than 
Drcyiinijrkcit^  to  express  what  was  intended  in 
the  second  and  third  centuries  by  the  terms 
f|iia<,  IrinilfLi,  triuilritis  unitas,  which  was  not 
80  much  the  unity  and  perfect  equality  of  nature 
as  simple  agreemt'nt  of  will,  which  is  exactly 
rendered  by  the  word  Drrycini'^iait.  The  lat- 
ter word,  on  tlx;  other  hand,  taken  in  its  common 
and  literal  acceptation,  does  not  express  the 
doctrine  of  the  Hible  and  of  the  church  at  the 
pr»=senl  day,  so  well  as  the  term  Drrycinhiit 
[triunily.']  If  we  wished  to  designate  this 
doctrine  by  a  German  word  as  various  and  com- 
prehensive in  its  meaning  as  the  Latin  trinitnn, 
r English,  trinity."]  the  won!  Drryhiit  would  be 
the  be*;  but  if  we  wished  to  express  more  ex- 


actly the  doctrine  of  the  Bible,  and  the  pres'^iw 
belief  of  the  church,  w"  must  pretVr  the  woid 
which  Basedow  has  recommended — viz.,  Drey- 
einhcit \trittni(y.'\ 

2.  Ov5ia  v.-to'iraicf.  These  terms  were  not 
sufficiently  distinguished  from  each  other  by 
the  Greek  fathers  of  the  second  and  third  cen- 
turies, and  were  often  used  by  them  as  entirely 
synonymous.  TertuUian  translates  ovm'a  by 
substantia,  and  affirms  substantix  unitnlem  in  the 
'I'rinity.  By  the  word  {■rcoira.'ji^  the  older  Greek 
fathers  understood  only  a  really  existing  subject, 
in  opposition  to  a  nonentity,  or  to  a  merely  ideal 
existence;  in  which  sense  they  also  not  unfre- 
quently  used  the  word  ovrsia..  Thus,  according 
to  the  Platonists,  the  Aoyoj  existed  in  God  even 
from  eternity,  but  at  first  as  an  impersonal  idea, 
and  became  an  hypostasis  only  shortly  before  the 
creation  of  the  world,  in  order  that  the  world 
might  be  created  by  him.  The  New  Platonists 
employed  the  word  v^i^raiat  in  reference  to  the 
deity  in  itself,  and  called  their  triads  irtofjra^Hj, 
or  ra  rcjiiTrauf la.  Vide  Proclus,  Tim.  p.  131, 
177.  But  the  meaning  of  this  word  has  gradu- 
ally been  altered  in  later  times,  especially  since 
the  fourth  century.     Vide  s.  13,  IL  2. 

3.  Persona.  This  word  was  first  eniployed  by 
TertuUian,  in  the  passage  above  cited;  and  by 
it  he  means,  an  individual,  (M/^yVc^Kw  inle/ii' 
a^ens,')  a  single  being,  distinguished  frcMTi  others 
by  certain  peculiar  qualities,  attributes,  and  re- 
lations; and  so  he  calls  Pater,  Fi/iiis,  Spirilut 
Sanctus,  ires  personam,  at  the  same  time  that  he 
ascribes  to  them  unitas  stibstai^linr,  because  they 
belong  to  the  divine  nature  (<n-»m)  existing  from 
eternity.  He  asserts  this  in  opposition  to  Prax- 
eas,  who  would  allow  of  no  distinction  between 
Father,  Son,  and  Spirit.  Among  the  Greeks, 
Origen  is  the  first  who  used  the  word  i-rtoirwsif 
in  a  sense  like  that  which  TertuUian  connects 
with  persona;  and  he  accordingly  says,  IVe  be 
Here  in  three  vrtoijroatej,  Ilorfpo,  Tiov,  xcU  Tlvtv 
ixa  aytoi'. 

ECTION  XLIII. 

HISTORV  OF  THE  POCTRINE  OF  THK  TRISITV  DUR- 
ING THE  FOl'RTH  r-ENTl-RY;  AND  OF  THK  DIS- 
TINCTIONS ESTARMSHED  AT  THE  MCE.NE  COUN- 
CIL, AND  SINCE  ADOPTED  IN  THE  ORTHODOX 
CHURCH. 

I.   The  Trinity,  as  hchl  in  the  Fourth  Century. 

It  had  already  been  settled  by  manj'  cotincils 
held  during  the  third  century,  and  in  tlie  sym 
bols  which  they  had  adopted  in  opposition  to 
Sal)elliu8  and  I'aiil  of  Samosata.  that  the  F'alher 
must  be  regarded  as  really  distinguisln'd  from 
the  Son,  and  the  Holv  Spirit  as  distin'^uishrd 
from  both.  But  there  had  been  as  yet  no  con- 
troversy am  ng  the  learned  respecting  the  m«- 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES 


153 


tual  relation  ot  the  three  persons  of  the  Trinity, 
or  respfictin^  the  question  in  what  the  distinction 
between  them  properly  consists;  and  these  sub- 
jets  were  accordingly  left  as  yet  undetermined 
by  the  decisions  of  councils  and  symbols.  Vide 
8.  42.  The  learned  men  of  this  period,  there- 
fore, entertained  dilTerent  opinions  on  these  sub- 
jects, and  were  at  liberty  to  express  themselves 
according  to  their  own  convictions.  At  length, 
however,  one  of  these  opinions  prevailed  over 
the  rest,  and  through  the  influence  of  those 
fathers  by  whom  it  was  advocated,  and  through 
the  patronage  of  the  imperial  court,  was  adopted 
by  the  Nicene  Council,  and  authoritatively  pre- 
scribed as' a  rule  of  faith  of  universal  obligation. 
Origen  and  his  followers  had  maintained 
against  the  Sabellians  that  there  were  in  God 
Tpf tj  vrtoatdasi^,  (tres  personse,)  but  fitav  ov(ji.av, 
(una  substantia,)  which  was  common  to  the 
three.  They  had  not,  however,  or  at  least  but 
few  of  them,  as  yet  taught,  that  these  three  per- 
sons were  entirely  e(]ual  to  one  another;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  had  allowed,  in  accordance  with 
their  Platonic  principles,  that  the  Son,  though 
belonging  to  the  divine  nature,  was  yet  subor- 
dinate to  the  Father.  But  at  length,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourth  century,  Alexander,  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  and  Athanasius,  his  successor, 
attempted  to  unite  the  hypotheses  of  Origen  and 
Sabellius,  thinking  that  the  truth  lay  between 
the  two  extremes,  and  tiiat  the  subordinate  per- 
sons of  Origen,  or  the  one  undistinguished  na- 
ture of  Sabellius,  were  alike  inconsistent  with 
the  representations  of  the  Bible.  In  forming 
his  theory,  Athanasius  exhibited  great  sagacity 
and  penetration,  and  it  must  be  allowed  to  have 
a  decided  superiority  over  the  partial  and  un- 
scriptural  theory  of  Arius.  He  stated  the  per- 
sonal distinction  of  the  Father  and  the  Son  to 
be,  that  the  former  was  without  bei:inning  and 
unlegotlen,  (ttia,i;^o;,  dyt vvjjtoj,)  while  the  latter 
was  eternally  begotten  (^ysvir^roi)  by  the  Father, 
and  equally  eternal  with  the  Father  and  the 
Spirit. 

The  Arian  controversy  began  about  the  year 
320.  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  had 
taucfht  the  doctrine  ly  rpta6i  uoiuia  tlvai.  This 
doctrine  was  disputed  by  Arius,  a  presbyter  of 
Alexandria,  who  affirmed  that  it  was  inconsist- 
ent with  the  personal  distinction  in  the  Deity, 
and  therefore  favoured  the  Sabellian-theory.  As 
the  controversy  proceeded,  the  breach  widened, 
and  Arius  at  last  distinctly  affirmed,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Sabellians,  that  there  were  not  only 
three  persons  in  God,  but  that  they  were  unequal 
in  glory  (So^aij  oix  o^oiai) ; — that  the  Father 
alone  was  the  supreme  God  (a-ytwrroj),  and 
God  in  a  higher  sense  than  the  Son; — that  the 
Son  derived  his  divinity  from  the  Father  before 
the  creation  of  the  world,  and  that  he  owed  his 
existence  to  the  divine  will  (^i7.r^uari  @eov  «p6 
20 


j^povtov  xai  jtpo  oiuij'cjv  xti<}^iii)  ; — and  that  the 
Holy  Spirit  was  likewise  divine  in  a  sense  in- 
ferior to  that  in  which  the  Father  is  so.  These 
doctrines  were  not  in  reality  diflerent  from  those 
entertained  by  the  early  Christian  fathers,  who 
had  come  under  the  influence  of  the  New  Pla- 
tonic Philosophy.  They  were, however,  carried 
out  by  Arius  to  all  their  legitimate  consequences, 
and  stated  by  him  in  a  more  distinct  form  than 
had  been  done  by  any  who  preceded  him.  [For 
a  more  particular  statement  of  the  system  of 
Arius,  from  his  own  writings,  vide  Hahn,  Lehr- 
buch  des  christ.  Glaubens,  s.  242;  Gieseler, 
b.  i.  s.  334.  Cf.  Neander,  AUg.  Gesch.  b.  ii. 
Ablh.  2,  s.  770.] 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  different 
parties  arose  among  the  followers  of  Arius,  who 
adopted  different  modes  of  expression.  Some 
maintained  that  the  Son  is  in  all  respects  unlike 
the  Father,  (xara  navra  drouoij.)  [These  are 
called  by  different  names,  descriptive  of  their 
doctrine — viz.,  aiouoiot,  Atiomoiaus,  also  llett- 
rousians  ;  and  also  after  their  leaders,  Aetius, 
Bishop  at  Alexandria,  362;  Eunomius,  Bishop 
at  Cyzicus,  392;  Acacius,  Eiidoxius,  &c. 
This  party  prevailed  at  a  council  held  at  Sir- 
mium,  357,  and  their  confession  of  faith  is  con- 
tained in  the  Furnitila  Synudi  Sirniien6is,-^V9.J\ 
Others  contended  that  the  Son,  though  not  of 
the  same,  was  yet  of  a  similar  nature  with  the 
Father,  (i^Motov^ioj  r<^  rrarpi.)  [Tiiese  were 
called  oaotov^idoTai,  Hutdpftot,  Scmi-Arians, 
also  Eiiscbiai}s,  from  Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Nico- 
rnedia,  who  endeavoured  to  reconcile  the  ad- 
herents of  Arius  and  Athanasius.  At  first,  this 
party  was  outnumbered  by  the  stricter  Arians 
in  the  council  above  mentioned,  held  at  Sir- 
mium,  357.  But  under  their  leaders,  Basilius, 
Bishop  of  Ancyra,  and  Georgius,  Bishop  of 
Laodicea,  they  united  the  year  following  in  a 
synod  at  Ancyra,  where  they  rejected  alike  the 
Arian  and  Nicene  formulas,  and  anathematized 
alike  those  that  held  that  the  Son  is  avouotov 
xar'  ovntav  rcj  rtarpi,  or  that  he  is  ouooi'^iov  rj 
■tavtooiaiov  Tci  rtarpt. — Tr.]  All  the  Arians, 
of  whatever  party,  agreed  in  rejecting  the  term 
ouoovgiof,  because,  in  their  view,  it  set  aside  the 
personal  distinction  in  the  Deity,  and  made  the 
Son  unum  idemque  ctivi  Falre.  P'or  the  same 
reason,  the  orthodox  of  the  third  century  had 
condemned  it  in  Paul  of  Samosata.  Vide  s.  42. 
But  in  opposing  the  Arians,  some  of  the 
teachers  of  this  period  fell  into  the  opposite  ex- 
treme, and  professed  a  sclien.e  subsiantiallj  the 
same  with  that  of  Sabellius.  Of  this  clnss  were 
I\Iarcellus,  Bishop  of  Ancyra,  and  Pholinus, 
Bishop  of  Sirmium.  ['I'he  farmer  of  hese  was 
a  zealous  advocate  of  the  Nicene  fnrninla.  and 
was  probably  betrayed  by  his  zeal  for  the 
ouooiicoj,  unconsciously,  into  the  error  of  Sa- 
bellius.  Though  condemned  by  the  Arians  aaii 


154 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Semi-Arians  in  a  council  held  at  Conslantincple, 
(33ti,)  lie  was  approved  by  the  Council  held  at 
Sardica,  and  was  favourably  regarded  by  Atha- 
nasius,  and  generally  in  the  Western  church. 
Vide  Neander,  b.  ii.  Abth.  3,  s.  8il.  Photi- 
nus,  on  the  other  hand,  boldly  and  deliberately 
advocated  Sabellianism,  and  was  condemned 
not  only  by  the  Kusebians,  in  the  second  Coun- 
cil at  Aiitioch,  (313,)  hut  also  by  the  Western 
church  in  the  Council  at  Milan,  (316.)  The 
oppositiun'  of  the  Arians  and  Semi-Arians 
against  these  men,  in  the  council  at  Sirmiam, 
very  mucli  conduced  to  the  union  of  all  anti- 
Athanasians. — Tk.] 

In  op()()siiion  to  all  these,  and  various  other 
theories,  Aihanasius  and  his  adherents  contended 
with  great  zeal.  Their  great  object  was  to  find 
the  true  medium  between  Arianism  and  Sabel- 
.ianism,  and  to  establish  certain  formulas  in  op- 
position to  both.  And  in  this  they  succeeded; 
and  at  a  general  council  at  Nice,  in  the  year  325, 
a  symbol  was  adopted,  which  was  designed  to 
be  thenceforward  the  only  standard  of  orthodoxy. 
[The  Nicene  symbol  is  as  follows: — "Ili^rfv- 
Ofitv  Eij  fvtt  0i6v,  IlaT'fpa  rtarroxpaVopa,  rtuvTcoi' 
oparuiv  T£  xai  aopartoi'  7(oi,rjtr^v,  Kai)  ti^  eva 
Kvpioj'  Ir^aovv  XpttJT'oi',  Tov  Tt,6v  tov  Qiov,  yev- 
vr,^ii'ta  (X  tov  riarpoj,  fiovoyivrj,  tovtiativ,  Ix 
tr^i  ovoiaj  -iov  Ilttrpoj,  Qsov  ix  Qcov,  (})u)j  ix  cjiuiroj, 
Qiov  dXrJ^ivov  ix  Qeoii  aXtj^ivov,  yivvr^'^ivta,  ov 
Ttoiir'^ivfa,  tu.oovnt.ov  rci  rittrpt,  6i'  ov  ■ftt  Tiuvta 
iyivtro,  to.  -ii  iv  tu  ouparo  xai  to.  iv  trj  yrj,  -tov 
hi  i^fitii  rouj  ttv^puirtouj  xai  6ia  rrji'  r^jxitipav  owrs;- 
ptai"  xarsX'^uv-ta,  xai,  aapxwiJU'ra,  xai  a'ai'^pwrt>j- 
aarra,  rta'.iovta  xai  avaoruvta  rrj  t^iitrj  r^fxipa, 
avfTw^ovTa  f ij  rouj  ovpafoxij,  xai  ijixousfov  xpn'ot 
fwcraj  xai  vfxpoi;;.  Kat  tij  to  ayiov  TLvei/xa. 
Toiif  bi  Xiyocfttj,  oti  r^v  ytoti  ote  ovx  r^v,  xai  rtpiv 
yiwuj^rji/ai  ovx  )ji',  xai  otc  t?  ovx  ortwi'  iyiveto,  rj 
i^  irfpttj  vjtorftdaeoii  rj  ovaiaj  fwsxovtai  (Zrai,  rj 
xtntiv,  tpiritov,  r;  dxkoiutov  tov  Ttov  roij  Qsoii, 
dva^f^uttTtsfi.  rj  xu^o7.(.xr;  ixx^jyiJa."]  This  sycn- 
bol  was  confirmed  at  the  council  held  at  Con- 
Btantinople  in  the  year  381,  under  Theodosius 
Ihe  Creat,  and  so  enlarged  as  to  meet  certain 
heresies  wliich  had  in  the  meantime  arisen.  [A 
sect  calhnl  rtvivuatouu:(oi.,  Fneiiinatomachians, 
who  agreed  generally  in  opinion  with  the  Semi- 
Arians,  maintained  that  the  Holy  Spirit  has  not 
the  same  relation  to  the  Father  which  tlie  Son 
has,  but  derives  his  existence  directly  from  the 
Son.  Those  of  this  sect  were  afterwards  called 
Macedonians,  in  honour  of  Macedonius,  who 
was  deposed  from  oflice  by  the  stricter  Arians 
on  account  of  his  adherence  to  this  doctrine. 
In  opposition  to  this  doctrine  it  was  that  the  fol- 
lowing adililion  was  made  to  the  Nicene  formula 
respecting  the  Holy  Spirit: — Iltirtvoufv  nj  to 
ttyiov  riKfuaa,  (to  Kvpiof,  to  (,u>o7toi6v,  to  ix 
f>v  riarpoj  ixTtopivofitvov.  to  f'vv  Ilarpi 
icai  Tt9  avj.i.tpo'jxvvovidet'ov  xot  avvio^a^ouive*',  r  '" 


XaJ-r^ijav  bid  Tiiv  rtpofprtujy.)  Respecting  th* 
clause  TO  ix  tov  HaTpoj  ixnoptvoufvov,  a  seiious 
difference  afterwards  arose,  which  ended  at 
length,  in  the  eleventh  century,  in  the  entire 
division  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches 
which  still  subsists.  Vide  No.  III.  I.  (c) 
Third,  of  this  section. — Tr.] 

The  distinctions  established  at  the  Councils 
of  Nice  and  Constantinople  were  often  re-en- 
acted at  various  councils  <luring  tlie  succeeding 
ages.  To  the  Arians,  however,  and  to  many 
who  were  not  Arians,  they  still  appeared  to  be 
not  only  unfounded  but  injurious.  They  in- 
sisted that  trithtistn  was  the  inevitable  conse- 
quence of  the  admission  of  these  distinctions, 
though  Athanasius  strongly  protested  against 
this  conclusion.  Some  were  actually  accused 
of  tritheism  during  the  sixth  century,  though 
they  probably  were  chargeable  with  no  other 
fault  than  an  unguarded  use  of  language.  [The 
princijial  writers  who  fell  under  suspicion  of 
tritheism  were  John  Ascosnages,  a  learned 
Syrian,  and  teacher  of  philosophy  at  Constan- 
tinople, A.  D.  5G5;  and  his  disciple,  John  Phi- 
loponus,  a  celebrated  grammarian  of  Alexandria, 
A.  D.  611.  Among  the  schoolmen,  Roscellinus, 
Gilbert  de  la  Porree,  Peter  Abel  lard,  and  Jo- 
achim of  Flora,  were  condemned  on  account  of 
tritheism. — Tii.] 

Notwithstanding  all  opposition,  however,  the 
distinctions  adopted  in  the  Council  at  Nice  re- 
mained in  force;  and  so  carefully  were  they 
guarded,  that  during  the  whole  period  between 
the  fourth  and  the  sixteenth  centuries  but  few 
were  found  bold  enough  to  dissent,  oi  to  broach 
any  novelties,  and  those  few  found  scarcely  any 
adherents.  Even  the  schoolmen,  who  were  so 
much  addicted  to  speculate  and  reline  on  other 
subjects,  remained  faithful,  as  a  body,  to  the 
distinctions  once  established  on  the  subject  of 
the  Trinity. 

II.  Terms  employed  in  ihe  Discussion  of  this  Doc- 
trine  since  ihe  Nicene  Council. 

1.  Ovaia,  sub.itantia.  This  term,  like  all  the 
others  in  common  use  in  the  discussion  of  this 
doctrine,  is  in  itself  very  ambiguous,  and  was 
employed  in  various  senses  even  by  the  ecclesi- 
astical fathers  of  this  period.  It  was  used  to 
signify  (a)  whatever  really  exists,  in  opposition 
to  what  has  no  existence,  or  exists  merely  in 
imagination.  Vide  s.  42.  (Ji)  ]Vhaltver  exista 
for  itself  has  pcrxonnl  srif-suhiistcuce,  in  short,  a 
pirson.  Hence  some,  in  opposition  to  Sabellius, 
S)>ake  of  Tpfij  oi-fM-ai  iv  C-)f(o.  (r)  Thv  rnlirc  sum 
of  the  attributes  which  ht/onu;  to  a  thin<r,  its  »ia- 
tnre.  In  this  sense  it  was  employeil  when  it 
was  said  tliat  three  persons  belonged  to  tho 
ovfia  &rov.  Hence  tiie  phrase  tuoovaio^,  con- 
iubsiantialis. 

2.  '^rtojTajij    and   rtpojwrto)-.     Th  •    foriiv** 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


155 


of  these  words  gave  occasion  to  much  contro- 
versy on  account  of  its  ambiguity,  some  con- 
tend.ng  for  fiiav  VTtonra'ii.v,  others  for  rptij  vao- 
ardam.  Before  the  Nicene  Council,  as  we 
have  seen,  s.  4:3,  vrtoataatj  and  ovnia,  were  em- 
ployed by  the  ecclesiastical  fathers  as  synony- 
mous ;  even  in  the  Nicene  symbol  they  appear 
as  interchangeable  words,  (vrtouraoij  ^  ovoJa;) 
ana  Hieronyinus,  still  later,  contended  for  una w 
hypostasin  (i.  e.,  ovai'ai')  in  God.  But,  as  we 
before  said,  Origen  had  previously  contended 
that  there  were  rpft^  vrtocrdafts  and  ^i,a,  ovaia 
in  God,  making  a  distinction  between  these 
words.  In  this  he  was  followed  by  many 
writers;  and  at  length  this  distinction  which  he 
had  introduced  was  established  by  ecclesiastical 
authority  in  opposition  to  the  Arians;  although 
many  still  continued,  according  to  the  ancient 
custom,  to  use  vTioara^ii  and  ovaa  one  for  the 
other.  In  order  to  obviate  the  perplexity  thus 
occasioned,  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  strife  about 
words,  many  writers  in  the  Greek  church  be- 
gan, shortly  after  the  Nicene  Council,  to  use 
the  word  rtpdawrtoi;  instead  of  -Lrtoaractj.  The 
former  of  these  is  an  exact  translation  of  the 
persona,  which  had  been  before  introduced  into 
the  Latin  church  by  TertulUan.  But  neitiier 
was  this  word  free  from  ambiguity ;  and  it  was 
objected  to  by  many,  because  it  seemed  to  fa- 
vour the  theory  of  Sabellius,  who  was  willing 
to  admit  that  in  the  divine  nature  there  were 
three  rtpdutoTta,  meaning  by  the  word  different 
asptcls  ox  forms  in  which  God  revealed  himself 
to  men.  The  orthodox,  however,  employed  this 
term  in  the  sense  in  which  it  had  been  used  by 
Tertnllian,  and  afterwards  by  Augustine  and 
others.  Vide  s.  42.  The  sense  they  intended 
to  convey  by  it  was,  that  the  three  subjects 
spoken  of  were  truly  distinguished  from  each 
other,  and  acted  each  for  himself,  eos  esse  d,  se 
tr.vicem  sic  distiiictos,  ui  singulis  sua  inteliigcniia 
fi  sua  actio  trihuenda  sil,  Morus,  p.  G7,  s.  12. 
And  that  this  is  a  truth  taught  in  the  Bible  must 
be  evident  to  all  who  impartially  examine  its 
instructions.  It  was  with  a  particular  reference 
to  tiie  Sabellian  theory  that  this  word  was 
adopted  by  the  fathers.  In  opposition  to  this 
theory  they  also  sometimes  said,  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  were  axxoj  xal  uXXoj — i.  e., 
different  subjects,  though  not  a%%o  xai,  aXXo — i. 
e.,  of  different  nature,  as  the  Arians  affirmed. 

3.  'OfiooiiLOi,  cuiisiibslantialis,  I\forus,  p.  69, 
s.  13,  \o.  2 — one  of  the  most  difficult  and  con- 
troverted of  all  the  terms  employed  on  this  doc- 
trine. According  to  the  oldest  Greek  usage  it 
signifies,  ichal  belongs  to  the  samt  t^pecies,  or  has 
the  same  nature,  being,  properties,  with  another 
thing.  Til  us  Aristotle  says,  7ft,  ita  to.  airpa 
oftoovoia,  and  Plato  says,  respeciinff  souls,  that 
they  are  tfiouv-iai  ^ftj.  Thus,  h  <>,  Chrysostom 
Bays,  Adam  was   o^tooiictoj  with   Eve,  and  re- 


specting Jupiter  and  Neptune,  Horner  says, 
ti^ifioTipotaii'  ufiov  yti'oj,  both  were  of  one  race, 
burn  (f  one  father,  II.  xiii.  354,  seq.  Tiiis  term 
had  been  used  by  the  Sabellians  and  Paul  of 
Samosata,  in  the  third  century,  to  signify  an  en- 
tire indentity  of  nature;  and  when  they  said  the 
Son  was  o^uoov^toj  to  narpt,  they  meant  that  he 
was  uniiin  ideruque,  so  that  no  personal  distinc- 
tion existed  between  them.  Hence  this  term 
was  rejected  by  the  orthodox  of  that  period. 
Vide  s.  42.  But  when,  in  the  fourth  century, 
at  the  Nicene  Council,  the  Arians  too  rejected 
it,  supposing  it  to  mean,  what  they  denied,  that 
the  nature  of  the  Son  was  the  same  with  that  of 
the  Father;  the  orthodox  then  adopted  it,  ex- 
pressly guarding,  however,  against  the  Sabel- 
lian misinterpretation.  They  explained  them- 
selves thus : — The  Son  was  not  created  (xti5- 
|>fiS,  Tioir^sii),  but  eternally  generated  {yivvr^- 
^tii)  from  the  nature  of  the  Father,  (ov5ia 
Ilarpoj,)  and  is  therefore  in  all  respects  equal  to 
him,  and  no  more  different,  as  to  nature,  from 
God  than  a  human  son  is  from  his  father,  and 
so  cannot  be  separated  from  the  Father.  In  this 
way  v.'as  the  term  ouoovotoj  defined  by  the  ortho- 
dox fathers,  so  as  to  guard  alike  against  the 
Arians  and  Sabellians.  What  the  relation  de- 
signated by  this  term  is  they  never  positively 
explained;  nor  could  they  do  so,  since  we  are 
unable  to  form  any  ideas  respecting  the  internal 
connexion  in  the  godhead.  All  that  they  meant 
to  teach  by  the  use  of  this  word  was,  that  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  had  the  divine  na- 
ture and  divine  perfections  so  in  common  that 
one  did  not  possess  more  and  another  less; 
without  asserting,  however,  that  there  were 
three  Gods;  in  short,  that  in  the  godhead  there 
were  tres  distincti,  unitate  essentia;  conjuntti. 
This  is  the  doctrine  contained  in  the  creeds  of 
the  Lutheran  church.  It  admits  of  a  simple 
and  intelligible  explanation,  and  in  the  manner 
now  pointed  out  may  be  kept  clear  from  refine- 
ment and  subtlety.  Vide  Morus,  p.  G9,  70,  s. 
13,  extr.  n.  2.  Moreover,  it  is  a  doctrine  which 
is  taught  in  the  Bible,  as  we  have  seen  in  chap- 
ter first  of  this  article. 

III.  The  chai-acf eristics  by  loliich  these  persons  may 
be  distinguished  from  one  another. 
Ifthese  three  5«/iposj7a  are  really  distinguished 
from  one  another,  there  must  be  some  signs  by 
which  this  distinction  can  be  recognised;  and 
these  signs  must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  indi- 
cate a  real  personal  distinction.  In  short,  we 
must  be  able  by  these  signs  to  distinguish  these 
subjects,  not  merely  as  different  names  or  attri- 
butes of  God,  or  as  different  modes  by  which  he 
has  revealed  himself  to  men,  but  as  really  dis- 
tinct pirsons.  Now  there  are  two  classes  of 
signs  (characteres  personates,  sive  'lypostatici, 
yi'wptOjUoiTa  .bi^^iata  bxitlxu)  by  which  theolo- 


156 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


gians  undertake  to  distinguish  these  persons 
from  one  another. 

1.  Internal,  ekaraetcres  tnltrni.  Tliese  are 
distinctive  signs  which  arise  from  tlie  internal 
relation  of  the  tliree  persons  in  the  godhead  to 
each  other,  and  which  indicate  the  mode  of  the 
divine  existence,  (j)reuliaris  subsintemli  modtts, 
Tponoj  irtcip^fcoj.)  Ttiey  are  also  called  prnprie- 
tates  personales.  To  discover  and  explain  what 
is  this  internal  relation  which  exists  in  the  god- 
head is  indeed  a  difficult  task,  since  we  have  no 
definite  notions  respecting  the  internal  nature 
of  the  Divine  Being.  But  rather  than  pass  the 
subject  in  silence,  theologians  have  laid  down 
the  following  distinctions,  which  they  derive 
from  the  names  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit,  and 
from  some  other  Biblical  phraseology. 

(a\  The  Father  generates  the  Son,  and  emits 
the  Holy  Spirit,  genera/  Filium,  spiral  Spirituni 
Sanctum;  and  possesses,  therefore,  as  his  per- 
sonal attributes,  generiitio  aetiva  and  spiratio 
actica.  By  these  representations  nothing  more 
is  intended  than  that  the  divine  nature  was  com- 
municated from  eternity  to  the  Son  and  Holy 
Spirit,  and  that  there  is  a  certain  internal,  ne- 
cessary, and  eternal  relation  between  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Spirit,  which,  however,  we  are  not  able 
fully  to  explain.  This  personal  characteristic 
of  tlie  Father  was  called  by  the  early  writers 
Ayf vvjjiio,  ttvop;^ia,  p«'er«»7rt,'!'.  'VhLov  tov  riarpoj 
dyfi'i'j^'jia,  said  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Orat.  31. 
^^  Patris  eat  generare,  non  ge.nerari."  Ac- 
cordingly, the  Father  was  said  to  be  a.iop;^oj 
dyf I'l'j^Toj,  a.-ti'fvirof,  avrdljfoj,  «»;-/?;,  ai.zia,f(/ns, 
radix,  principium  divinilalis. 

(6)  Tlie  Son  is  generated  by  the  Father;  Filii 
est  ge.verari,  non  generare;  ihiov  rov  Tiov  j; 
ytn/jjiij,  according  to  Gregory,  in  the  passage 
above  cited.  So  that  the  Son  possesses  as  his 
personal  attributes,  ytivr^nia,  fitiatio  gcneratio 
passivn,  and  also,  as  he  is  supposed  to  emit  the 
Spirit  in  conjunction  with  the  Father,  rpiralio 
aetiva;  with  regard  to  the  latter  characteristic, 
however,  there  was  dispute  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  church,  of  which  we  shall  shortly 
speak. 

(c)  The  Holy  Spirit  neither  generates  nor  is 
generated,  bul proceeds  from  the  Father  and  Son; 
Spiritus  Sancti  est,  nee  generare  tue  gcncrari,  sed 
PROCEDKKE;  ihiav  TOV  rirfvua'roj  ij  txrtfu^'^i 
said  Gregory,  as  above.  What  he  calls  tx^tu-le; 
is  called  by  other  CJreek  writers,  nvor^,  rtpojojir, 
and  by  Basiiius,  rtpcioioj  ix  (^lov. 

Respecting  these  attempts  to  determine  ex- 
actly in  what  the  internal  distinction  between 
the  persons  in  the  godhead  consists,  we  have  to 
emark. 

First,  tint  they  were  wholly  unknown  to  the 
oiliest  writers,  both  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
church,  and  were  first  maile  by  the  catholic  part\ 
of  the  fourth  century,  when  they  wished  to  dra.\ 


the  line  of  distinction  between  themselves  ai.i 
the  Arians  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Sabelliana 
on  the  other,  as  finely  as  possible,  as  we  have 
already  seen  in  No.  I. 

Secondly.  In  stating  these  internal  personal 
characteristics  of  the  three  persons  in  the  god- 
head, theologians  have  indeed  S(!lected  terms 
which  occur  in  the  Bible,  (such  as  beget, prucecd, 
&c.,)  and  would  seem  to  have  drawn  their  whole 
phraseology  on  this  subject  directly  from  thence. 
But  even  if  we  should  allow  that  these  terms  are 
always  used  in  the  Bible  to  denote  the  internal 
relation  existing  between  these  divine  persons, 
we  should  not  be  at  all  advanced  by  them  in  out 
knowledge  of  what  this  relation  is,  since  we  arfi 
wholly  un-ible  to  detect  that  secret  meaning 
which  lies  concealed  beneath  them,  and  which 
God  has  not  seen  fit  to  reveal.  We  cannot  con- 
cede, however,  that  all  these  terms  are  used  in 
the  Bible  to  denote  the  communication  of  the 
divine  nature  and  the  internal  relation  existing 
between  the  persons  of  the  Trinity;  certainly 
not,  that  they  are  always  so  used.  The  term  to 
beget,  for  example,  denotes  in  many  passages, 
not  the  communication  of  tiie  divine  nature  to  the 
Son  of  God,  but  his  appointment  to  the  kinu:ly 
office,  or  the  Messiahship.  Thus  the  passage, 
Psa.  ii.  7,  Thou  art  my  Sou,  this  day  have  I  he- 
icotlen  thee,  though  often  cited  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, is  never  brought  to  prove  the  divine  na- 
ture of  the  Son  of  God,  but  is  always  supposed 
to  refer  to  the  confirmation  of  his  Messiah>hip 
by  his  resurrection  from  the  dead.  The  same 
might  be  said  of  many  other  passages  in  which 
similar  phraseology  is  used.  \  ide  s.  31.  No. 
t;  s.  37,  ad  finem;  and  Morus,  p.  64,  n.  '2. 
The  name  .*^'(;i  of  God  is  indeed,  in  some  pas- 
sages, given  to  Christ,  in  designation  r.f  liis 
higher  nature,  his  eijuality  with  the  Father,  and 
his  internal  relation  to  him  ;  though  even  tiien  it 
does  not  enable  us  to  understand  what  tiiis  re- 
lation is,  which  we  have  reason  to  think  lies 
beyond  the  reach  of  our  knowledge.  All  the 
idea  which  we  are  justified  in  deriving  fmin  this 
name  is,  that  Christ  as  truly  partiiipates  in  the 
divine  nature  as  the  Father,  na  0fu  riarpt.  just 
as,  among  men,  the  son  as  truly  participates  in 
human  nature  as  the  father,  iia  Ilarpi  dt'^,>wA<f>. 
Again,  the  proceedins;  nf  the  Holy  Spirit  from  the 
Father,  which  is  spoken  of,  .lohn  xv.  2G,  denotes 
merely  his  heinj  sent  and  commissioned,  and  by 
no  means  his  divine  nature  and  internal  relation 
to  the  Father  ami  the  Son.  Vide  s.  39,  IL  1  ; 
and  Morns,  p.  ti7,  note. 

Thirdli/.  With  regard  to  the  Holy  Spirit  more 
particularly,  we  may  remark,  that  during  the 
first  three  centuries  of  the  ('hristian  era  there 
was  iKilhinir  decided  by  ecclesiastical  authority 
respectincT  his  nature,  ilie  characteristics  "t  his 
person,  or  his  relation  to  the  Father  and  the  Son. 
The  learned  men  of  this  period,  the-efore,  beinj 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


Wf 


hh  unshackled  by  authority,  indulijed  them- 
Be'v.;s  freely  in  philosophizing^  upon  this  subject, 
and  adopted  very  different  theories;  as  we  find 
in  the  \vrilin<rs  of  Justin  the  Martyr,  Origen,  and 
others.  Cf.  s.  42.  Nor  was  anything  more 
definite  with  regard  to  his  nature  and  his  rela- 
tion to  the  other  persons  of  the  Trinity  than  what 
has  already  been  stated,  established  by  the 
council  at  Nice,  or  even  by  that  at  Constantino- 
ple. To  believe  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  ai'v 
Z^'^ai  xai  T19  avi^TtpodxvvovjXfvov,  and  ix  rov 
liar p 05  ixnopsvofitvov,  was  all  that  was 
required  in  the  symbol  there  adopted.  It  was 
not  long,  however,  before  dissension  arose  with 
regard  to  the  latter  phrase  between  the  Greek 
and  Latin  church.  The  Greek  fathers  adhered 
for  the  most  part  to  this  formula,  without  going 
into  any  more  minute  distinctions;  so  Basilius, 
Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  and 
others  ;  though  Epiphanius  added  to  the  formula, 
tx  rov  nttr|)65  ixnopfvouivov,  the  explanatory 
clause,  ix  rov  Tiov  >.a^,3ai'0)',  according  to  Joiin, 
xvi.  15;  and  John  of  Damascus,  in  the  eighth 
century,  represented  that  the  Spirit  did  not  pro- 
ceed from  the  Son,  but  from  the  Father  through 
the  Son — a  representation  which  had  before  been 
made  by  Novatian,  (^Spiritiim  Sandum  a  Futre 
per  Filium  procedere,)  and  which  undoubtedly 
was  derived  from  John,  xv.  20,  I  will  send  you 
the  Comforter  from  the  Father.  With  this  modi- 
fication the  formula  adopted  by  the  Council  at 
Constantinople,  and  appended  to  the  Nicene 
symbol,  was  retained  in  the  Greek  church.  But 
there  were  many,  especially  in  the  Latin  church, 
who  maintained  that  the  Holy  Spirit  did  not 
proceed  from  the  Father  only,  but  also  from  the 
Son.  They  appealed  to  John,  xvi.  13,  and  to 
the  texts  where  the  Holy  Spirit  is  called  the 
Spirit  of  Christ — e.  g.,  Rom.  viii.  9,  seq.  To 
this  doctrine  the  Greeks  were  for  the  most  part 
opposed,  because  they  did  not  find  that  the  Spirit 
was  ever  expressly  said  in  the  New  Testament 
to  proceed  from  the  Son.  It  prevailed,  however, 
more  and  more  in  the  Latin  church;  and  when, 
in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  the  Arians,  who 
then  prevailed  very  much  in  Spain,  urged  it  as 
an  arjfument  against  the  equality  of  Christ  with 
the  Faiher,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeded  from 
the  Faiher  only,  and  not  from  the  Son,  the  ca- 
tholic churches  of  that  region  began  to  hold  more 
decidedly  that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeded /ro7?i 
both,  (^ab  utroque,')  and  to  insert  the  adjunct  Fi- 
lioquc  after  Fatre  in  the  Symbolum  Sicirnn-Con- 
ataniinopolitanum.  In  this  the  churches  of  Spain 
were  followed,  first  by  those  of  France,  and  at  a 
later  period  by  nearly  all  the  Western  churches. 
B\itas  the  Eastern  church  still  adhered  substan- 
tially to  the  more  ancient  formula,  it  accused  the 
Western  church  of  falsifyinij  the  Nicene  sym- 
bol ;  and  thus  at  different  periods,  ami  especially 
in  the  seventh  and  ninth  centuries,  violent  con- 


troversies arose  between  them>  The  true  causes 
of  these  unhappy  dissensions  were,  howevei. 
very  different  from  those  which  were  alleged, 
and  we  have  reason  to  suspect  that  they  were 
less  animated  by  zeal  for  the  truth  than  by  the 
mutual  jealousies  of  the  Roman  and  Byzantine 
bishops.  But  to  whatever  cause  they  are  to  be 
ascribed,  these  disputes  terminated  in  the  ele- 
venth century  in  that  entire  separation  ui  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches'which  continues 
to  the  present  time.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  G7,  s.  11, 
note.  Walch,  Historia  Controversial  Gra;corum 
Latinorumque  de  processione  Spiritus  Sancti; 
Jena;,  1751,  8vo.  Ziegler,  Geschichtsentwicke- 
lung  des  Dogma  vom  heiligen  Geist,  th.  i. 
Num.  2  of  his  "Theologische  Abhandlungen," 
where  he  gives  an  historical  account  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Holy  Spirit  from  the  time  of  Justin 
the  Martyr.  Cf.  especially  s.  204,  ff.  of  this 
essay.  [Respecting  the  controversy  in  the 
Eastern  and  Western  church  concerning  the 
Holy  Spirit,  cf.  also  Neander,  b.  ii.  Abth.  2,  s. 
891 ;  and  Hahn,  Lehrbuch,  &c.,  s.  247,  s.  57.] 
Note. — Since  these  ecclesiastical  terms  dc  cha- 
raeteribus  personalibus  internis  have  now  become 
common,  they  cannot  be  entirely  omitted  in  the 
religious  instruction  of  the  people.  Let  the  doc- 
trine, therefore,  (according  to  the  advice  of 
Morus,  p.  C4,  No.  2,  and  p.  07,  Note  extr.)  be 
first  expressed  plainly  and  scripiurally  thus: 
The  .Son  is  equal  to  tiie  Father,  and  has  the  same 
nature  with  him  ;  but  has  this  from  eternity 
through  the  Father.  It  may  then  be  remarked, 
that  this  doctrine  is  briei^y  expressed  by  the 
words,  the  Son  is  genci'ated  by  the  Father.  Re- 
specting the  Holy  Spirit,  let  it  be  said,  That  he 
is  equal  to  the  Father  and  Son,  and  possesses 
the  same  nature  with  them;  and  it  may  then  be 
added,  that  this  is  commonly  expressed  by  the 
V,' oris,  he  proceeds  from  the  Father  arid  from  the 
Son. 

2.  External,  characteres  exierni.  INIorns,  p. 
68.  Note  3.  These  are  characieristics  of  the 
persons  of  the  Trinity  arising  from  the  ivor/is  o( 
the  Deity  relating  to  objects  extrinsic  to  itself, 
and  called  opera  externa,  sive,  ad  extra.  They 
are  twofold  : 

(fl)  Opt^ra  Dei  acconomica,  those  institutions 
which  God  has  founded  for  the  salvation  of  the 
human  race.  They  are  tlie  following: — The 
Father  sent  the  Son  to  redeem  men,  John,  iii. 
Ifi,  17.  He  also  gives  or  sends  the  Holy  Spirit, 
John,  xiv.  26.  The  Son  is  sent  from  the  Father 
to  accomplish  the  work  of  redemption,  and  sends 
the  Hf'ly  Spirit  from  the  Father,  John,  xv.  26. 
The  Holy  Spirit  formed  the  human  nature  of 
Christ,  Luke,  i.  35,  and  anointed  it,  (unxit.  Acts, 
X.  38.)  i.  e.,  endowed  it  with  gifts;  and  is  sent 
into  the  hearts  of  tnen,  and  carries  them  forward 
I  towards  moral  perfection. 

I       (6)  Opera  Dei  attribuliva,  such  divine  workt 
O 


158 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


as  are  common  to  the  three  persons,  and  are 
sometimes  predicated  of  them  all;  but  which 
still  are  frequently  ascribed  {aftrihutive)  to  one 
of  the  three.  Theoloofians,  therefore,  have  the 
rule,  Opera  ad  extra  (^atfributira'^,  trihtis  persnru's 
tuut  cominunia.  To  the  Father  is  ascribed  the 
decree  to  create  the  world,  the  actual  creation, 
and  the  preservation  of  it.  To  the  Son  also,  the 
creation,  preservation,  and  government  of  the 
world  is  ascribed;  also  the  raisinjj  of  the  dead 
and  siltinn^  in  judgment.  To  the  Holy  Spirit  is 
ascribed  the  immediate  revelation  of  the  divine 
will  to  the  prophets,  the  continuation  of  the 
great  work  of  salvation  commenced  by  Christ, 
and  the  communication  and  application  to  men 
of  the  means  of  grace.  [Cf.  Hahn,  Lehrbuch, 
s.  238.] 

SECTION  XLIV. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  DOCTRINE    OF  THE  TRINITY 
SINCE  THE  TIME  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

If  we  consider  how  ohseure  and  full  of  diffi- 
culties the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  must  have 
been,  as  commonly  taught  after  the  Nicene 
Council,  we  shall  not  wonder,  that  when,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  spirit  of  inquiry  and  spe- 
culation revived  in  the  West,  many  attempts 
should  have  been  made  to  illustrate  and  explain 
the  prevailing  theory,  to  rectify  its  mistakes,  or 
wholly  to  abandon  it  for  another  more  rational 
and  scriptural.  Many  of  the  writers,  whose  in- 
tention it  was  to  explain  and  vindicate  the  an- 
cient theory  adopted  at  the  Council  of  Nice, 
unconsciously  deviated  from  it,  and  thus  placed 
themselves  in  the  ranks  of  the  heretics.  None, 
however,  of  the  very  numerous  attempts  which 
have  been  made  since  the  sixteenth  century  to 
illustrate  this  doctrine,  and  vindicate  it  against 
the  objections  of  reason,  can  lay  claim  to  entire 
originality.  The  germ,  at  least,  of  many  mo- 
dern hypotheses  may  he  found  in  the  writings 
which  beJong  to  the  period  between  the  second 
and  fourth  centuries;  and  after  all  the  inquiries 
then  made,  and  the  theories  then  published,  it 
is  not  probable  that  much  remains  to  be  said. 
Nearly  all,  thprefore,  of  those  who  have  written 
on  this  subjpct  since  the  Reformation,  belong  to 
some  one  of  the  general  classes  which  have  been 
before  mentioned  ;  though  it  needs  to  be  re- 
marked, that  those  who  bear  a  common  name 
often  belong  to  very  difTerent  classes.  This 
was  the  case  with  those  who  spread  from  Italy 
in  such  numberB  in  tlie  sixteenth  century,  under 
the  grnf'ral  name  of  I'^nilnrinna. 

I.  Some  have  attempted  to  illustrate  and  ex- 
plain this  doctrine  by  philosophy;  and  nota  few 
have  gone  so  fa'  an  to  think  that  ihej'  could 
prove  thfi  Trinitr  a  priori^  and  that  reason  alone 
fvrnishe?  sufficient  arguments  for  its  truth; 
th  >agh  others  of  this  class  have  looked  to  reason 


for  nothintr  more  than  an  iUushaiion  of  this  fac* 
with  regard  to  the  divine  existence,  for  the  know 
ledge  of  which  they  believed  man  indebted  to 
revelation  alone.  In  the  latter  class  we  may 
place  Philip  .Melancthon,  who,  in  his  "  Looi 
Theologiei,"  explained  the  Trinity  in  the  fol- 
lowing somewhat  Platonic  manner: — God,  from 
his  infinite  understanding,  produces  thoui^ht, 
which  is  the  image  of  himself.  Our  minds,  too, 
produce  thoughts,  which  are  the  images  of 
things;  but  we  are  not  able  to  impart /)frso««» 
existence  to  our  thoughts;  to  his  thought,  how- 
exer,  God  can  do  this;  and  this  his  thought 
bears  the  impress  of  the  Father,  is  his  likeness 
and  resemblance,  and  is  hence  called  by  .John, 
Xoyoj.  This  illustration  of  the  Trinity  was  re- 
received  without  offence  or  suspicion,  until  the 
heresy  which  lurks  beneath  it  was  detected  and 
exposed  by  Flacius.  In  connexion  with  this 
illustration,  we  may  mention  those  drawn  from 
nature.  Many  such  are  found  in  the  writings 
of  the  fathers.  Take,  for  example,  that  of  Au- 
gustine, drawn  from  the  human  soul,  which,  he 
says,  is  one  substance,  with  thric  principal  pow- 
ers, memory,  undcrslandlns,  and  will;  respect- 
ing which  it  may  be  remarked,  that  it  is  hard  to 
see  why  many  other  powers  might  not  have  been 
named  as  well  as  these.  Vide  Scmler,  Inst,  ad 
doctrinam  Christianam,  305.  Or  take,  a5  an 
other  example,  that  illustration  of  the  Trinity 
given  at  an  earlier  period  by  Lactantius,  who 
compares  it  with  lii^ht,  which  unites  in  itself 
fire,  splcndnttr,  and  heat.  In  all  illustrations 
of  this  nature  the  fault  is,  that  the  mere  powers 
and  qualities  of  things  which  have  no  persona 
existence  are  used  to  represent  the  subsistenc* 
of  a  trinity  in  unity.  Hence  such  illustraiions 
are  more  favourable  to  the  theory  of  Sabellius 
than  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  drawn  from 
the  Bible,  and  established  at  the  Council  at  Nice. 
The  latest  attempt  to  explain  the  Trinity  in  this 
manner  may  be  found  in  the  September  number 
of  the  *'  Berliner  Monatschrift,"  for  the  year 
1700,  s.  280,  where  there  is  an  article  entitled 
"  Neues  Gleichniss  von  der  Dreyeiniirkeit, 
written  by  Schwab,  counsellor,  and  professo 
at  Stuttgard.  Space,  he  says,  cannot  be  seen 
felt,  or  recognised  by  any  of  our  senses,  and  ye 
must  be  regarded,  he  thinks,  as  something  s'.tb 
ulantial.  It  is,  indeed,  extended,  and  still  one 
'I'his  one  substance  has,  however,  three  distinct 
dimctvti'ons,  which  are  not  arbitrarily  assumed 
and  which  cannot  be  considered  merely  ?\s  parts 
or  aeridentf  of  space,  but  which  belong  essen 
tially  to  it — viz.,  Iruffth,  breadth,  am!  t/ii'cfnies! 
Some  chemists  and  theosophists  suppose  the- 
there  is,  throughout  the  whole  kingdom  of  na 
ture,  and  even  in  material  bodies,  a  threefola 
elementary  principle,  (as  to  the  nature  of  whicW 
however,  they  are  not  agreed,)  and  they  refer  to 
this  as  an  illustration  of  the  Trinity 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


If 


But,  as  we  have  said,  there  were  others  who 
supposed  that  the  Trinity  could  not  only  be 
illustrated  by  reason,  but  mathematically  proved 
ii priori.  Among  these  were  Bartholomew  Kec- 
kermanii,  who  wrote  a  "  SystemaTheoloiricum," 
Peter  Poiret,  and  Daries,  who  published  an  Es- 
say, "  in  qua  pluralitas  personarum  in  Deitate  e 
soils  rationis  principiis,  methodo  Mathemati- 
corum,  demonstratur;"  Leovardiae,  1735,  8vo. 
The  attempt  of  tliis  kind  which  deserves  most 
attention  is  that  made  by  Reusch,  a  celebrated 
theologian  and  philosopher  of  Jena,  in  his  "In- 
troduclio  in  theologiam  revelatam," — an  attempt 
which  was  regarded  by  the  late  Dr.  Gruner  as 
entirely  successful,  and  was  adopted  by  him 
substantially  in  his  "  Institutiones  theol.  dog- 
mat,"  1.  i,  c.  5.  This  demonstration  is  very 
much  as  follows: — In  the  divine  understanding 
there  are  three  acts:  (a)  God  comprehends  in 
his  understanding  the  ideas  of  all  things  which 
can  be  conceived,  and  so  far  as  he  does  this  he 
is  called  Father;  (i)  he  connects  these  ideas 
as  means  to  an  end,  and  devises  all  possible 
schemes  or  connexions  of  things  in  the  possible 
world,  and  so  far  he  is  called  Son;  (c)  from  all 
these  possible  schemes,  he  selects,  by  his  infi- 
nite wisdom,  that  which  is  best,  and  so  far  is 
called  Holy  Spirit.  These  acts  of  the  divine 
understanding,  in  each  of  which  there  must  have 
been  a  special  exercise  of  the  divine  will,  must 
be  supposed  distinct  from  each  other;  and  yet, 
being  in  God,  they  cannot  have  been  successive ; 
and,  finally,  they  must  be  regi.ded  as  personal, 
or  as  aciiis  hypostatici,  and  be  designated  by 
particular  personal  names.  But  how  this  last 
consequence  follows,  it  is  hard  to  see ;  and  where 
is  the  text  from  which  it  can  be  made  to  appear 
that  any  one  of  the  inspired  writers  connected 
any  such  ideas  with  the  names  Father,  Son,  and 
Spirit  ■?  Another  metaphysical  demonstration 
has  been  proposed  by  Dr.  Cludius,  in  his  inau- 
gural disputation,  Philosophica  expositio  et  de- 
fensio  dogmatis  orthodoxi  de  Trinitate;  Gottin- 
gae,  1788. 

2.  There  have  also  been  some  in  modern  tiines 
who  have  expressed  themselves  so  boldly  on  the 
subject  of  the  Trinity  that  they  have  seemed  to 
approximate  towards  tritheism,  like  those  whom 
we  have  already  mentioned  in  the  sixth  century. 
V^ide  s.  43,  I.  ad  finem.  To  pass  by  those  who 
have  merely  been  unguarded  in  the  manner  in 
which  they  have  defended  and  interpreted  the 
Athanasian  theory,  we  may  mention  in  this  class, 
Matthew  Gribaldus,  a  Jurist  of  Padua,  who  flou- 
rished in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  was  for 
some  time  professor  at  Tubingen.  He  main- 
tained that  the  divine  nature  consisted  of  three 
equally  eternal  spirits,  between  whom,  however, 
he  aomitted  a  distinction  in  respect  to  rank  and 
perfections.  [H^nry  Nicolai,  William  Sher- 
If/clw,  and  Pierre  P'aydil,  belong  to  this  class.] 


3.  Other  modern  writers  have  inclined  to 
adopt  the  Sabellian  theory  as  the  ground  of  their 
vie%vs  on  the  Trinity.  Among  these  is  Michael 
Serveto,  or  Servetus,  a  native  of  Spain  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  who  published  his  views  in 
seven  books,  "  De  trinitatis  erroribus,"  and  in 
his  Dialogues,  "De  Trinitate."  He  taught  that 
there  is  one  God,  who,  however,  has  made  known 
his  will  to  men  in  two  pcrsonales  representationes 
— i.  e.,  personal,  or  personified  modes  of  reve- 
lation, called  Aoyoj  and  ITrf  vua  ayiov.  Yox  these 
opinions  he  was  brought  to  the  stake  by  Calvin, 
at  Geneva,  1553.  Vide  Mosheim,  Leben  Ser- 
vet's;  Helmstadt,  1748,  8vo,  republished  with 
additions  at  the  same  place,  1750.  The  repre- 
sentation of  the  Trinity  which  Grotius  gives  in 
his  "Silva;  Sacra;"  leans  towards  Sabellianism, 
and  agrees  substantially  with  the  theory  ad- 
vanced by  Stephen  Nye,  an  Englishman,  in  his 
"  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  ;"  London,  1701. 
God,  he  said,  is  a  being  who  knew  and  loved 
himself  from  eternity;  and  his  understanding  is 
the  Son,  and  his  affection  the  Holy  Spirit.  [For 
a  more  full  statement  of  this  supposed  demon- 
stration of  the  Trinity,  vide  Lessing,  Das  Chris- 
tenthum  und  die  Vernunft;  Berlin,  1784,  9vo. 
INIich.  Sailer,  Theorie  des  weisen ;  Spottes 
1781,  8vo.  INIarheinecke,  Grundlehren  de 
Christ.  Dogmatik,  s.  129,  370,  seq. ;  Berlin, 
1819.     Leibnitz,  Defensio  logica  Trinitatis.] 

In  this  class  we  rnustplnce  the  hypothesis  of 
Le  Clerc,  who  supposes  that  the  terms  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  designate  the  difl'erent 
modifications  of  the  divine  understanding,  c.nd 
the  plans  which  God  forms.  God  is  called  the 
Father,  so  far  as  his  understanding  comprehends 
all  things  and  surveys  them  at  once ;  Son  and 
Holy  Spirit,  so  far  as  he  produces  and  executes 
a  particular  thought.  Of  the  same  nature  is  the 
view  of  the  Trinity  which  Dr.  Loffler  has  ap- 
pended to  his  translation  of  Souvernin.  In  God, 
he  says,  according  to  the  New  Testament,  there 
is  but  one  subjid  ;  the  Logos  and  Spirit  are  his 
attributes,  powers,  relations,  or  modes  of  opera- 
tion, and  the  term.  Son  of  God,  so  fur  as  it  de« 
notes  a  personal  subject,  is  applicable  only  to 
the  man  Jesus.  Among  the  Arminians,  and 
even  among  the  Puritans  of  England,  there  hare 
always  been  many  who  have  inclined  towards 
Sabellianism.  [This  is  the  error  into  which 
Weigel  and  Jacob  Boehmen  fell,  and  which  has 
always  proved  more  seductive  than  any  other  to 
mystics  and  pietists,  and  persons  who  ha/e 
mingled  feeling  and  imagination  with  philoso- 
phical investigation.  In  this  divergency  from 
the  established  creed  of  the  church,  by  far  a 
greater  proportion  of  the  moJprn  theologians 
and  philosophers  of  Germany  are  found  than  in 
the  Arian  heresy,  which  was  formerly  so  m'lch 
more  prevalent.  They  have  so  explained  tho 
Trinity  as  to  lose  the  idea  cf  three  divine  person* 


160 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


In  the  godhead,  for  which  they  have  substituted 
either  three  distinct  powers  or  attributes,  (as 
Meier,  Seiler,  Cludius,  and  ToMner,)  or  a  three- 
fold (lirency  in  God — three  eternal  actions  dis- 
tinct from  each  other,  as  S.  G.  Schlegel,  Kant, 
Tieftrunk,  Daub,  Schelling,  De  Wette,  and 
Fessler.  Among  these  Sabeilian  hypotheses, 
the  one  which  is  less  devious  from  scriptural 
truth,  and  wiiich  is  defended  with  the  most  so- 
ber argument,  is  that  of  Schleiermacher,  who 
supposes  that  the  established  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  is  a  proposition  which  connects  what 
we  are  taught  in  tlie  scripture  as  to  the  three- 
fold mode  of  the  divine  existence — viz.,  the 
being  of  God  in  himself,  absolutely  considered  ; 
his  being  in  Christ(the  Son,)  and  his  being  in 
the  Christian  church  (the  Spirit.)  To  this  view 
Neandor  appears  inclined,  from  his  general  re- 
marks pipfixed  to  his  history  of  this  doctrine, 
and  also  Tholuck,  from  various  passages  >.i  his 
Comme>itary  on  John.  For  a  more  full  state- 
ment of  these  modern  Sabeilian  hypotheses,  cf. 
Hahn,  s.  57,  Anm.  3,  a.;  and  s.  58,  Anm. 
2,  /. ;  Bretschneider,  Handbuch,  b.  i.  s.  68, 
82.— Tr.] 

4.  The  Arian  theory  (which,  however,  we 
have  shewn,  s.  43,  to  be  in  every  important  re- 
spect older  than  Arius)  has  also  found  advocates 
among  protestant  theologians,  especially  tliose 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  Some,  especially  in 
England,  embraced  and  zealously  defended  the 
entire  system  of  the  high  Arians  of  former  times 
— e.  g.,  Whiston,  Harvvood,  and  even  Wetstein. 
But  the  system  which  has  met  with  the  most 
approbation  is  that  more  refined  subordinationism 
taught  by  Sam.  Clark,  in  his  "  Scripture  Doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  ;"  London,  171'2;  whicli  was 
translated  into  German,  and  published  with  a 
preface  by  Semler,  Leipzig,  1771.  Vide  Morus, 
p.  f)9,  s.  15,  note  1.  It  had  not  a  few  advocates 
among  the  English,  especially  of  the  presbyte- 
rian  order,  and  among  the  Armenian  tlieolo- 
gians  of  Holland,  as  well  as  amonsf  protestants 
elsewhere.  The  names  of  Whitby,  Benson, 
and  (Priestley  1)  are  found  on  the  list  of  its  de- 
fenders in  England.  This  theory  is  as  fol- 
lows:— God  is  the  author  of  all  things.  With 
him  existed  from  the  beginning  (so  indefinite 
is  the  statement  of  Clark)  the  Logos  and  the 
Spirit,  both  as  personal  subjects.  What  their 
real  internal  nature  and  connexion  is  cannot 
indeed  be  known,  but  so  much  the  scrip- 
ture reveals,  that  the  Father  alone  is  self-ex- 
istent avToovjtoj)  and  the  source  and  author 
of  all  the  works  and  agency  of  the  Son  and 
Holy  Spirit.  IIoju  the  Son  receivi'd  his  be- 
ing before  the  creation  of  the  world  cannot  be 
determined;  but  he  has  in  fact  received,  com- 
municated to  him  from  the  Father,  all  the  com- 
municable divine  perfections.     He  is  not  to  be 


regarded  as  himself  the  creator  of  the  world,  but 
was  employed  by  the  Father  as  his  organ  ia 
this  work.  Tiiough  subordinate  to  the  Father, 
he  yet  claims  from  us  divi.ie  honour.  The 
Holy  Spirit  derives  his  origin  from  the  Father, 
is  dependent  upon  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and 
subordinate  to  them;  he  yet  has  a  nature  supe- 
rior to  that  of  angels,  and  is  intermediate,  as  it 
were,  between  them  and  the  Son.  The  subor- 
dination of  persons  taught  in  this  theory,  though 
subtile,  is  yet  so  evident  that  its  advocates  are 
justly  called  siibi)rdinattuuists.  This  mode  of 
representation  is  by  no  means  new,  and,  as  we 
have  shewn,  s.  42,  43,  was  common  in  the  se- 
cond and  third  centuries,  lorvg  before  Arius  ap- 
peared. It  resulted  naturally  from  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  of  the  Platonic  pliilosophy 
to  the  declarations  of  the  Bible.  The  hypothe- 
sis of  Paul  Maty,  a  Netherlander,  in  some  re- 
spects resembles  this.  According  to  him  there 
are  three  persons  in  the  godhead,  distinct  from 
each  other.  The  first  is  the  entire  Deity,  who 
created  and  governs'  all  things,  and  is  called  the 
Father.  This  God,  before  the  creation  of  the 
world,  produced  two  finite  beings,  with  whom 
he  entered  into  a  most  intimate  connexion,  in 
such  a  way  that  he  with  them  composes  three 
persons,  somewhat  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
divine  nature  in  Christ  is  connected  with  the 
human.  So  that  the  union  between  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  may  be  called  a  pcsoiial 
union.  According  to  this  theory,  the  only  union 
which  exists  between  the  persons  of  the  Trinity 
is  an  unio  moralis,  and  the  whole  representation 
is  very  similar  to  that  which  was  adopted  by 
the  Council  at  Antioch,  313.  But  it  wants  the 
support  of  scripture,  and  fails,  as  much  as  any 
other  theory,  of  shewing  any  ground  or  7itcc«- 
sity  for  this  union  of  persons.  'I'here  is  nothing 
in  reality  either  illustrated  or  explained  by  it. 

JS'ole. — The  real  source  of  the  Arian  hypothe- 
sis is  the  New  Platonic  philosnjjhy,  to  which 
it  can  be  traced  much  more  directly  than  to  the 
holy  scriptures.  One  strong  objection  to  this 
theory  is,  that  it  presents  to  view  n  plurality  nf 
unequal  gods,  thus  encourages  the  worstiip  of 
higher  spirits,  and  so  leads  on  to  the  most  mul- 
tiform su|)erstiti()n.  In  this  point,  as  well  as 
in  others,  the  doctrine  of  tlie  numerical  unity  o( 
the  divine  nature  has  greatly  the  advantage  over 
Arianism. 

5.  Still  another  class  of  modern  sectarians 
remains  to  be  mentioned — the  Soeinians,  some- 
times called  P/mtiniiins,  beca'  se  they  agree  in 
tlie  main  with  I'hotinus,  who  flourished  in  the 
fourth  century,  and  whose  scheme  was  noticed, 
8.  43.  The  founders  of  this  sect  were  La;lius 
Socinus  and  his  nephew  Faustus  Socinus,  both 
of  whom  fl'iurished  in  the  eixleenth  century. 
They  maintaini'd  that  the  Ni.ene  theory  loadl 


DIVINE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES. 


IGl 


0  triiheism,  and  on  account  of  the  uncommon 
ourity  in  which  they  supposed  themselves  to 
hold  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  unity,  called 
themselves  Unitarians.  They  brought  over  con- 
siderable numbers  to  their  doctrine  in  Poland 
and  Transylvania,  whom  they  formed  into  sepa- 
rate societies ;  and  since  their  death  their  sys- 
tem has  prevailed  to  some  extent  both  in  Eng- 
land and  Germany.  The  Socinian  theory  is 
briefy  as  follows: — ^The  Father  is  the  only  true 
God.  Chr' 5t  is  the  son  of  Mary,  and  a  man 
like  ourselves,  though  produced  by  a  miracu- 
lous divine  influence.  When,  therefore,  he  is 
called  God,  it  cannot  be  in  the  same  sense  in 
which  the  Father  is  so  called.  He  was  endow- 
ed by  God  with  very  unusual  gifts  and  qualifi- 
cations, and  after  his  ascension  to  heaven  was 
promoted  above  all  other  created  beings,  and 
exalted  to  divine  honour.  The  Holy  Ghost  is 
not  a  person,  but  merely  an  attribute  of  God,  or 
a  mode  of  divine  operation.  On  the  question, 
whether  divine  tvorship  should  be  paid  to  Christ, 
they  were  not  themselves  agreed  ;  and  although 
most  of  them  answered  in  the  affirmative,  it  was 
not  without  dissent  from  others  of  their  number. 
With  regard  to  this  theory,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  it  stands  in  direct  opposition  to  the  most 
express  declarations  of  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  especially  of  John  and  Paul, 
much  of  whose  writings  cannot  be  reconciled 
with  it  without  great  violence.  Nor  is  it  at  all 
more  capable  of  being  reconciled  with  sound 
philosopiiy,  which  rejects  at  once  the  idea  of  a 
deified  man — a  deus  fact i tins. 

6.  A  new  theory  on  the  Trinity  was  proposed 
by  Dr.  Urlsperger,  in  a  number  of  essays,  the 
views  of  which  were  condensed  by  himself  into 
a  work  entitled,  "  Kurzgefasstes  System  seines 
Vortrags  von  Gotles  Dreyeinigkeit,"  published 
at  Augsburg,  where  he  was  then  pastor,  1777, 
8vo.  His  theory  bears  a  general  resemblance 
to  that  of  Marcellus  of  Ancyra,  and,  like  that, 
was  condemned  by  many  as  favouring  Sabel- 
lianism.  In  this,  however,  they  were  manifestly 
unjust;  since  his  object  was  to  unite  the  three 
principal  ancient  theories — the  Arian,  Sabellian, 
and  Nicene,  making  tiie  latter  the  foundation  of 
his  system.  He  endeavoured  to  effect  this  com- 
bination by  making  a  distinction  between  tri- 
niias  esscntialis,  the  internal  threefold  distinction 
necessarily  belonging  to  the  divine  nature;  and 
trinitas  aconontica,  the  three  persons  revealed  to 
us  in  the  work  of  redemption.  But  this  theory 
derives  no  support  from  the  scriptures.  Vide 
Revision  dcr  deutsch.  Lit.  Ite  St.  for  the  year 
1776.  [Cf.  Bretschneider,  Handbuch,  b.  i.  s. 
474.] 

Concluding  Remarlis. 

From  all  that  has  now  been  said,  the  conclu- 
21 


sion  is  ODvious,  that  while  we  are  taught  hy  ih^ 
scriptures  to  believe  in  three  equal  subjects  in  the 
godhead,  who  are  described  as  persons,  we  are  still 
unable,  after  all  thai  has  been  done  by  theologians 
and  interpreters,  to  deternmie  IN  what  manner 
or  IN  WHAT  SENSE  thcsc  three  have  the  divine  na- 
ture So  in  common  that  there  is  only  one  God. 
Vide  s.  33.  It  must  therefore  be  unwise  for  the 
religious  teacher  to  enlarge  in  his  public  instruc- 
tions upon  those  points  where  the  scriptures  are 
silent;  and  he  will  do  well  to  confine  himself  to 
what  is  clearly  taught  in  the  Bible,  ^nd  has  a 
practical  influence  upon  the  feelings  and  con- 
duct; for  this  doctrine  was  not  given  us  to  em- 
ploy our  understanding  in  speculating  upon  it, 
but  to  encourage  our  hearts  by  the  disclosures 
which  it  makes  of  the  Divine  Being,  to  incite 
us  to  a  grateful  remembrance  of  the  benefits 
which  the  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit  bestow  upon 
us,  and  to  lead  us  to  avail  ourselves  of  these 
benefits.  Instead,  then,  of  perplexing  his  hear- 
ers with  learned  speculations,  let  the  minister 
of  the  gospel  content  hin)self  with  teaching  the 
doctrine  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  as 
represented  in  the  holy  scriptures,  describing 
them  as  three  distinct  subjects,  designating  the 
distinction  between  them  by  the  word  person,. 
shewing  that  to  three,  and  to  one  as  much  as 
another,  divinity  and  equal  divine  perfections 
belong,  while  still  there  is  only  one  God  ;  and 
especially  insisting  upon  the  benefits  which 
these  persons  confer  upon  men,  the  opera 
ad  extra  which  we  mentioned  in  the  last  sec- 
tion. 

As  Christians,  we  should  repose  our  confi- 
dence in  the  Father,  as  the  author  and  giver  of 
all  good,  and  especially  as  the  author  of  salva- 
tion. He  bestows  this  good  and  these  blessings 
upon  us  (fl.)  through  the  Son,  to  whom  we  are- 
indebted  for  making  known  the  way  of  salvation 
for  the  remission  of  sins,  on  condition  of  faith 
in  his  sufferings  and  death,  and  for  eternal  bless- 
edness; and  (6)  through  the  Holy  Spirit,  who- 
continues  the  great  work  of  enlightening  and 
saving  men,  which  Christ  began,  and  who,  in 
the  use  of  appointed  means,  carries  us  forward 
from  one  stage  to  another  of  moral  improvement. 
If  such  is  the  light  in  which  we  regard  this  doc- 
trine, (and  such  is  the  light  in  which  it  is  pre- 
sented in  the  scriptures,)  we  then  yield  the. 
Father,  Son,  and  Spirit  the  religious  worship' 
ret|uired,  and  receive  the  favours  which  they  be- 
stow as  divine  favours,  for  which  we  are  indebt- 
ed to  none  but  God  himself.  Whatever  more 
than  this  it  may  be  necessary  for  others  to  know 
with  regard  to  this  doctrine,  the  Christian,  aS' 
such,  needs  to  know  nothing  more;  he  can  dis- 
pense with  the  learned  subtleties  with  which 
many  are  chiefly  employed.  He  does  not  wish. 
to  know  this  truth,  merely  for  its  own  sake,  lut 
o3 


k^ 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


for  that  higher  end  for  which  all  religious  know- 
ledge should  be  sought — viz.,  that  he  may  con- 
form in  feeling  and  practice  to  the  truth  which 
in  known.     When  this  is  the  case  with  Chris- 


tians, and  not  till  then,  t^p  great  dccfrines  of  •*- 
ligion  will  oxert  their  proper  influence  npim  tb« 
heart  and  the  life.  Viue  Morus,  p.  70,  s.  14; 
and  Griesbach,  Praktische  Dogmalik,  s.  62. 


PART  II.-THE  WORKS  OF  GOD. 


ARTICLE  V. 

OF  THE  CREATION  OF  THE  WORLD. 

SECTION  XLV. 

or  THE    MEANINQ   OF  THE    WOKD  "WORLD,"  AND 
OF  SVNONYMOL'S   WORDS. 

HE  attentive  study  and  con- 
templation of  the  visible 
world  leads  us  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  Divine  Being 
and  of  his  glorious  attri- 
butes. Paul  well  says, 
Rom.  i.  20,  that  the  attri- 
llV's  ^^^^^  °^  God,  which  are  in  themselves 
fTi '  invisible,  are  brought  within  the  sight 
" '  '  and  cognizance  of  man  since  the  world 
has  been  created.  The  Bible  accord- 
K-  ingly  earnestly  recommends  this  source 
of  divine  knowledge,  (vide  Ps.  viii.  1;  xix. 
1 — 6,  coll.  s.  15;)  and  it  should  therefore  be 
ranked  among  the  first  and  most  essential 
parts  of  religious  instruction.  The  practical 
import  of  this  doctrine  is  exhibited  by  Morus, 
p.  74,  s.  4,  5.  The  first  of  these  works  of  God 
is  the  creation  of  the  world ;  and  to  the  consi- 
deration of  this  we  shall  now  proceed. 

Meaning  oftlie  word  "  World,"  and  of  other 
Synonymous  Words. 

World,  in  the  strict,  philosophical  sense, 
means  evcry/hina;  extrinsic  to  God — the  animate 
and  inanimate,  rational  and  irrational  creation. 
Rude  and  uncultivated  nations  do  not  commonly 
have  any  idea  of  a  world ;  certainly  they  do  not 
concern  themselves  with  the  question  how  it 
originated,  or  perhaps  believe  that  only  particu- 
lar parts  of  it  were  created.  The  Calfres  have 
no  idea  of  a  creation  ,•  they  believe  that  the  world 
always  existed,  and  will  always  continue  as  it 
is.  Vide  Le  Vaillant,  Reise  ins  Innere  Afrika's, 
B.  3G5,  translated  by  Forster,  in  his  "  IMagazin 
von  merkwurdigen  neuen  Reisebeschreibun- 
gen,"  th.  ii.  But  when  the  first  early  inquirers 
into  nature  atUiinrd  to  the  priiicii)Io  that  every- 
thing which  exists  must  have  a  beginning,  they 
unconsciously  fell  into  the  belief  that  chance  or 
mettsaiiy  was  the  cause  of  all  things.     Vide  Mei- 


ners,  Historia  doctrinse  de  vero  Deo,  p.  i.  It 
was  only  by  slow  degrees  that  they  proceeded 
to  those  higher  inquiries  which  are  indicated  in 
s.  46.  Their  gradual  progress  in  the  knowledge 
of  this  subject  is  strikingly  exhibited  in  the 
terms  which  at  different  periods  they  employed 
to  designate  the  general  notion  they  had  of  the 
I  world  ;  on  these  terms,  therefore,  we  shall  offer 
a  few  remarks. 

1.  When  men  first  began  to  reflfct  upon  the 
objects  which  surrounded  them,  they  naturally 
divided  the  whole  universe  into  two  great  yor- 
tions — viz.,  the  earth,  upon  which  they  dwelt, 
and  the  heavens,  which  they  saw  above  them. 
Accordingly,  we  find  that  in  most  of  the  ancient 
languages  the  general  notion  of  the  universe  is 
expressed  by  the  simple  and  original  phrase,  th^t 
heavens  and  earth.  So  we  find  it  frequently 
among  the  Hebrews.  Gen.  i.  1  ;  ii.  1  ;  Psalm 
cxv.  15.  The  nations  who  inhabited  the  sea- 
coasts,  and  beheld  the  boundless  expanse  of  the 
ocean,  frequently  divided  the  universf  into  three 
portions — heaven,  earth,  and  sea.  So  too  the  He- 
brews, Ps.  cxlvi.  6;  Acts,  xvii.  21.  This  was 
the  most  ancient  mode  of  describing  the  universe 
even  among  the  Greeks.  Homer  conceived  of 
the  universe  as  divided  into  these  three  por- 
tions— heaven,  earth,  and  sea.  Odvi?.  i.  52 — Hi, 
coll.  II.  XV.  lt^9,  seq.  This  ancient  phraseology 
is  the  ground  of  Aristotle's  definition  of  the 
world,  KoTuoj  firl  ivirrua  i^  otyoioiJ  xai  y^j, 
xat,  tUv  if  roi'toii  :<(pt(xojj.fvciv  J>v(Tfi.-i',  De  Mun- 
do,  c.  1. 

2.  But  in  process  of  time  other  terms  were 
introduced  into  the  various  languages,  by  which 
this  idea  was  expressed  more  briefly  and  dis- 
tinctly. These  terms  were  derived  fnm  various 
sources;  most  of  them  from  certain  obvious  at- 
tributes, whether  perfections  or  imperfections, 
of  the  world.  The  following  may  be  here  stated 
as  those  best  known; — 

(rt)  The  Hebrews,  Chaldflpans.  and  Syriani 
called  the  world  s'^v*  :'"'^P,  to  which  correspond 
the  aiwr,  oiiliifj,  of  the  Grecian  Jews.  Thii 
term  was  derived  from  the  duration  and  atj-e  of 
the  world.  Cf.  s.  20,  III.  No  passnge,  how 
ever,  occurs  in  the  books  written  b'furr  the  Pa 
hylonian  exile,  in  which  these  words  are  clearly 
used  in  the  sense  now  ascribed  to  them.  In 
the  earlier  books  they  stand  simply  for  the  ideaa 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


J63 


of  continuance',  dnrniion,  a^e-  The  word  ""Wi, 
which  occurs  in  Ps.  xlix.  2,  is  of  similar  origin, 
being  derived  from -i^n;  although  in  this  pas- 
saije  it  rather  means  the  earth  than  the  world. 
Vide  Anmerk  zu  Ps.  xv'i.  14,  The  word  Sn, 
on  the  contrary,  which  occurs,  Isaiah,  xxxviii. 
11,  in  the  sense  of  world,  or  earth,  is  of  exactlj' 
an  opposite  origin,  the  mutability  dinA  peri  shah  le- 
ncss  of  the  world  being  the  foundation  of  this 
appellation,  although  some  consider  the  reading 
incorrect,  and  wish  to  substitute  i'?n.  Corres- 
ponding with  the  former  appellation  of  the 
world,  taken  from  its  long  duration,  is  the  Ger- 
man word  Welt,  or,  as  it  is  always  written  in 
the  old  books,  JVerelt,  and  in  the  Danish  Weret, 
which  is  derived  from  the  word  wdhren,  to  con- 
tinue, endure;  though,  according  to  others,  it  is 
abbreviated  from  JVerld,  and  so  derived  from 
werlen,  to  revolve,  turn  round,  the  earth  being 
considered  as  an  oval  surface.  On  the  latter 
supposition  this  term  would  resemble  the  Latin 
ORBis  f.erraruni,  and  the  English  ivorld. 

(i)  From  the  beautiful  and  wonderful  order 
and  arran-gement  of  all  parts  of  the  world,  the 
Greeks  called  it  o  xdrjuoi,  and  the  Latins,  mun- 
dus,  which  is  a  mere  translation  of  the  Greek 
scorj/ioj.  This  term,  however,  does  not  occur  in 
Homer;  nor  indeed  is  the  notion  of  world  ever 
expressed  by  a  single  word  either  in  Homer  or 
Moses.  The  word  xotuoj  was  employed  by  the 
oldest  Grecian  writers,  to  denote  merely  the 
starry  firmament,  from  its  beauty  and  splendour. 
And  in  a  similar  limitation  the  word  mundus 
was  frequently  used  by  Lucretius  and  other 
Latin  poets,  and  even  by  Seneca.  Afterwards 
the  Sophists — i.  e.,  the  learned,  or  the  philoso- 
phers, began  to  apply  this  word  to  the  whole 
universe,  as  was  the  case  with  Socrates  as  cited 
by  Xenophon.  When,  therefore,  Xenophon 
employs  the  term  in  this  sense,  he  is  careful  to 
say,  o  i'lti)  -tutv  ao'^i.'yri^v  xaV)v,uf  I'oj  xoofioi.  After 
his  time  it  gradually  passed  in  this  sense  into 
the  language  of  common  life.  Pythagoras  is 
usually  esteemed  the  first  who  employed  the 
term  xoouoj  to  denote  the  whole  universe.  Cf. 
Scr.  var.  arg.  p.  532,  seq.  This  word  was 
afterwards  used  in  various  other  significations 
which  occur  in  the  writings  of  the  Grecian  Jews, 
and  in  the  New  Testament.  Among  these  is 
the  sense  of  the  earth,  oixoiyht;,  ^2ri ;  and  also  of 
particular  provinces  of  it — a  meaninf  which  be- 
longs to  the  words  just  mentioned,  and  to  the 
Latin  orhis  terrarum.  Ko^uoj  was  also  used  in 
the  sense  of  the  world  of  men,  the  whole  human 
race,  and  then,  the  wicked  as  a  whole,  the  heathen. 
By  Christian  writers  it  was  sometimes  used  to 
denote  the  Jewish  world.  Finally,  xot^oj  was 
ased  to  denote  visible,  perishable,  earthly  things 
and  possessions,  (res  tcrremc,  externse,  ad  corptts 
peritnentes,)  in  opposition  to  things  invisible, 
heavenly,  and  divine. 


(c)  Metaphorical  appellations  of  the  world, 
like  those  of  the  Greeks  and  Latins,  occur  also 
among  the  Jews.  The  Hebrews  called  the  stars 
the  host,  N3X,  host  of  heaven,  host  (f  God,  Jiidapg, 
v.  20.  But  afterwards  they  called  all  created 
things  the  host  of  God.  which  they  represented 
as  standing  in  his  service  and  accomplishinar  his 
will,  Ps.  ciii.  21,  coll.  ver.  20,  22 ;  also  Gen.  ii. 
I.  The  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  all  the  host  (f 
them,  CN3X  Ssi.  Hence  the  supreme  God  is  call- 
ed piN3i-  nin%  Lord  if  hosts — i.  e.,  of  the  world. 
Cf.  s.  17.  This  term  resembles  the  xo^uoj  of 
the  Greeks,  in  that  it  was  originally  applied  to 
the  heavens  only,  and  afterwards  so  extended 
in  its  signification  as  to  embrace  all  created  ob- 
jects. 

{d)  After  the  belief  in  spirits  and  demons  be- 
came common  among  the  Israelites,  the  phrase 
■CO.  opara  xai  oopara  was  employed  to  designate 
the  sum  of  created  objects,  and  occurs  in  this 
sense,  Col.  i.  16. 

The  Greek  term,  ro  xav  {iiniversum'),  is  the 
appropriate  philosophical  appellation  of  the 
world,  and  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, except  indeed  in  the  plural,  to.  navra,. 

SECTION  XLVI. 

WHAT  WF.  MEAN  WHEN  WE  SPEAK  OF  THE  CREA- 
TION OF  THE  world;  THE  PROOF  OF  A  CREA- 
TION ;  THE  MATERIAL  FROM  WHICH  IT  WAS 
MADE  ;  WITH  A  SKETCH  OF  THE  VARIOUS  OPI- 
NIONS ENTERTAINED  ON  THIS  SUBJECT. 

I.  Definition  and  Proof  of  the  Creation  of  the  World. 

By  creation  we  understand  that  act  of  God  by 
tchich  he  gave  existence  to  the  world,  or  to  things 
exterior  to  himself;  or,  as  it  is  commonly  ex- 
pressed, by  which  he  made  the  ivorld  out  of  no- 
thing; which  last  definition  will  be  considered 
at  length  in  No.  II.  The  proof  of  the  position 
that  the  world  derives  its  existence  from  God, 
is  made  out  from  reason,  by  the  very  same  argu- 
ments by  which  we  prove  from  nature  that  there 
is  a  God;  respecting  which,  vide  s.  15.  For 
from  the  very  reason  that  the  world  could  not 
produce  itself,  we  conclude  that  there  must  be  a 
God  who  produced  it.  Vide  ubi  supra.  We 
proceed,  therefore,  to  the  more  important  inquiry 
respecting — 

II.  The  Material  from  which  the  World  was  formed, 
and  the  Various  Opinions  entertained  upon  this 
subject. 

1.  Philosophers  have  always  allowed  the  ex- 
istence of  a  first  material,  since  otherwise  they 
would  be  compelled  to  admit  a  prognssio  caus' 
sarum  in  infinitum,  which  is  not  supposable. 
But, 

2.  The  ancients  found  great  difficulty  in  ex 
plaining  the  origin  of  this  first  material.     Th« 


IM 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY, 


Grecian  philosophers  and  other  ancient  writers 

insisted  upon  the  principle,  ex  nihilo  nihil  Jit ; 
ant.'',  ciuid  not  admit,  llierefore,  that  it  was  even 
possible  for  God  to  create  the  world  out  of  no- 
thing. Accordintrly,  ihey  believed  almost  uni- 
versally in  two  eternal,  orijifinal  principles — viz., 
God,  and  self-exislent  mutter,  neither  of  which  is 
the  ground  of  the  other.  The  former  they  sup- 
posed to  be  a  rational  and  thinkinir  principle, 
and  the  author  of  all  good  ;  the  other,  irrational 
and  unintelligent,  and  the  author  of  all  evil. 

As  to  the  question,  how  the  world  arose  from 
this  pre-existing  matter,  the  opinions  of  the  an- 
cients were  very  various.  Plato  taught,  that 
God,  of  his  own  will,  united  himself  with  matter, 
and  produced  the  world  from  it;  so  that  he  could 
say  that  the  world  was  not  eternal  and  uncre- 
ated, although  matter  might  be  so.  Aristotle, 
the  peripatetic,  and  Zeno,  the  stoic,  taught  that 
this  union  of  God  with  the  world  was  necessary  ; 
and  accordingly  they  affirmed  the  eternity  of  the 
world,  (Cic.  Qu.  Acad.  iv.  38,)  although  they 
differnd  from  one  another  in  explaining  the  man- 
ner of  this  connexion.  Epicurus  separated  God 
entirely  frnin  the  world,  and  taught  that  matter 
consists  of  innumerable  small  atoms,  which  from 
eternity  had  floated  about,  like  dust  on  the  water 
or  in  the  air,  until  at  last  they  assumed  the  form 
of  the  present  world.  This  ancient  opinion  of 
the  eternity  of  matter  found  an  advocate  in  mo- 
dern times  in  Bayle,  who  was  of  opinion  that  it 
resulted  necessarily  from  the  principle,  which 
cannot  be  disputed,  ex  nihilo  nihil  fit.  But  as 
we  have  before  shewn,  s.  15,  II.,  the  doctrine, 
that  mailer  is  eternal  and  necessary,  is  the  foun- 
dation of  a  theoretical  atheism. 

If  we  follow  the  principles  of  philosophy  in 
its  present  improved  state,  or  rather,  if  we  fol- 
low the  Bible,  to  which  alone  our  modern  phi- 
losophy is  indebted  for  its  improvement,  we 
Bhall  be  unable  to  admit  the  validity  of  the 
maxim  ex  nihilo  nihil  fit,  in  opposition  to  the 
do<'trine  of  creation  from  nothing.  This  maxim 
is  indeed  incontrovertibly  true  when  applied  to 
the  causa  materialis ;  for  there  must  be  in  every 
case  a  ground — a  prima  muteria — from  which 
whatever  exists  proceeds.  But  it  is  not  true  if 
understood  of  the  causa  ejficicns,  to  which  omni- 
potence is  ascribed.  Consef|uently,  if  our  theory 
respecting  God  and  his  attributes  is  well  esta- 
blished, this  principle  ap|)lied  to  him  as  the  efii- 
cieni  cause  must  be  regardcil  as  false;  fur  if  God 
is  omnipotent,  he  can  of  course  from  nothing 
produce  something,  or  bring  into  existence  what 
did  not  exist  before.  If  he  could  not  do  this,  he 
would  not  he  omnipotent.  Moreover,  if  it  is  true 
that  matter  is  not  meessnry,  (vide  s.  Ifj.)  it  can- 
net  exist  If  itself ,  but  must  derive  its  existence 
from  (lod,  or  depend  upon  God,  who  at  first  cre- 
ated it  out  of  nothing. 

Tho  greatest  philosophers  of  antiquity  appear 


therefore  to  have  stopped  short  of  the  truth,  i.nd 
to  have  been  inconsistent,  when  they  worsliipped 
God  as  the  creator  of  the  world,  indeed,  but  not 
of  matter.  They  admitted  merely  a  crcatio  mc 
diaia,  ex  pneexistente  materia,  and  not  imme- 
diala — i.  e,,  they  did  not  believe  in  the  produc- 
tion of  matter  itself  from  nothing.  God,  with 
them,  was  merely  the  builder,  and  not  the  crt' 
atur,  of  the  world. 

The  ancient  Greeks,  as  we  perceive,  reasoned 
upon  this  subject  from  principles  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  those  which  we  at  present  adopt; 
and  not  one  of  them  ever  advanced  to  the  dis- 
tinct conception  of  a  creation  from  noihin'^.  It 
is  no  valid  objection,  however,  against  the  posi- 
tion that  God  made  matter  from  nothing,  that 
we  cannot  conceive  how  what  is  possible  should 
become  real,  through  the  mere  will  of  God;  for 
this  is  a  matter  of  which  we  have  never  had  any 
experience;  and  y*t  experience  assures  us  of  the 
reality  of  many  events,  the  manner  of  whose 
occurrence  is  incomprehensible  to  the  human 
understanding.  How  much  less,  then,  are  we 
capable  of  judging  respecting  things  of  which 
we  have  had  and  can  have  no  experience! 

The  truth,  that  everything  which  exists  was 
created  by  God  from  nothing,  is  the  uni^iiin 
doctrine  of  the  Bible — of  the  old  .Icwish  pro- 
phets, and  of  the  Christian  teachers.  In  respect 
to  tills  important  doctrine  of  religion  they  were 
far  in  advance  of  the  other  cultivated  nations  of 
antiquity,  though  confessedly  behind  them  in 
general  intellectual  improvement.  This  sublime 
truth,  which  appears  to  us  so  simple,  since  we 
have  been  taught  it,  was  unknown  to  the  an- 
cient philosophers,  long  after  it  had  been  taught 
by  the  writers  of  the  neglected  Jewish  scrip- 
tures; and  indeed  it  is  from  those  that  our  mo- 
dern philosophers  have  derived,  however  un- 
willingly, all  their  better  views  on  this  sul)ji^ct 
To  the  sacred  writers  we  owe  the  doctrine  that 
God  gave  existence  to  what  was  not.  They  do 
not,  indeed,  dwell  so  much  on  the  theoretical 
ground  of  this  truth  as  notice  its  practical  con- 
sequences; they  were,  however,  the  first  who 
established  the  position  itself.  Philosophers 
have  only  reinvestigated  the  doctrine  which 
they  established,  and  developed  the  reasons  of 
the  truth  which  they  taught. 

But  it  may  be  askerl — Is  then  the  doctrine  </« 
ereatione  ex  nihilo  really  so  important  1  is  it  not 
rather  a  doctrine  interesting  only  to  speculative 
philosophers?  To  these  questions  we  must 
answer,  that  this  doctrine  is,  on  the  contrary, 
one  of  tireat  practical  importance,  which  is  the 
reason  why  lim  holy  scriptures  so  frequently 
and  urgently  inculcate  it.  For  («)  if  matter 
was  created  by  (lod  from  nothing,  it  follows 
that  he  must  fully  understand  it  in  all  its  parts; 
he  must  have  wisely  assigned  to  everything 
its   definite   position   in   space,  and   have  pre- 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


163 


B^rveii  it  as  he  originally  created  it.  But  in 
case  he  were  not  the  creator,  but  only  the 
fonner  of  the  world,  according  to  the  opinion 
of  the  ancients,  it  would  then  be  necessary 
for  him  to  acquaint  himself  with  this  mat- 
ter, which  he  himself  had  not  produced,  and 
which  was  foreign  to  his  own  nature.  But  we 
may  confidently  affirm,  that  he  never  would  have 
become  acquainted  with  matter  if  he  had  not 
himself  made  it,  (as  even  Maiebranche  con- 
cludes;) because  he  derives  all  his  knowledge 
from  himself  alone,  and  nothing  exterior  to  him- 
self can  either  add  to  his  information,  or  in  any 
way  exert  an  influence  upon  him.  (6)  A  mere 
builder  may  leave  his  building,  when  it  is  once 
completed,  and  concern  himself  no  further  about 
it,  except  perhaps  in  certain  extraordinary  cases. 
And  considering  that  almost  all  of  the  philoso- 
phers and  religious  teachers  of  the  heathen  world 
proceeded  upon  the  notion  that  God  was  the 
former  only,  or  builder  of  the  world,  and  not  its 
creator,  it  is  not  strange  that  their  ideas  of  Pro- 
vidence were  no  more  pure  and  consonant  to  the 
divine  nature.  They  generally  believed,  either 
that  God  concerned  himself  not  at  all  with  the 
world,  or,  at  least,  that  his  providence  did  not 
extend  to  small  and  minute  affairs.  When  once 
Phaeton  had  misguided  the  chariot  of  the  sun, 
Jupiter  indeed  found  it  necessary  to  see  whether 
the  firmament  had  been  shattered  ;  but  except  in 
6uch  extraordinary  cases,  he  remained  uncon- 
cerned with  the  affairs  of  the  world,  and  every- 
thing here  below  was  supposeil  to  be  left  to  go 
on,  like  a  clock,  when  it  has  been  once  wound 
up.  Thus  it  appears,  that  the  belief  that  the  world 
was  created  from  nothing  has  an  important  in- 
fluence on  the  doctrine  concerning  providence, 
and  so  is  of  great  practical  consequence.  This 
belief  alone  excites  in  us  ideas  of  providence 
which  do  honour  to  God,  and  are  consonant  with 
his  character.  If  God  is  the  creator  of  the  world, 
we  may  be  sure  that  he  not  only  understands 
and  provides  for  the  ivknie,  but  that  his  know- 
ledge and  providence  extend  to  every  particular 
part  of  the  universe,  though  ever  so  small.  The 
schoolmen,  with  entire  truth,  called  the  pre- 
servation of  the  world  a  continued  creation.  And 
the  Bible  frequently  argues  from  the  fact  that 
God  created  all  things  in  the  universe,  that  he 
must  be  perfectly  acquainted  with  them,  and  that 
they  depend  for  their  preservation  solely  upon 
his  will.  Vide  Psa.  xciv.  8 — 1 1  ;  cxxxix.  Cf. 
Kastner,  Ueber  die  Lehre  der  Schopfung  aus 
Nichts,  und  deren  praktische  Wichtigkeit; 
Gottingen,  1770,  4to.  Heydenreich,  Progr. 
Num  ratio  humana  sua  vi,  et  sponte  continsere 
possit  noiimern  creatinnisex  nihilo]  Lips.  1790. 
He  shews  that  this  is  the  only  reasonable  opi- 
nion respeciinij  the  oriifin  of  the  world.  [Re- 
epecting  tfie  practical  importance  of  this  doc- 
trine, cf.  also,  Neander,   Allgem.   Gesch.  der 


Christ.  Rel.,  b.  i.  abth.  3,  s.  974.     Also  Hahn 
Lehrhuch,  s.  271.] 

Note. — The  phrase  itself,  to  create  from  tiO' 
thing,  does  not  occur  in  the  canonical  books  of 
the  Bible,  although  the  idea  is  scriptural.  The 
phrase  is  taken  from  2  Mace.  vii.  28;  in  th« 
Vulgate,  ex  nihilo fecit  Dens  calum  el  terram,  in 
the  Greek,  f%  oix  o^ruv.  The  phrase  ra  ur^ 
^avvofxfva,  which  occurs,  Heb.  xi.  3,  is  of  the 
same  import.  Morus  (p.  72)  and  some  others 
have  rejected  the  phrase,  creation  from  nothir:^, 
because  it  seems  to  imply  that  nothing  is  tlie 
material  from  which  the  world  was  made.  But 
this  subtilty  is  unnecessary,  since  the  same  lan- 
guage is  used  in  other  cases,  and  is  never  mis- 
understood. When  we  say,  for  example,  there 
is  NOTHING  in  the  chest,  there  ?  •  noiu^dy  there,  we 
do  not  mean  to  imply  that  there  is  fn  the  first 
case  a  material  substance,  and,  in  the  second, 
a  person  existing  in  the  places  intended. 

III.  The  Nature  of  the  First  Material. 

The  idea  of  chaos  resulted  very  naturally  from 
the  opinion  of  the  ancient  G.reeks  that  matter  is 
eternal  and  uncreated,  and  that  God  merely  ar- 
ranged and  combined  the  materials  which  he.  as 
the  great  architect,  found  furnished  for  his  use. 
The  word  x^o^  '^  derived  by  some  from  ^ua, 
hio,  vacuus  sum;  by  others  from  a;f'io,/Hm/';,  be- 
cause they  imagine  chaos  to  be  something  mov- 
able and  fluid.  The  corresponding  Latin  word  is 
silva,  which  denotes  ivhat  is  confused,  unar- 
ranged,  and  then,  unorganized  material  from 
which  anything  is  made;  as,  sih-a  rerum,  sen- 
tentiarum,  Cicero;  silva  mediciiue,  Pliny.  The 
Greek  word  which  is  used  by  Plato  and  other 
philosophers  is,  rX»;,  which  signifies  both  silva 
and  materia.  The  ancients  imagined  that  these 
primordia — the  unorganized  elements  of  things 
— were  of  the  nature  of  a  thin  air,  or  a  subtle 
ether,  fluid  and  movable,  without  order  or  con- 
nexion, rudis  indigestaque  moles.  Vide  Ovid, 
Met.  i.  7,  seq.  But  the  whole  conception  of 
chaos  is  rather  poetical  than  philosophical — the 
progeny  of  fancy,  and  not  of  reason.  The  phi- 
losopher can  see  no  satisfactory  reason  for  be- 
lieving that  disorder  must  have  preceded  the 
present  system.  The  poet,  however,  fancies  a 
state  before  tlje  world  was  formed,  like  that 
which  would  appear  if  all  the  objects  of  the  pre- 
sent world  were  torn  to  pieces,  dissolved,  and 
thrown  together;  and  this  state  he  calls  chaos, 
and  supposes  that  there  the  elements  of  things 
conflicted  with  one  another,  until  the  Deity  at 
length  interposed  to  end  the  strife.  The  Greeks 
now  supposed  that  the  universe  proceeded  from 
this  state,  as  from  a  fluid  and  fermenting  mass; 
the  Hebrews,  on  the  contrary,  represented  tho 
origin  of  the  world  under  the  image  of  a  build- 
ins,  of  the  materials  of  which,  as  well  as  of  the 
structure  itself,  Gjd  was  the  author.     Cf.  the 


106 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


Essay  of  Paulus,  Das  Chaos  eine  Dichtung, 
iiicl'.t  ein  Gesetz  fur  physische  Kosmoloorie 
(Kosmoarenie?),  in  his  "  Memorabilien,"  No. 
III.  Stuck  4;  Leipzinf,  1793,  8vo.  Some  have 
thoiicjht  they  perceived  a  description  of  chaos  in 
tiie  inai  inn  of  tiie  .Mosaic  account  of  the  crea- 
tion. Gen.  i.  2.  But  Moses  says  this  mertly  of 
the  earth.  After  God  had  created  liie  universe, 
(til''  heavens  and  the  earth,)  tiie  earth  was  still 
Wi'.ste,  empty,  and  u>i)inished.  There  is  nothinij 
in  the  Mosaic  account  to  justify  the  idea  of  the 
Grecian  chaos,  in  which  everything  in  the  uni- 
verse lay  togt-ther  in  a  promiscuous  and  disor- 
derly mass,  of  which  God  was  no  more  the  cre- 
ator than  the  architect  is  of  the  pile  of  stones 
from  which  he  forms  his  edifice. 

'I'hf  histury  of  the  opinions  of  ancient  and 
mnd.'rn  jihilnsophers  respectinfj  the  nature  of  the 
first  material  of  the  universe  belontrs  appropri- 
atrly  to  the  history  of  philosophy.  The  follow- 
'\n>S  remarks  must  suffice  for  this  place. 

Wo  cannot  form  any  distinct  notion  of  the  ele- 
ments, and  of  the  primitive,  essential,  and  con- 
stituent parts  of  the  bodies  which  now  exist, 
since  our  senses  are  not  adapted  to  take  cog- 
nizance of  them.  That  such  elements  actually 
exist,  however,  there  is  no  doubt;  and  that  each 
of  these  particles  has  properties  which  distin- 
guish it  from  every  other — its  peculiar  use,  size, 
shape, &c. — is  equally  clear;  for  otherwise  there 
could  be  no  distinction,  variety,  or  alteration 
in  tlie  worlil.  I'ytha<roras  |)rocee(led  on  tliis 
trr^'iind,  when  he  tau<flit  that  the  ;uo»'a'j  was  the 
origin  and  irround  of  all  things.  For  as  num- 
bers consist  of  their  units,  as  constituent  parts, 
so  he  supposed  the  world  was  composed  of  many 
such  units  or  immaiks.  This  thought  led  Leib- 
nitz to  his  theory  of  mouadcs.  According  to 
this  theory,  these  monades  are  what  God  ori- 
ginally produced  from  nothing;  and  all  the  va- 
riety of  thin({s,  the  world  itself,  has  arisen  from 
their  original  difference,  and  their  various  com- 
binations. This  theory,  therefore,  clearly  in- 
volves the  doctrine  of  a  creation  from  nolhim^. 
Hut  what  is  the  nature,  and  what  are  the  (|uali- 
ties  of  these  first  |)ro(luction9  of  creative  |)ower, 
we  cannot  know,  because  our  senses  do  not  reach 
so  far.  And  when  the  atomic  system,  or  mona- 
dologry,  is  extended  to  inquiries,  like  these,  it 
becomes,  as  Kant  has  well  shewn,  merely  hy- 
po.detical,  and  without  any  practical  interest. 
The  science  which  has  for  its  object  lUe:  powers 
and  fiirem  which  act  in  the  world — Jijnnmics,  as 
it  is  called— is  more  important  to  us  than  the 
science  which  relates  merely  to  the  minute 
atf>ms  or  particles  of  which  bodies  are  composed, 
whether  they  are  called  nionaden  or  any  other 
name. 

In  this  whole  subject  we  must  guard  against 
the  supposition  of  any  successive  acts  in  fJod  ; 
as  if  he  had  first  created  the  materials,  and  then 


formed  them  by  degrees  into  the  bodies  which 
constitute  the  universe,  proceeding  in  Uu  work 
step  by  step,  like  a  human  artist.  Vide  s.  20, 
respecting  the  iuunutability  of  God.  In  God, 
thought  and  execution  are  one  and  the  same  act. 
He  speaks,  ami  it  is  done,  Ps.  xxxiii.  9.  He  says. 
Let  there  Ije  li^ht,  and  there  is  lii^ht.  Gen.  i.  3. 
Nor  is  any  alteration  produced  in  God  by  the 
creation  of  the  world.  He  designed  from  eter- 
nity that  the  world  should  exist  at  a  certain  lime. 
Morus  expresses  this  diff"erenily,  p.  70,  s.  2. 
Cf.  on  this  particular  point,  and  on  the  general 
subject,  Ziegler,  Kritik  iiber  den  Artikel  von 
der  Schiipfung,  nach  unserer  gewohnlichen 
Dogmatik,  in  Henke's  "  Magazin  lur  Ueligions- 
philosophie,"  b.  ii.  st.  I,  Abhandl.  I. 

SECTION  XLVIL 

THE  DOCTRINE  AND  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  RIBIJCAL 
WRITERS  RESPECTING  THE  CREATION  IN  GENE- 
RAL, AND  HOW  THEV  ARE  TO  BE  UNDERSTOOD. 

I.  Respecting  the  Eternity  of  Matter. 

The  holy  scriptures  constantly  describe  God 
as  the  author  and  creator  of  the  world  ;  not  mere- 
ly of  the  form  which  it  now  has,  as  the  ancient 
philosophers  supposed,  but  of  the  materials 
themselves  from  which  it  is  formed.  With  this 
fundamental  principle  Moses  be<jins  his  geo- 
gony.  Gen.  i.  \.  We  find  this  mentioned  as  the 
principal  characteristic  of  the  true  God,  throii^jh- 
out  the  Bible;  Is.  xiii.  5;  Ps.cxv. 3,  seq.;  Acts, 
xvii.  24  ;  and  the  other  passages  cited  s.  14,  ad 
finem,  and  Morus,  p.  72,  s.  2,  note  1.  It  may 
he  considered  as  an  established  point,  that  the 
ctiruity  of  the  world  is  nowhere  affirmed  in  the 
Bible.     Vide  Ps.  xc.  2;  cii.  2i;,  coll.  s.  20. 

But  notwithstanding  this,  there  have  always 
been  philosophers  and  ttieologians,  even  among 
Christians,  who  have  advocated  the  eternity  of 
the  world,  or  at  least  of  matter.  The  Platonists 
among  the  first  Christians  very  naturally  fol- 
lowed I'lato,  who  believed  in  the  eternity  of 
matter,  though  not  of  the  world.  Vide  a.  46. 
Thus  Justin  the  Martyr  affirmed,  that  (Jod 
formed  the  world  from  an  eternal,  misshapen, 
unorganized  material,  Apol.  i.  39;  though  in 
other  [larts  of  his  wriiings  he  appears  to  derive 
matter  orisfin.illy  from  CJod  as  its  author,  and 
thus  to  dilfer  from  Plato. 

The  schoolmen,  who  followed  Aristotle,  and 
wished  to  defend  his  opinion  respecting  the  eter- 
nity of  the  world  (s.  4(>),  taught  that  we  mjirht 
say,  God  hud  <-keateu  the  world  from  eternity— 
a  statement  in  which  its  dependence  upf>n  (Jod 
would  be  viculicaled  at  the  same  timt>  that  its 
eternity  was  maintained.  This  opinion  wan 
expressed  by  n>ethius  as  early  as  the  fifth  and 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  Others,  how- 
ever,  only  wi.-<hed  that  \Ue ,  us^ibility  of  this  siip* 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


167 


position  should  be  granted.  The  schoolmen 
made  this  distinction  : — Deus  est  ^ternis  ; 
mundus  est  ab  ^terno,  sc.  pruductus  h  Deo. 
For  God,  they  said,  had  the  power  to  act  from 
eternity,  and  we  can  see  no  reason  why  he 
should  not  have  exerted  this  power. 

Some  protestant  theologians  of  modern  times 
have  also  asserted  the  possibility  of  the  eternity 
of  the  world.  Some  have  thought  it  to  be  a  con- 
tradiction to  speak  of  an  eternal  God  who  is  not 
an  eternal  creator.  Even  Wolf,  in  his  metaphy- 
sics, affirmed  that  it  could  not  be  shewn  from 
philosophy  that  the  world  and  the  human  race 
have  had  a  beginning.  But  even  if  the  world 
had  been  produced  from  eternity  by  God,  it 
would  not  therefore  be  eternal  in  the  same  sense 
as  God  is.  It  would  only  have  existed  through 
infinite  time,  while  God  is  anterior  to,  and  inde- 
pendent of  time.  It  would  perhaps  be  better  to 
say,  that  eternity  (a  parte  arile)  is  a  necessary 
attribute  of  God,  but  not  of  the  world  :  the  world 
is  eternal  because  God  willed  its  existence  from 
the  first;  and  not  from  an  internal  nccessil)/  of 
its  existence,  as  there  is  of  the  existence  of  God. 
The  followers  of  Wolf,  Ribbow,  and  others, 
held  the  same  opinion.  Others  contend,  that 
this  opinion  does  violence  to  tlie  laws  of  the 
human  understanding.  If  the  word  eternity  is 
understood  in  the  proper  sense,  in  which  it  ex- 
cludes time  (s.  20),  it  is  hard  to  see  how  it  can 
be  said,  with  propriety,  that  the  world  was  cre- 
ated by  God  from  eternity.  For  as  soon  as  we 
suppose  that  the  world  was  created,  we  neces- 
sarily admit  that  it  had  a  beginning;  and  if  it 
had  a  beginning,  it  exists  in  time;  and  time  ex- 
cludes eternity.  We  may  imagine,  if  we  please, 
an  eternal  series  of  created  things  ;  but  such  a 
series  can  have  no  real  existence ;  for  a  series 
consisting  of  things  which  have  a  beginning 
cannot  be  without  a  beginning. 

But  the  reason  why  we  never  obtain  satisfac- 
tion, after  all  our  philosophizing,  upon  this  sub- 
ject, and  why  we  find  so  many  difficulties  attend- 
ing any  supposition  we  may  make  respecting 
the  eternity  of  the  world,  is  this,  that  the  whole 
subject  far  trajiscends  our  limited  capacities.  The 
forms  of  time  and  space,  which  are  inherent  in 
our  mental  constitution,  so  limit  our  minds  that 
we  cannot  conceive  of  anything  as  existing 
without  them.  Vide  s.  20,  I.  Time  \akes  its 
origin  from  the  succession  of  one  -thing  after 
another.  It  is  a  notion  of  finite  beintrs,  who  can 
think  ol  only  one  thing  at  a  time,  in  whom, 
therefore,  one  idea  must  succeed  another ;  and 
is  not  a  quality  of  external  objects.  Vide  lo. 
Krnesti  Schubert.  Diss,  de  impossibilitate  niun- 
di  aeterni ;  Jenae,  1711.  Kant<  Kritik  der  reinen 
Vernunft.  When  Augustine  was  asked  the 
♦question  what  God  had  done  before  the  creation 
of  the  world  1  he  replied,  Nescio,  quod  nescio. 


The  simple  uoctrine  of  the  Bible  is,  that  Goa 
had  an  eternal  purpose  to  make  the  world  ;  i^ 
does  not  teach  us  that  he  did  create  it  from  eter- 
nity ;  but  rather  the  contrary.  Vide  the  texts 
cited  in  Morus,  p.  72,  s.  2,  Note  1. 

II.  Respecting  Creation  from  Nothing, 

1.  The  importance  of  the  doctrine  of  creation 
from  nothing,  its  philosophical  proof,  its  scrip- 
tural ground,  &c.,  have  been  already  exhibited, 
s.  4G.     It  only  remains  to  cite  the  most  import- 
ant texts  relating  to  this  subject.     But  before 
proceeding  to  do  this,  it  is  important  to  repeat 
the  remark,  that  the  Bible  makes  no  mention  of 
a  chaos,  in  the  sense  of  the  Grecian  fabulists 
and  philosophers.   Moses,  in  his  first  book,  and 
the   other  sacred   writers,  always  exhibit   the 
simple,  great  idea,  that  God  by  his  mere  will 
brought  into  existence  the  world,  which  did  not 
before  exist — i.  e.,  in  other  words,  that  he  cre- 
ated it  from  nothing;  that  he  willed  that  what 
was  not  should  be,  and  it  was ;  Morus,  p.  72. 
So  Paul  says,  Heb.  xi.  3,  By  faith  in  God  (i.  e., 
his  declaration,  assurance  in  the  scriptures)  we 
are  certain  that  the  world  (atil>ja$)  luas  created 
(xarjjprio^at,  ]0),  by  the  decree  or  icill  (lir;uati,) 
(f  God;  so  that  what  ive  see  (ifatiOjUfia  and  ^Xc 
rtotifia,  what  appears  or  exists,)  was  made  out 
of  nothing,  (rd  /xrj  tpaiiouiva.)     The  phrase  ro 
,u?j  ^aiioufva  is   here  synonymous  with  ra  ovx 
bvra,  which  occurs  in  2  Mace.  vii.  2B,  God  made 
heaven  and  earth,  f|  ovx  ovfutv.     Here  too  the 
text,  Rom.  iv.  17,  is  cited:  jibraham  trusted  in 
God  Tov  ^u>ortoiovvroi  toi'i  j'fxpovj  xai  xa7.ovv- 
•f  0  5  (creantis)  ra  /j-r;  ovra  oij  ovra.   The  phrase- 
ology in  this  text  is,  indeed,  derived  from  that 
used  to  describe  the  creation  from  nothing;  but 
it  is  here  figuratively  applied  to  the  numerous 
posterity  of  Abraham,  which  did  not  yet  exist, 
and   of  which  there  was  no  probability;   but 
which  was  afterwards  brought  into  being.   The 
word  xaXnv  here  answers  to  the  word  Nn,-i,  Isa. 
xli.  4 ;  xliv.  7,  and  signifies  creare,  produccre. 
So  Philo  says,  ta /xr;  hita  ixdxintv  ftj  to  fhai. 
Vide  Carpzov  on  Heb.  xi.  3.   The  doctrine  that 
God  made  the  world  from  nothing,  is  also  im- 
plied, where  it  is  said  that  he  created  the  world 
by  his  icord,  his  decree,  or  by  the  breath  which 
proceeded  out  of  his  mouth.     Vide  Ps.  xxxiii. 
6,  9.     Gen.  i.  "  He  spake,  and   it  was  done," 
&c.    Cf.  s.  34,  No.  5.   It  is  said  in  Rev.  iv.  11, 
av  txTiaa^  rtdvra,  xai  5ta  to  ^et.r;ud  (■'Ji"p3» 
Daniel,  viii.  4;  xi.  3.  If))  oov  siaC,  "Thou  hast 
made  all  things,  and  they  depend  for  existence 
upon  thy  will." 

2.  Nothing  can  be  determined  from  the  Bible 
respecting  the  particular  manner  in  which  God, 
by  his  mere  will,  created  the  world  from  no- 
thin?;  and  we  are  jnable  even  to  form  any  con- 
ception of  the  subject,  as  we  have  nothing  ana- 


]C,9 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


lo^ous  to  wnich  we  can  compare  It.  The  New 
Testamnnt  usually  ascribes  the  work  of  creation 
to  the  Ftither ;  and  God  is  called  Father,  (nafj;|j 
ncti'rcjv,)  so  far  as  he  is  creator  and  preserver  of 
all  things.  Theologians  say,  Crealio  est  npus 
D:i  ad  extra,  quod  Patri  adacriliitur  appropria- 
tied  stvetermi native,  Morus,  p.  72,  note  1. 

But  creation  is  also  ascribed  to  the  !Son,  or  to 
the  Aoyof  (vide  s.  38,  I.  2) ;  as  John,  i.  3,  Tlavra, 
hi  avrov  (Aoyou,  ver.  1,  2)  iyivito,  x.  t.  %. ;  and 
again,  in  ver.  10,  o  xo'sao^  hi  avtov  lyivtxo.  It 
is  the  object  of  this  passage  to  describe  the  rela- 
tion of  the  Logos  to  the  world  and  created  things. 
The  particle  hia.  with  the  genitive  frequently,  in- 
deed, denoti's  merely  the  causa  itistrumentalis ; 
(so  Luke,  i.  70;)  but  it  also  denotes  the  causa 
ejiciens ;  as  Rom.  i.  5,  and  1  Cor.  i.  9,  (0f6j,  hi 
ov  ixXr^^r^Tf,)  and  Hebrews,  ii.  10,  (0{6{  hi  ov 
fa  rtdt'TOL.)  Tliat  it  is  used  in  this  sense  here 
may  be  siiewn  from  the  analogy  of  other  pas- 
sages— e.  g..  Col.  i.  15 — 17,  and  Heb.  ii.,  where 
it  is  expressly  said  that  everything  in  the  uni- 
verse was  created  by  the  Son.  Cf.  the  texts 
cited  in  s.  38.  But  some  theologians  have  en- 
deavoured to  exjjlain  all  these  passages  as  figu- 
rative, and  as  exiiibiling  a  mere  personification 
of  the  divine  understanding,  and  of  its  plan  exe- 
cuted in  the  creation;  somewhat  as  Wisdom  is 
said  in  Prov.  viii.  to  have  assisted  God  in  the 
creation,  and  to  have  been  the  instrument  by 
which  ho  made  the  world.  Vide  s.  37,  and  s. 
41,  II.  This  interpretation  is  embraced  by  those 
who  favour  the  Sabellian  theory;  but  certainly 
it  is  not  scriptural.  The  most  just,  scriptural, 
and  at  the  same  time  simple  view,  is  perhaps 
the  fdllowing.  Since  the  New  Testament 
makes  the  Son  of  God  equal  (t(5a)  with  the  Fa- 
ther, it  designs  to  teach  in  all  texts  of  this  kind 
that  he  stands  in  the  very  same  relation  to  the 
world,  and  to  all  created  objects,  as  the  Father 
does,  and  that  whatever  is  said  of  the  Father  is 
true  also  of  the  Son.  Hence  theologians  have 
the  canon.  Opera  Dei  ad  extra  (attributiva)  sunt 
iribus  pcrsonis  com  muni  a  ;  intending  IJH'rebv  ^'^ 
intimate  their  ofjuality  with  one  another.  Vide 
8.  43,  ad  finem.  Those  who  are  inclined  to 
Arianisin  iiave  often  referred,  in  behalf  of  their 
hypothesis,  to  Ilnb.  i.  2,  where  it  is  said,  "  God 
appointed  his  Son  Lord  (xX>;pop6uoi)  over  all, 
8t' ot  xai  rovj  aiwi'oj  frtonjifc:  the  meaning  fif 
which  they  suppose  to  be  summed  up,  and  ex- 
pressed inver.  3,  "He  (the  Son)  upholds  all 
tilings  ((pf'iicjv  rii  rtuira)  by  his  power,  (Jjruari 
{lufiufwf.)"  The  phrase,  the  Father  created 
the  world  t/irouir/i  the  Son,  occurs  only  this  once 

n  the  New  Testament,  for  which  reason  Dr. 
Griesbaeh  advises  to  alter  the  reading,  and  to 
substitute  hion  xeu  for  ^i'  ov  xai,  Pro[rr.  De 
niundo  a  Deo  Patre  condito  per  Filiuin;  .Icnw, 

1781.     But  no  sutlicient  reason  can  be  given  for 


this  alteration;  and,  as  theologians  have  justly 
remarked,  it  does  not  follow  from  ibis  phrase- 
ology that  the  Son  is  less  than  the  Father,  as  the 
Arians  and  Subordinationists  (e.  g.,  Dr.  Clark) 
have  concluded.  For  the  person  through  whom 
I  accomplish  anything,  so  far  from  being  neces- 
sarily inferior  to  myself,  may  be  equal  or  even 
greater.  I  may,  for  example,  secure  a  favour  to 
any  one  from  the  king,  through  the  influence  of 
the  minislcr.  Some  of  the  old  theologians  at- 
tempted to  prove  from  Gen.  i.  2,  that  a  share  in 
creation  was  expressly  ascribed  to  the  Holy 
Spirit,  considered  as  a  person.  But  it  is  at  least 
doubtful  whether  ia  this  text  the  person  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  spoken  of.  Ps.  xxxiii.  6  has  no 
relation  to  thib  subject.     Vide  s.  50,  I. 

3.  The  following  are  the  principal  words  and 
phrases  used  in  the  Bible  in  respect  to  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world,  and  of  the  earth. 

(«)  N-\2,  to  create, produce.  Gen.  i.  1,  et  passim. 
This  word,  however,  by  itself,  does  not  siirnify 
to  create  yVow  nothing.  It  frequently  denotes 
the  formation  of  a  thing  from  a  pre-existing  ma- 
terial, and  answers  to  xri^nv.  So  in  Gen.  i. 
27,  it  is  used  in  relation  to  the  tormation  of  man 
from  the  earth  ;  and  hence  to  denote  his  being 
born  and  begotten  ;  so  Ps.  civ.  30.  It  often 
signifies,  too,  parare,  cond ere,  facer e,  rcddere  i 
so  Is.  xliii.  7;  Num.  xvi.  30,  seq.  Cf.  s. 
48,  I. 

(i)  All  the  words  which  signify  tn  make,  to 
prepare,  to  form  ;  as  nt.'7,  (hence  Tit'"^,  a  work, 
created  thing,  noir;ua,  tpyov,)  "^i•^  tn  form;  ]^J, 
xara^iri^fiv,  to  prepare,  to  arran<^c,  Ps.  viii.  A  ; 
xxxviii.  18.  The  corresponding  verb  and  the 
derivate  substantive  have  the  same  meaning  in 
Arabic. 

(c)  All  the  words  which  relate  to  huihling,  to 
the  erecting  of  the  superstructure,  or  the  laying 
of  the  foundation,  ip",  ^f^ifXuHo,  to  found,  in 
establish,  is  applied,  particularly  in  poetic  lan- 
•ruage,  to  the  creation  of  the  earth ;  Ps,  cii.  26. 
Hence  the  Hellenistic  phrase  xara'oXr  xo5/«ov, 
John,  xvii.  24,  coll.  ver.  5,  and  I]ph.  i.  4.  The 
Hebrews  considered  the  earth  as  being  in  the 
centre  of  the  universe,  and  represented  the  hea- 
vens as  a  tent  spread  over  it,  according  to  their 
natural  appearance  ;  and  to  these  popular  no- 
lions  thp  sacred  writers  ever3'where  conform  ; 
and  so  because  the  earth  is  firm,  and  nndeviatingr 
in  its  course,  they  represented  it  as  e>tabli8hed 
upon  pillars ;  Ps.  civ.  5.  n;a,  to  Intihl.  fzc. ;  hut 
it  also  signifies  to  jn-opafxale  the  race,  in  acquire 
jiosleritt/.  Gen.  xvi.  2 ;  hence  p,  son,  (the  builder 
of  the  family.) 

(r/)  The  words  which  signify  to  sai/,  speak, 
call,  (call  forth,)  command ;  as,  "O",  ni-',  res(iect- 
ing  which,  cf.  No.  I.  These  are  the  worda 
more  commonly  employed  to  designate  creation 
from  nothing. 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


169 


SECTION  XLVIII. 

TlJlC  WORK  OF  CREATION  TWOFOLD;  DIFFERENT 
CLASSES  OF  creatures;  our  KNOWLEDGE  OF 
THEM  ;  END  OF  GOD  IN  THE  CREATION  OF  THE 
WORLD  ;    THE  BEST  WORLD. 

I.  The  Work  of  Creation  twofold. 

Creation  is  divided  \nio  prima  or  immediata, 
'and  seeunda  or  medtala.  The  immediate  creation 
is  that  which  took  place  when  God  first  gave 
existence  to  all  this  variety  of  things,  when  be- 
fore there  was  nothing.  The  mediate  creation  is 
that  which  is  seen  since  the  original  creation  was 
completed,  in  the  production  of  plants,  the  ge- 
neration of  animate  creatures,  and  the  whole  na- 
tural propaffation  of  the  various  kinds  of  beings. 
God  works,  since  the  creation  is  completed,  not 
immediately,  but  generally,  by  means  of  the 
powers  of  nature  which  he  himself  has  bestowed 
and  regulated.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  speak  of 
God's  having  left  the  world  to  the  powers  of  na- 
ture. But  such  phraseology  should  be  carefully 
avoided  in  religious  instruction.  It  seems  to 
remove  God  to  a  distance  from  us,  and  very  na- 
turally suggests  the  idea  that  he  has  given  up 
the  world,  and  concerns  himself  no  more  about 
it.  More  injury  is  done  by  such  expressions, 
especially  in  an  age  that  forgets  God,  than  is 
ever  supposed.  Instead  of  such  language  it 
would  be  better,  therefore,  to  say,  God  works  by 
means  of  nature,  or,  by  means  of  tk"  poioers  tvhieh 
he  has  bestowed  upon  nature,  or  with  which  he  has 
furnished  his  creatures.  Even  Moses  says  ex- 
pressly, Gen.  i.  22,  28,  that  God  gave  his  crea- 
tures the  ability  to  preserve  and  propagate  their 
own  kind.  Still,  however,  all  creatures,  both 
animate  and  inanimate,  w-hich  are  thus  mediately 
produced,  are  called,  with  perfect  truth,  crea- 
tures of  God,  considering  that  God  first  esta- 
blished and  upholds  this  natural  constitution  by 
moans  of  which  they  come  into  being.  Vide 
Job,  X.  8  ;  xxxiii.  4  ;  Ps.  cxxxix.  13—16.  The 
word  N-\3  and  the  derivative  noun  are  used  in 
both  of  these  senses;  in  the  first,  that  of  imme- 
diate creation,  Gen.  i.  1,  27  ;  ii.  2,  seq. ;  Is.  xlv. 
18;  Ps.  cxlviii.  5;  in  the  second,  that  of  me- 
diate creation,  Psalm  civ.  30,  "They  (men)  are 
created'''' — i.  e.,  bom.  Hence  n-'3  and  i':"  are 
interchanged  as  synonymous  :  as,  ^•>2J  -?,  popu- 
lus  creniidus.  Psalm  cii.  19;  and  -\'7^:  zy,  populus 
nasecndus.  Psalm  xxii.  32.  Hence  to  create, 
signifies  metaphorically,  in  the  scriptures,  to  re- 
new, to  found,  to  be  the  author  of  anything;  Is. 
xlviii.  7  ;  Ps.  Ii.  12.  The  same  is  true  of  zn'^fti- 
and  xrJ'vif.  Eph.  ii.  10.  15;  iii.  9;  and  also  of 
the  Latin  crrare  ;  as,  "  Rumuliis  creator  urbis.^^ 
"  Terra  creavit  genus  humanum,"  Lucretius. 
Creare  rf  ,'rm,  magistratum.  Sec. 

Every  jrood,  therefore,  which  we  derive  from 
any  of  the  creatures  of  God,  is  truly  a  gift  and 
22 


favour  of  God  himself,  who  gave  to  his  creatures 
all  their  various  powers  with  the  intention  of 
making  them  useful  to  others.  Cf.  Hos.  ii.  21, 
seq.;  Matt.  vi.  25,  seq.;  Acts,  xvii.  25,  seq. 
Consequently  we  are  under  obligation  to"  be 
thankful  to  God  himself  for  these  advantages, 
which  we  derive  from  his  creatures.  Vide 
Psalm  civ.  1,  seq.,  and  other  texts  of  the  New 
Testament. 

II,  Different  Classes  of  Creatures. 

The  kingdom  of  God  is  so  vast,  and  compre- 
hends such  an  innumerable  host,  (to  use  a  scrip- 
tural term,)  that  we  are  able  to  sinvey  but  a 
very  small  portioa  of  it  at  once,  and  are  wholly 
inadequate  suitably  to  estimate  the  perfection, 
beauty,  and  harmony  of  the  whole.  What, 
then,  we  cannot  survey  at  once,  we  must  exa- 
mine in  separate  portions,  and  by  this  partition 
we  may  relieve  the  weakness  of  our  under- 
standing; and  this  course  is  both  reasonable  ia 
itself  and  according  to  the  example  of  scripture. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  divided  the  universe 
into  tteavcn,  earth,  and  sea,  (s.  45.)  which  are 
properly  styled  the  provinces  (rirp::)  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  by  the  author  of  Psalm  ciii.; 
and  this  is  the  division  according  to  which  the 
ancient  Hebrew  prophets  always  proceed  in  the 
classification  of  ihe  works  of  God.  Vide 
Psalm  civ.,  cxlviii.  The  former  of  these 
Psalms  is  an  admirable  ode  on  the  creation  and 
the  wise  constitution  of  the  world.  The  various 
objects  in  heaven,  on  the  earth,  and  in  the 
waters,  are  there  mentioned  in  their  natural 
order;  their  dependence  on  God  is  shewn,  and 
their  uses,  and  the  ends  for  which  they  were 
made,  is  described.  The  sublime  descriptions 
in  Job,  xxxvi.  and  xli.,  may  be  cited  in  this 
connexion.     Cf.  Ps.  cxlv.  cxlvii. 

The  Bible  always  gives  the  preference  to  ani- 
mate creatures  (creatures  who  have  breath,-  in 
lohom  is  the  breath  of  life,  as  I\Ioses  says)  over 
the  inanimate  creation.  It  justly  considers 
them  as  the  more  noble,  exalted,  and  perfect 
work  of  God ;  and  it  assigns  to  man  a  pre-emi- 
nence among  the  creatures  which  belong  to  the 
earth.  Vide  Gen.  i.  2(!,  seq.,  and  Ps.  viii., 
which  treat  of  the  dignity  of  man,  and  of  his 
superiority  to  the  other  creatures  of  the  earth,  es- 
pecialh'  ver.  4 — 9.  This  passage  may  be  consi- 
dered as  a  comment  upon  («en.  i.  26,  seq. 
There  it  is  said  that  God  made  man  in  his  own 
image,  and  placed  him  over  the  rest  of  the 
creation.  This  pre-eminence  consists  in  t'le  ra- 
tional and  moral  nature,  and  the  freedom  of  will 
which  man  alone  possesses  among  all  the  crea- 
tures by  which  he  is  surronnded. 

Respectinff  the  division  of  rrrntures  into 
visible  (corporeal)  and  invisible,  (immaterial, 
spiritual,)  which  occurs.  Col.  i.  16,  vide  s.  45, 
ad  finem.     .imrels  and  the  human  sotu  belong 


170 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


to  the  second  class ;  but  the  whole  man  belongs 
alike  to  the  corporeal  and  spiritual  kin<jdoai. 

III.  The  Knowledge  of  the  Wurlas  of  God. 

Tiie  ancients  had  a  very  imperfect  acquaint- 
ance vviih  natural  science.  They  remained  con- 
tented for  the  most  part  with  the  first  impres- 
sions which  were  made  upon  their  senses,  with- 
out being  able  to  penetrate  into  the  internal  na- 
ture of  the  objects  around  them.  We  cannot, 
therefore,  expect  to  find  any  very  thorough  and 
accurate  acquaintance  with  natural  science  in 
the  writings  of  a  nation  in  so  early  a  stage  of 
improvement  as  the  ancient  Hebrews  were. 
They  were  wholly  incapable^f  a  high  degree 
of  Ihe  knowledge  of  nature.  And  although 
somi  have  thought  they  discovered  it  in  the 
geogony  of  Moses,  they  have  done  so  only  by 
ascribing  their  own  thoughts  to  his  words,  and 
embodying  their  own  information  in  his  account. 
The  ancient  hearers  and  readers  of  this  iiistory 
had  no  taste  for  all  this,  and  would  not  have 
understood  it. 

The  more  cultivated  nations  of  antiquity,  es- 
pecially the  Greeks,  and  their  disciples  the  Ro- 
mans, advanced  indeed  much  beyond  the  He- 
brews in  natural  science.  But  tiiey  too  were 
destitute  of  the  requisite  instruments  and  helps, 
and  often  trusted  more  to  reasoning  a  priori 
than  to  experiment;  and  consecjuently  their 
knowledge  of  nature,  as  a  whole,  bears  no  com- 
parison with  ours,  though  in  particular  depart- 
ments they  did  much,  considering  the  age  in 
which  they  lived;  as  appears  from  the  works 
of  Aristotle,  Theophraslus,  Hippocrates,  Galen, 
Pliny,  Seneca,  and  others.  More  considerable 
advances,  however,  have  been  made  by  Euro- 
peans in  modern  times,  especially  since  the  fif- 
teenth century,  by  means  of  the  telescope,  mi- 
croscope, and  other  newly  invented  pbiloso|)lii- 
cal  instrunii'nts,  by  which  the  secrets  of  nature 
have  been  disclosed. 

We  have  made  these  observations  upon  the 
study  of  nature  in  tliis  place,  not  only  because 
this  study,  and  the  general  prevalence  of  correct 
natural  science,  contribute  greatly  to  intellectual 
improvement,  and  in  many  respects  to  the  en- 
nobling of  man,  but  especially  because  they 
stand  in  intimate  connexion  with  religion.  On 
these  accounts  it  must  appear  to  be  the  duty  of 
every  man  of  education,  and  especially  of  the 
religious  teacher,  to  acquaint  himself  with 
natural  science,  and  also  to  give  instruction  to 
the  common  people  and  the  young  in  those 
parts  of  it  which  they  are  capable  of  Jearnina — 
always  empb>ying  it,  however,  for  reljirjitus 
])urposes.  This  knowledge  can  and  should  he 
used — 

1.  As  a  very  easy  and  practical  means  of  at- 
taining to  the  knowledge  of  the  existence  and 
attributes  of  God,  and  as  well  adapted  to  pro- 


mote a  disposition  and  conduct  correspond inor  to 
such  knowledge,  vide  s.  15,  I.,  wliere  soma 
physico-iheological  works  are  mentioned  ;  also, 
Morus,  p.  74,  s.  4,  5. 

2.  As  a  preventive  of  superstition,  and  a  re- 
medy for  its  evil  consequences.  The  supersti- 
tious are  those  who  believe  things  to  be  real,  of 
whose  rccdily  they  have  no  evidence,  and  who 
expect  things  will  come  to  pass  without  the 
least  reason  for  so  doing.  This  is  their  pecu 
liar  infirmity;  and  the  only  suitable  remedy  is, 
for  them  to  learn  to  judge  correctly  respecting 
the  reulily  of  things;  to  observe  closely  and 
examine  properly  the  evidence  of  what  they  be- 
lieve, and  then  to  believe  only  so  far  as  their 
observation  and  evidence  will  warrant.  The 
superstitious  easily  believe  that  an  event  ac- 
complished by  natural  means  is  accom|)lished 
by  direct  supernatural  agency,  and  thus  allow 
themselves  to  be  deceived  by  tricks  and  artifices 
These  false  views  cannot  be  proved  to  them  to 
be  groundless  in  any  way  so  clearly  and  eflec- 
tually  as  by  giving  them  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  nature;  since  by  this  we  can  shew  them  that 
an  event  which  they  had  regarded  as  superna- 
tural was  entirely  in  the  usual  course.  This 
will  have  more  influence  than  all  the  lawa 
which  could  be  enacted  against  superstitious 
practices,  magic,  and  fortune-telling,  and  more 
than  all  the  punishments  which  could  be  inflict- 
ed upon  magicians  and  fortune-tellers.  The  best 
laws  and  regulations  of  this  kind  are  of  liitU 
use,  if  the  first  source  of  such  superstitious  no- 
tions cannot  be  discovered  and  removed  by 
proper  instruction.  This  is  the  reason  why 
even  the  wise  regulations  of  Moses  upon  ihin 
sui)ject  were  inetfectual  among  the  Israelites. 

Natural  science  ought,  therefore,  by  no  means 
to  be  neglected  in  the  instruction  of  the  common 
people  and  of  the  young;  since  it  cf)niribute3  so 
much  to  mental  and  moral  imjirovemenl,  to  ge- 
nuine religion,  and  to  the  wliole  happiness  of 
man.  Cicero  has  an  excellent  remark  upon  this 
subject:  Omnium  rcrum  nnlurd  co^nild  Icvamur 
supcmtilione, — non  conturbamur  ii;iu)rulionc  re- 
rum,  c  quf'i  ipM  horribiles  swpe  existtint  formi- 
diiU'S;  d-eniqiie  elium  tnorati  melius  erimuK,  De 
Fin.  i.  19.  Bayle's  work  on  comets  should  bo 
read,  as  a  thorough  antidote  to  superstition. 
Cf.  Wiegleb,  Naturliche  Magie,  continued  by 
Rosenthal,  which  explains  by  natural  causes 
many  things  considered  by  tlie  common  people 
as  supernatural. 

In  giving  this  instruction  in  natural  science 
which  has  now  been  recommended,  the  religious 
t(>acher  nmst  carefully  avoid  all  learned  specula- 
tions and  hypi'tlwses,  and  introduce  only  that 
whieh  can  be  made  intelliu:il)le  to  the  least  i-n- 
proved  uniiersianding.  He  must  n"t  come  for- 
ward in  the  character  of  a  naturalist,  for  th« 
purpose   of  merely  instructing   his   people   iu 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


WA 


natural  science.  This  is  not  his  calling'.  He 
must  give  this  instruction  only  as  a  means  of 
inspiring  his  people  with  reverence  for  God,  of 
promoiinji  their  piety  towards  him  and  confi- 
dence in  hiin,  and  of  making  them  more  happy 
and  contented  in  their  condition.  He  should 
exhihit  it  in  connexion  with  the  positive  truths 
of  Christianity,  and  in  such  a  way  that  it  will 
have  no  tendency  to  produce  doubts  and  scepti- 
cism with  regard  to  our  holy  religion.  Cf. 
Flatt's  Magnzin,  Ueber  den  Inhalt  otfentlicher 
Reiigionsvortriige  an  erwachsene  Christen,  St. 
i.  Num.  7,  and  St.  v.  Num.  3. 

IV.  End  of  God  in  the  Creation. 

The  scri|)tures  declare  expressly,  that  every- 
thing which  God  has  made  is  good — i,  e.,  ac- 
coHiplishes  exactly  the  purpose  for  which  he 
made  it.  Moses  represents  God  as  testifying 
his  pleasure  in  all  that  he  had  done,  when  the 
creation  was  completed.  Gen.  i.  31.  The  truth 
of  the  principle,  that  God  has  given  to  all  his 
creatures  the  highest  possible  degree  of  per- 
fection, is  evident  both  from  his  wisdom  and 
his  goodness.  Vide  s.  21,  28.  Either  our 
former  theory  respecting  these  attributes  is 
untrue,  (quod  noii  f>otest  esse,)  or  this  ))rinciple 
is  true.  Acting  under  the  guidance  of  infinite 
wisdom,  and  under  the  impulse  of  infinite  good- 
ness, God  could  not  but  choose  what  is  bes/. 

Upon  this  principle  rests  the  doctrine  of  the 
6est  world,  or  optimism,  which  is  found  even  in 
Plato,  the  stoics,  and  other  ancient  writers. 
According  to  Seneca,  (Ep.  G5,)  Plato  said, 
Dcas  ntuiu/um  fecit  quam  optimum  potuit.  In 
modern  times,  this  doctrine  has  found  a  decided 
advocate  in  Leibnitz,  in  his  Theodicee,  th,  i. 
cap.  8.  Wolf,  in  his  Meiajihi/sik,  and  others 
after  him,  have  more  fully  developed  it.  If  we 
presuppose  that  God  could  have  conceived  of 
many  worlds  as  possible,  the  present  world, 
which  he  preferred  to  the  others,  and  to  which 
therefore  he  gave  existence,  must  be  the  best. 
If  not,  then  God  might  prefer  the  worse  and 
less  perfect  to  the  best  and  most  perfect ;  which 
would  bespeak  an  imperfection  both  of  intelli- 
gence and  will.  When  God  created  the  world, 
he  foresaw,  most  clearly  and  infallibly,  all  his 
creaiuris — their  nature,  actions,  and  their  con- 
nexion with  the  whole  system.  He  must  also 
be  supposed  to  have  had  the  best  end  in  view 
in  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  to  have  been 
able  to  apply  ihe  best  means  for  the  attainment 
of  it;  s.  24,  2S.  Moreover,  his  power  is  so 
unlimited  that  nothing  could  prevent  liiin  from 
giving  the  world  a  ditTerent  constitution  from 
that  w  [licit  it  now  has;  or,  which  is  same  thing, 
from  creating  a  dilTerent  world  frnm  that  which 
now  exists.  Now  since  he  has  cr -.ited  the  pre- 
sent world,  it  follows  that  no  otli.  r  world  is  so 
well  adauted   to   the  attainment  of  the  divine 


purposes  as  this.  We  are,  indeed,  nnacquaint 
ed  with  his  designs,  or  w  ith  the  final  cause  of 
the  creation  of  the  world.  God,  doubtless,  had 
many  ends  in  view,  which  we  do  not  know,  and 
of  which  we  do  not  even  think.  Vide  Morus, 
p.  75,  s.  6.  So  far,  however,  as  we  consider 
the  designs  of  God  in  respect  to  his  creatures, 
(and  in  this  respect  alone  can  we  consider 
them,)  it  was  his  object  to  give  them  indivi- 
dually that  degree  of  perfection  and  of  well- 
being  of  which  they  might  be  susceptible. 
This  what  is  meant  in  the  Bible,  when  it  is  said, 
lie  created  every t hi 7}  <r for  his  own  u;lory,  (rather, 
glorification,')  in  reference  to  us  rational  beings, 
who  are  to  learn  his  majesty  and  his  glorious 
perfections  from  the  works  of  his  hand.  This 
is  enough  for  us  to  know  in  order  to  make  a 
wise  use  of  the  world.  The  theological  doc- 
trine, that  God  had  his  own  glory  as  his  highest 
object  in  the  creation  of  the  world,  when  thus 
explained,  is  just  and  scriptural.  Cf.  s.  24,  I; 
s.  18,  1.  Note. 

Now  if  optimism  be  thus  defined,  and  if  the 
supposition  that  many  worlds  were  possible  is 
admitted,  it  is  a  true  doctrine.  When,  however, 
Leibnitz  and  Wolf  maintained  that  the  best 
world  could  not  exist  without  imperfection,  evil, 
and  sin,  (which  will  be  farther  considered  in 
the  articles  on  Providence  and  the  Apostas}',) 
the  theolojrians  of  that  age  were  unable  to  re- 
concile it  with  their  common  theories  and  modes 
of  expression,  and  supposed  that  by  this  doc- 
trine God  was  made  the  author  of  sin.  This 
was  the  case  with  Buddeus,  Lange,  Weisinann, 
and  others.  Vide  Baumeister,  Historia  doc- 
trinal recentius  controversy  de  mundo  optimo; 
Gorlit.  1741. 

The  philosophy  of  Kant  sets  aside  the  theory 
of  optimism  as  incapable  of  proof,  and  resting 
upon  arbitrary  notions  of  the  moral  attributes 
of  God.  Kant's  objections  against  this  doc- 
trine, or  rather,  against  the  abuse  of  it,  may  be 
found  in  his  Kritik  der  Urthtilshrnft  ;  Berlin, 
1790,  8vo;  and  in  Kehberg,  Verliiiltniss  der 
Metaphysik  zur  Religion,  Abschn.  5,  6.  [Cf. 
Hahn,  s.  60,  Anmerk.  4,  5.  Bretschneider,  b. 
i.  s.  584.] 

SECTION  XLIX. 

OF  THE  MOSAIC  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  CREATION, 
ITS  OBJECT,  AND  THE  VARIOUS  HYPOTHESES 
ADOPTED    TO    EXPLAIN    IT. 

L  Object  of  this  Narration,  and  u'haice  it  was 
derived. 

These  points  must  be  determined  before  we 
can  attain  a  position  from  which  we  can  survey 
the  whole  subject  in  all  its  bearings.  Moses 
wrote  primarily  lor  his  men  nation,  the  Israel- 
ites.    And  the  surest  way  to  determine  wh*" 


179 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


end  he  had  in  view  in  writincT  this  narrative,  is 
to  consider  the  circumstances  and  wants  of  the 
Jews  at  the  time  he  wrote;  and  these  are  best 
learned  from  his  own  bool\S. 

1.  One  principal  object  which  Moses  had  in 
dew  in  this  account,  was  to  shew  that  the  God 
uhoin  the  Israelites  worshipped  was  the  b:i?i^ 
from  whom  all  thinirs  derived  their  existence,  and 
lliat,  consefjuently,  their  national  God  was  the 
God  and  Lord  of  the  whole  universe,  and  not  a 
being  of  so  limited  a  nature  as  the  national  dei- 
ties at  that  time  were  usually  imagined.  The 
Israelites  had  a  very  strong  propensity  to  the 
polytheism  then  prevalent.  Even  many  among 
them,  who  worshipped  Jehovah  as  their  national 
God,  still  considered  the  heathen  idols  as  dei- 
ties having  rule  over  other  nations  and  coun- 
tries. And  so  they  frequently  regarded  Jehovah 
as  the  God  of  their  own  nation  only,  and  their 
own  land  ;  and  not  of  the  whole  earth,  or  world. 
Vide  R.  If!.  And  as  they  had  seen  image-wor- 
ship in  Ejypt,  they  frequently  worshipped  their 
own  God  under  various  forms — e,  g.  that  of  a 
golden  calf,  Ex.  xxxii.  This  tendency  amonj 
the  Jews  gave  rise  to  those  severe  laws  which 
Moses  enacted  anrainst  image  and  idol  worship, 
Ex.  XX.  4;  Deut.  iv.  15 — 17.  Many  of  the  Is- 
raelites worshipped  the  stars.  Vide  the  texts 
above  cited. 

Now  this  history  of  the  creation  clearly  shews 
that  the  God  whom  the  Israelites  worshipped  is 
the  Creator  and  Lord  of  the  whole  universe; 
that  the  firmament  and  the  stars,  as  well  as  the 
earth  and  its  inhabitants,  are  his  work,  and  his 
alone;  that  there  are  not  many  gods,  but  one 
only,  the  author  of  all  things  ;  that  these  things 
were  cre.itod  by  God  for  the  good,  advantage, 
and  service  of  man,  and  not  to  be  worshipped 
by  him,  and  that,  on  the  contrary,  he  himself  is 
appointed  by  God  to  be  the  lord  and  ruler  of  the 
earth,  and  of  all  the  inferior  creatures  that  in- 
habit it. 

Siinh  a  history  was  the  more  necessary,  from 
the  fact  that  almost  all  the  ancient  hooks  of  le- 
gislation and  religion  berran  with  cosmofronies. 
This  was  the  case  with  the  books  of  the  I'heni- 
cians,  Greeks,  &c.  The  same  might  therefore 
have  been  expected  fron  Moses  by  his  country- 
men, especially  as  many  of  the  cosmogonies  of 
other  nations  were  false,  and  needed  to  be  cor- 
rected. 

2.  Moses  intended,  also,  by  this  account,  to 
confirm,  impress,  and  solemnize  many  of  his 
positive  institutions  and  laws.  Thus  what  he 
says,  in  the  account  of  the  work  of  the  fourth 
day,  (ver.  II,)  respectin<r  the  use  of  the  sun  and 
moon  in  the  reckoning  of  lime,  was  desiirned  to 
recommend  the  custom  which  he  had  instituted 
among  the  Isra'dites  of  reckoning  time,  and  ob- 
servinsr  feasts  and  public  solemnities,  according 
to  moons  and  lunar  years.  And  thus,  especially 


in  the  account  which  he  jives  of  \.he  sevenih  day 
(ii.  2,  3),  on  whieli  God  rested  when  his  l.ibours 
were  done,  he  has  an  obvious  reference  to  the 
institution  of  the  Sabbath.  This  becomes  still 
more  evident  on  a  comparison  of  these  verses 
with  Ex.  XX.  8 — II;  for  it  is  there  expressly 
said  respecting  the  Mosaic  institution  <  f  tho 
Sabbath,  "  that  no  labour  should  be  done  in  it, 
because  God  laboured  only  six  days,  as  it  were, 
and  rested  on  the  seventh  day;  wherefore  God 
consecrated  (t>3)  the  seventh  day,  and  appoint- 
ed it  for  a  festival  (vn^H;^-).  '  In  what  way, 
now,  could  this  solemn  ft-stival  of  the  Jewish 
nation  have  received  a  higher  sanciicm  and  inte- 
rest, than  from  such  a  consideration  as  tliis  ?  The 
Sabbath  was  thus  consecrated  as  a  solemn  festi- 
val in  remembrance  of  the  creation,  and  in  it  the 
Jews  were  required  to  rest  from  their  labour  in 
honour  of  God,  their  creator  and  the  creator  of  the 
world,  and  to  employ  this  rest  in  religious  me- 
ditation, and  in  celebrating  his  perfections. 
Hence  the  Hebrew  psalms  intended  for  the  Sab- 
bath day  were  hymns  of  praise  to  God  for  his 
trreatness,  as  manifested  in  his  works — e.  g., 
Ps.  xcii.  1,  seq.  This  reference  of  Moses  to 
the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  in  what  he  says 
of  the  consecration  of  the  seventh  day  in  his 
history  of  the  creation,  is  so  evident,  thai  it  was 
perceived  by  many  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers 
— e.  g.,  Philoponus,  in  the  sixth  century,  in  his 
Hexffimer,  1.  i.  c.  3. 

Eichhorn,  in  his  "  Urgeschichte,"  has  endea- 
voured, very  ingeniously,  to  carry  out  this  idea 
respecting  the  object  fir  which  Moses  wrote. 
Vide  Repertor.  fiirbibl.  Lit.  th.  iv..s.  lOD— 17'2; 
Leipziir,  1771);  and,  Eichhorn's  Urgeschichte, 
herausgejreben  mil  Einleitung  und  Anmerkiin- 
iren,  von  Dr.  Job.  Phil.  Gabler,  1  th.  Aitorf  und  » 
NurenberiT,  1790,  8vo,  and  Ite  Abtb.  des  -Jn  lb., 
at  the  same  place,  1701.  Cf.  Gabler,  Neuer 
Versuch  iiber  die  Mosaische  Schupfungsy'cs- 
chichte  aus  der  htibern  Kritik ;  Aitorf,  1795, 
8vo ;  and,  Vater,  in  his  "  Comuientar  7.u  dem 
Pentateuch,"  th.  iii.  Eichhorn,  however,  main- 
tains that  Mosea  fabricated  this  whole  history 
of  the  creation,  for  the  mere  purpose  of  esta- 
blishing some  truth,  or  of  sanctioning  some  of  - 
his  religious  institutions.  But  this  opinion  ■ 
cannot  be  proved,  and  only  involves  us  in  new  * 
difliculties.  There  is  no  reason  to  regard  this 
history  as  a  fabrication  of  Moses  hiniselt',  be- 
cause he  is  not  known  in  any  other  case  to  have 
invented  fables  to  recommend  his  most  import- 
ant laws  and  institutions.  Others  are  of  npi. 
nion,  that  he  found  this  history  previously  ex- 
istintr,  and  applied  it  to  the  contirmation  of  his 
institutions.  That  such  was  the  case  cannot, 
however,  be  |)rovi'd,  as  he  himself  is  silent  upon 
the  subject.  Such  mi  a  h  t  Unvi^  been  the  case; 
and  the  su|>position  detracts  nothing  from  the 
author  of  the  be /k  of  Genesis.     This  opinl:*? 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


173 


was  maintained  long  since  by  Astriic  in  his 
"Conjectures  sur  les  niemoires  originanx  dont 
il  paroit  que  Moses  s'est  servi  pour  composer  le 
livre  de  la  Genese,"  (Bruxelles,  1753,  8vo,)  and 
by  Jerusalem,  in  his  "  Briefe  ueber  die  Mosa- 
ische  Schrift  und  Phiiosophie,"  (Braunsciiw. 
1762,  8vo;)  who  endeavoured  to  shew,  that 
Moses,  in  his  first  book,  made  use  of  ancient 
narratives  orally  transmitted,  and  of  written  me- 
morials, derived  in  part  from  the  antediluvian 
world.  The  design,  then,  of  Moses,  (as  the 
following  chapters  of  his  first  book  shew,)  was 
to  preserve  in  Genesis  such  venerable  remnants 
of  antiquity  as  had  been  handed  down  from  the 
patriarchal  age.  Now  if  it  is  apparent,  as  even 
Eichhorn  allows,  that  Moses  made  use  of  such 
fragments  in  the  composition  of  the  second  and 
third  chapters,  it  is  hard  to  see  why  he  should 
be  supposed  to  have  fabricated  the  whole  narra- 
tive in  the  first  chapter.  Besides,  it  is  common 
for  the  ancient  traditions  and  religious  memo- 
rials of  a  nation  to  begin  with  cosmogonies. 
And  it  is  therefore  probable,  that  an  ancient  ac- 
count of  the  creation  had  been  transmitted, 
which  Moses  either  inserted  as  he  found  it,  or 
remodelled  to  suit  his  own  purpose.  All  this, 
however,  is  mere  hypothesis  and  ingenious  con- 
jecture. 

The  number  seven  has  been  a  sacred  number 
in  all  the  East  from  the  earliest  times.  Here, 
say  some,  is  the  ground  of  the  representation 
that  the  creation  lasted  to  the  seventh  day. 
But  how  can  this  be  proved  1  With  as  much 
reason  one  might  reverse  the  statement,  and 
say,  this  account  of  the  creation,  which  was 
widely  circulated  in  the  ages  before  and  after 
the  deluge,  was  the  reason  why  the  number 
seven  was  adopted  as  the  sacred  number.  And 
no  one  is  able  to  disprove  this.  Such  hypothe- 
ses never  lead  to  a  certain  result. 

As  respects  the  Sabbath,  it  was  not  first  in- 
stituted by  Moses,  but  was  an  ancient  usage,  as 
Michaelis  has  shewn  in  his^MosaischesKecht," 
and  others  after  him,  with  much  reason.  Moses, 
however,  found  it  necessary  to  enact  new  laws 
for  the  observance  of  this  ancient  institution. 
Eichhorn,  i.ideed,  considers  this  opinion  un- 
founded, though  without  sufficient  reason.  For 
we  find  this  day  hallowed  as  a  day  of  rest  T^mong 
the  Israelites,  even  before  the  legislation  of  Moses 
commenced.  Vide  Ex.  xvi.  23.  -The  Sabbath 
is  there  called  a  day  of  holy  rest  in  honour  of 
Jehovah.  Cf.  J.  W.  Ran,  Progr.  de  fictione 
Mosaica,  falso  adserta;  Erlansj.  1779.  Beck, 
De  fontibus  sententiarum  de  creatione  ;  Lipsas, 
1782,  4to.  Paulus,  Abhandlung  ueber  die  An- 
lage  und  den  Zweck  des  ersten  und  zweyten 
Fragments  der  altesten  Mosaischen  Menschen- 
gpsehichte,  in  his  Neu.  Reper.  fiir  bibl.  und 
aiorgendland.  Lit.  th.  ii.  Num.  5;  Jena.  1790, 
8vo.     He  considers  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis 


as  an  ancient  Sabbath-hymn,  which  owes  its 
whole  form  and  structure  to.tiie  division  of  lime 
into  six  days  for  labour,  and  a  day  of  rest. 

II.  Consequences  from  these  General  Be/narks. 

If  the  remarks  made  in  No.  I.  are  true,  the 
following  rules  and  principles  must  be  adopted 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  history  of  the  crea- 
tion:— 

1.  Moses  did  not  write  as  a  naturalist  or  phi- 
losopher, intending  to  make  his  account  the  basis 
of  a  scientific  physiology.  Vide  Morus,  p.  73, 
s.  3,  Num.  2.  He  did  not  design  to  shew,  as  a 
naturalist  would  have  done,  the  manner  in  which 
particular  things  were  created.  The  opinion  was 
formerly  very  prevalent,  especially  among  the 
Jews,  that  the  Bible  was  a  general  repository  of 
every  kind  of  knowledge,  as  well  as  of  the  doc- 
trines of  faiih  and  morality,  or  at  least  that  it 
contained  the  first  germ  of  all  the  sciences;  and 
as  improvements  were  gradually  made  in  natural 
science,  they  were  supposed  to  be  contained  in 
the  Bible,  and  from  the  general  and  comprehen- 
sive nature  of  scriptural  language,  often  with 
great  appearance  of  truth.  But  in  this  attempt 
the  true  object  of  the  Bible  was  overlooked ; 
which  was  the  reason,  also,  that  allegorical  in- 
terpretation found  so  much  approbation  for- 
merly. 

The  writings  of  Homer  met  with  the  same 
fate  among  the  Greeks  which  those  of  Moses 
have  experienced  among  the  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians. Everybody  forced  his  own  system  upon 
these  writings,  and  found  it  confirmed  by  them, 
without  ever  thinking  that  learned  sciences  did 
not  exist  at  so  early  an  age  of  the  world,  and 
that  they  are  unsuitable  to  the  common  people 
of  any  age.  They  could  not  have  been  pos- 
sessed by  the  writers  to  whom  they  are  allri- 
buted,  nor  could  they  have  been  understood  by 
their  contemporaries. 

The  whole  representation  which  Moses  has 
given  of  the  creation  of  the  world  is  as  simple 
as  possible,  and  such  as  doubtless  was  perfectly 
intelligible  to  those  who  lived  in  that  infant  age 
of  the  world,  and  is  still  so  to  men  in  common 
life.  The  more  familiar  one  becomes  with  the 
views  and  wants  of  men  at  large — the  more  he 
is  able  to  place  himself  in  their  condition,  the 
more  justly  will  he  be  able  to  explain  this  pas- 
sage, and  the  more  fully  will  he  enter  into  the 
spirit  of  its  author.  In  the  Bible,  God  speaks 
with  men  after  the  manner  of  men,  and  not  in  a 
language  which  is  beyond  the  comprehension 
of  most  of  them,  as  the  learned  would  fain  make 
il  to  he.  Well,  indeed,  is  it  for  the  great  mass 
of  mankind  that  the  learned  were  not  consulted 
respecting  the  manner  in  which  the  Bible  should 
be  written ! 

When  the  study  of  nature  became  more  pre 
valent  in  the  seventeenth  century,  it  was  very 
P2 


174 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


common  amonj  Christian  interpreters,  who  at 
that  time  adopted. the  principle  before  stated, 
either  to  derive  their  systems  of  physiolojy  from 
the  writings  of  Moses,  or  to  force  them  upon 
him.  The  first  fault  was  committed,  though 
with  the  best  intentions,  by  the  otherwise  very 
deserving  Joh.  Amos  Comenius,  in  his  ''Synopsi 
physices  ad  lumen  divinum  reformatae."  He 
had  many  followers.  The  latter  fault  was  first 
committed  by  some  adherents  of  the  Cartesian 
philosophy.  They  believed  that  they  found 
many  of  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  Des  Cartes 
very  clearly  exhibited  in  the  writings  of  Moses. 
Des  Cartes  himself  appeared  to  be  of  this  opi- 
nion. Vide,  e.  g..  Job.  Amerpoel  (Cartesius 
Mosaizans),  Beaufort,  Rambert,  and  others. 

The  same  was  done  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  in  still  more  modern  times.  There  have 
always  been  some  who  have  believed  that  they 
found  the  various  philosophical  systems  of  New- 
ton, Wolf,  Hutfon,  and  Bergmann  in  the  writings 
of  Moses,  or  at  least  that  they  could  reconcile 
these  philosophers  with  him.  But  Moses  will 
as  little  confirm  the  theories  of  one  philosopher 
as  he  will  contradict  those  of  another.  All  the 
attempts  made  by  different  philosophers  to  an- 
swer objections  to  their  own  theory  drawn  from 
the  Mosaic  geogony,  or  to  draw  arguments  from 
it  to  confute  the  theories  of  others,  are  labour 
thrown  away.  C'f.  Silberschlag,  Geogonie,  odor, 
Erklarung  der  Mosaischen  EnierscbaflTung  nach 
physikalischen  und  mathematischen  Grundsat- 
zen,  3  tiile;  Berlin,  1780—83,  a  work  which 
contains  much  of  the  sort  above  mentioned.  Cf. 
the  '*  Neue  Theorie  der  Erde,"  by  the  same 
author,  containing  many  very  good  scientific 
observations,  but  also  many  rash  and  untenable 
positions.  Vide  also,  De  Luc,  Lettres  phy- 
siques et  morales  sur  I'histoire  de  la  terre  et  de 
I'homme,  Ji  la  Haye,  G  tom.  1779,  8vo.  Dr.  Ro- 
eenniullcr,  Antiquiss.  telluris  Historia;  Ulma', 
177G,  8vo,  is  very  useful  as  a  collection  of  ma- 
terials for  a  history  of  opinions,  ^c. 

2.  In  this  description  of  the  creation  regard  is 
shewn  to  the  comprehension  of  common  men, 
especially  of  men  in  that  early  age;  and  it  is 
not  improbable,  as  remarked  before,  that  it  may 
have  been  composed  by  Moses  from  ancient 
written  records. 

The  general  subject  of  this  passage  is  indi- 
cated in  ver.  1.  This  is  then  enlarged  upon  in 
the  following  verses,  not  to  gratify  the  curiosity 
of  scientific  men,  but  to  meet  the  wants  of  those 
who  lived  in  the  age  in  which  it  was  written, 
and  of  common  men  in  a",  ages.  This  amplifi- 
cation is  rntirely  simple  and  popular ;  and  wlien 
the  work  nf  creation  is  here  represented  as  a  sir- 
days^  wfir/,-,  it  is  to  be  considered  as  npt'rlttre,  in 
which  (Jod  appears  as  a  lniman  workman,  who 
accomplishes  what  he  undertakes  only  by  [liece- 
mcal,  and  on  each  successive  day  lays  out  and 


performs  a  separate  portion  of  his  businesi.  By 
such  a  representation  the  n/ition  of  the  ore  ation 
is  made  easy  to  every  mind  ;  and  common  peo- 
ple, seeing  it  so  distinctly  portrayed,  can  form 
some  clear  conceptions  concerning  it,  and  read 
or  hear  the  account  of  it  with  interest. 

Many  modern  writers  (e.  g.,  Paulus)  are  of 
opinion  that  Moses,  or  the  author  of  this  history, 
whoever  he  may  be,  designed  this  description 
merely  as  a  philosopheme  respecting  the  manner 
in  which  the  creation  might  have  taken  place, 
not  intending  that  it  should  be  understood  as 
literal  fact.  And  it  cannot  be  denied  that  we 
find  many  difficulties  in  the  whole  narration  con- 
sidered as  literally  true.  These  difficulties,  how- 
ever, do  not  justify  us  in  affirming  that  Moses 
did  not  design  to  represent  these  events  as  ac- 
tually taking  place.  On  the  contrary,  it  clearly 
appears  from  many  other  texts  in  his  writings 
that  he  did  intend  to  relate  these  events  as  literal 
facts.  He  himself  elsewhere  alludes  to  the 
creation,  as  Morus  justly  remarks,  (p.  73,  s.  3, 
n.  2.)  as  to  res  in  facto  posita;  as  Ex.  xx.  11  ; 
xxxi.  17. 

This  Mosaic  history  of  the  creation  teaches  us 
the  three  following  truths:  («)  that  the  world 
began  to  exist,  and  that  God  was  its  author, 
(Gen.  i.  1  ;)  and  that  the  world  therefore  is  not 
eternal,  and  God  is  wholl)'  distinct  from  the 
world.  (Jj)  That  the  constitution,  connexion, 
and  final  destination  of  all  exisiin<j  tbinsrs  are 
from  God  alone,  ver.  2,  seq.  (c)  That  the  uni- 
verse, and  especially  our  earth,  was  not  brought 
at  once  by  the  hand  of  its  Creator  into  the  f  >rrn 
and  state  in  which  we  now  see  it;  but  yet  within 
a  moderately  shnrt  time. 

Herder's  "  Aelteste  Urkunde  des  Menschen 
geschlechts"  contains  many  very  valuable  re- 
marks which  may  assist  one  in  placing  this  his- 
tory in  its  proper  light.  His  statements,  how- 
ever, are  frequently  obscure  and  enigmatical, 
and  built  in  a  great  measure  upon  hypothesis. 
Vide  a  review  of  this  work  in  the  "  Allgem. 
deutschen  Bihl.,"  thle.  25,  30.  But  the  "  Ur- 
geschichte"  of  Eichhorn  is  the  mo?^t  important 
work  on  this  subject.  It  was  first  putilished  in 
the  »» Repert.  fiir  bihl.  Liter."  th.  1 ;  Leipzig, 
1779;  and  edited  with  notes,  by  Gabler;  Altorf, 
1790.  These  are  also  a  number  of  essays  on 
this  subject  by  Dr.  Paulus  and  others,  in  his  Re- 
pertorium,  Memorabilien,  and  'i'heological  .lour- 
nal.  Cf.  Ilgen,  Hrkunde  des  .lerusalcm'scben 
Tempelarchivs,  and  Vater,  Commenlar  fiber 
den  Pentateuch. 

3.  From  this  history  of  thecreation  it  follows, 
that  our  globe,  and  the  race  of  men  tliat  now 
dwells  upon  it,  is  about  six  thousand  yoATi*  old. 
I  say,  ahiiut  six  thousand  years.  For  Moses 
does  not  give  us  an  exact  chronology,  and  time 
cannot  be  reckoned  with  certainly  from  the  ge- 
nealogies of  the  patriarchs,  beciuse    3nly  the 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


H« 


most  remarkable  men  and  their  families  are 
mentioned,  while  less  distinguished  names  and 
gonprations  are  omitted.  This  is  the  common 
custom  in  oriental  genealogies;  and  is  the  case 
m  the  first  of  ^Tatthew.  Besides,  there  is  a 
great  diffprence  between  our  present  Hebrew 
text  and  the  Cod.  Sam.  and  the  LXX.,  in  respect 
to  the  number  of  years;  although  the  readings 
of  our  texts,  on  the  whole,  are  far  better  sup- 
ported than  the  others. 

The  human  race  is  much  older  than  this,  ac- 
cording to  the  belief  of  some  other  nations — 
e.  g.,  the  Chinese  and  Indian.  The  whole  sub- 
ject, indeed,  presents  many  difficulties;  iftis, 
however,  strangej  that  Voltaire  and  other  ene- 
mies of  the  Bible  should  have  embraced  in  such 
a  credulous  and  partial  manner  the  monstrous 
and  unfounded  calculations  of  the  Chinese  find 
Indians  in  preference  to  the  evidence  which  may 
be  derived  from  Moses.  Some  have  endeavoured 
to  confirm  the  truth  of  the  Mosaic  account  of  the 
later  origin  of  the  human  race  from  the  more 
recent  origin  of  the  arts  and  sciences  among  men 
than  would  be  consistent  with  the  theories  be- 
fore mentioned,  and  from  many  other  considera- 
tions ;  which,  however,  in  themselves,  are  not 
satisfactory. 

One  important  question  in  relation  to  this  sub- 
ject remains  to  be  investigated:  Does  INIoses 
speak  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  first  creation  of 
the  globe,  or  only  of  a  iieiu  creation,  a  remodel- 
ling of  it,  and  planting  it  with  a  new  race  1  Cf. 
Morus,  p.  73,  n.  6.  Many  modern  naturalists 
affirm  that  the  earth  must  have  existed  much 
earlier  than  the  time  of  which  Moses  speaks, 
perhaps  a  thousand  years  ;  and  that  during  this 
earliest  period  it  must  have  undergone  astonish- 
ing revolutions,  to  which,  however,  no  history 
can  of  course  extend,  as  they  too||  place  before 
the  existence  of  the  present  race  of  men.  They 
think  these  tremendous  revolutions  are  proved 
by  the  sea-animals  which  are  found,  sometimes 
singly  and  sometimes  in  whole  layers,  upon  the 
highest  mountains  and  in  the  deepest  clefts 
of  the  earth,  far  distant  from  the  present  bed 
of  the  ocean;  by  the  remnants  of  plants  and 
beasts  found  in  climates  entirely  different  from 
those  in  wliich  they  are  native — e.  g.,  the  bones 
of  the  elephant  found  in  Liberia,  &c. ;  by  the  pe- 
trifactions which  are  found  deep  in  the  interior 
of  the  earth,  &c.  All  these  appearances  are  con- 
sidered by  some  as  proof  that  great  alterations 
have  taken  place  in  the  earth  which  lie  far  be- 
yond the  reach  of  our  history.  Vide  Buffon  and 
Justi,  Geschichte-des  Erdbodens  aus  seinen 
innerlichen  und  ausserlichen  Beschaffenheiten 
hergeleitet  und  erwiesen;  Berlin,  1771,  8vo; 
Bergmann,  Physikalische  Beschreibung  der 
Erdkugel;  Greifswald,  17G9.  Other  great  na- 
turalists, however,  even  Linneus,  Haller,  De 
Luc,  and  Silberschlag,  do  not  think  these  facts 


are  incontrovertible  proof  of  what  many  have  so 
confidently  deduced  from  them. 

Many  modern  interpreters  and  theologians 
have  supposed,  in  order  to  reconcile  more  easily 
the  account  of  Moses  with  the  assertions  and 
hypotheses  of  modern  naturalists,  that  Moses 
speaks  of  the  creation  of  tlie  whole  universe  in 
the  first  verse  only  ;  and  that  from  ver.  2  on- 
wards he  turns  exclusively  to  the  earth,  and  then 
describes,  not  its  first  creation,  but  only  a  re- 
formation and  new  constitution  of  it.  They  sup- 
pose, accordingly,  that  in  the  first  verse  he  in- 
tends to  say  Simply,  God  created  the  whole 
universe,  without  determining  when,  and  that  in 
the  following  verses  he  has  particular  reference 
to  the  earth,  and  describes  its  present  formation, 
without  determining  whether  it  took  j)lace  at  the 
very  time  when  God  created  the  universe  or  a 
thousand  years  afterwards,  when  the  earth  may 
have  been  already  once  or  many  times  inhabited 
by  different  races  of  beings.  They  have  endea- 
voured once  to  establish  this  hypothesis  even  by 
other  texts  of  scripture,  as  Ps.  civ.  6 — D,  which 
indeed  is  an  amplification  of  the  Mosaic  account 
of  the  creation,  but  which  gives  no  intormation 
respecting  the  time  or  the  duration  of  this  revolu- 
tion, and  none  respecting  a  race  of  creatures 
previously  existing  upon  the  earth.  The  pas- 
sage, 2  Pet.  iii.  G,  is  cited  with  still  less  propriety 
in  support  of  tiiis  hypothesis.  The  o  rort  xoa- 
fioi  refers  undoubtedly  to  the  men  who  lived  be- 
fore the  flood ;  as  appears  from  chap.  ii.  5. 

The  following  remarks  may  enable  us  to  de- 
cide with  regard  to  this  hypothesis: 

It  is  true  that,  from  ver.  2  onwards,  Mosea 
confines  himself  principally  to  our  globe,  though 
still,  in  ver.  14 — 19,  he  describes  the  creation 
of  the  heavenly  bodies;  which  description,  ac- 
cording to  this  hypothesis,  must  be  considered 
as  merely  optica/,  intended  to  convey  the  idea 
that  these  bodies  then  for  the  first  time  became 
visible  from  the  newly-formed  earth.  But  it 
cannot  be  proved  that  Moses  intended  from  ver. 
2  to  describe  only  a  new  formation  of  the  earth. 

1.  He  always  distinctly  connects  the  creation 
of  the  earth  with  that  of  the  rest  of  the  universe, 
and  he  uses  expressions  so  entirely  similar  re- 
specting the  two  that  open  violence  must  be  done 
to  his  words  before  they  can  be  understood  to 
refer  at  one  time  to  a  re-formation  of  the  ear'h, 
and  at  another  to  its  original  creation,  according 
to  this  modern  hypothesis — e.  g..  Gen.  ii.  1, 
"Thus  the  heavens  and  the  earth  were  com- 
pleted, and  all  the  host  of  them'''' — i.  e.,  all  crea- 
tures. YjX.  XX.  11,  "In  six  days,  God  made 
heaven  and  earth  and  sea,  and  ail  which  there- 
in is." 

2.  Those  who  consider  this  history  of  the 
creation  as  a  mere  human  production,  as  is  very 
common  at  the  present  day,  cannot  consistently 
admit  that  Moses  intended  to  describe  only  a 


176 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


remodelling  of  the  earth.  For  this  notion  is  too 
little  in  the  spirit  of  the  ancient  world,  and  too 
nicely  adjusted  to  our  present  physiological  and 
astronomical  knowledge,  to  have  occurred  to  an 
uninspired  historian.  Tlie  ancients  ;ilways  sup- 
posed the  earth  to  be  the  centre  of  llie  universe, 
and  the  author  of  this  history,  living  at  that  early 
period,  and  left  to  himself,  could  hardly  have 
conjectured  that  it  had  previously  undergone  any 
such  revolutions  and  changes  as  are  spoken  of. 
Cf.  s.  48,  II.  An  uninspired  author,  writing  in 
ancient  times,  could  scarcely  have  conceived 
that  the  earth  should  have  been  created  later 
than  the  other  heavenly  bodies,  since  they  were 
supposed  to  exist  principally  for  tlie  sake  of  the 
earth.  Thus,  on  the  supposition  that  this  record 
is  a  mere  human  production,  and  that  Moses, 
without  any  divine  influence,  inserted  it  in  the 
book  of  Genesis,  we  may  draw  an  argument  xar' 
iv^puirtov  against  the  truth  of  the  above  expla- 
nation. 

We  must  therefore  rest  in  the  belief  that  it 
was  the  real  opinion  of  Moses  that  God  created 
and  finished  the  whole  material  world,  the  whole 
visible  universe,  together;  and,  indeed,  in  that 
order  and  connexion  which  he  describes  in  the 
first  chapter  of  Genesis. 

The  hypotheses  of  modern  naturalists  resi)ect- 
ing  the  material  of  our  globe  can  neither  be  con- 
firmed nor  refuted  from  the  writings  of  Moses. 
Which  of  all  those  that  have  been  suggested 
is  true  ?  that  of  Wiiiston,  who  supposes  the 
earth  to  be  formed  from  a  comet;  that  of  Leib- 
nitz, who  makes  it  a  sunburnt  out ;  that  of  Buf- 
fon,  according  to  whom  all  the  heavenly  bodies 
are  fragments  broken  oflT  from  the  body  of  the 
sun  by  the  concussion  of  a  comet;  or  that  of 
Wideburg.  who  supposes  the  earth  to  have  been 
originally  a  spot  on  the  sun;  must  be  det-rmined 
on  other  grounds  than  the  testimony  of  Moses. 
Vide  Silberschlag's  *'  Geogonie"  for  an  account 
of  these  and  other  systems.  He  justly  rejects 
the  opinion  that  Moses  speaks  in  this  passage 
only  of  a  revolution  or  remodelling  of  the  earth. 

All  tiiese  hfarned  speculations  and  inquiries 
respecting  the  material  of  the  earth  &c.  lie  be- 
yond the  object  and  sphere  of  Moses.  And  any 
of  these  hypotheses  of  the  naturalists  may  be 
adopted  or  rejected,  the  Mosaic  ffeogony  not- 
withstanding. Nor  can  the  authority  of  Moses 
be  brought  to  decide  the  question,  whether  the 
whole  globe,  or  only  the  higher  regions  of  Asia, 
received  at  first  their  full  and  complete  forma- 
tion and  present  struclun;.  Herder  and  Doeder- 
lein  suppose  the  latter;  but  the  author  of  this 
record  appears  rather  to  favour  tlie  former.  He 
speaks  in  general  terms  of  the  earth — that  is, 
so  far  as  it  was  known  to  him.  Still  nothing 
can  be  determined  upon  this  subject  from  his 
authority. 

Note. — The  question  has  been  asked,  .11  what 


time  in  the  year  was  the  world  created f  I'he 
Jews  commonly  answer,  according  to  the  Chal- 
daic  paraphrasts  and  the  cabalists,  that  the  world 
was  created  in  autumn.  They  found  their  opi- 
nion princijially  upon  the  supposed  fact,  that  the 
patriarchs  in  the  most  ancient  times  commenced 
their  year  in  autumn;  but  of  this  there  is  no  de- 
finite proof.  Others  say,  in  the  spring;  with 
which  opinion  many  of  the  fathers  and  most  mo- 
dern Christian  writers  agree.  Scaliger,  in  the 
first  edition  of  his  work,  "  De  emendat.  tempp.," 
advocated  the  latter  opinion;  but  in  the  second 
edition,  the  former.  In  favour  of  liiis  opinion, 
Gen.  i.  11  is  cited,  '•  Let  the  earth  bring  forth 
grass  and  herb  ;"  which  suits  better  with  spring 
than  harvest.  Exod.  xii.  2  is  also  cited,  wher» 
it  is  said  that  the  month  Nisan  (April)  shall  be 
the  first  in  the  year  of  the  Jews,  (Sec.  Accord- 
ing to  Solinus  and  Macrobius,  the  Egyptians 
gave  out  the  summer  as  the  first  season  of  the 
year.  The  whole  inquiry  is  fruitless  and  idle; 
for  the  season  can  only  be  relatively  determined 
in  respect  to  the  situation  of  the  country  in 
which  our  first  parents  lived.  For  the  time  of 
the  seasons  is  not  everywhere  the  same;  when 
it  is  summer  in  one  place,  it  is  winter  in  an- 
other. 

SECTION  L. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  MOSAIC  HISTORY  OF 
THE  CREATION. 

I.  General  Account  of  the  Creation  of  t fit  World. 

p>u's->3 — i.  e„  the  first  of  all  the  events  in  tlie 
world,  that  with  which  the  history  of  all  things 
commenced,  was  the  creation  of  the  universe 
(heaven  and  earth,  s.  15)  by  God.  Philo  says, 
To*  iv  apxih  irtoitjricv,  Irjov  trsri  r<^'  n^iCjrot 
trloirjnf  rbv  ovpaiov,  De  Opif.  Mundi,  p.  IG,  Pf. 
And  so  Cicero  says,  "A  pimncipio  omnia  facta 
a  dii.t  et  comtilutu  *U7>/,"  De  OITiciis,  i.  1,  coll. 
De  Natura  Deorum,  i.  12.  Before  this,  God 
alone  existed  ;  and  he  gave  existence  to  every- 
thing which  is  exterior  to  himself.  In  the  same 
way  we  must  explain  iv  a^,x^  ';»'  "  Xoyoj, 
John,  i.  1.  " 'E5  Ui);t^it"  (ah  initio  mundi,) 
Hesiod,  Theog,  v.  15. 

Alter  prefixing  this  general  statement,  Moses 
now  (ver.  2)  proceeds  to  describe  the  creation 
of  the  earth;  vide  s.  19.  "The  earth  was 
wu.ile  (nn  is  apjilied  by  the  Hebrews  and  Ara- 
bians to  deserts  and  wasted  towns)  and  empty, 
(na,  void,  unoccupiid,  like  a  chamber  without 
f'lrniture;  so  in  Arabic.")  .Both  terms  occur 
in  Isaiah,  xxxiv.  11.  The  earth  is  thus  repre- 
sented as  a  rude,  formless  mass,  which,  toge- 
liier  with  tin-  rest  of  the  material  world,  is  now 
framed  by  the  artificer  in  the  space  of  six  days, 
and  which  grailually  receives  its  full  perfection. 
The  whole  description  is  after  the  manner  of 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


177 


men,  and  is  adapted  to  common  apprenension. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  description  of  the 
creation  of  man  in  the  second  chapter;  he  was 
made  gradually,  and  was  formed  like  any  other 
work  of  art. 

"  And  darkness  was  upon  the  deep  waters." 
o^nn  is  rendered  by  Luther,  die  Tiefe,  the  deep; 
a6v(j(roj  by  the  LXX ;  but  is  also  deep  waters, 
prof  uiidum, prof  undumpelagus ;  so  frequently  in 
the  scriptures,  the  sea — e.  g..  Gen.  xlix.  25 ;  Psa. 
cvi.  9.  The  meaning  here  is,  the  earth,  which 
was  then  overflowed  with  water,  was  in  dark- 
ness. Moses  and  the  ancient  Hebrew  prophets 
always  describe  the  original  condition  of  the 
earth  in  this  way.  It  was  all  an  open  sea,  dark 
and  dreadful.  The  water  gradually  subsided ; 
the  higher  regions  first  became  visible,  and  then 
the  low  lands ;  and  they  were  covered  with  light, 
as  is  described  below.  A  fuller  delineation,  and 
a  poetic  comment  on  this  passage,  is  contained 
in  Psa.  civ.  5 — 9.  Moses  calls  the  mountains, 
the  eldest  sons  of  the  earth — tliose  which  the  earth 
first  produced,  Psa.  xc.  2,  because  the  mountains 
first  rose  from  the  water,  and  became  visible. 
Similar  opinions  respecting  the  original  con- 
dition and  primitive  form  of  the  earth  are  found 
among  other  nations — e.  g.,  the  Egyptians 
(Diod.  Sicul.  i.  7)  and  the  Phenicians,  (Euse- 
bius,  Prsep.  Evan.  i.  10,  taken  from  Sanchuni- 
athon.)  They  supposed  that  in  the  beginning 
all  was  confused,  gloomy,  and  dark.  So  the 
Orphean  Hymns  represent.  And  this  supposition 
is  in  itself  very  natural ;  for  darkness  commonly 
precedes  light;  disorder,  order;  and  emptiness, 
fulness.  The  overflowing  of  water  is  still  the 
occasion  of  the  most  wide-spread  desolation,  and 
even  of  great  alterations  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  According  to  Homer,  'iixfaioj  was  the 
eldest  progenitor  of  all  the  gods;  and  from  him 
everything  proceeded,  11.  xiv.  201,  246;  xv. 
167,  seq.  Many  modern  naturalists  suppose  that 
the  bottom  of  the  sea  was  pressed  up  by  subter- 
ranean fire,  and  that  in  this  way  the  mountains 
and  firm  land  arose  above  the  waters.  On  this 
supposition  the  sea-products  found  upon  moun- 
tains are  explained.  Vide  Silberschlag's  "  Ge- 
ogonie."  Moses  does  not  contradict  this  opi- 
nion ;  but  neither,  on  the  other  hand,  have  we 
reason  to  believe  that  he  intended  to  teach  it. 
He  only  relates  the  fact  that  the  dry  land  ap- 
peared, without  determining  hoiu  'this  was 
brought  about,  whether  from  the  subsidence  of 
the  waters,  from  the  action  of  internal  fire,  or 
some  other  cause. 

a'cn  'J'-'r?  :^sn-\::  a^n-'x  nn.  What  is  here 
called  o'n*:'N  nn,  is  elsewhere  called  a-n'^N  rcu'j, 
Gen.  ii.  7  ;  Psa.  civ.  30 ;  the  spirit,  the  breath 
of  God,  which  vivifies  everything — i.  e.,  the  ef- 
ficient, all-animating,  all-creaiive  power  of  God. 
On  the  word  nn,  vide  s.  9,  and  s.  19,  IL  rp-\ 
23 


is  variously  explained.  The  LXX.  and  other 
Greek  interpreters  render  it  tm^ipfro,  moved 
over  the  waters.  The  Chaldaic,  Samaritan, 
and  both  the  Arabic  versions,  render  it  blew  over 
the  waters.  Others  render  it,  to  make  warm^ 
cakfacere,  (to  vivify;)  because  it  is  applied  to 
the  hatching  of  eggs  by  warmtli,  Deut.  xxxii. 
11.  Michaeiis  translates  it  from  the  Syriac,  to 
descend,  let  one''s  self  down,  sf  demittere.  In 
whatever  way  it  is  translated,  the  main  idea  re- 
mains tlie  same — the  ejfict  and  motion  produced 
by  the  almighty  power  of  God. 

II.   The  Six-days'  Work;  vcr.  3,  seq. 

1.  Introductory  remarks  upon  the  question, 
What  is  here  meant  by  days?  and  respecting 
some  difficulties  which  occur  in  relation  to  the 
whole  description,  and  the  manner  of  obviating 
them. 

It  appears  from  the  preceding  sections,  that 
God  may  be  supposed  either  to  have  created  at 
once  the  whole  system  of  things,  as  it  now  ex- 
ists, or  to  have  first  produced  tlie  material  from 
which  all  things  were  formed,  with  the  power 
to  develop  itself  gradually,  and  that  he  may 
have  caused  this  further  development  to  proceed 
by  means  of  these  natural  powers,  himself  ex- 
erting a  direct  influence  only  where  they  were 
insufficient.  The  latter  is  the  scriptural  idea» 
The  object  of  exhibiting  the  creation  as  a  six- 
days'  work  has  been  shewn  to  be,  to  render  the 
subject  perspicuous  and  intelligible  to  men;  to 
depict  before  their  eyes  the  manner  in  which 
each  thing  in  succession  was  accomjdished,  and 
the  whole  gradually  finished  under  divine  influ- 
ence and  direction. 

By  days  Moses  a})pears  to  have  meant  com- 
mon days  of  twenty-four  hours.  For  (c)  their 
limits  are  always  determined  by  morning  and 
evening,  which  being  understood  literally,  the- 
day  must  be  literal  also,  (b)  In  all  other  texts 
where  Moses  alludes  to  the  account  of  the  crea- 
tion, literal  days  are  always  clearly  presup- 
posed— e.  g.,  Exod.  XX.  11,  where  the  institu- 
tion of  the  Sabbath  in  described  ;  and  chap, 
xxxi.  17.  But  interpreters  find  various  di(n- 
culties  in  this  supposition.  How,  ihey  ask, 
could  so  much  be  done  in  one  day,  without 
heaping  together  too  many  miracles'?  or,  how 
could  Moses  s|»eak  of  days,  in  ver.  5,  8,  13,  be- 
fore the  sun  as  yet  existed,  which,  according  to 
ver.  16,  seq.,  was  not  until  the  fdurth  day  1  and 
many  more  questions  of  the  same  kind.  To 
avoid  these  difficulties  various  other  hypotheses 
are  invented.  Some  say  the  three  first  days 
were  periods  of  indefinite  length,  but  the  three 
last,  ordinary  days  of  twenty-four  hours;  so 
Michaeiis.  Others  understand  by  a>c>  through 
the  whole  description,  periods  of  indefinite 
length ;  or  they  prolong  each  day  into  a  moo 


178 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


strous  duration.  Accordinfr  to  Des  Cartes,  each 
day  was  a  thousaixd  year.i ;  six  thousand  years, 
therefore,  were  occupied  in  forming  tlie  earth  ! 
Accordinfr  to  Whiston,  each  day  is  oiie  year 
only.  But  such  conjectures,  as  everybody  sees, 
are  arbitrary  and  groundless. 

If  we  would  form  a  clear  and  distinct  notion 
of  this  whole  description  of  the  creation,  we 
must  conceive  of  six  separate  ;;/c/ures,  in  which 
this  ^reat  work  is  represented  in  each  succes- 
sive stage  of  its  progress  towards  completion. 
And  as  the  performance  of  the  painter,  though 
it  must  have  natural  truth  as  its  foundation, 
must  not  be  considered  or  judged  of  as  a  deli- 
neation of  mathematical  or  scientific  accuracy, 
so  neither  must  this  pictorial  representation  of 
the  creation  be  regarded  as  literally  and  exactly 
true. 

First  pidure ;  ver.  3 — 5.  The  earth,  before 
dark  and  invisible,  is  enlightened,  that  the  spec- 
tator may  be  able  to  see  it,  and  that  the  builder 
may  be  able  to  mould  and  fashion  the  materials 
upon  which  he  is  to  work.  This  light  is  of  pe- 
riodical succession,  causing  day  and  night,  be- 
cause the  whole  is  divided  into  days'  works. 
Whence  this  iiijht  proceeds  is  a  question  which 
cannot  properly  be  proposed  here ;  it  is  sufficient 
to  say  that  there  must  have  been  light  enough 
to  enable  the  spectator  in  some  measure  to  dis- 
cern the  objects  as  they  were  formed.  We 
cannot  conclude,  that  because  the  light  of  day 
at  present  proceeds  from  the  sun,  there  could 
have  been  no  light  before  the  sun  existed.  In- 
deed, there  are  otiier  luminous  bodies  besides 
our  sun,  which  shine  with  unborrowed  light. 
The  sun  itself  was  not  created  until  the  fourth 
day.  At  present  it  is  sufficient  that  it  is  alter- 
nately clear  and  obscure,  and  that  there  is  light 
both  for  the  artificer  and  the  spectator.  Proba- 
bly, however,  it  was  only  a  glimmering  and 
obscure  light,  like  the  morning  or  evening  twi- 
light. 

Second  picture  ;  ver.  6 — 8.  Though  light  has 
dawned  upon  the  earth,  an  ocean  still  encircles 
the  globe,  and  cloud  and  vapour  float  over  the 
waters.  The  upp/.r  water  is  now  separated  from 
the  under;  so  that,  as  the  EiTy|)tians  say,  /lea- 
ven  ntul  earth  may  no  more  he  commini^lcd  and 
united  in  one  ;««.is,  (Diod.  Sic.  1,  7,)  as  they 
were  o:i  the  first  day.  This  is  the  second  day's 
work. 

Third  picture ;  ver.  0 — 13.  After  this  great 
division,  the  other  great  movements  can  now 
proceed  without  hindrance.  The  builder  first 
applies  his  hand  to  the  inferior  portion.  He 
causes  the  dry  land  to  rise  from  the  Imrer  waters, 
and  separates  it  from  the  ocean,  and  from  the 
smaller  collections  and  currents  of  wati-r,  whicli 
now  flow  into  the  lower  re;jii>ns  oi"  the  earth. 
This  land  is  next  furnished  with  plants  of  every 


kind.  The  naturalist  m'ly  indeed  object,  that  \t 
is  incredible  that  plants  should  spring  t'roui  the 
earth  b>,tbre  the  appearance  of  the  sun ;  but  it 
does  not  follow  that,  because  such  is  the  uni- 
form course  since  the  universe  and  the  earth  are 
finished,  therefore  snch  must  have  been  the  case 
in  this  incipient  state.  Besides,  it  seems  that 
the  plants  were  only  created  on  the  third  day, 
and  grew  and  increased  immediately  on  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  sun  on  the  following  day.  On 
this  tiiird  day  the  earth  was  sowed  and  planted 
for  the  first  lime  by  Him  who  created  the  seeds 
and  plants.  And  as  we  frequently  sow  and 
plant  to-day  because  we  expect  that  to-morrow 
and  on  the  succeeding  days  there  will  be  wea- 
ther favourable  to  the  growth  and  germination 
of  the  seeds;  so  may  God  have  now  sowed  and 
planted  the  earth,  in  prospect  of  the  sun  which 
on  the  morrow  he  should  place  in  the  heavens. 

Fourth  picture;  ver.  li — 19.  The  superior 
portion  is  now  to  be  fashioned — the  upper 
waters,  or  the  atmosphere.  Here  now  the  ob- 
server discovers  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  appa- 
rently floating  in  a  high  and  immeasurable  dis- 
tance above  the  clouds.  These  henceforth  en- 
lighten the  earth  and  shed  their  influence  upon 
it.  The  little  moon  is  represented  as,  next  to 
the  sun,  the  greatest  liglit,  because  it  appears  so 
to  us.  A  painter  would  justly  be  accused  of  a 
fault,  if  he  should  otherwise  represent  it.  II« 
must  represent  it  as  it  appears  to  the  eye. 

Fifth  picture  ;  ver.  20 — 23.  The  i:pper  and 
lower  waters  are  peopled  with  inhabitants- 
birds,  fishes,  and  other  creatures  of  the  sea. 
The  supposition  sometimes  made,  that  Moses 
describes  the  birds  as  formed  from  the  waters, 
is  without  foundation. 

Sixth  picture  ;  ver.  21 — 31.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  dry  land  are  now  produced,  after  every- 
thing is  properly  prepared  for  them,  and  provi- 
sion made  for  their  sustenance — all  the  beasts 
of  the  field,  quadrupeds,  and  reptiles;  and, 
lastly,  man  himself,  the  loj-d  of  this  lower  cre- 
ation. He  is  not  introduced  into  his  dwelling 
before  it  is  entirely  ready.  The  house  is  first 
built,  and  then  the  occupant  enters.  Vide  the 
Article  on  the  creation  of  man. 

At  the  end  of  the  sixth  day  the  builder  once 
more  reviews  his  w  hole  work — "  He  considered 
everything  which  he  had  made,  and  behold  !  it 
was  very  good."  The  same  formula  of  appro- 
bation occurs  at  the  end  of  the  several  days' 
works,  with  only  two  exceptions — viz.,  («)  It 
is  entirely  wanting  at  the  end  of  the  second  day'* 
work,  (ver.  fl.)  In  some  MSS.  of  the  Septua- 
gint,  the  formula  is  here  introduced,  but  it  is 
wanting  in  others.  Zachariii  conjectures  (Bibl. 
th.  ii.  s.  31,  f.)  that  the  words,  "And  the  even- 
ing and  the  morning  were  the  scconil  tliV," 
which  now  stand  at  the  end  of  ver.  8,  should  ba 


WORKS  OF  GOD, 


in 


first  introduced  at  the  end  of  ver.  10,  before  the 
words,  "  and  God  saw  that  it  was  good  ;"  mak- 
ing' what  is  now  the  beginning  of  the  third  day's 
work  a  part  of  the  second.  But  this  transposi- 
tion is  unnecessary.  The  use  of  this  formula 
of  approbation  appears  not  to  be  regulated  by 
the  division  of  days,  but  by  the  completion  of 
the  larger  portions  of  the  creation.  All  the 
changes  which  the  water  was  to  undergo  were 
not  finished  at  the  end  of  the  second  day — they 
continue  even  into  the  third;  and  this  appears 
to  be  the  reason  why  the  formula  of  approbation 
is  omitted  at  the  end  of  the  second  day.  (6) 
This  formula  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  de- 
scription of  the  work  of  the  sixth  day,  imme- 
diately after  the  mention  of  the  creation  of  the 
boasts  in  ver.  2G.  Michaelis  and  Eichhorn  well 
o'jserve  here,  that  it  answers  the  purpose  of  a 
pause,  before  the  transition  is  made  from  the  in- 
ferior creation,  here  completed,  to  the  production 
nf  ma?i,  the  noblest  creature  of  the  earth. 

2.  Explanation  of  some  obscure  terms  which 
occur  in  the  description  of  the  six  days'  work. 

Ver.  3.  For  the  meaning  of  the  term  io  speak, 
as  used  here  and  in  Uie  rest  of  the  history  of  the 
creation,  vide  s.  47,  II.  1. 

Ver.  0.  p-i-in  is  translated  by  Luther,  Vesfe, 
because  the  Vulgate  hdiS  firmamentum,  which  is 
a  translation  of  the  atiptuifia  of  the  LXX.  p-i, 
the  root  of  this  word,  signifies,  in  stoiup  (with 
the  feet),  Ezek.  vi.  11 ;  xxv.  fi  ;  and  hence,  fo 
spread  out,  to  erpand,  to  hammer  out,  to  tread 
out,  (cdlcando  expandcre.^  Moses  and  the  other 
sacred  writers  always  use  this  term  to  denote  the 
heavens — das  Gewuibi,  fornix,  camera — the  wel- 
kin, the  expanse  over  our  heads;  elsewhere,  the  tent 
of  the  heavens.  The  origin  of  the  term,  and  of 
the  idea  from  which  it  is  derived,  can  be  best 
learned  from  Ezekiel's  vision,  i.  22,  23,  26 ;  x. 
1.  5,"riT  there  denotes  the  Jloor  of  the  throne  of 
God  in  heaven.  God,  the  Ruler  and  Judge, 
was  imagined  by  the  Jews  as  sitting  upon  a 
throne  in  heaven.  Other  nations  had  the  same 
conception.  According  to  Homer,  the  gods  sat 
with  Jupiter,  xp'^0^9  f  SaHtSc^,,  (upon  a  golden 
floor;)  II.  iv.  2.  The  upper  sanctuary  and  the 
throne  of  God,  then,  is  above  the  expanse  of  the 
heavens.  This  expanse  is  the  floor  upon  which 
he  places  his  feet,  and  over  which  he  rides  in 
his  chariot  of  thunder.  Vide  the. texts  cited 
from  Ezekiel.  Hence  the  whole  earth,  which 
has  this  pp-i  for  a  covering,  is  frequently  called 
the  footstool  cf  God.  By  rv-i  is  meant  («)  the 
atmosphere,  which  bears  the  rainy  and  stormy 
clouds:  also  (6)  whatever  is  still  above  them — 
all  that  the  eye  can  see  over  us  in  the  heavens. 
In  the  immeasurable  distance  of  the  blue  sky, 
high  above  the  region  of  the  clouds,  float  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars,  as  it  appears  to  the  eye. 
For  this  reason  they  are  placed  in  the  firma- 


ment, ver.  15,  17.  When  it  is  said,  v(r.  8, 
"  God  called  the  yp-i,  heaven,''^  it  is  as  much  as 
to  say,  what  we  call  heaven  is  God's  footstool ; 
what  we  behold  high  over  our  heads  is  under 
his  feet.  So  in  Homer  it  is  said,  "Men  call  it 
so;  the  gods  call  it  difierently."  The  Deity 
sees  everything  in  a  different  light  from  what 
we  do,  and  therefore  names  everything  differ- 
ently, to  speak  after  the  manner  of  men. 

Ver.  11,  12.  Nr-i  is  the  generic  name  for 
everything  which  grows  out  of  the  earth — the 
green  plant,  v"  is  the  specific  name  for  tree* 
and  arboreous  plants,  ar?  stands  for  the  herb 
and  lesser  plants.  j,nt  is  used  in  Hebrew  in  re- 
ference both  to  sowing  and  planting;,  like  the 
Latin  severe,  and  denotes  therefore  here  every 
kind  of  propagation. 

Ver.  14.  The  usefulness  of  the  heavenly  bo- 
dies to  the  earth  and  to  men  is  here  slated.  The 
word  P'N,  si g7i,  signifies  a  mark  for  the  division 
of  time.  The  sun  and  stars  are  intended  to  de- 
termine the  times,  (a^ny^c,)  the  days,  and  the 
years.  3'T^  are  not  so  much  the  four  revolv- 
ing seasons  of  the  year,  as  months.  For  (a)  they 
are  connected  with  years  and  days.  (6)  In  Ps. 
civ.  19,  the  o^-}pr>  are  said  to  be  determined  by 
the  moon,  because  they  are  defined  by  her  mo- 
tion : — '•  He  created  the  moon  for  the  con^puta- 
tion  of  time." 

Ver.  20.  v^'j',  webende  Thiere,  (moving  crea- 
tures,) Luther,  vnr  signifies,  to  swarm.  It 
denotes,  literally,  the  lively,  rapid  motion  of 
beasts  who  are  collected  in  great  multitudes. 
Hence  it  is  used  in  reference  to  fislres,  birds, 
and  other  animals — e.  g.,  Exod.  i.  7.  Here 
it  is  applied  to  sea  animals.  Cf.  Ps.  civ.  25. 
D'cr.-i  ^i~~^'!,  not  supra  calum,  but  to  heaven,  to- 
wards  heaven,  heavenwards ;  as  the  flight  of  birds 
appears  to  the  eye. 

Ver.  21.  a'jun,  Wallfische  (whales),  Luther, 
because  the  LXX.  have  xrrr^,  and  the  Vulgate 
ceti.  But  these  words  signify  all  great  fishes, 
pisces  cctacei.  The  Hebrew  word  is  used  for  all 
the  beasts  of  the  sea  of  the  greater  kind,  as 
Psalm  civ.  26  ;  for  the  crocodile,  Ez«k.  xxix.  3  ; 
xxxii.  2  ;  also  for  great  serpents,  rcn  is  the 
name  for  all  creatures  which  move  upon  the 
belly;  hence,  the  worm.  It  is  applied,  how- 
ever, sometimes  to  creatures  that  swim,  and 
even  to  quadrupeds  who  do  not  go  upright,  like 
man. 

Ver.  22.  113  denotes  here,  as  frequently,  the 
propagation  of  the  species,  or  the  bestowment 
of  the  power  to  propagate  the  race;  as  ver.  28  ; 
Gen.  xxiv,  60;  Ps.  cxxviii.  3,  4. 

Ver.  24.  A  division  of  land-animals;  (a) 
n':n2,  the  larger  kind  of  tame,  domestic  ani- 
mals, when  opposed  to  n^n.  (i)  tT"',  the  smaller 
kind  of  tame  animals,  (c)  T•vr^n'^,  the  wild 
beast. 


160 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ARTICLE  VI. 

OP  THE  CREATION   AND   ORIGINAL  CONDITION 
OF  MAN. 

SECTION  LI. 

OF  THE  NATURE  OF  MAN,  ESPECIALLY  OF  THE 
SOUL  OF  MAN,  AND  OF  HLS  DESTINATION. 

With  this  subject  it  will  be  most  convenient 
to  commence  this  Article.  After  this,  we  sliall 
consider  the  Musuic  account  of  the  creation  of 
man  ;  then,  his  happy  ori <^inal condition,  not  only 
as  described  by  the  Bible  and  by  Christian 
writers,  but  also  by  those  who  have  not  enjoyed 
the  light  of  revelation;  and  lastly,  t\\it preserva- 
tion ^nA  propagation  of  the  human  race. 

L  The  Nature  of  Man. 

1 .  Of  how  many  parts  does  man  cojisist  ?  The 
holy  scriptures,  and  even  those  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, constantly  teach  that  man  consists  of 
two  parts,  body  and  situI — e.  g.,  Eccl.  xii.  7, 
"The  dust  returns  agrain  to  the  earth,  of  which 
it  is  a  part;  the  spirit  returns  to  God,  who  gave 
it;*'  Matt.  x.  28,  "Fear  not  those  who  kill  the 
body,  but  cannot  kill  the  soul;^^  &c.  Nor  can 
we  suppress  the  conviction  that  there  is  within 
us  a  nature  different  from  the  body,  and  superior 
to  it — an  enlivening  and  quickening  principle, 
through  which  we  possess  the  power  of  feeling, 
thinking,  willing,  and  acting.  But  notwith- 
standing this  conviction,  there  have  always  been 
dillrrent  opinions  with  regard  to  the  constituent 
parts  of  human  nature.  Some  have  maintained 
that  either  the  soul  or  the  body  is  the  only  es- 
sential part  of  man  ;  while  others  have  main- 
tained that  he  consists  of  three  essential  parts, 
body,  soul,  and  spirit.  This  opinion  had  its  ori- 
gin in  the  cabalistic  and  Platonic  philosophy. 
'I'h(^  cabalisis  divided  the  human  soul  into  roj 
(lifi',  anima  vegctiva),  nn  (the  sensitive  soul, 
aniina  scnsiliia),  and  nrr:,  (the  rational  soul, 
anima  rationaiis.)  By  this  division,  however, 
tht'V  did  not  mean  to  teach  that  there  are  three 
ditlerent  substances,  but  three  dilTerent  powers  of 
one  substance.  Plato,  too,  as  appears  from  the 
history  of  philosojihy,  ascribed  to  man  a  two- 
fold or  threefold  soul,  but  neither  did  he  pretend 
that  man  consists  of  three  parts.  Somt^  modern 
philosophers,  who  have  lived  since  the  time  of 
the  schoolmen,  have  also  adopted  the  opinion  of 
the  cabalists,  and  divide  the  soul  into  three  parts ; 
wliile  others  defend  the  opinion  that  the  soul  is 
tw'fuld,  and  divide  the  whole  man  into  three 
parts.  But  they  express  themselves  so  obscurely 
and  ambiguously  that  it  is  oflon  doubtful  whe- 
ther by  these  divisions  they  understand  different 
substances,  or  only  various  powers  of  one  and 


the  same  substance.  The  Christian  theologians 
and  philosophers  who  believe  that  man  consists 
of  three  essential  parts  ditfering  from  each  other, 
sometimes  appeal  to  scripture  in  behalf  of  theii 
opinion.  They  quote  the  texts,  Luke,  i.  46, 
47  :  "  My  soul  magnifies  the  Lord ;  my  spirit 
rejoices  in  God,"  &c.  Is.  xxvi.  9,  and  espe« 
cially  1  Thess.  v.  23,  "That  your  .i;7iV»7  and 
soul  and  body  may  be  preserved  blameless  to  the 
coming  of  Christ ;"  also  Heb.  i v.  12.  The  first 
who  asserted  this  opinion  in  modern  times  was 
Theophrastus  Paracelsus,  who  was  followed  by 
Jacob  Boehmen,  Weigel,  and  other  iheosophists; 
also  by  Andr.  Riidiger  in  his  Physica  Divina. 
Luther  likewise  adopted  this  di/ision,  though 
it  is  very  clear  that  he  did  not  consider  spirit 
and  soul  as  different  substances,  but  only  as 
different  attributes  and  operations  of  the  same 
spiritual  essence.  Respecting  the  texts  of  scrip- 
ture above  cited,  it  may  be  remarked,  (ff)  That 
in  most  of  those  cited,  rtj'fvua  and  4^;^'?  are  sy- 
nonymous; as  in  Isaiah  and  Luke;  also  in  Heb. 
iv.  12,  where  they  may  be  rendered  either  life 
or  soul,  as  the  passage  refers  to  death,  or  the 
separation  of  the  soul  or  life  from  the  body. 
(6)  The  passage  in  the  epistle  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians  may  be  explained  in  two  ways.  As  Paul 
evidently  here  writes  in  strong  excitement,  he 
may  have  heaped  these  words  together,  though 
they  do  not  differ  in  meaning,  in  order  to  give 
his  admonition  more  effect.  So  Augustine  sup- 
posed, (De  Anima,  iv.  21.)  But  the  probability 
is,  that  he  meant  to  distinguish  rti'fvuo  and  4v;^^  ; 
not  meaning,  however,  by  any  means,  to  imply 
that  man  consists  of  three  essential  parts;  but 
only  to  distinguish  nvtvua  and  •4.»';f>;  as  two 
different  powers  of  one  substance.  Tliis  the 
Hebrews  and  Grecian  Jews  frequently  did. 
By  rtrfv^ia  and  nn,  they  often  meant,  the  supe- 
rior  faculties  of  the  soul,  the  reason  ,-  and  by  ■4'V;^>j 
and  C'cj  the  sensual  part,  which  we  possess  in 
common  with  the  brutes — the  desires,  Sinnlie/t' 
keit ;  Ps.  cxxxi.  2,  seq.  Josephus  says.  Arch, 
i.  1.,  ErtXoKi'  d  0f6j  ai'^piojtor,  ^ovv  artb  T^J 
yr.^  Xa3wi',  xai  rtitvua  tir^xFv  avrc^  xai  -^vxr^v. 
Philo  and  the  New-Testament  writers  frequent- 
ly use  ^vxK  and  4v;^ixoi  in  this  sense.  Vide 
Jude,  ver.  11>. 

[.V/7f, — The  theory  according  to  which  man 
is  divided  into  two  parts  is  called  dichotomy,- 
that  by  which  he  is  divided  into  three  parts, /ri- 
ehotomy.  The  latter  of  these,  so  rare  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  was  the  prevailing  theory  with  the 
early  fathers.  Vide  Tatian,  Orat.  ad  Greecos,  p. 
151,  seq. ;  Irenapus,  Adv.  Haeres.  v.  (•,  7,9:  Ori- 
gen,«fpia)i;^wi,  iii.  4;  Nemesius,  De  Nat.  Horn, 
c.  1.  It  was  indeed  opposed  by  Terlnllian,  and 
other  writers  of  the  Western  church;  hut  it  was 
still  believed  by  many  flislinofuished  C/hrislian 
teachers.  Trichotomy  is  charijeable  not  only 
upon  Paracelsus,  Boehmen,  Wcigcl,  and  other 


WORKS  OF  GOD 


181 


theosophists,  but  also  upon  Spener,  and  other 
so-called  Pietists  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
It  seems  to  have  .been  generally  believed  by 
those  of  a  more  deep  and  spiritual  religion,  and 
is  at  present  the  doctrine  of  the  more  evangeli- 
cal part  of  the  Lutheran  church.  Hahn  gives 
the  following  scheme  of  the  nature  of  man : — 

1.  2.  I  3. 

Spirit,  (Geist,ni'£tVa)  Soul,  (i/'cjcfi)     Body, (o-w/ia) 

Peculiar  to  man,  with     Common  both  to  man  and 

brute,  with  the 

(fl)  Reason  (ff)  Under-   same  properties 

(i)  Will  standin?      as  other  matter, 

(c)  Conscience  (b)  Desire     and  the  exter- 

(c)  Feeling  nul  senses, 

V ; ^ > 

as  principal  attributes. 

Those  who  make  this  division  must  hold,  ac- 
cordingly, that  man  has  not  only,  in  a  higher 
degree,  that  same  understanding,  feeling,  and 
desiring  soul  which  is  seen  in  brute  creatures; 
but  that  he  possesses  also  a  nature  different /7i 
kt'ud  from  theirs,  and  by  which  he  is  raised 
above  them  to  the  rank  of  a  moral  being. — Tr.] 

2.  The  notion  of  soul  is  expressed  in  all  the 
ancient  languages  by  terms  which  originally 
signify  iviiid,  air,  breath.  And  from  this  fact 
we  can  learn  what  were  the  notions  originally 
entertained  respecting  the  soul.  However  ob- 
scure and  indefinite  they  might  have  been  in 
some  respects,  the  soul  was  always  conceived 
to  be  that  invisible  power  or  being  from  which 
the  body  derives  its  life  and  activity ;  and  this 
may  be  sufficient  for  practical  purposes.  Now 
a  man  lives  and  moves  only  so  long  as  he 
brcalhca.  Breath  is  that  mark  of  life  which  is 
most  obvious  to  the  senses.  Hence  such  terms 
as  literally  signify  breath,  were  naturally  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  life  and  the  soul  of  man. 
Thus  the  Hebrew  words  nn  and  nrrj,  and  the 
Greek  words,  -ievxri  and  nrfvjKa,  stand  for  the 
soxil.  Cf.  s.  9,  and  especially  s.  19,  H.  The 
word  l"d:,  from  rcj,  signifies  primarily,  apiracu- 
htm,  anhelitus ;  next  vita,  as  Ps.  xlix.  9,  10; 
then  atiimus,  as  Ps.  xvi.  10;  also  what  takes 
place  in  the  soul,  feelings,  desires.  &c.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  Latin  word  spirilus,  and  of 
the  w'ords  animus  and  anima,  both  of  which 
originally  signify  aura,  flatus,  halitus,-^nd  seem 
to  be  the  same  word  as  the  Greek  avt/xo^. 

3.  The  question  respecting  the  internal  nature 
and  the  quality  of  the  human  soul,  is  one  of 
those  difficult  and  obscure  questions  which  can 
xiever  be  satisfactorily  answered  in  this  life. 
It  cannot  certainly  be  decided  by  anything  in 
the  Bible.  The  soul  is  there  merely  contrasted 
with  the  body  (^i:'3).  The  latter,  we  are  in- 
f(;rmed,  will  return  to  the  earth  from  which  God 
created  it,  while  the  former  will  return  to  God, 


tvho  gave  if, — i.  e  produced  it  in  a  difl'f-rent 
way  from  the  body,  Eccles.  xii.  7.  This  is 
said  in  plain  allusion  to  the  account,  Gen.  i., 
respecting  which  vide  s.  52.  So  much  is  per- 
fectly evident  that  the  Bible  always  distin 
guishes  between  soul  and  body  as  differt^nt 
substances,  and  ascribes  to  each  peculiar  pro- 
perties and  operations ;  and  this  is  in  full  accord- 
ance with  the  manner  in  which  this  subject  was 
understood  and  represented  in  all  the  ancient 
world. 

We  should  mistake  very  much,  however,  if 
we  should  suppose  that  the  ancient  Israelites, 
merrly  because  they  distinguished  widely  be- 
tween soul  and  body,  possessed  those  strict, 
metaphysical  ideas  of  the  spirituality  or  imma- 
teriality of  the  soul,  which  ..u-  jiievaient  in  the 
modern  schools  of  philosophy.  Such  ideas  are 
by  far  too  refined  and  transcendent  to  belong  to 
that  age;  as  also  are  the  pure  metaphysical 
ideas  of  the  spirituality  of  God  which  now  pre- 
vail. The  whole  ancient  world,  Jews  and 
Greeks,  (as  likewise  the  savage  nations  of  the 
present  day,)  supposed  everything  which  moved 
to  be  animated  by  a  spirit,  and  this  spirit  to  be  a 
substance,  different  indeed  from  grosser  matter, 
but  still  somewhat  corporeal — a  subtle,  material 
essence,  like  the  vind,  air,  or  breath.  This  is 
proved  by  the  ancient  languages.  Vide  No.  2, 
and  the  remarks  on  the  spirituality  of  God,  s.  19, 
n.  See  the  remarks  on  this  subject  in  th« 
Progr.  "  Orig.  opinionum  de  immortalitate 
animi  apud  nationes  barbaras,"  in  Scripta  Varii 
argumenti.  No.  iii. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  evident, 

(a)  That  the  Bible  does  in  no  way  support, 
and  indeed  that  it  directly  contradicts,  that 
gross  materialism  which  denies  all  substan- 
tiality to  the  soul,  considering  it  a  mere  acci- 
dent of  matter  or  of  the  body.  Such  an  opinion 
respecting  the  soul  was  advocated  among  the 
Jews  by  the  Sadducees,  (Acts,  xxiii.  8,)  and 
among  the  Greek  philosophers  originally  by 
Dica^archus,  who  entirely  denied  the  existence 
of  the  soul  as  a  substance  distinct  from  the 
body  ;  Cicero,  Tnsc.  i.  10.  This  same  doctrine 
has  been  advocated,  as  is  well  known,  in  mo- 
dern times,  by  Hobbes,  Toland,  De  la  Mettrie, 
the  author  of  the  "  Systeme  de  la  Nature,"  and 
others.  Indeed,  an  attempt  was  made,  unsuc- 
cessfully it  need  not  be  said,  to  reconcile  this 
gross  materialism  with  the  holy  scriptures,  by 
William  Coward,  an  En<rlish  physician,  in  his 
"Thoughts on  the  Soul,"  London,  1701.  Priest- 
ley, too,  made  a  vain  attempt  to  prove  from  the 
Bible  his  ideas  respecting  the  soul,  which  lead 
so  decidedly  to  materialism.  But  from  what 
has  been  said,  it  is  equally  evident, 

(b)  That  the  Bible  does  not  support  the  mo- 
dern, fine-spun,  metaphysical  theories  respect- 
intr  the  perfect  spirituality  and  immateriality  of 


IftH 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY, 


the  soul.  The  notion  of  the  ancient  world  re- 
specting spirit  was  by  no  means  the  same  with 
that  of  our  modern  metaphysicians.  And  if  the 
qiiL-btion  of  the  perfect  immateriality  of  the  soul 
had  been  left  to  them,  and  theologians  had  stop- 
ped where  the  Bible  does,  and  omitted  these  in- 
quiries, the  object  of  which  lies  far  beyond  their 
sphere,  they  would  have  done  wisely.  This 
doi-trine  respecting  the  iinmaterialily  of  the  soul, 
in  the  strict  pliilosophical  sense  of  the  term,  is 
of  far  less  consequence  to  religion  than  is  com- 
monly supposed.  The  reason  why  so  mucli 
imp'Ttance  has  been  supposed  to  attach  to  tliis 
dc'-trine  is,  iliat  it  was  considered  as  essential 
to  the  metaphysical  proof  of  the  immorfuUly  of 
the  soul.  But  since  the  immateriality  of  the 
8oui,  in  the  strictest  sense,  can  never  be  made 
fully  and  obviously  certain,  whatever  philoso- 
pliical  argvimenls  may  be  urged  in  its  favour, 
the  pMof  of  iiiimortaliiy  should  not  be  built  upon 
it.  Xor  were  the  fine-spun  theories  of  immate- 
rial ism  ever  resorted  to  by  theologians  to  prove 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  or  ascribed  by  them 
to  the  Bible,  until  Hobbes,  Toland,  De  la  Met- 
trie,  and  otiier  materialists,  had  so  perverted 
the  doctrine  of  materialism  as  to  deduce  from  it 
the  destructihility  of  the  soul,  or  its  annihila- 
tion at  the  death  of  the  body.  But,  in  truth, 
the  immortality  of  the  soul  does  neither  depend 
for  proof  upon  its  iininateriality,  nor  can  he  cer- 
tainly deduced  from  it.  It  is  possible  for  one 
to  doubt  whether  the  strict  immateriality  of  the 
soul  can  be  proved,  and  yet  to  be  convinced  of 
its  immortality.  The  strongest  advocates  of  im- 
materiality must  allow  that  God  mii^hl  annihi- 
late a  spirit,  however  simple  its  nature  may  be. 
Why,  then,  on  the  other  hand,  niit^ht  he  not 
make  a  substance  not  entirely  simple  immortal  1 
The  immortality  of  the  soul  will  be  examined  in 
Book  H.  s.  119;  its  origin  will  be  investigated 
in  this  Article,  s.  57. 

II.   Tlic  Dcsti nation  af  Mini. 

The  question,  M^'liat  is  the  dcstinalion  <f  man? 
is  equivali^nt  to  the  inquiry,  IVIiat  am  I,  as  a 
mm?  Jllinf  huvt  I (ts  a  man  to  do  and  expect? 
Or.  more  deliniti^ly ;  IVhilhcr  lend  those  tciulen- 
eiei  hif  wfiich,  wil/ionl  mi/  own  choice,  I  feel  my- 
self  i nipelUd  ?  llli'tt  have  I  to  do,  in  conformity 
with  those  more  de>p  and  essential  powers  ami  ea- 
pncilits  if  my  nature  ii'hich  cannot  be  overlooked 
or  (ffdc.ed?  and,  JVhcn  I  have  acted  in  conformity 
with  them,  what  am  T  to  expect  ? 

A  feeling  of  morality — the  sentiment  of  an  in- 
delible distinction  betwet-n  right  and  wrong — 
lies  deep  in  the  soul  of  every  man.  There  is  a 
principle  imi)laiited  in  our  very  nature,  by  which 
we  approve  tiiat  disposition  which  corresponds 
to  riu;ht,  and  disapprove  that  which  is  opposed 
to  it.  This  regard  for  a  moral  law  is  deeply 
inwrought  into   the  heart.     Nor  is  there  any- 


thing more  fundamental  in  our  constitution  than 
this;  and  we  may  presume  that  the  good  to 
which  this  our  moral  nature  points  us  is  the 
>ery  highest  good ;  and  it  coVsisis  in  moral  per- 
fection, and  that  well-being  which  is  connected 
with,  and  dependent  upon,  holiness.  Increasing 
holiness,  then,  and  the  happiness  connected  with 
it,  are  the  destination  of  man.  Without  moral 
excellence  no  one  can  be  happy;  and  to  seek 
for  happiness  without  it  is  mean  and  base.  'I'his 
is  the  doctrine  of  the  scri])tures  both  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament — e.  g..  Lev.  xi.  44 ;  xix. 
•2;  1  Thess.  iv.  3,  7;  2  Cor.  vii.  1 ;  Heb.  xii. 
10,  14,  seq.  In  the  creation  of  the  world,  God 
must  have  designed  to  impart  to  every  creature 
that  degree  of  perfection  and  of  well-being  of 
which  it  should  be  susceptible.  For  the  attain- 
ment of  this  great  end  he  employs  the  most  suit- 
able means.  This  results  inevitably  from  his 
icisdom  i  vide  s.  24,  I.  Now,  since  man  is  by 
far  the  nobh^st  of  all  the  living  creatures  who 
inhabit  the  earth,  and  possesses  the  most  supe- 
rior powers,  especially  of  an  intellectual  kind, 
he  must  have  been  created  by  God  for  a  more 
exalted  end,  and  with  a  higher  destination,  than 
that  of  other  creatures.  In  consequence  of  the 
greater  perfections  with  which  he  is  endowed, 
he  is  capable  of  a  higher  degree  of  happiness, 
for  the  attainment  of  which  he  is  incited  to  strive 
by  the  obligations  arising  from  his  moral  nature. 

1.  The  destination  of  man  in  this  life  embraces 
the  following  particulars: — 

(a)  Man  possesses  the  right  and  the  power 
to  make  use  of  the  other  creatures  of  the  earth 
tor  his  own  advantage.  He  is  dominus  in  res 
creatns.  Gen.  i.  2t>,  seq.;  Psa.  viii.  This  right 
he  possesses  by  virtue  of  the  rational  and  moral 
nature  which  God  has  given  him. 

(J))  As  lord  of  the  other  creatures,  man  accom 
|)lishcs  the  design  of  God,  or  his  own  destina- 
tion, when,  together  with  his  concern  for  his 
own  welfare,  he  promotes  in  every  |)ossible  way 
the  comfort  and  welfare  of  all  his  fellow-crea- 
tures, and  especially  the  happiness  of  his  fel- 
low-men. with  whom,  according  to  the  design 
of  God.  he  stands  in  the  closest  and  most  inti- 
mate relation.  Cf.  Acts,  xvii.  2(5.  To  this  he 
is  also  obliijed  by  tlie  divine  law,  which,  whe- 
ther externally  revealed,  or  written  on  his  ht'art, 
requires  him  to  love  his  neighbour  as  himst-lf. 

(c)  God  must  have  designed,  in  endowing 
man  with  such  noble  capacities  and  powers 
that  he  should  c\iltivaie  and  exercise  them  ah, 
and  employ  them  for  his  own  advantage  and 
that  of  his  fellow-creatures.  The  more  diligen'- 
ly  and  actively,  then,  we  employ  the  powers 
with  which  we  are  gifti'd  by  (Jod  for  the  good 
of  ourselves  and  others, —  the  more  we  seek  to 
develop,  cultivate,  and  by  constant  exercise  to 
strengthen  our  moral,  and  indeed  our  whole  na- 
ture, the  ujore  conformably  shall  we  live  to  the 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


189, 


end  for  which  we  were  made.  Diligence,  la- 
bour, and  activity,  are  indispensably  requisite  to 
the  fulfilment  of  our  destination.  Even  the  life 
of  paradise  is  not  described  by  Moses  as  idle 
and  inactive.  Man  was  there  to  be  employed 
in  *' tilling  the  ground,"  Gen.  ii.  5,  15.  The 
improvement  of  all  our  powers  and  capacities  is 
the  end  of  our  rational  nature;  and  all  the  care 
and  etfort  which  we  may  now  bestow  upon  the  im- 
provement of  our  powers  will  prepare  us  richly 
for  whatever  we  are  to  be  or  to  do  hereafter. 
To  cultivate  and  improve  our  whole  nature  is 
the  duty  daily  allotted  us  by  God. 

(t/)  But  man  should  be  especially  attentive  to 
the  improvement  of  his  higher  nature — his  spi- 
rit. Man  alone,  of  all  the  creatures  on  the 
earth,  possesses  the  distinguishing  excellence 
of  a  rational  soul,  and  oi freedom  of  will.  This 
is  all  which  gives  his  existence  an  absolute 
worth  ;  this  is  that  true  inborn  nobility  which 
essentially  raises  him  above  the  rank  of  all  his 
fellow-creatures  upon  the  earth.  By  the  pro- 
per use  of  his  reason,  and  of  all  the  higher 
powers  of  his  spirit,  man  becomes  capable  of 
a  happiness  of  which  no  other  creature  on 
the  earth  is  capable.  This  higher  happiness 
is  founded  upon  the  knowledge  of  truth  and 
moral  good,  and  especially  upon  religion,  or 
the  knowledge  and  reverential  love  of  God,  of 
which  man  alone  is  capable,  and  which  is  the 
most  powerful  means  of  promoting  holiness. 
Vide  Introduction,  s.  2.  seq.  Now  it  is  a  law  of 
reason,  and  so  the  design  and  will  of  God,  who 
has  given  us  our  reason,  that  the  moral  powers 
and  faculties  of  our  nature  should  be  developed 
and  strengthened  by  exercise.  Consequently,  to 
exercise  these  powers — to  do  justly,  and  shew 
mercy,  in  all  the  circumstances  in  which  we  are 
placed — is  the  way  for  us  to  discharge  our  pre- 
sent duty,  and  to  testify  our  love  to  God.  And 
every  instance  in  which  we  neglect  to  improve 
the  opportunities  afforded  us  of  exercising  and 
improving  our  moral  powers  is  a  failure  in  duty, 
which  is  always  attended  with  hurtful  conse- 
quences. 

The  book  of  Ecclesiastes  contains  many  ex- 
cellent rules  for  the  accomplishment  of  our  des- 
tination upon  the  earth,  most  of  them  in  the  form 
of  proverbs ;  as  ii.  24 ;  iii.  12,  seq. ;  v.  17  ;  ix.  9. 
They  may  be  briefly  expressed  as  follows: — 
Man  is  happy,  and  lives  according  tolhe  end  for 
which  iie  was  made,  "when  he  wisely  enjoys 
the  present;  when  in  the  right  way  he  seeks  for 
peacefulness  of  soul,  clieerfulness,  and  serenity 
of  mind  ;  wiien  he  fulfils  his  social  duties;  when 
he  loves  and  serves  God,  and  is  active  and  dili- 
gent in  the  employment  of  his  powers;  remem- 
bering that  ho  does  not  exist  merely  for  himself 
and  for  the  sake  of  selfish  enjoyment,  but  for  the 
Bake  of  benefiting  others,  as  far  as  he  is  able." 

St.  The  destination  of  mran  beyond  the  grave. 


That  man  was  not  made  for  the  present  Ii  Je  alone 
is  a  doctrine  which,  although  by  no  means  un 
known  before  the  time  of  Christ,  had  not  as  yet 
been  clearly  and  distinctly  revealed.  But  Christ 
and  his  apostles  inculcated  this  encouraging  and 
consoling  truth  with  great  earnestness,  and  made 
it  the  basis  of  all  their  exhortations.  Vide  2 
Cor.  iv.  18  ;  Phil.  iii.  20 ;  Col.  iii.  1—4.  It  may 
be  adopted  as  a  first  principle,  that  the  right  en- 
joyment and  the  proper  use  of  tlie  present  life  is 
the  best  preparation  for  happiness  in  the  life  to 
come;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  constant  and  ear- 
nest effort  to  prepare  for  happiness  in  ihe future 
world  is  the  best  way  to  be  happy  here.  Cf.  1 
John,  iii.  2,  seq.  In  order  that  we  may  be  pre- 
pared for  future  happiness,  and  capable  of  en- 
joying it,  we  must  be  holy.  "  Without  holiness 
no  man  can  see  the  Lord,"  Heb.  xii.  14.  And 
the  greater  the  advances  we  make  in  holiness, 
knowledge,  and  the  practice  of  known  truth  ia 
the  present  life,  the  greater  will  be  our  happiness 
in  the  life  to  come.  There  is,  and  must  be,  a 
close  and  unalterable  connexion  between  our 
holiness  here  and  our  happiness  hereafter. 

Xofe. — From  these  observations,  which  we 
think  just  and  scriptural,  we  conclude  that  man 
is  placed  in  the  present  life,  principally,  indeed, 
to  prepare  for  tlie  next,  but  not  suUly  for  this 
purpose.  And  he,  it  must  be  allowed,  fails  of 
tiilfiUing  the  whole  end  if  his  beimr,  who  forgets 
the  present  in  the  hope  of  the  future,  or  who  la- 
bours in  such  a  way  to  prepare  for  the  life  to 
come  as  to  render  himself  inactive  and  useless 
in  this.  Future  blessedness  is  only  the  conti- 
nuation and  perfection  of  that  which  begins  here. 
And  we  must  now  begin  to  be  active,  holy,  and 
happy,  that  we  may  continue  to  be  so  in  a  more 
perfect  manner  hereafter.  Tiie  present  is  the 
time  to  sow  ;  the  harvest  will  come  in  the  future 
world.  He  therefore  who  does  not  sow  here 
cannot  expect  to  reap  beyond  the  grave.  It  is 
a  part  of  the  end  of  our  being  to  be  happy  even 
in  the  present  life,  however  inferior  may  be  the 
happiness  we  can  obtain  here  to  that  which  we 
hope  for  in  heaven.  Our  life  upon  the  earth  is 
an  end  as  well  as  a  means.  And  if  we  earnestly 
seek  to  do  the  will  of  (Jod,  the  present  life,  even 
in  itself  considered,  is  not  worthless,  though  its 
value  is  infinitely  raised  by  the  certainty  of  a 
future  life.  In  regard  to  the  proper  use  of  the 
time  now  allotted  us,  we  have  a  pattern  in  the 
example  of  those  pious  men  who  are  recom- 
mended in  the  Bible  for  our  imitation  ;  and  espe- 
cially in  the  example  of  Jesus,  which,  even  in 
this  respect,  is  the  most  perfect  of  all.  These 
hints  on  the  destination  of  man  are  carried  out 
in  Spalding's  "  Bestimmung  des  Menschen;" 
Leipzig,  1794;  and  in  the  Kssay  of  Tollner, 
"  1st  das  gegenwartige  Leben  nur  eine  Pru- 
fungszeit?"  in  his  » Theoloirishen  Untersu- 
chungen,"  th.  i.  s.  402,  f     Cicero,  in  his  Book, 


ltJ4 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


•' De  finibus  bonorum  et  malorum,"  states  the 
theories  of  the  various  schools  amon{r  the  Greeks 
respecting  the  summum  bumim,  or  the/mis  bono- 
rum. Seneca  calls  the  destination  of  a  thing, 
or  nt  a  man,  finis  naturx  suw,  suum  etijttsrjue 
(rei  sive  hominis)  honuin.  To  attain  or  fulfil 
one's  destiny,  he  calls,  adjiiiem  naturx  siue  per- 
venire.  s»ve,  altingerejliiem  nalurx  aua;^  Ep.  76. 

SECTION  UI. 

OF  THE  MOSAIC  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE 
HUMAN  RACE. 

I.  General  Remarks, 

Most  nations  have  some  ancient  traditions  re- 
epectiiicr  the  origin  of  the  human  race,  which, 
however,  differ  widely  from  each  other.  Many 
of  the  heathen  nations  believed  that  their  fore- 
fathers, or  the  human  race,  sprung  originally 
either  from  the  earth,  rocks,  trees,  eggs,  teeth, 
or  other  inanimate  things,  or  that  they  were 
produced  by  v/ild  beasts.  Vide  the  passages 
cited  in  Meiners'  "  Geschichte  der  Menschheit," 
B.  245.  There  were  comparatively  few  of  tlie 
ancient  heathen  nations  who  supposed  that  the 
human  race,  or  particular  nations,  were  derived 
from  gods,  heroes,  or  giants;  and  even  these 
differed  very  much  from  one  another  in  their  ac- 
counts ;  some  supposing  that  the  first  men  were 
Drought  forth  in  the  way  of  natural  generation 
Dy  these  superior  beings;  and  others,  that  they 
were  only  formed  by  the  gods  from  some  inani- 
mate material,'  earth,  stones,  &c.,  and  then  en- 
dowed with  life. 

In  the  first  and  second  chapters  of  Genesis, 
Moses  has  preserved  the  ancient  traditions  of 
the  Hebrew  nation  with  respect  to  the  origin  of 
man.  These  traditions  are  substantially  the 
same  with  those  of  other  oriental  nations,  and 
they  are  uniformly  followed  by  the  otiier  sacred 
writers.  As  here  recorded  by  Moses,  they 
breathe  the  very  spirit  of  the  ancient  world,  al- 
though they  exhibit  more  truth,  completeness, 
and  connexion,  than  are  found  in  the  traditions 
and  fables  of  other  nations  respecting  the  origin 
of  our  race. 

According  to  the  Mosaic  account,  the  whole 
human  race  is  derived  from  one  sti>ek,  as  Paul 
expresses  it,  i%  i^j  ouuaroj  nav  tjifoj  dv'i^MliTtnv, 
Acts,  xvii.  2('i.  Tho  first  man,  Adam,  was 
formed  from  the  earth.  Gen.  ii.  and  iii.;  Eccles. 
xii.  7;  1  Cor.  xv.  47;  o  jtptJroj  oij^pwrfoj  ix  yrj, 
xnixoi-  Eve  was  firmed  afterwards,  and  from 
Adam,  Genesis,  ii.  18,  seq.;  I  Cor.  xi.  H,  yiijj 
i^  ivSiJoj.  Some  modern  investigators  of  nature 
have  supposed  that  the  distinction  found  between 
the  races  of  men  cannf)l  be  accounted  for  on  the 
supposition  that  they  all  have  proceeded  from 
one  stock.  They  have  conjectured,  accordingly, 
that  many  different  pairs  of  men  were  originally 


I  made.  That  climate,  manner  of  life,  means  of 
!  subsistence,  &:c.,  could  have  produced  all  the 
variety  which  is  perceived  among  the  different 
races  of  men  is  what  they  will  not  allow.  But 
others  aflirm  that  all  the  arguments  adduced  in 
support  of  this  hypothesis  are  unsatisfactory  ; 
and  contend,  with  strong  reasons,  for  a  contrary 
opinion.  Among  these  is  Forster.  Cf.  his 
"  Bemerkungen  auf  seinen  Reise  uin  die  Welt," 
8.  22G— 254;  Berlin,  1783.  Also  Kant,  Ueber 
die  verschiedenen  Racen  der  Menschen;  K6- 
nigsberg,  1775,  4to;  Blumenbach,  De  generis 
humani  varietate  naliva;  Gottinga;,  177G,  8vo. 
Other  nations  beside  the  Hebrews  have  believed 
that  the  huinan  race  descended  from  one  original 
pair.  Nor  is  it  necessary  to  suppose  that  they 
derived  their  belief  on  this  point  from  the  ac- 
count of  Moses.  The  supposition  that  the  whole 
human  race  has  descended  from  one  pair  might 
naturally  arise  from  various  circumstances — 
from  the  gradual  peopling  of  countries  round 
about — from  the  old  family  tradition,  that  for- 
merly the  number  of  the  human  race  was  com- 
paratively small — and  from  the  observation  of 
the  large  and  rapid  increase  of  single  families. 
Besides,  these  other  nations  might  have  derived 
much  of  what  they  believed  respecting  the  ori- 
gin of  man  by  direct  oral  tradition  from  the 
earliest  times. 

^Xote. — The  question  so  much  discussed 
among  anthropologists  respecting  the  different 
races  of  men,  and  their  descent  from  one  ori- 
ginal pair,  is  of  very  considerable  interest  both 
to  tiie  theologian  and  the  philanthropist.  It  has 
an  essential  bearing  upon  the  doctrines  of  in- 
herited corruption,  and  of  the  atonement.  But 
its  most  important  bearing  is  upon  our  duty  to 
a  very  numerous  race,  who  have  long  been  ex 
eluded  from  the  rights  and  privileges  of  frater- 
nity in  the  human  family.  Lactantius  has  well 
said,  (Div.  Inst.  v.  10,)  .S7  ah  una  homine,  qtum 
Dcus  finxit,  otnnes  orimur,  eerte  consangujnei 
suMUs;  ft  tdio  maximum  sce/us  pulandum  est, 
odisse  hnminem  vel  nocente.m.  And  this  prac- 
tical influence  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the 
consanguinity  of  all  nations  may  be  seen  in  the 
extensive  abolition  of  negro  slavery  by  Chris- 
tiat)  nations. 

It  deserves  to  be  noticed  that  this  scriptural 
doctrine,  which  is  so  connected  with  the  highest 
interests  of  humanity,  has  been  successfully  vin- 
dicated on  the  !Troim<l  f>f  physiologv  against  the 
ingenious  and  plausible  attacks  of  those  who 
make  equal  opposition  to  the  Christian  scriptures 
and  to  African  tVeedom.  In  addition  to  the 
works  recommended  by  our  author,  we  may 
mention  that  of  H.  F.  Link,  "Die  Krwelt  und 
das  Alterthum;"  Berlin,  1821.  There  is  one 
physiological  argument,  which,  it  would  seem, 
must  be  conclusive  against  the  supposition  that 
the  negro  belongs  wholly  to  »  lifferent  kind  from 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


lt» 


Ihe  white — viz.,  the  offspring  of  the  mixture  of 
different  genera  cannot  propagate  their  own  spe- 
cies. We  know  this  is  not  the  case  with  regard 
to  the  children  which  are  born  from  the  min- 
gling of  the  white  and  negro  races.  The  essen- 
tial characteristic  marks  of  the  human  kind  are 
the  rational  and  moral  powers  with  which  man 
is  endowed  ;  and  those  in  whom  we  can  find  the 
least  traces  of  these  are  to  be  regarded  by  us 
as  brethren,  bearing  with  us  something  of  the 
imago  of  God,  however  low  the  degree  in  which 
they  may  possess  these  powers,  and  however 
widely  they  may  differ  from  us  in  the  incidental 
circumstances  of  colour,  feature,  and  tempera- 
ment.— Tk.] 

We  must  here  notice  the  opinion  that  men 
existed  before  Adam,  who  is  spoken  of  in  the 
Mosaic  account.  The  belief  in  Praeadamites 
has  been  embraced  for  various  reasons;  partly 
to  escape  some  supposed  natural  difficulties  of 
the  kind  just  mentioned,  partly  in  support  of 
various  theological  and  historical  hypotheses, 
and  sometimes  for  both  reasons  united.  ]Most 
of  those  who  have  entertained  this  opinion, 
however  different  their  views  respecting  the 
Praeadamites  themselves,  have  appealed  to 
Moses  and  other  sacred  writers  for  support,  or 
at  least  have  endeavoured  to  shew  that  they  be- 
lieved in  nothing  inconsistent  with  the  scriptural 
account.  But  they  evidently  do  the  greatest 
violence  to  the  passages  which  they  cite.  The 
plain,  scriptural  representation  is  that  which  we 
have  given.  This  hypothesis  was  first  raised  to 
notice  by  Isaac  Peyrere,  who  in  1(')55  published 
his  book  styled  '■^  Prxadaniitx.'''  He  pretended 
to  find  his  Praeadamites  in  Rom.  v.  12 — 14.  The 
heathen,  according  to  him,  are  the  Praeadamites, 
being,  as  he  supposed,  created  on  the  same  day 
with  the  beasts,  and  those  whose  creation  is 
mentioned  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis.  Adam, 
the  father  of  the  Jews,  was  not  created  until  a 
century  later,  and  is  the  one  who  is  mentioned 
in  the  second  chapter.  Cf.  the  works  cited  by 
Morus,  p.  95,  s.  1,  note  1.  Since  the  time  of 
Peyrere,  this  hypothesis  has  been  exhibited  more 
connectedly;  and  has  been  asserted  independ- 
ently of  the  authority  of  Moses ;  or,  in  other 
words,  it  has  been  asserted  that  the  human  race 
is  older  than  Moses  represents  it.  Vide  Irwing, 
"  Versuche  iiber  den  Ursprung  der  Erkenntniss 
der  W^ahrheit  und  der  Wissenschaften  ;"  Ber- 
lin. 1781,  Rvo.  Cf.  Brun,  "  Vergleichung  der 
griechischen  und  roniischen  Nachrichten  von 
dem  altesten  Zustande  der  Menschen  mit  den 
hebraischen,"  in  Gabler's  "Theologischen 
Journal,"  b.  v.  st.  1,  s.  50.  u.  f. 

II.  The  Mosaic  Account. 

There  are  two  accounts  of  the  creation  of  man 
recorded    by   Moses.     The  first  is  very  brief, 
given  in  general  terms,  in  connexion  with  the 
24 


history  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  on  the  sixth 
day  of  which  man  was  formed.  Gen.  i.  2G-— 30. 
The  second  account  is  more  full,  and  stands  by 
itself.  Gen.  ii.  4,  seq.  In  this  second  account, 
the  creation  of  the  world  and  the  state  of  the 
earth  before  man  was  placed  upon  it,  are  again 
cursorily  mentioned,  while  in  ver.  7  the  creation 
of  man  himself  is  more  fully  detailed.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  in  the  composition  of  these  first 
chapters  of  Genesis,  Moses  may  have  had  be- 
fore him  some  written  records  handed  down 
from  the  patriarchal  age,  and  he  may  perhaps 
have  inserted  them,  word  for  word,  in  his  own 
history.  Vide  s.  49,  I.  According  to  this  sup- 
position, we  have  here  inserted  one  of  these  ori- 
ginal records,  extending  from  Gen.  ii.  4  to  iii. 
24,  and  forming  a  complete  whole,  which  is  se- 
parated from  what  precedes  by  the  appropriate 
title,  "This  is  the  history  of  the  heavens  and 
the  earth,"  ver.  4.  What  favours  the  supposi- 
tion that  Moses  drew  from  written  records  in 
composing  the  first  part  of  Genesis,  and  that  he 
even  preserved  them  in  the  very  language  in 
which  they  were  written,  is  the  fact,  that  in 
each  of  these  distinct  fraijments  the  Supreme 
Being  is  uniformly  designated  by  a  different 
title, — in  one,  by  the  name  c-n'^s,  in  another,  by 
the  name  rr\n\  and  in  a  third,  by  the  combined 
name  D\n\x  nin\  This  was  first  observed  by 
Astruc  and  Michaelis,  and  is  often  made  use  of 
by  Eichhorn  in  his  "  Urgeschichte."  Cf.  s.  49, 
and  the  works  of  Herder,  Eichhorn,  Gabler, 
Paulus,  Ilgen,  Vater,  and  others.  But  Eich- 
horn and  Ilgen  have  spoken  with  far  too  much 
confidence  respecting  the  sources  from  which 
Moses  drew.  The  subject  is  not  so  well  under- 
stood as  to  allow  of  so  much  confidence.  Vide 
Koppen,  Die  Bibel  ein  Werk  der  gottlichen 
Weisheit,  th.  ii.  s.  456,  2te  Ausg.  Tliese  ac- 
counts must  now  be  separately  considered. 
Vide  Morus,  p.  96,  s.  4. 

1.  Observations  on  ike  first  account,  Genesis, 
i.  26—30. 

Here,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  history  of  the 
creation,  God  is  said  to  speak.  This  is  a  repre- 
sentation by  which  the  exertion  of  the  divine 
icill,  or  the  determination  of  God,  is  intelligibly 
expressed,  and  corresponds  with  the  whole  pic- 
torial nature  of  the  account.  Cf.  Genesis,  vi. 
5;  xi.  6,  7.  After  the  production  of  so  many 
creatures  of  the  earth,  God  at  length  created 
man,  the  noblest  and  most  excellent  of  them 
all — the  lord  of  the  lower  creation. 

D-'N,  in  the  first  chapter,  is  not  a  proper,  but  a 
collective  noun — man.  We  iniglit  suppose,  from 
this  passage,  if  the  account  in  the  second  chap- 
ter were  not  more  explicit,  that  the  first  human 
pair  were  created  at  the  same  time.  The  words, 
«Tir-'3  i:ryj3,  should  not  be  distinguished  as 
they  have  sometimes  been.  Tiie  two  word* 
thus  collocated  sio-nify,  an  exact  or  a  very  similmr 
q8 


ISG 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGV. 


image;  as  chnp.  v.  1,  3.  The  primary  sig- 
nification of  cs  is,  a  shadow,  as  Psalm  xxxix. 
7  ;  then,  a  shadowij  image,  a  li/icness.  In  what 
this  divine  likeness  consists, — whether  simply 
in  the  dominion  over  the  rest  of  the  creation, 
meni.oned  immedialely  after,  or  in  the  posses- 
sion of  higher  faculties,  will  be  investigated,  s. 
63.  The  dumiiiion  of  man  over  animals  here 
spoken  of  denotes  merely  his  riffht  to  use  and 
employ  them  fur  iiis  own  advantajre.  The 
phrase,  God  blestied  them,  (ver.  28,)  is  to  be  un- 
derstood as  above,  in  ver.  22;  he  gave  them 
fruilfulncss,  I  he  power  to  propagate  their  species. 
The  fruits  of  the  tree  and  of  the  field,  and  not 
\.\\ejiesh  of  aniinak,  constituted  the  original  food 
of  man  as  well  as  of  beast.  Vide  ver.  29,  30, 
where  it  is  said  that  God  gave  to  them  the  pro- 
duce of  the  earth  for  food.  Cf.  ii.  16.  Many 
reasons  may  be  given  for  this.  Had  it  not  been 
so,  there  would  have  been  ground  to  apprehend 
that  man  might  have  destroyed  whole  species 
of  animals,  while  they  were  yet  few  in  number, 
&c.  Vide  Mii;haelis,  in  loc.  The  fact  that 
man  at  first  fed  upon  fruits  and  herl)s  is  con- 
firmed by  the  traditions  of  other  ancient  nations. 
They  uniformly  represent  the  practice  of  taking 
the  life  and  shedding  the  blood  of  living  crea- 
tures as  a  cruel  and  frightful  practice,  which 
could  not  have  existed  in  paradise,  or  in  the 
golden  age  of  the  youthful  world,  when  univer- 
sal friendsliip  and  happy  concord  reigned  among 
the  creatures  of  God,  Hence,  in  the  prophetic  de- 
scriptions of  that  happy  age  which  should  again 
return  to  tlie  world,  it  is  expressly  said  that  one 
beast  shall  not  destroy  another  ;  "  the  lion  shall 
eat  straw  like  the  ox,"  Isa.  xi.  7,  coll.  ver.  G — 
9.  The  same  trait  recurs  in  the  description 
which  the  Greeks  give  of  the  Saturnian  age. 
Vide  Plutarch,  rtfpi  rjo^xofpayia.!;.  Ovid,  too,  de- 
scribes the  veins  aurea  xtas  as  happy  fiilibim 
arborcis  el  hcrbis ;  nccpolluit  ora  criiore,  Met.  xv. 
96,  seq.  Vide  Clerici  Comment,  in  Genesin. 
We  find,  therefore,  no  intimation  that  beasts 
were  slain  until  after  man  had  forfeited  paradise. 
Genesis,  iii.  21.  Shortly  after,  they  appear  to 
have  been  offered  by  men  in  sacrifice  to  God, 
Gen.  iv.  4.  iNoah  was  the  first  who  received 
a  distinct  command  to  use  flesh  as  wfdl  as  vege- 
tables for  his  sustenance.  Gen.  ix.  3.  And  it  is 
in  general  triii',  that  rude  nations  eat  for  a  long 
time  only  herbs  and  fruits,  and  come  slowly 
into  the  use  of  animals  for  food,  even  after  they 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  slaying  them,  and 
using  their  skins  for  clothing.  This  can  be 
easily  accounted  for,  when  we  consider  that  ani- 
mal food,  as  then  prepared,  before  fire  and  salt 
came  into  common  use,  must  have  been  ex- 
tremely coarse  and  disgusting.  We  gathi-r  from 
Homer,  tiial  the  use  of  salt  on  flesh  could  not 
have  been  very  common  in  his  tlay,  since  he 
el  ways  gives  it  the  epithet  c/t  ft  nf,  and  describes 


it  as  a  gift  of  the  gods.     The  Caribeans  at  the 
present  day  eat  flesh  without  salt. 

2.  Observations  on  the  second  account,  Genesis, 
ii.  4—24, 

(a)  After  the  mention,  in  ver,  5,  6,  of  the 
means  of  subsistence  which  God  had  provided 
for  man  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  the  writer 
passes  now,  in  ver.  7,  to  the  creation  of  man 
himself,  "  God  formed  man  from  the  dust  of 
the  earth,"  ns-'sn-tr  -loy — a  very  natural  idea, 
readily  suggested  by  analogy,  and  in  itself  pro- 
bable. The  decay  of  man,  and  the  mouldering 
of  his  body  to  dust  and  earth,  gave  rise  to  the 
phrase,  tu  become  dust  and  earth.  And  so  dust 
and  earth  were  naturally  regarded  as  the  ele- 
ments of  the  human  body ;  and  to  describe  death 
they  said,  ny  3iu'  "^sjj,  to  return  to  the  dust,  from 
which  we  were  taken;  Psalm  civ.  29;  Genesis, 
iii.  19  ;  Job.  x.  9  ;  Eccles.  xii.  7.  Cf.  .lob, 
xxxiii,  6.  The  body  of  the  first  man,  which 
God  had  formed  from  the  earth,  was  entirely 
finished  before  it  was  endowed  with  life.  Here 
again  the  description  is  rendered  natural  and 
probable  from  the  analogy  of  the  human  body 
when  first  deprived  of  life.  The  form  and 
structure  remain  complete  after  life  has  depart- 
ed ;  and  the  body  moulders  slowly  into  dust  and 
clay.  Thus,  on  the  other  hand,  the  body  firsk 
was  formed  under  the  plastic  hand  (jf  the  Artist; 
and  the  breath  of  life  was  not  iinbreathed  until 
it  was  finished.  In  these  two  respects  there  \% 
a  great  resemblance  between  this  account  and 
the  Grecian  fable  of  Prometheus,  who  first 
formed  a  man  from  earth  and  water,  atul  after- 
wards endowed  it  with  life  tliroui>h  the  coope- 
ration of  the  Deity.     Vide  Ovid,  Mv-t,  i.  82. 

The  D-^s  is  here  not  only  the  common  appel- 
lative for  man,  but  also  the  proper  distinguish- 
ing name  of  the  first  man.  The  first  man  is 
called,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  man.  The 
word  is  not  derived  from  a-is,  red,  (supposed  by 
some  to  refer  to  the  red  colour  of  the  counte- 
nance, or  to  the  red  earth,  from  which  man  was 
formed,  as  the  Uabbins  and  Josephus  (Antiq.  i. 
1)  suggest.)  It  is  rather  derived  from  ncN,  tht 
earth,  and  sodescrilies  man  as  carthbnrn,yriytvrfi. 
Plato  says,  in  his  Politicus,  'V.x  yrn  yap  dytfjiwa- 
xovTo  ndvrii. 

"  And  he  breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  bieath 
of  lifi',"  O'vi  rcrj  v-sa  nr'i.  God  vivi/itd  the  jtre' 
vious/i/  lift  less  body  of  man.  Breath  is  the  most 
oitvious  and  certain  indication  of  life,  and  breath- 
ing is  performed  principally  through  the  nose; 
and  hence  this  whole  figurative  re|iresentation 
When  (tod  gives  life  to  his  creatures  he  is  sait 
//(  breath  nut  his  breath,  or  to  breathe  it  into  thrm 
When  he  causes  them  to  die,  he  is  said  to  lah^ 
away  their  brrnlh  ;  as  Ps.  civ,  29,  30. 

Nothing  is  ex|)rPBsly  said  in  tin's  passage  re- 
specting the  rational  soul,  its  indivisibility,  and 
j  immortality.     That  only  whic-li  is  obvious,  and 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


w 


perceptible  by  the  external  senses,  is  here  de- 
scribed; as  it  is  in  general  the  object  of  Moses 
in  this  passage  to  describe  the  origin  of  the 
world  only  as  far  as  it  falls  under  the  cogni- 
zance of  the  senses.  Cf.  the  remarks  on  r.n,  s. 
51,  I.     nvi  b'dj,  is,  a  living  creature,  or  being. 

(Jj")  In  ver.  9,  and  ver.  16,  17,  the  writer 
speaivs  of  the  means  of  subsistence  appointed 
for  man,  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  (Vide  No. 
I.,)  and  particularly  the  tree  of  life,  and  the  tree 
(f  know  ltd ge  of  good  and  evil,  or  <f  the  distinc- 
tion of  good  and  evil ;  which  were  found  in  tiie 
midst  of  the  garden,  (pn  Tira.)  They  are  men- 
tioned here  to  prepare  the  way  for  what  follows 
in  the  third  chapter.  Trees  of  life  denote  with 
the  Hf-brews  such  trees  as  possess  a  healing, 
life-giving  power,  arbores  salutares,  wiiether  the 
virtue  belongs  to  the  fruit,  leaf,  bark,  or  root; 
as  Prov.  iii.  18.  We  say,  officinal  herbs  or  trees. 
'I'iie  design  of  the  tree  of  life  was,  to  perpetuate 
human  life.  Gen.  iii.  22.  WJiile  man  continued 
in  paradise,  his  body  was  endued  with  immor- 
tality, which,  however,  was  not  eflVcted  in  an 
immediate  and  miraculous  way,  but  by  a  natural 
means,  divinely  appointed — viz.,  the  fruit  of  a 
tree,  in  partaking  of  which  human  life  might  be 
prolonged.  Hence  the  tree  of  life  is  described 
as  planted  in  heaven,  the  abode  of  immortality, 
Rev.  xxii.  2;  ii.  7.  The  Greeks,  too,  speak  of 
food  of  which  no  mortal  can  taste,  and  which 
the  imiuorlals  alone  enjoy.  Homer,  Odys.  v. 
197,  199;  II.  xix.  .38,39. 

Tiie  description  which  Moses  gives  of  the 
tree  <flifc  would  naturally  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  otiier  tree  which  stood  opposite  was  a 
hurtful,  poisonous  tree,  destructive  of  life;  and 
this  is  confirmed  from  ver.  17,  "The  day  thou 
eatest  of  it  thou  shalt  die."  Cf.  chap.  iii.  This 
account  too,  as  well  as  those  which  have  pre- 
ceded it,  is  very  probable  and  natural.  There 
are  injurious  plants  and  poisonous  trees  by  which 
we  are  made  sick  and  destroyed  ;  there  are  also 
useful  trees,  which  impart  health  and  prolong 
life.  Such  trees  there  were  in  the  age  of  para- 
dise, conferring  perpetual  health  and  immor- 
tality; and  also  a  single  poisonous  tree,  placed 
in  the  gard>'n  for  the  trial  of  man.  Cf.  Gen.  iii. 
3.  But  why  is  it  called  the  tree  of  the  know- 
ledge if  good  and  evil?  Because  by  means  of 
litis  tree  man  was  to  learn  prudence,  to  be  made 
cautious  and  circumspect;  and  becatise  it  was 
intended  to  put  iiis  wisdom  to  the  test.  Cf. 
MiTUS,  p.  97,  s.  G.  If  he  did  not  eat  of  the 
tree  it  would  be  well  for  him,  and  he  would  act 
wisely  and  circumspectly;  if  he  ate  of  the  fruit 
of  the  tree,  it  would  be  to  his  hurt;  and  by  the 
evil  he  would  suffer  he  would  become  wise,  and 
U.aru  in  future  to  be  more  circumspect ;  he  would 
then  know  from  his  experience  ihe  unhappy 
consequences  resulting  from  transgression  of 


the  divine  command.  Cf.  Gen.  iii.  22.  The 
phrase,  to  know,  or  to  dintingvish  good  and  evil, 
(or,  as  Horace  expresses  it,  curvo  posse  digno- 
scere  rectum,  Ep.  ii.  2,  44,)  always  signifies  in 
the  ancient  languages  to  be  or  become  wise,  to 
acquire  judgment.  So  frequently  in  Homer — e. 
g.,  Odys.  xviii.  227,  228;  xx.  309,  310.  Cf. 
Book  ii.  s.  75. 

(c)  In  ver.  19,  20,  we  have  the  following 
points — viz., 

(tt)  Adam  lived  at  first  among  the  beasts ;  and 
they  were,  so  to  speak,  brought  before  him  by 
God.  They  were  more  nearly  related  to  him 
than  any  other  part  of  the  material  creation  by 
which  he  was  surrounded.  He  had  more  in 
common  witli  them  than  with  inanimate  things. 
In  paradise  the  beasts  were  not  timid  and  wild, 
but  lived  with  man  in  familiarity  and  confidence. 
Cf,  Isaiah,  xi.  G — 9,  Nor  is  this  representation 
of  the  original  state  of  man  confined  to  the  .lews; 
it  is  found  among  other  nations,  and  is  more- 
over confirmed  to  our  present  observation.  We 
find  even  now,  that  in  regions  entirely  uninha- 
bited by  man,  and  where  his  persecutions  have 
never  been  felt  by  beasts  and  birds,  they  are 
tame  and  unsuspicious,  though  elsewhere  known 
as  wild  and  timid.  Cook  describes  the  tropical 
birds  which  he  saw  in  the  uninhabited  islands 
(»f  the  South  Sea — the  via7i  of  war,  and  other 
birds  which  are  commonly  very  shy — as  so 
tame  that  they  could  be  caught  bv  liie  hand. 
When  the  traveller  passes  through  the  wilds  of 
South  America,  which  are  seldom  trodden  by 
human  footsteps,  he  is  not  shunned  by  the  most 
timid  birds,  and  can  catch  even  partridges  as  he 
passes  along  by  a  mere  noose  fastetted  upon  the 
end  of  a  stick.  Cf.  the  work,  "Zur  Kunde 
fremder  Lander  und  Voiker,"  b.  ii.  s.  152,  ex- 
tracted from  the  "Lettres  Edifiantes." 

(/3^  As  man  was  conversant  with  the  animala 
about  him,  and  was  soon  able  to  distinguish 
them  one  from  another,  he  gave  them  names, 
which  appear  to  have  been  the  sounds  by  which 
he  called  them  around  him,  and  someiiines  in 
imitation  of  the  sounds  which  they  themselves 
made.  In  this  way  it  is  easy  to  account  tor  the 
transition  of  man  from  his  original  speechless- 
ness to  the  first  use  of  language.  We  notice 
the  same  process  in  children.  Plato  observes, 
very  justly,  in  his  Politiciis,  "  that  in  the  Satur 
nian  age  men  were  very  fiimiliar  with  animals, 
and  even  conversed  with  them,  (as  appears  in 
Gen.  iii.,  and  as  is  seen  in  ciiildren  ;)  and  that  in 
this  intercourse  they  learned  much  w  isdom  ;  and 
by  givinff  attention  to  their  nature  and  habitudes 
saw  mucii  wiiicli  they  could  turn  to  their  own 
advantage."  Hence  the  great  infiuence  which 
tiie  fables  of  jEsop  had  in  ancient  tunes,  and  tne 
<ieep  impression  which  they  still  make  upou 
children. 


18U 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


(y)  But  althnugrh  ever)'  animal  had  its  mate, 
Iran  did  not  find  zmon<r  them  all  a  companion 
for  himself.  His  innate  propensity  to  the  social 
and  conjunral  state  was  thus  more  stronofly  ex- 
cited ;  ver.  IS,  20,  ad  finem.  "  Man  only,"  it  is 
said,  "had  not  as  yet  n.u3  •^';*."  nr?  sitrnifies, 
properly,  an  assistanl,  companion;  as  Ezekiel, 
xii.  11.  1-IJJ3  is  rendered  by  Luther,  die  um  ihn 
ware;  in  English  version,  meet  for  him  ;  Sept. 
xat'  avrov  and  ouoio^  avro. 

(d)  Creationof  the  wifeof  Adam,  ver.  21 — 24. 

This  passage  has  greatly  perplexed  com- 
mentators, who  have  undert  iken  to  reconcile  it 
with  the  notions  of  modern  times,  with  which 
it  does  not  at  all  agree.  Eichhorn  (p.  182,  183 
of  the  work  above  cited)  explains  it  in  this 
way — "Adam  and  his  wife  were  created  at  the 
same  time,  but  at  first  lived  apart.  The  conju- 
gal impulse  of  Adam  was  excited  ;  he  fell  into 
a  sleep,  and  dreamed  that  he  was  divided  into 
halves.  When  he  awoke,  Eve  stood  before 
liim."  The  same  explanation  in  substance  is 
given  by  Zachariii,  in  his  Bib.  Theol.  th.  ii.  s. 
120.  But  what  unprejudiced  reader  can  see  any 
foundation  for  all  tliis  in  the  INTosaic  account] 
Moses  evidently  teaches  that  Eve  was  created 
after  Adam,  and  taken  by  God  from  Adam  ;  and 
Paul  says,  "Adacn  was  first  formed,  and  then 
Eve,"  1  Tim.  ii.  13.  For  this  part  of  the  Mo- 
saic narrative,  as  well  as  for  the  former  parts, 
there  is  some  analogy,  which,  however,  must  be 
more  evident  to  the  orientalist  than  to  us,  since 
the  subservif-ncy  of  the  woman  to  the  man  is 
more  acknowledged  in  the  East  than  in  the 
West.  The  orientalist  believes  the  woman  to 
be  indeed  of  his  own  nature,  but  still  secondary 
and  subject  to  him  ;  though  this  place  by  no 
means  teaches  her  subjection  as  a  slave,  as 
afterwards,  when  the  age  of  paradise  was  over. 
Gen.  iii.  16 — a  supposition  inconsistent  with 
the  idea  of  the  golden  age.  Now,  because  the 
woman  is  of  the  same  nature  as  man,  she  is  de- 
scribed as  taken  from  him.  Hence  the  deep 
love  he  feels  for  her,  and  the  intimate  union  be- 
tween man  and  wife.  Hence,  too,  (viz.,  from 
the  fact  that  she  was  taken  from  him,)  the  supe- 
riority of  the  man  over  the  woman.  That  this 
explanation  is  entirely  in  the  spirit  of  the  Bible 
is  clear  from  the  argument  which  Paul  deduces 
from  this  place — "  For  the  man  is  not  of  the  wo- 
man ;  but  the  woman  of  the  man.  Neither  was 
the  man  created  for  tlie  woman ;  but  the  woman 
for  the  man,"  1  dr.  xi.  8,  9.  Tliis  truth,  then, 
that  husband  and  wife  stand  in  the  closest  con- 
nexion with  each  other,  while  still  the  wife  is 
necessarily  dependent  upon  her  hnsliand,  could 
not  be  made  more  int-lligible  and  impressive 
than  by  the  account  here  given,  which  repre- 
sents the  woman  as  created  after  man,  taken 
from  him,  and  made  out  of  hia  iide,     yi  in  this 


place  does  not  signify  rib,  but  side,  half,  as  corn- 
morily  in  Hebrew  and  Araliic — e.  g.,  Exod 
xxvi.  '2G,  27,  35,  seq.  Sept,  TfKtvpd — "  'J'he  p/au 
was  closed  up  with  Jlcsh''' — i.  e.,  the  body  was 
healed  and  made  whole.  As  pain  was  not  known 
in  paradise,  it  was  necessary  that  Adam  should 
be  |)ut  into  a  deep  sleep  (ver.  21)  while  all  this 
took  place — in  such  a  way,  however,  as  to  al- 
low him  an  obscure  consciousness  of  what  was 
done,  (ver.  23.)  It  is  frequently  the  case,  when 
something  befals  us  in  sleep  which  makes  a 
deep  impression  on  the  senses,  tiiat,  without 
waking  at  the  time,  we  have  a  sort  of  percep- 
tion, which  we  obscurely  recollect  when  after- 
wards awake,  cjrn  nwt,  this  time.  "  Now  I 
see  at  last  a  being  like  myself,  one  of  my  own 
species,"  referring  to  ver.  20,  ad  finem.  Adam 
now  gives  to  his  companion  a  name,  as  he  had 
formerly  done  to  the  beasts — viz.,  nrs  (like  the 
vira  of  the  ancient  Latins,)  because  slie  was 
formed  from  inan<,  (rw.)  When  afterwards 
she  had  borne  a  child,  he  called  her  name  r:'^7\^ 
because  she  then  became  the  mother  of  the  human 
race,  (^n— '3  sx;)  Gen.  iii.  20.  In  ver.  34.  it  is 
not  Adam  who  speaks;  for  he  knew  nothing  as 
yet  about  father  and  mother.  The  historian 
here  deduces  a  practical  inference  from  what 
had  been  said.  In  Matt.  xix.  5,  where  ^  7vaf»j 
is  to  be  supplied  before  drct,  this  passage  is 
cited  :  "The  relation  between  husband  and  wife 
is  the  most  intimate  which  can  exist,  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  design  of  (rod,  indissoluble.  It 
is  more  irrefragable  than  the  relation  between 
parents  and  children;  whence  (so  Christ  con- 
cludes) to  separate  from  one's  wife  is  a  crime 
of  worse  desert  than  to  renounce  father  aod  mo- 
ther." The  particular  truths  and  inferences  to 
be  drawn  from  the  whole  Mosaic  narrative  are 
well  exhibited  by  Morus,  p.  9G — 98,  s.  4—8. 
Cf.  Matt.  xix. ;  1  Cor.  xi.  When  it  is  said  thei/ 
shall  be  one  flesh,  it  means,  they  shall  be  regarded 
as  one  bodi/,  one  person. 

Note. — ^The  first  abode  of  men  is  comnonly 
called  paradise,  jtopaSfifioj,  (cf.  Morus,  p.  96,  a. 
4,  n.  1,)  because  the  LXX.  thus  translate  the 
Hebrew  p,  which  is  used  in  ver.  8  of  this  narra- 
tive, and  in  other  parts  of  the  Bible,  and  are  fol- 
lowed in  tliis  by  the  Latin  versions.  The  word 
is  of  Persian  origin,  (in  the  Hebrew  form 
DT\?,)  and  signifies,  in  Eccl.  ii.  5,  and  in  other 
texts  where  it  occurs,  not  any  small  garden,  hut 
a  large  portion  of  land,  a  park,  furnished  with 
trees,  and  wild  beasts,  and  water,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  hunting  and  fishing;  as  Xenophon  ile- 
scribes  it,  (Econ.  iv.  13.  The  name  of  piiradise 
was  aflcrwariis  given  to  the  abode  of  the  bless- 
ed ;  but  the  original  abode  of  man  was  called 
by  tills  name,  by  way  of  eminence,  after  tiie 
example  of  the  I/XX.,  by  Sirach,  Josephus, 
Philo  «»nd  other  Grecian  Jews. 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


18f 


The  description  of  the  garden  is  given,  Gen. 
ii.  8 — 15.  Eden  was  not  the  name  of  paradise 
itself,  but  paradise  was  a  spot  in  the  extensive 
territa'v  of  Eden.  Vide  ver.  8,  coll.  ver.  10. 
If  the  situation  of  the  territory  of  Eden  is  to  be 
determined  by  the  names  of  the  four  rivers  men. 
tioned  in  the  Mosaic  account,  and  if  by  these  ri- 
vers we  are  to  understand  those  to  which  the  same 
names  were  anciently  given,  and  some  of  which 
retain  them  to  the  present  day,  we  may  fix  upon 
the  region  where  Armenia,  Ghilan,  Dailem,and 
Chorasan  now  lie.  There  are  no  means,  how- 
ever, by  which  we  can  determine  the  particular 
spot  in  this  region  where  the  garden  of  delights 
was  situated.  Eden  then  comprehended  all  the 
countries  which  extend  from  Euphrates  ("^d) 
and  'J'igris  ("T.tn)  to  Aras  or  Araxes,  (pt:^'", 
which  rises  in  Armenia  and  flows  into  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,)  and  Oxus  (linu),  on  the  east  of  the 
Caspian. 

The  fables  and  traditions  of  the  Asiatic  na- 
tions agree  very  generally  in  placing  the  first 
habitation  of  men,  and  the  cradle  of  the  human 
race,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Caucasus  and  the 
Caspian  sea,  and  the  valleys  which  extend  side- 
ways from  Caucasus,  though  they  differ  very 
much  in  assigning  more  definitely  the  particular 
spot  where  man  first  dwelt.  Vide  Zimmerman, 
Geographische  Geschichte  des  Menschen,  band 
iii.  s.  2j0,  and  Meiners,  Geschichte  der  Mensch- 
heit,  s.  7.  Some  learned  men,  however,  re- 
lying upon  other  Asiatic  traditions,  not  in  the 
least  supported  by  the  Bible,  suppose  that  the 
earth  was  first  peopled  from  Southern  Asia;  and 
so  they  fix  upon  other  rivers  more  favourable  to 
their  hypotheses  than  those  before  mentioned, 
to  water  their  territory  of  Eden,  although  they 
nearly  all  allow  the  river  Euphrates  to  be  one 
intended.  Buttman  sided  with  these  in  his 
"Aeltesten  Erdkiinde  des  Morgenlanders;" 
Berlin,  1803, 8vo.  In  this  work  he  represents,  as 
is  common  at  the  present  time,  the  whole  nat- 
rative  of  Moses  as  fabulous.  He  endeavours  to 
render  it  probable  that  the  whole  territory  ex- 
tending from  the  Persian  Gulf  eastwards  to  the 
Peninsula  of  Malacca,  was  the  region  intended 
by  Eden;  that  the  Ganges  was  one  of  the  four 
rivers,  and  that  these  original  habitations  were 
afterwards  placed  by  the  Hebrews  more  in  their 
own  vicinity.  Among  the  older  works  on  this 
subject,  cf.  Reland,  De  situ  paradisi,  in  his 
"Diss.  Miscell."  t.  i.  Bochart,  Geog.  Sacra, 
and  Michaelis,  Spiceleg.  t.  ii.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century,  Olaus  Rudbeck,  a  Swede,  wrote 
a  book  called  "  Atlantica,"  in  which  he  placed 
paradise  in  Sweden.  In  the  nineteenth  century. 
Dr.  Hasse,  in  his  "Entdeckung  im  Felde  der 
filtesten  Erd-und  Menschengeschichte,"  endea- 
voured to  prove  that  Eden  was  the  north  of  Eu- 
rope, and  that  paradise  was  Prussia. 


SECTION  LIII. 

OF  THE   IMAGE  OF  GOD  IN  WHICH  MAN  WAS 
CREATED. 

I.  History  of  opinions  reaped ing  the  Image  of 
God. 

No  one  doubts  that  the  image  of  God  denotes 
in  general  a  likeness  of  God,  (s.  52.)  But  the 
opinions  of  theologians  have  always  been  differ- 
ent respecting  the  particular  points  of  res<'m- 
blance  which  Moses  intended  to  express  by  this 
phrase.  And  this  is  not  strange,  since  Moses 
does  not  ex])l>iin  what  he  means  by  it,  and  it  is 
used  in  very  difTerent  significations  in  the  Bible; 
which  is  a  fact  that  has  not  been  sufficiently 
noticed.  The  common  opinion  is,  that  this 
phrase  denotes  certain  excellences  which  man 
originally  possessed,  but  which  he  lost,  in  part 
at  least,  by  the  fall.  The  principal  texts  which 
are  cited  in  behalf  of  this  opinion  are,  Gen.  i. 
•JG,  coll.  ii.  15,  seq.;  and  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Col.  iii.  10,  coll.  Ephes.  iv.  24,  where  a 
renewal  after  the  image  of  God  is  mentioned ; 
which  is  understood  to  mean  a  restoration  of  this 
image,  implying  that  man  must  have  lost  it;  also 
2  Cor.  xi.  3.  Against  this  common  opinion  it 
may  be  objected,  that  the  image  of  God  is  de- 
scribed in  many  passages  as  existing  after  the 
fall,  and  as  still  discoverable  in  men;  as  Gen. 
ix.  ('),  "  Whoso  sheddelh  man's  blood,  by  man 
shall  his  blood  be  shed,  for  in  the  image  of  God 
made  he  man;"  also  James,  iii.  9,  "With  the 
tongue  we  curse  men,  who  are  made  after  the  si- 
militude of  God;''^  also  1  Cor.  xi.  (5.  7,  avr^o — 
ilxCjv — 0fov  indpx^^v.  Here  also  belongs  the 
passage  often  cited  in  behalf  of  the  opposite  opi- 
nion. Gen.  v.  1 — 3,  where  it  is  said,  that  Goft 
created  man  in  his  own  image;  and  that  Adara 
begot  a  son  in  his  own  likeness,  and  after  hit 
image;  from  which  it  must  appear,  that  Seth. 
being  made  in  the  likeness  of  Adam,  must  havt 
had  the  same  image  of  God,  whatever  ii  was, 
which  Adam  possessed.  This  nhrase,  then. 
evidently,  is  not  always  used  in  tlie  aame  sensn 
in  the  Bible.  And  the  fault  of  interpreters  ann 
theoloijians  has  been,  that  th<"y  have  overlooV  jf; 
the  dilTerent  meanings  In  wLich  this  phrase  lU 
used,  and  have  selected  one  only,  wnicli  iT^y 
have  endeavoured  to  elicit  from  ail  the  texvs  in 
which  the  phrase  occurs. 

As  to  the  question,  in  w.iat  consists  that  ex- 
cellence of  man,  denoted  oy  the  phrase,  tht 
image  of  God,  we  find, 

1.  Even  the  oldest  Cnristian  writers,  the  eo 
clesiaslical  fathers,  were  very  much  divided. 
This  is  acknowledged  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  in 
an  Essay  devoted  to  this  subject.  Theodoret 
confesses,  that  he  is  not  able  to  determine  ex- 
actlv  in  what  this  image  consisted,  Qusest.  zx. 


190 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY, 


in  Genp':in.  Epipbanius  thinks  that  the  things 
cannot  be  determined,  Haeres.  30.  Tertullian 
plaocd  it  in  the  innate  powers  and  faculties  of  the 
human  soul,  especially  in  the  freedom  of  ciioice 
between  good  and  evil,  Adv.  Marc.  ii.  5,  6. 
Philo  placed  it  in  the  lovj,  the  rational  soul,  and 
associated  with  this  phrase  his  Platonic  notions 
respecting  the  original  ideas  in  the  divine  mind 
(Xoyoj),  of  which  the  visible  man  is  a  copy,  De 
Opif.  .Mundi.  The  human  race,  according  to 
him,  is  indeed  degenerate,  but  yet  has  traces  of 
its  relationship  with  the  Father  of  all ;  for  rtaj 
aripurtoj  zara  fiiv  -f  r-jV  Staroiai'  cixfttorat  0f  1,9 
Xoy&i,  trj  ,uaxa))iaj  fvjtoii  ixudyiiov,  r  arcoarCaifia 
r  drtavyaiua  ysyovu^.  Or! gen,  (ITfpi  a^X'^^'t 
iii.  6,)  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  Leo  the  Great, 
were  of  the  same  general  opinion  on  this  sub- 
ject as  Tertullian.  According  to  these  ecclesi- 
astical fathers,  this  image  of  God  consists  prin- 
cipally in  the  rectitude  and  freedom  of  the  will, 
and^  in  the  due  subordination  of  the  inferior 
powers  of  the  soul  to  the  superior.  The  im- 
mortality of  the  body  is  also  included  by  Leo 
and  many  others.  Epiphanius  blames  Origen 
for  teaching,  that  Adam  lost  the  image  of  God, 
which,  he  says,  the  Bible  does  not  affirm.  He 
knows  and  believes,  ^^quocl  in  ctinclis  kominibus 
irnngo  Dei  pcrmaneat,"  Ep.  ad  Joannem,  in 
0pp.  Hieronymi,  t.  i.  Most  of  the  Grecian  and 
Latin  fiithers  distinguish  between  imasro  and 
siinililudo  Dei.  By  the  immxe  of  God,  they 
say,  is  meant  the  original  constitution  (Jnlagc) 
— the  innate  powers  and  faculties  (potentia  ira- 
turalis,  Scholast.)  of  the  human  soul.  By  the 
fiiiiililfide  of  God,  is  meant,  that  actual  resem- 
blance to  him  which  is  acquired  by  the  exercise 
of  these  powers.  I  shall  not  dwell  upon  the 
subtleties  of  the  schoolmen,  which  are  still  pre- 
valent to  some  degree  in  the  Romish  church. 
Vide  I'etavius.  [For  an  account  of  these,  vide 
also  Habn,  Lehrbuch,  s.  76.] 

2.  Nor  are  modern  theologians  at  all  more 
unanimous.  The  most  important  opinions  enter- 
tained on  this  subject  in  nmdern  times  admit  of 
the  following  classification — viz., 

{a)  Some  find  this  image  in  the  rational «oul ; 
like  Philo,  who,  as  before  remarked,  supposed 
it  to  consist,  not  in  bodily  jjdvantages,  but  in 
the  foiy,  the  higher  reason  alone,  De  Ojiif. 
Mimdi,  p.  \5,  45;  and  like  many  of  the  fathers. 
To  be  sure,  this  hi<rher  rational  and  moral  nature 
of  man  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  his  other  ex- 
cellences, and  indeed  is  essential  to  their  very 
existence.  But,  according  to  the  representation 
of  the  Bible,  this  rational  soul  is  not  so  much 
itself  this  image  of  (iod,  as  the  fnunditlinn  or 
source  of  those  excellences  in  which  it  docs 
more  properly  consist. 

(b)  Others  find  it  in  the  dominion  of  man  over 
all  the  creatures  of  the  earth;  because  this  do- 
minion is  mentioned  in  immediate  connexion 


with  the  image  of  God  in  Gen.  i.  26.  So  think 
Socinus  and  his  followers,  and  also  many  Arml* 
nians.  According  to  both  of  these  theories,  the 
image  of  God  must  be  allowed  still  to  exist  in 
man.   This  will  be  farther  considered  hereafter. 

(c)  Others  find  it  in  the  moral  perfections  of 
our  nature  udiich  we  have  lost  by  the  fall.  These 
writers  refer  to  the  texts  in  the  epistles  to  the  Co- 
lossians  and  Ephesians,  and  in  accordance  with 
these  explain  the  passages  in  Genesis  relating 
to  this  subject.  This  is  the  most  common  the- 
ory. In  the  language  of  the  Apol.  Conf.  Augs., 
the  image  of  God  consists  in  ccrtior  notitia  Dei 
et  probitas.  Theologians  define  it,  j!/.<///fV/  ori- 
s:inalis  sive  sanctitas,  original  uprightness  or 
holiness. 

(rf)  Those  who  find  difficulties  with  all  these 
opinions,  endeavour  to  relieve  the  subject  by  di- 
viding the  image  of  God  into  -Apliysical  and  a 
moral  image  ;  or  into  an  essential  and  an  inci- 
dental image.  The  latter,  they  suppose,  is  now 
lost,  or  exists  in  a  less  degree ;  the  former  is  still 
possessed  by  man. 

II.  Biblical  uses  of  I  fie  phrase, "  The  Image  of  God." 

1.  We  cannot  expect  to  find  any  strict  or  de- 
finite notion  attached  to  this  phrase  in  the  an- 
cient Mosaic  account.  The  general  idea  of  di' 
vinity,  <xreatness,  precedence,  is  all  that  Moses 
intends  to  express  when  he  uses  it;  iusiixnia 
dignitas  ac prxstantia  hnminis.  Morus,  p.  10.3, 
s.  18.  Any  one  who  possesses  excellence  and 
dignity  superior  to  other  men,  is  said,  in  this 
widest  sense,  to  bear  the  image  of  God,  as  I  Cor. 
xi.  7;  Ps.  Ixxxii.  6.  Moses,  however,  places 
it  principally  and  prominently  in  that  part  of 
this  superiority  which  is  most  obvious  to  the 
senses — viz.,  the  superiority  of  man  over  irra- 
tional creatures,  and  his  dominion  over  the 
earth.  By  this  limitation,  however,  the  other 
excellences  of  our  nature  are  not  excluded  ;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  those  powers  and  faculties 
from  which  this  more  obvious  superiority  re- 
sults must  be  included  in  the  idea  of  Moses. 
But  while  Moses,  in  the  use  of  this  phrase,  had  J 
in  his  eye  that  superior  excellence  of  man  by  M 
which  be  is  lord  of  the  earth,  he  does  not  teach 
anywhere  that  man  lost  this  entirely  by  the  fall ; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  implies  that  he  aftrnrarda 
possessed  it.  Vide  No.  I.  Prinres  ?ind  Judseit 
are  called  by  Moses  gods,  and  sons  <f  God,  on 
account  of  the  superiority  and  dominion  which 
they  possess.  Vide  s.  17.  For  the  same  rea- 
son man  is  hing  and  god  of  this  lower  cre» 
tion,  which  hnnmirs  him  as  the  image  of  Goa. 
David  probably  used  the  phrase  in  this  wider 
sense  ip  Ps.  viii.  6 — 9,  where  he  explains  and 
paraphrases  (Jen.  i.  26,  seq.  Of.  1  Cor.  xi.  6, 
7;  James,  iii.  9.  Chrysosiom,  Theodoret,  and 
even  .\ugu3tine,  explained  the  words  of  Mosfj* 
in  this  wav 


WORKS  OF  GOn. 


Iff 


S.  The  later  Jews  appear  to  have  used  this 
phrase  in  different  senses,  as  we  learn  from  the 
hook  of  Wisdom  and  Sirach.  They  included  in 
its  meaning, 

(^/)  'I'hc  immnrfnlify  of  the  body,  a^^apcrio. 
'Oft  u  0f6j  txrfSi  ruv  aij^pwrtoi'  irt'  o^^of (Sta,  xai 
tixova  trji  iStaj  i8t6r>;roj  frtotjjtjf  v  ovroi'.  ^^droj 
6t  8ta,36xov  ^juroj  dar^'fi^sv  f ij  rbv  xoaixov  rtftpa- 
^ovyi  be  aitov  oi  r^j  ixtlvov  ^<pt5oj  ovTff,  Book 
of  Wisdom,  ii.  23,  •24.  In  this  respect,  there- 
fore, according  to  this  writer,  we  have  lost  the 
image  of  God.  Vide  ver.  24,  where  he  consi- 
ders death  as  the  consequence  of  sin,  and  attri- 
butes it  to  tiie  devil.  This  immortality  was  re- 
garded by  the  whole  ancient  world  as  something 
divine  and  godlike,  and  is  made  by  Homer  the 
principal  mark  and  characteristic  of  his  deities. 
Gods  and  a^varoi  are  always  synonymous  in 
his  writings. 

(6)  Dotninion  over  the  earth.  Book  of  Wis- 
dom, ix.  2,  3 ;  Sirach,  xvii.  3,  4.  The  domi- 
nion of  man  over  the  inferior  creation  is  regard- 
ed, even  by  Philo,  as  a  remnant  of  his  original 
perfection  and  power,  De  Opif.  Mundi,  p.  100, 
ed.  Pf.  Sirach,  in  the  passage  cited,  seems  to 
include  in  this  image,  together  with  dominion 
over  the  earth,  reason,  speech,  and  the  other 
perfections  mentioned  in  ver.  5,  seq.  In  this  re- 
spect we  still  retain  the  image  of  God. 

(c)  The  moral  state.  Book  of  Wisdom,  ix.  3, 
where  mention  is  made  of  the  oiiorj;?  xai  b(.xaio- 
ovvri  xal  iv^iitr^i;  ■\vxr^i  in  which  the  first  men 
lived  upon  the  earth  and  ruled  over  it.  These 
moral  excellences  we  do  not  any  longer  possess ; 
certainly  not  in  the  same  degree  as  formerly. 

3.  The  same  significations  of  the  phrase, 
image  of  God,  which  were  noticed  No.  2,  were 
common  among  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ, 
and  were  accordingly  adopted  by  the  apostles. 
They  use  this  phrase, 

(«)  In  reference  to  the  general  exaltation, 
dignity,  and  dominion  of  man: — e.  g.,  1  Cor. 
xi.  7;  James,  iii.  9.  (Jb)  In  reference  to  the 
monil  perfections  of  man,  exactly  as  it  is  used 
sy  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Wisdom — e.  g., 
Col.  iii.  10,  coll.  Ephes.  iv.  23,  24.  Both  of 
these  epistles  were  written  at  the  same  time; 
Hiey  are  entirely  similar  in  phraseology,  and 
jierfectly  parallel  in  these  passages.  Christians, 
especially  converts  from  heathenism,  are  here 
exhorted  to  renounce  altogether  their  former  sin- 
ful propensities,  and  the  wicked  life  which  they 
had  previously  led,  (rtaXatoj  ai^pwrtoj;)  and  to 
put  on  the  new  man — i.  e.,  to  be  wholly  reno- 
vated, to  embrace  new  principles,  and  to  lead  a 
new  life  correspondent  to  their  principles.  Now 
this  new  man  is  said  to  be  avaxaivoifitvo^,  renew- 
ed— 1.  e.,  new  created,  or  remodelled  by  God, 
Ephes.  iv.  23 ;  and  hence  the  phrase,  the  re- 
newal or  restoration  of  the  divine  image.  Etc 
irtiyvwffiv   should  be   construed  with  xrnjavroj 


aitov,  to  the  knowledge  of  God — 1.  e.,  this  dis- 
position is  produced  in  you  to  enable  you  to  at- 
tain to  the  knowledge  of  God  and  of  his  will— 
a  living  and  saving  knowledge.  Kn'^jtv.  to  cre- 
ate anew,  transform — 'i.  e.,  entirely  to  change 
and  improve  ;  continuing  the  figure  derived  from 
the  new  man.  Kar'  cixoia  05ol — i.  e.,  a.-cord- 
ing  to  Ephes.  iv.  24,  xara0f6i',  after  the  jiattern 
or  likeness  of  God — i.  e.,  that  you  should  be- 
come again  like  unto  God.  Paul  here  makes 
this  likeness  of  God  to  consist  in  a  moral  re- 
semblance— that  holiness  and  uprisfhtiiess,  to 
the  attainment  of  which  Christ  teaches  us  the 
means,  and  gives  us  the  power.  This  is  clear 
from  what  precedes,  and  also  from  Ejihes.  iv. 
24,  where  Paul  says  that  this  reformed  charac- 
ter, bearing  the  divine  likeness,  consists  iv 
Sixaioaifrj  (piety),  xai  oaiorr^tt  rr^  aXr^^fiaj— 
(i.  e.,  dxr^tvij,)  honest,  sincere  integrity.  The 
same  words  are  employed  in  the  passage  cited 
from  the  Book  of  Wisdom.  John,  in  his  epis- 
tles, frequently  urges  the  duty  of  striving  to  be- 
come like  to  God,  (filii  Dei,)  although  he  does 
not  use  the  phrase,  image  of  God.  Plato  says, 
that  likeness  (uuotcjffij)  to  God  is.  ^'hixaiov  xax 
Qfjiov  fttta.  ^porr-^fuj  yii/fo^ai."  Cicero  makes 
our  likeness  to  God  both  a  physical  and  moral 
resemblance.  God,  he  ssays,  animated  the 
human  body,  "  ut  essent  qui  terram  tuerentur, 
quique  ccelestium  ordinem  contemplantes  imita- 
rentur  cum  vita;  modo  et  constantia." 

III.  Concluding  Remarks. 

We  draw  the  following  general  conclusion 
from  these  historical  and  exegetical  observations 
— viz.,  the  phrase,  the  image  of  God,  is  very 
comprehensive,  and  used  in  the  Bible  in  more 
than  one  sense  ;  and  many  unnecessary  disputes 
would  have  been  avoided,  if  it  had  not  been 
adopted  in  systematic  theology  as  the  title  of  a 
particular  article.  One  mav  say,  without  at  all 
denying  a  primitive  state  of  innocence,  that  the 
image  of  God  in  which  man  was  created  did  not 
consist  in  this  state,  and  that  it  still  continues 
after  the  fall.  If  we  believe  the  scriptures,  we 
shall  believe  in  the  primitive  innocence  of  man ; 
but  there  is  no  necessity  for  us  to  call  it  the 
image  of  God.  It  would  be  fiir  better  to  aban- 
don the  phrase,  image  of  God,  in  speaking  sci- 
entifically on  the  original  perfectirms  of  man, 
and  to  adopt  in  its  place  the  more  comprehensive 
title,  the  state  of  innocence.  The  latter  phrase  is 
derived  from  2  Cor.  xi.  3,  where  Paul  says,  he 
fears  that,  as  Eve  was  beguiled  by  the  serpent, 
Christians  may  be  beguiled  (by  false  teachers) 
from  the  drtXorrroj  Tri  tU  Xfinroi — i.  e.,  sim- 
plicitas,  sincerity,  purity  ;  here,  pure  love  to 
Christ,  true  and  sincere  dependence  upon  him 
like  what  innocent  children  feel  towards  their 
parents  and  benefactors. 

Again  ;  we  compare  men  with  God  in  respec 


193 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


to  all  the  excellencps  which  we  observe  in  them, 
and  which  we  conceive  that  he  also  possesses, 
♦nly  in  a  higher  and  more  perfect  degree.  We 
may  say  of  men,  therefore,  that,  in  respect  to 
all  these  excellences,  they  bear  the  image  if  God, 
or  are  like  him.  Now  we  still  possess,  as  we 
are  taught  in  the  scriptures,  many  of  these  no- 
bler powers  with  which  our  nature  was  endued, 
though  in  a  (at  less  degree  than  God ;  such  are 
reason,  dominion  over  the  earth,  &c.  Other  of 
these  excellences,  according  to  the  constant 
doctrine  of  the  Bible,  we  have  lost  by  the  fall, 
or  possess  at  present  in  a  far  less  degree  than 
our  first  parents  before  the  fall.  Among  the 
latter  are  («)  that  degree  of  bodily  strength  and 
health  which  laid  the  foundation  for  the  immor- 
tality of  the  body;  and  (6)  more  especially 
mora!  perfections.  Thus  we  see  that  the  Bible 
will  support  us  in  saying,  both  that  we  still 
possess  the  image  of  God,  and  that  we  possess 
it  no  longer,  according  as  we  use  this  phrase  in 
a  wider  or  narrower  sense.  So  far  as  the  pos- 
terity of  Adam  still  possesses  reason  and  power 
over  irrational  creatures,  they  still  possess  the 
image  of  God,  Deo  sunt  similes.  So  far  as  they 
have  ceased  to  be  righteous  and  holy  as  man 
was  in  his  state  of  innocence,  and  so  far  as  their 
bodies  are  now  becomt  mortal,  they  have  lost 
the  image  of  God.  But  so  far  as  they  regain 
this  original  moral  rectitude,  and  a  happy  im- 
mortality, they  again  become  like  God,  and  his 
image  is  renewed  in  their  souls.  This  whole 
subject  is  discussed  by  Morus,  p.  105,  s.  23,  in 
a  manner  worthy  of  imitation,  especially  in  the 
practical  turn  which  he  has  given  it. 

yule. — Theologians  have  invented  various 
divisions  ami  technical  phrases,  in  order  to  de- 
termine more  accurately  the  nature  and  kind  of 
those  excellences  and  perfections  which  were 
bestowed  by  God  upon  man  at  the  creation. 
But  these  divisions  have  given  rise  to  many  er- 
roneous views  of  this  subject.  The  following 
distinctions  deserve  to  be  particularly  noticed  : — 

1.  These  original  endowments  of  man  are 
not  to  be  understood  as  excellences  which  he 
possessed  in  actual  exercise  (^habitus,  Scholast. 
h'.ihilus  iufasi ,)  but  only  as  capacities  and  fa- 
culties fc;  those  excellences  which,  by  practice 
and  exercise,  he  may  come  to  possess.  'I'he 
humi.n  soul  resembles  in  this  respect  an  unwrit- 
tt;n  leaf,  (the  tabula  rasa  of  Aristotle,)  upon 
which  everything  can  be  written  for  wiiich  it 
has  a  natural  fitness  and  susceptibility.  Vide 
Introduction,  8.  1. 

2.  Tiiev  are  tuiturales;  united  with  human 
nature,  and  wrought  into  it  by  God;  and  op- 
posed (a)  to  perfrctinnca  esscnii/i'les,  because  man 
can  be  conceived  to  exist  without  thoin,  and 
would  remain  m^in  though  destitute  of  them  ; 
and  (i^l  io  pcrfectioncs  superadditi  per  gratium. 


This  last  point  was  affirmed  in  opposition  ta 
many  theologians  of  the  Itomish  ciiurch,  who 
placed  these  excellences  in  a  hiij;h  degree  of  w's» 
dom,  justice,  and  holiness,  imparted  by  Gud  to 
men  on  creation  in  a  supernatural  manner,  and 
in  addition  to  the  original  endowments  of  his 
nature.  They  regarded  the  siiuilitudu  cum  Deo 
as  opposed  to  the  status  purorum  tuituralium,  in 
wliich  man  was  without  the  knowledge  or  lov« 
of  God  ;  and  therefore  as  a  djnum  sujiernaturale^ 
which  could  be  lost  without  altering  the  essen- 
tial nature  of  man. 

3.  Ferfutionespropas.ibiles.     It  was  the  inten- 
tion of  God  that  these  perfections  should  bo 
transmitted  to  the  posterity  of  our  first  parents,  ' 
so  long  as  the  conditions  prescribed  by  God 
should  be  fulfilled. 

SECTION  LIV. 

OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  STATE  OF  MAN;  HIS  ME.NTAI 
AND  MORAL  PERFECTIONS. 

The  excellences  which  man  possessed  in  hia 
original  condition  are  generally  divided  into  two 
classes;  (a)  Internal,  such  as  belong  to  the  es- 
sential constitution  of  human  nature,  as  esta- 
blished by  God  himself,  including  all  his  ori- 
ginal perfections  both  of  soul  and  body ;  s.  54, 
55.  (J))  External,  such  advantages  as  man 
possessed  trom  the  relation  to  the  rest  of  the 
creation  in  which  he  was  placed  by  God ;  hia 
dominion  over  the  other  creatures  of  the  earth, 
his  title  to  use  them  for  his  own  advantage, 
&c. — imago  Dei  seiusu  latiori ;  s.  5G.  We  shall 
first  treat  of  the  internal  excellences  of  man; 
in  this  section,  of  the  original  perfections  of  hia 
soul ;  in  the  following,  of  those  of  his  body.  The 
excellences  which  originally  belonged  to  the 
soul  of  man  will  now  be  considered  in  reference 
to  its  two  principal  powers — understanding  and 
will. 

I.  Original  Excellences  of  the  Human  Under- 
standing. 

Reason  and  the  intellectual  powers  are  the 
noblest  gifts  which  we  have  received  from  God, 
without  which  we  could  not  be  moral  beings. 
We  cannot  suppose,  then,  that  these  powers 
should  have  remained  idle  and  unemployed  dur- 
ing the  ha))py  state  of  innocence  in  wliich  our 
first  parents  lived.  Paul,  tliprefore,  with  entire 
truth,  makes  iniyvi^iii  one  of  the  tilings  in  which 
our  likeness  to  (Jnd  consisted;  Col.  iii.  10,  cf. 
8.  5.3;  since  holiness  and  blanielessness,  the 
other  things  mentioned  as  constituting  it,  could 
not  exist,  without  some  knowledge  of  good  and 
evil.  This  kiiowle<|oe,  however,  was  not  itself  M 
directly  imparlfd  to  man  at  his  creation,  hut  9 
only  the  piiwrr  (f  oblaimng  knowledge.  Vide 
s.  53,  ad  finem. 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


m 


In  what  the  knowledge  of  our  first  parents 
eonsisted  neither  IMoses  nor  any  other  sacred 
writer  has  particularly  informed  us.  Their 
state  with  respect  to  knowledge  is  doubtless 
justly  described  as  a  state  of  infancy ;  in  the 
sense,  however,  in  which  we  speak  of  the  in- 
fancy of  nations;  for  Mose-j  does  not  represent 
Adam  as  in  all  respec's  resembling  a  new-born 
fihild.  As  to  a^htal  knowledge,  he  was,  indeed, 
at  the  moment  when  God  created  him,  exactly 
in  the  condition  of  a  new-born  child,  and  quite 
as  destitute  of  innate  ideas.  But  in  another  re- 
spect he  was  very  unlike  a  new-born  child ;  in 
this,  namely,  that  he  was  able  to  exercise  his 
reason  immediately,  which  a  child  is  not.  God 
cieated  man,  according  to  the  Mosaic  account, 
not  only  endued  with  reason,  but  able  to  exercise 
it  on  his  first  entrance  into  the  world.  And  if 
he  had  immediately  the  full  use  of  his  intellec- 
tual powers,  he  must  very  soon  have  acquired 
fiom  the  objects  by  which  he  was  surrounded  a 
great  variety  of  ideas,  and  a  large  stock  of  know- 
ledge; and  he  would  advance  in  knowledge  the 
more  rapidly  and  easily,  as  his  mind  was  not  as 
yet  swayed  by  those  inordinate  bodily  appe- 
tites, nor  darkened  by  those  prejudices,  nor 
confirmed  in  those  bad  habits,  by  which  all 
others  who  have  attained  to  maturity  are  so 
effectually  hindered  in  the  acquisition  of  know- 
ledge. 

The  means  by  which  God  called  the  intel- 
lectual powers  of  man  into  exercise,  and  brought 
them  to  a  full  development,  were,  according  to 
Moses,  of  two  kinds. 

(a)  Indirect, — the  external  objects  by  which 
man  was  surrounded.  Animate  creatures,  being 
more  nearly  related  to  him  than  the  inanimate 
creation,  were  the  first  objects  w-hich  attracted 
his  attention  and  excited  his  curiosity.  That 
this  was  so  we  may  conclude,  both  from  what 
we  observe  every  day  among  children,  and  from 
the  express  declaration  of  Moses.  The  living 
creatures  with  which  man  was  conversant  first 
employed  his  thoughts;  and  in  giving  them 
names,  he  first  exercised  the  faculty  of  speech. 
Cf.  s.  52,  II.  It  was  not  until  afterwards,  and 
only  in  an  inferior  degree,  that  the  inanimate 
creation  also  administered  to  his  instruction  by 
the  various  objects  which  it  presented  to  his  at- 
tention. 

(6)  Direct, — the  revelations  made-immediately 
to  man.  The  Mosaic  history  throughout  repre- 
sents God  as  familiarly  and  directly  conversant 
with  our  first  parents;  and  as  speaking  with 
them  ;  Gen.  ii.  16,  17;  i.  29,  30.  And  the  his- 
tory of  the  fall  (chap,  iii.)  presupposes  in  our 
first  parents  an  acquaintance  with  some  direct 
divine  instruction,  and  with  positive  divine  pre- 
cepts; and  this  corresponds  entirely  with  the 
notions  which  even  heathen  nations  have  always 
25 


had  of  the  original  condition  of  man.  In  the 
early  and  infant  age  of  the  world,  the  Deity, 
they  supposed,  walked  familiarly  among  men, 
and  revealed  himself  to  them  directly,  by  words, 
dreams,  visions,  and  in  other  ways. 

The  knowledge  of  our  first  parents,  so  far  as 
it  was  derived  from  natural  sources,  must  have  ^ 
been  confined  to  the  objects  by  which  they  wers 
immediately  surrounded  ;  and  even  with  regard 
to  these,  they  knew  only  as  much  as  was  neces- 
sary for  them  in  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
were  placed.  In  comparison  with  the  know- 
ledge which  we  possess  at  present,  it  must  have 
been  very  small,  as  their  wants  were  compara- 
tively very  few.  The  Mosaic  history  does  not 
afford  the  remotest  support  to  the  fabulous  sto- 
ries which  we  find  in  the  rabbins,  ecclesiastical 
fathers,  and  other  writers,  who  have  followed  the 
later  Jewish  teachers,  respecting  the  extensive 
physiological,  scientific,  and  literary  knowledge 
of  Adam.  These  Jewish  fables  are  connected 
with  the  notion  that  the  language  which  Adam 
spoke  was  Hebrew,  which  is  supposed  by  the 
Jews  to  be  a  holy  language,  inspired  by  God — e 
pretension  which  has  been  ably  refuted  by 
Schultens.  The  Jews  think  they  can  discovei 
proof  of  the  thorough  knowledge  of  nature  which 
Adam  possessed,  in  the  Hebrew  names  which 
they  suppose  him  to  have  given  to  the  various 
animals,  and  from  the  etymologies  of  these 
names. 

We  should  not  expect  to  find  thorough  know- 
ledge or  extensive  learning  in  our  first  parents, 
for  the  following  reasons: — viz.,  (a)  With  their 
few  wants  they  could  derive  no  advanlnge  from 
such  knowledge,  and  could  make  no  use  of  it. 
{b)  As  to  religion,  the  knowledge  which  they 
needed  both  of  its  theoretical  and  practical  truths- 
could  be  comprised  in  a  few  simple  and  intelli- 
gible points.  Of  any  higher  or  more  extended 
knowledge  of  this  subject  they  were  at  first 
wholly  incapable,  (c)  It  will  not  be  denied  that 
the  language  of  our  first  parents  must  have  been 
simple  and  scanty.  Vide  s.  55.  But  it  is  well 
known  from  experience,  that  without  rcorJs,  and 
indeed  without  a  great  copiousness  and  richness 
of  language,  neither  distinct  and  definite  ideas, 
nor,  in  general,  accurate  knowledge,  can  exist. 
((/)  When  men  first  begin  to  collect  in  society, 
even  supposing  them  endued  with  the  most  no- 
ble faculties  and  intellectual  powers,  they  cannot 
be  instructed  by  philosophy,  like  learned  and 
cultivated  people.  They  must  first  be  instructed 
by  what  is  sensible;  and  have  everything  ren- 
dered as  obvious  to  the  senses  as  possible;  ex- 
actly as  it  is  represented,  Gen.  ii.  19,  20.  If  the 
representation  there  made  were  different,  and 
such  as  many  modern  scholars  would  have  us 
believe,  it  would  be  hijihly  improbable,  and  the 
whole  narrative  would  become  suspicious.  Thi» 
R 


194 


CFIRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Tery  simplicity  gives  it  the  stamp  of  internal 
truth,  (e)  Our  first  parents  are  represented  in 
chap.  iii.  as  in  fact  credulous  and  easily  be- 
guiled. And  how  can  this  be  reconciled  with 
the  supposition  that  they  possessed  that  deep 
and  extensive  knowledge  and  those  great  per- 
fections sometimes  ascribed  to  them  ?  The 
knowledge  of  Adam,  then,  cannot  be  compared 
with  that  of  any  advanced  and  mature  race  of 
men.  The  same  standard  of  judging  cannot  be 
employed  in  the  two  cases.  It  may  be  readily 
conceded,  however,  that  the  powers  T^nA  faculties 
of  our  first  parents,  as  long  as  the  ad^>^  and 
nv(\>ft.a„  nen^e  and  reason,  remained  in  proper  ba- 
lance, were  greater  than  those  of  their  poslerit}', 
in  whom  the  case  is  otherwise.  Vide  Dr.  Junge, 
"  Volekoininenhi'iten  der  ersten  Menschen," 
Sfuck  I,  of  his  philosophical  and  theological 
Essays;  Niirnberg,  1779,  8vo. 

II.  Original  Excellences  of  the  Human  Will. 

They  consist  chiefly  in  the  order  and  regu- 
larity of  our  bodily  desires.  Our  first  parents 
in  their  state  of  innocence  were  blameless  and 
einiess.  They  had  sincere  love  for  God  and  re- 
gard for  his  commandments,  and  did  everything 
which  was  agreeable  to  him  with  the  greatest 
readiness,  out  of  pure  love,  as  virtuous  children 
do  the  will  of  an  earthly  parent.  In  short,  if 
their  piety  was  childlike  in  respect  to  the  know- 
ledge upon  which  it  was  founded,  it  was  also  so 
"in  respect  to  its  purity  and  simplicity.  And  this 
disposition  is  that  which  will  be  revived  in  those 
in  whom  the  image  of  God  is  renewed.  Hence 
■Christ  recommends  us  so  earnestly  to  become 
like  children.  Our  first  parents  obeyed  from 
grateful  love;  and  it  is  the  object  of  Christianity, 
in  designing  to  renew  the  image  of  God,  to  bring 
us  to  render  obedience  to  God  and  Christ  from 
motives  of  grateful  love.  But  this  rectitude  of 
our  first  parents  consisted  only  in  the  subjection 
of  their  bodily  appetites  to  the  law  of  reason. 
Both  scri|)lure  and  experience  teach  us  that  our 
depravity  anil  moral  degeneracy  arise  principally 
from  the  dominion  of  sense  {jjan^^)  over  reason 
(rtwujua.)  Such  was  not  the  case  with  man  in 
his  state  of  innocence;  he  then  sufiered  his  ap- 
petites to  be  controlled  by  rational  considera- 
tions; he  fixed  his  choice  only  upon  what  was 
good,  and  his  desires  being  virtuous,  his  actions 
were  the  same.  Hence  this  original  rectitudi- 
of  man  is  called  ni nlcisncss  ((i»'aua,)r»;'na.)  Tiie 
representation  now  given  of  the  original  recti- 
tude of  man  depends  principally  upon  the  pas- 
sages, Col.  iii.  and  Kphes.  iv.  Vide  s.  53.  In 
these  passages,  rif^hlniu.tness  (uprightness)  and 
hnlinens  (moral  perfection)  are  ascribed  by  Paul 
to  the  will  of  man  as  first  created,  and  as  re- 
newed. This  rectitude  of  the  will  is  called  by 
theologians  imaginem  Dei  stride  sic  diclam,  also 


juslitiam  originalem,  tbf  l.^st  of  which  is  used 
in  the  Apol.  Augsb.  Confession.  Vide  Morus, 
p.  105,  Not.  ad.  s.  23.  Of  the  same  import  is 
the  phrase  cx'^vrr^^  4'^'^^^  which  occurs,  Book  of 
Wisdom,  ix.  3  (s.  53);  and  also  oiiorrj  and 
an?.or);?,  2  Cor.  xi.  3.  Ev^vj  corresponds  with 
the  Hebrew  nr%  honest,  upright,  virtuous;  and 
is  used  with  particular  reference  to  the  text, 
Kccles.  vii.  29,  "God  made  man  upright;  but 
he  sought  out  many  inventions  (wrong  ways)." 
The  meaning  is  :  man  had  a  natural  capacity  for 
virtue,  but  he  abandoned  nature,  and  declined  to 
evil,  notwithstanding  his  noble  capacities. 

The  opinions  which  many  form  of  the  per- 
fections of  the  will  of  our  first  parents,  and  of  the 
virtues  of  their  character,  are  freijuently  very 
extravagant.  This  is  a  fault  which  should  be 
guarded  against.  Man  was  created  with  the 
amplest  capacity  for  moral  excellency;  but  it 
cannot  be  said  that  he  had  attained  to  the  actual 
possession  of  this  excellence  in  a  very  high 
degree.  High  and  confirmed  virtue  can  only  be 
attained  by  a  long  course  of  moral  action;  and 
at  that  early  period  opportunities  for  this  action 
must  have  been  very  rare.  God,  however,  did 
not  require  more  from  man  than  he  had  given 
to  him.  But  the  understanding  of  man  in  his 
primitive  state,  though  indeed  sufficient  for  the 
situation  in  which  he  was  placed,  was  still  very 
small,  and  his  actual  knowledge  very  limited  ; 
but  the  more  feeble  and  imperfect  these  are,  the 
more  imperfect,  necessarily,  must  be  that  virtue 
which  depends  upon  them.  Tliere  is  a  great 
(iifrerence  between  the  innocence  of  childhood, 
and  the  virtue  which  is  grounded  upon  the  mure 
perfect  and  mature  knowledge  and  experience 
of  a  riper  and  more  advanced  age.  If  our  first 
parents  had  possessed  so  prepomlerating  a  bias 
to  good  as  many  have  supposed,  it  is  hard  to 
see  how  they  could  have  been  so  easily  seduced. 
We  behold  them  yielding  to  temptations  which 
would  have  in  vain  assailed  many  of  those 
among  their  descendants,  in  whom,  according 
to  the  language  of  scripture,  the  image  of  God 
is  renewed. 

They,  however,  were  not  destitute  of  a  know- 
ledge of  their  duty  sufficient  for  their  situation; 
for  so  much  (•n^\  had  provided,  (tenesis,  iii.  2, 
3.  Accordingly,  tlieir  neglect  of  duty  and  the«r 
transgrnssion  of  the  divine  command  could  be 
imputed  to  them.  We  should  avoid,  therefore, 
the  other  mistake  of  representing  tliem  as  en- 
tirely ignorant.  Vide  Morus,  8.  8,  22.  Ifther 
had  been  faithful  in  the  use  of  the  knowledge 
which  they  possessed,  they  would  have  attained 
to  a  greater  measure  of  it,  and  to  a  more  fixed 
habit  of  goodness,  as  is  the  case  among  those 
in  whom  the  image  of  God  is  renewed.  Cf. 
Matt.  xiii.  12,  and  the  texts  cited  from  the  epis- 
tles to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians. 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


in 


SECTIOxN  LV. 

OP  THE  PRIMITIVE  STATE  OF  MAN  ;    HIS  BODILV 
EXCELLENCES,  AND  SPEECH. 

I.  Original  Excelknccs  of  the  Human  Body, 

1.  The  superiority  of  our  first  parents  over 
their  posterity  in  this  respect  cannot  be  accu- 
rately and  particularly  determined  from  the 
Mosaic  account.  So  much,  however,  is  clear 
from  this  account,  that  the  body  of  man  was  then 
perfectly  healthy,  strong,  and  vigorous,  and  that 
it  would  have  enjoyed  a  never-failing  youth  if 
man  had  continued  in  that  happy  condition  in 
"which  he  was  first  placed.  And  this  account 
agrees  perfectly  with  the  representations  which 
\ve  find  among  other  nations  of  the  animal  cheer- 
ful ness,  the  bodily  health  and  strength  of  man 
in  the  golden  age,  and  even  down  into  the  hero- 
ical  age.  Homer  frequently  spealcs  of  the  strong 
bodily  powers  of  the  men  of  an  earlier  period, 
in  comparison  with  the  feebleness  of  those  who 
lived  in  his  own  age.  The  blooming  health  and 
bodily  vigour  of  our  first  parents  contributed  to 
the  health  and  strength  of  the  soul;  its  powers 
were  not  disordered  or  weakened  by  sickness; 
Ibe  passions  and  appetites,  which  so  often  de- 
stroy both  body  and  soul,  were  as  yet  moderate 
and  regular.  On  this  subject,  as  well  as  with 
regard  to  the  original  mental  and  moral  excel- 
lences of  man,  the  fiincy  of  the  later  Jews  was 
very  active;  and  they  invented  innumerable 
fables,  with  which  their  writings  are  filled, 
respecting  the  beauty,  the  gigantic  size  and 
strength,  of  the  first  man. 

The  immorialitij  of  the  body  is  expressly  men- 
tioned in  the  IMosaic  account,  as  one  of  the  pe- 
culiar distinguishing  advantages  which  our  first 
parents  enjoyed.  Gen.  ii.  17,  but  which  we  have 
lost  by  the  fall.  Gen.  iii,  3,  19.  The  same  is 
-also  everywhere  taught  by  the  later  Jewish 
writers,  who  always  regarded  the  immortality 
of  the  body  as  a  part  of  the  image  of  God.  Vide 
Book  of  Wisdom,  ii.  2."?,  seq.,  (s.  53,  II.  2.) 
So  also  the  first  Christian  teachers — e.  g.,  Ro- 
mans, V.  12 ;  vi.  23  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  21,  22  ;  where 
the  same  views  are  given  as  in  the  texts  cited 
from  the  Book  of  Wisdom.  This  doctrine  of 
the  immortality  of  the  body  does  not  imply  that 
man  in  his  nature  was  so  unalterable  that  he 
absolutely  eotild  not  die.  An  tmpos'sihilHas  mo- 
riendi,  or  immortalitas  absohita,  is  not  pretended  ; 
but  only  the  absentia  necessitatis  naturalis  mori- 
endi,  or  immortalitas  hypnlhetica,  the  condition 
proposed  being  obedience  to  the  command  of 
Cod,  and  the  enjoyment  of  the  tree  of  life  beingr 
permitted  to  them  only  so  long  as  they  should 
fulfil  this  condition.  Morus,  p.  98,  s.  9,  note. 
Nor  is  this  immortality  represented  even  by 
Moses  as  a  necessary  consequence  resulting 
from  the  incorruptible  nature  of  the  human  body, 


but  as  a  favour  promised  to  man  by  God,  and 
depending  upon  the  constantly-repeated  use  of 
the  tree  of  life.  Gen.  ii.  9,  coll.  iii.  22,  24.  Cf. 
s.  52,  II.  Something  similar  to  this  is  found  in 
the  Grecian  mythology,  which  represents  tlie 
gods  as  partaking  oi  nectar  and  ambrosia,  in  order 
to  preserve  and  invigorate  their  bodies;  while 
mortal  men  were  not  allowed  to  participate  of 
this  heavenly  food,  even  when  they  ate  with  the 
gods.     Hom.  Od.  v.  197,  199. 

The  question  is  frequently  zs\ied,  whether  man 
would  have  always  remained  upon  the  earth  if  he 
had  not  fallen?  The  Mosaic  history  furnishes 
no  reply  to  this  question;  but  the  answer  com- 
monly given  by  theologians  is,  that  man  would 
not  always  have  remained  here  below,  but  that, 
by  some  unknown  transformation, without  death, 
or  the  separation  of  the  soul  from  the  body,  he 
would  have  been  raised  to  a  higher  happiness 
in  heaven.  To  this  opinion  Morus  assents.  It 
is  grounded  principally  upon  the  New-Testa- 
ment doctrine,  that  those  men  who  should  still 
be  alive  at  the  day  of  judgment  would  not  die, 
but  be  chang:ed — i.  e.,  their  grosser  bodies  would 
pass,  without  the  painful  sensation  of  death,  into 
those  more  refined  and  perfect  bodies  which  all 
will  possess  in  the  abodes  of  the  blessed,  1  Cor. 
XV.  51,  seq.  This  representation  is  supposed 
to  furnish  some  evidence  with  regard  to  the  ori- 
ginal destination  of  the  human  body  ;  and  this 
is  rendered  more  probable  by  what  Paul  says, 
ver.  47,  "(ir^pcorfos  fjc  yjjj  ;^otx6j  (fon)."  But 
we  cannot  attain  to  certainly  upon  this  sub- 
ject, because  the  holy  scriptures  leave  it  un- 
decided. 

2.  It  was  not  intended,  however,  by  the  Crea- 
tor, that  our  first  parents,  while  living  in  their 
state  of  innocence,  should  leave  their  bodily 
powers  unemployed  and  unexercised.  Morus, 
s.  4.  The  life  which  they  were  to  lead  was 
not  one  of  indolent  ease  and  animal  enjoyment, 
although  such  is  the  notion  almost  universally 
entertained  respecting  the  life  in  the  golden  age. 
Our  first  parents,  on  the  contrary,  were  required 
to  labour,  and  in  that  way  still  further  to  de- 
velop and  perfect  their  bodily  and  intellectual 
powers.  Vide  s.  51.  II.  The  very  idea,  how- 
ever, of  this  happy  age,  excludes  the  notion  of 
pain  and  hardship,  the  frequent  attendants  of 
labour.  Vide  Genesis,  ii.  5  :  iii.  17 — 19.  .Igri- 
culture  is  mentioned,  in  the  passages  before 
cited,  as  the  first  employment  appointed  for  man. 
The  taming,  or  rather  domestication  and  em- 
ployment of  animals  is  mentioned  in  Gen.  i.  28. 
By  describing  agriculture  as  the  first  employ- 
ment of  man,  Moses  obviates  the  false  opinion 
that  our  first  parents  were  oriirinally  in  a  savage 
state.  A  degree  of  cultivation  which  savagei 
do  not  possess  is  implied  in  agricultural  employ, 
ments  ;  and  they  lead  faster  than  any  other  t» 
progressive  improvement. 


196 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOCV. 


II.   Original  Language  of  Man. 

Speech  is  the  great  characteristic  excellence 
of  rnan,  without  which  he  would  hardly  be  able 
to  employ  his  rational  powers,  or  to  exist  in  so- 
cial connexion  with  his  felluw-nien.  Of  this 
distinguishing  faculty  of  man  Moses  makes  ex- 
press mention,  Gen.  ii.  19;  cf.  s.  52,  II.  There 
have  always  been  very  various  opinions  respect- 
ing the  orJQfin  of  human  language.  For  the 
opinions  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  vide  PufTendorf, 
Jus  naturae  et  gentium,  1.  iv.  c.  I ,  s.  3,  and  Miil- 
ler,  Positiones,  historico-philosnph.  de  origine 
sermonis;  Argentorati,  1777.  This  subject  lias 
been  often  discussed  in  modern  limes,  and  has 
caused  much  controversy  both  among  philoso- 
phers and  theologians  ;  and  as  it  is  usually  made 
a  topic  of  discussion  in  modern  systematic  the- 
ology, and  can  be  more  naturally  introduced  into 
this  department  than  any  other,  we  shall  treat 
of  it  briefly  in  this  place.  Writers  on  this  sub- 
ject are  divided  into  two  principal  classes — viz., 

1.  Some  have  maintained  that  an  articulate 
language,  consisting  of  arbitrary  sounds,  was 
imparted  to  man  at  his  creation,  and  that  he  was 
able  immediately  to  speak  it ;  and  moreover,  that 
this  original  language  was  very  copious  and  in 
the  highest  degree  perfect.  Man,  they  assert, 
not  only  did  not,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  invent  the 
language  which  he  spake,  but  never  could  have 
done  it;  and  so  they  suppose  that  speech  was 
originally  as  special  and  miraculous  an  endow- 
ment as  the  gift  of  tongues  to  the  apostles.  The 
principal  advocate-  of  this  opinion  in  modern 
times  is  Job.  Pet.  Siissmilch,  who  has  attempt- 
ed, with  no  common  sagacity,  to  prove  that  the 
origin  of  language  is  not  to  be  traced  to  man, 
but  directly  to  God.  Vid§  his  Essay  on  this 
subject,  published  at  Berlin,  1700,  8vo.     But, 

(ff)  The  nature  of  language  itself,  and  the 
most  ancient  history  of  it,  furnish  conclusive 
evidence  that  man  not  only  can  invent,  but  has 
actually  invented,  articulated  language,  consist- 
ing of  arbitrary  sounds.  All  languages  in  their 
incipient  state  are  indescribably  simple,  consist- 
ing of  very  few  and  short  words  and  plirases, 
which  are  so  insufficient  for  the  communication 
of  thougiit.  tliat  looks  and  gestures  are  called  in 
to  their  aid.  Such  we  observe  to  be  tlie  case 
Still  with  cliildren,  who  have  more  thoughts 
and  feelings  than  words  in  which  to  express 
them.  The  same  is  true  of  savages,  and  gene- 
rally of  all  who  have  but  few  words.  Now,  if 
God  had  comm\inicated  language  in  some  such 
miraculous  manner  as  is  supposed  to  our  first 
parents,  it  is  hard  to  see  why  he  should  have 
Buffered  this  language  to  be  afterwards  lost,  and 
how  it  should  have  come  to  pass  that  all  tlie 
nations  springing  from  Adam  should  have  begun 
back  with  the  very  elements  of  speeoii,  and  pro- 
teeding  from  these,  have  formed  so  many  and 


such  different  languages.  According  to  this 
supposition,  then,  a  great  miracle  would  have 
been  wrought  in  behalf  of  our  first  parents,  from 
which  none  of  their  posterity  had  reaped  tho 
least  advantage.  This  is  not  according  to  th«' 
manner  of  God  in  his  other  works. 

(6)  The  supposition  that  the  original  lan- 
guage of  man  was  copious  and  finished,  over- 
looks the  fact  that  language  cannot  be  such 
where  objects  and  ideas  are  slill  scanty  and  im- 
perfect. Ideas  arise  from  the  perception  of  ob- 
jects; and  the  number,  clearness,  and  distinct- 
ness of  our  ideas  is  in  proportion  to  tiie  number 
of  objects  which  we  behold,  either  simply  or  in 
connexion  with  otiiers.  But  language  contains 
the  signs  and  symbols  by  which  we  express 
our  ideas  of  things,  and  communicate  them  to 
others.  How,  then,  could  there  be  a  perfect 
language  in  that  simplicity  of  human  life  in 
which  there  were  but  few  objects  to  be  seen  or 
compared  ?  The  advocates  of  this  supposition 
are  driven  to  the  absurdity  of  saying  that  man 
could  have  spoken  of  things  which  he  had  never 
seen  or  thought  of.  It  was  remarked  by  Samuel 
Werenfels,  very  truly,  that  if  one  should  look 
through  the  most  comprehensive  and  complete 
dictionary,  he  would  find  but  few  words  which 
could  have  belonged  to  the  language  of  Adam. 

(c)  Again;  of  what  use  could  a  rich  and  cul- 
tivated language  have  been  to  our  first  parents  ? 
And  if  of  none,  how  can  the  supposition  that 
such  a  language  was  miraculously  given  them 
be  reconciled  with  divine  wisdom,  which  does 
not  work  miracles  except  for  some  important 
object?  Now  it  is  perfectly  obvious  that  to 
them,  in  their  peaceful  and  simple  life,  when 
they  had  but  few  wants,  and  those  easily  satis- 
fied, such  a  language  would  have  been  of  no 
utility.  They  had  as  yet  no  ideas  of  innume- 
rable things  which  became  afterwards  known 
as  improvement  advanced  ;  and  for  sucii  things, 
of  course,  they  liad  no  words  in  their  language. 
The  language  of  ourfirst  parents,  in  its  incipient 
state,  could  not  naturally  have  been  more  copi- 
ous or  perfect  than  the  language  of  nations  ge- 
nerally while  they  are  still  in  their  infancy  and 
possess  but  few  ideas,  and  of  course  have,  and 
need  to  have,  but  few  words  to  express  them. 

(</)  We  justly  conclude,  from  what  we  see  of 
the  wisdom  of  God  in  all  his  other  works,  that 
he  did  not  endow  man,  on  his  creation,  with  any 
advantage  whidi  he  himself  could  attain  in  the 
diligent  use  of  the  powers  and  faculties  of  hia 
natuie.  So  we  conclude  that  man  has  no  innate 
ideas,  because  he  can  easily  obtain  the  ideas  he 
possesses  iiy  the  use  of  his  intellectual  powers. 
And  with  slill  more  reason  may  we  conclude, 
on  the  same  ground,  that  man  has  no  iina^iiifs 
innatat,  sive  signa  innata  idciirtun  de  nhus. 
The  IJil)le  makes  no  mention  of  any  such  ;  on 
j  the  contrary,  ii  teaches  that  one  way  in  which 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


Iff 


our  first  parents  learned  language  was  from 
their  intercourse  vvitli  irrational  creatures,  in 
giviiicr  names  to  which  they  first  exercised  the 
faculty  of  speech. 

2.  The  second  class  affirm  that  God  did  not 
bestow  language  itself  upon  man  at  his  creation, 
hut  gave  him  powers  and  faculties  which  would 
enable  him  to  form  a  language  for  himself,  and 
gradually  to  refine  and  enrich  it  as  his  circum- 
stances migiit  require.  Those  who  hold  this 
opinion  may  have  as  sincere  admiration  for  the 
wisdom  of  God  and  gratitude  for  his  goodness 
as  the  advocates  of  the  other  theory.  Among 
the  ancients,  Epicurus,  (vide  Lucretius,)  and 
among  the  fathers,  Tertullian  and  Gregory  of 
Nyssa,  assented  to  this  opinion;  and  it  was 
considered  even  by  Quenstadt  as  entirely  unob- 
jectionable. 

These  writers,  however,  diOer  among  them- 
selves respecting  the /Hfffirier  in  which  man  pro- 
ceeded in  the  development  and  improvement  of 
his  faculties  of  speech.  The  strangest  conjecture 
on  this  point  is  that  of  Mauperiius,  that  language 
was  formed  by  a  session  of  learned  societies, 
assembled  for  the  purpose!  The  theory  which 
derives  the  most  support  from  history  is,  that 
the  ronta,  the  primitive  radical  words  of  articu- 
late and  conventional  language,  were  originally 
made  in  imitation  of  the  sounds  which  we  hear 
from  the  different  objects  in  the  natural  world, 
and  that  these  original  sounds,  in  imitation  of 
which  language  is  first  formed,  become  less  and 
less  discernible  in  these  languages  in  proportion 
as  they  are  improved  and  enlarged,  and  the  ra- 
dical words  are  subjected  to  various  alterations 
and  inflexions.  Vide  Herder,  Ueber  den  Ur- 
sprung  der  Sprache,  (a  prize  Essay;)  Berlin, 
1772 ;  2nd  ed.  1778 ;  3rd,  1789.  Cf.  the  works 
of  Tetens  and  Tiedemann  on  this  subject;  also 
Jerusalem,  Betrachtungen,  th.  ii.  s.  134,  f. 

These  views  respecting  the  origin  of  language 
are  entirely  consistent  with  the  very  natural  re- 
presentation which  Moses  gives,  Gen.  ii.  19, 
20,  of  the  naming  of  the  animals.  Vide  s.  52, 
II.  These  were  the  first  objects  to  which  man 
directed  his  attention,  and  to  these  he  gave 
names,  sometimes  derived  from  his  calls  to  them, 
and  sometimes  from  voices  and  sounds  which 
they  themselves  made.  Tn  this  way,  then,  man 
was  first  led  to  exercise  his  powers  of  speech  ; 
and  it  was  perfectly  natural  for  him  to  begin  to 
Bpeak  by  giving  names  to  animals,  as  they  are 
more  interesting  to  him,  and  more  nearly  related 
to  him,  than  the  inanimate  creation. 

Now,  when  our  first  parents  were  to  be  in- 
structed in  moral  objects,  which  could  not  be 
recognised  by  their  senses,  it  must  necessarily 
be  done  by  images  drawn  from  nature,  and  es- 
pecially from  animals,  and  so  their  names  and 
the  names  of  their  actions  were  figuratively  ap- 
'%lied,  in  the  poverty  of  the  then  existing  lan- 


guage, to  designate  moral  objects.  In  conform- 
ity with  these  views,  we  must  interpret  what 
God  says.  Genesis,  iii.,  iv.,  which  would  have 
been  unintelligible  to  our  first  parents  if  it  had 
been  expressed  in  such  language  and  phraseo- 
logy as  is  now  common  among  us;  but  which, 
being  expressed  in  a  figurative  manner,  was 
level  to  their  comprehension.  This  is  the  way 
in  which  missionaries  are  now  compelled  to  pro- 
ceed, when  they  have  to  do  with  men  who  have 
no  ideas  on  religious  and  spiritual  subjects,  and 
of  course  no  words  answering  to  them  in  their 
language.  Instruction  intended  for  children, 
also,  must  be  conveyed  in  the  same  figurative 
language  and  style;  and  they  are  always  1'ound 
to  be  most  interested  in  allegrories  and  fables, 
like  those  of  jEsop.  Those  ubu  oliject  to  this 
mode  of  instruction  only  prove,  then,  their  own 
ignorance.  Instruction  imparled  to  uncultivated 
men  must  of  necessity  be  given  in  a  figurative 
manner,  because  they  not  only  speak,  but  even 
think,  in  figures.  From  abstract  expressions 
they  derive  but  faint  conceptions.  The  case  is 
entirely  different  among  cultivated  men. 

SECTION  LVI. 

OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  STATE  OF  MAN;  HIS  EXTERNAI, 
ADVANTAGES ;  AND  THE  NOTION  OF  A  GOLDEN 
AGE. 

I.  Original  External  Advantages  of  Man. 

This  is  the  second  class  of  the  distinguishing 
advantages  of  our  first  parents,  as  divided  in  the 
beginning  of  s.  54.  They  have  their  ground  in 
the  external  relation  of  man  to  the  other  crea- 
tures of  the  earth  ;  but  they  presuppose  in  him 
the  possession  of  those  internal  excellences  de- 
scribed s.  54,  55.  These  advantages  are  com- 
prehended under  the  general  description,  the 
dominion  of  man  over  the  earth,  or  over  the  crea- 
tures of  the  earth,  Morus,  p.  104,  s.  21  ;  and 
this  is  taken  from  Gen.  i.  2G,  seq.  coll.  Gen. 
ix.  2.  This  dominion  implies  nothing  more 
than  that  man  possesses  («)  the  right  and  title 
to  make  all  the  creatures  of  the  earth  contribute 
to  his  own  advantage,  to  the  supply  of  his 
wants,  and  to  the  convenience  of  his  life  ;  and 
(6)  that  he  possesses  both  the  power  and  skill 
to  compel  them  to  that  subservience  to  which 
their  nature  is  adapted.  Cf.  s.  52,  II.  It  is 
said  by  Plato,  in  a  passage  in  Tirnseus  respect- 
in<r  the  creation  of  men,  as  translated  by  Cicero, 
"  Tales  creanliir,  ut  Deorum  immortalium  quasi 
sentiks  esse  dcbcani,  divini  generis  appelknlur^ 
(cf.  Acts,  xvii.  28,  from  Aratiis,  rov  yap  x«u 
yfvoj  fs.wf'i',)  teneantque  omnium  animantiurrt 
principafum."  God  has  placed  man,  as  lord, 
at  the  head  of  the  animate  creation;  made  him 
his  image  upon  the  earth — a  subordinate  g'd— . 
a  representative  of  the  Deity.  And  the  irr» 
r2 


irs 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


tional  creatures,  whose  knowledge  cannot  ex- 
tend beyond  what  they  can  recoirnise  by  their 
senses,  can  conceive  of  nothing  superior  to  man. 
Of  God  and  of  spiritual  thini^s  they  know  no- 
thing, and  so  can  have  no  duties  to  perform  to 
him.  Their  business  is,  to  submit  to  fiian,  as 
their  lord  and  ruler;  and  God  has  given  to  man 
the  means  to  compel  liiem  to  this  obedience,  for 
which  they  were  made.  With  many  animals, 
evi'n  since  the  fall,  this  subjection  to  man  seems 
to  t)e  natural  and  easy ;  they  are  inclined  to  his 
service  of  their  own  accord,  or  are  readily  pre- 
vailed upon  by  favours  or  chastisements  to  en- 
gaire  in  it. 

This  dominion  which  was  conferred  upon 
man  over  the  animate  and  the  inanimate  crea- 
tion he  still  retains,  at  least  in  a  good  measure. 
It  is  represented  as  still  the  prerogative  of  man 
in  Psalm  viii.  G — 9,  the  whole  of  which  passage 
is  a  paraphrase  of  Genesis,  i.  2G,  seq.  (On  the 
question,  whether  this  dominion  is  only  a  part, 
or  the  whole  of  what  is  intended,  when  it  is 
said  that  man  was  made  in  the  iina^e  of  God, 
of.  s.  53.  I.  II.)  Theologians,  however,  fre- 
quently assert,  that  since  the  fall  man  does  not 
possess  this  dominion  over  the  inferior  creation 
in  i/s  full  extent  i  and  it  does  not  follow  from 
the  words  of  Moses,  considered  by  themselves, 
that  he  ecer  did.  Moses,  however,  and  other 
sacred  writers,  clearly  teach,  that  such  wild,  in- 
tractable, and  cruel  beasts,  as  are  now  found 
upon  the  earth,  were  unknown  to  man  in  his 
original  condition,  where  they  were  all  tame 
and  subject  to  his  will.  Tiiis  is  clear,  too,  from 
the  figurative  description  which  the  prnjihets 
give  of  the  return  of  that  happy  age — e.  g.,  Isa. 
xi.  f) ;  Ixv.  25.  The  same  opinions  respecting 
that  happy  age  of  innocence  in  the  youth  of 
the  world  are  found  among  the  Greeks,  Romans, 
(cf.  Virg.  Ed.  iv.,)  and  almost  all  nations. 

Froin  the  relation  which  man  holds  to  irra- 
tional creatures,  as  their  master  and  ruler,  he 
owes  them  several  iini)ortant  duties;  the  consi- 
deration of  which  belongs,  however,  rather  to 
the  department  of  morals  than  of  theology. 

II.  The  Notion  of  a  Golden  Age. 

1.  The  notion  of  a  golden  age  of  l/u  ivorld  is 
almoyt  universal  ;  and,  although  somewhat  mo- 
dified by  the  |)eculiar  opinions  and  customs  of 
each  people,  it  is  yet  found  difTused  through  all 
agfs  and  nations,  as  far  as  history  extends,  and 
IS  everywhere  substantially  the  same.  All  na- 
tions believe  that  the  original  state  of  the  earth 
and  of  the  human  race  was  far  more  happy  and 
cheerful,  and  in  every  respect  bettor,  than  the 
present ;  and  that  either  at  on'e  or  more  gradu- 
ally the  world  degenerated.  The  notions  vvhieii 
the  Grecians,  and  the  natiims  which  adopted 
their  mythology,  the  I?oinans  and  others,  entcr- 
.ained  respecting  the  different  ages, — the  golden, 


silver,  &c., — are  generally  known.  Cf.  Hesio^ 
'F^y.xan.  ru.  verses  lOD— '201.  Ovid,  Met.  I. 
Sy — \C-2.  Virgil,  Eel.  iv.,  and  the  selections 
from  Plato  and  Diodorus  in  Euseb.  Piaep.  Evan. 
i.7;  xii.  13.  [Cf.  Lucretius,  De  rerum  nai.ii. 
332,  seq.  TibuUus,  i.  3,  35,  seq.  .Seneca, 
Hi[)p.  V.  521.]  The  same  opinions  substan- 
tially are  found  among  rude  and  savage  na- 
tions— the  inhabitants  of  Kamschatka,  Tartary, 
the  Indians  in  North  and  South  America,  the 
.South-Sea  Islands,  &c. 

2.  What  is  the  source  of  these  ideas,  which 
are  so  universally  diffused  1 

(rt)  It  was  formerly  supposed  very  generally 
that  all  these  mythological  fables  were  only  tra- 
ditionary relics  and  fragments  of  a  direct  divine 
revelation.  The  Mosaic  history  was  regarded 
as  the  only  source  from  which  these  various 
and  wide-spread  ideas  were  derived;  and  to 
shew  how  they  were  handed  down  from  one 
age  to  another,  and  transmitted  from  the  He- 
brews 10  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  others,  has 
been  very  often  attempted.  But  the  arguments 
employed  in  support  of  this  opinion  have  been 
generally  far-fetched,  and  unsupported  by  his- 
tory;  as.  indeed,  all  arguments  must  be  which 
are  adduced  in  support  of  the  opinion,  that  the 
scriptures  are  the  only  source  from  which  the 
ideas  of  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  others,  re- 
specting the  original  state  of  man,  are  derived, 
and  tiiat  these  ideas  have  been  only  corrupted 
in  being  transmitted  by  the  intermixture  of  fa- 
ble. This  opinion  was  advocated  by  Huetius, 
in  his  "  Demonstratio  Evangeliea,  where  he  en- 
deavoured to  shew  that  the  scripture  history 
was  at  the  foiindation  of  the  whole  Grecian 
mythology.  But  his  theory  is  inconsistent 
with  facts,  as  is  very  generally  acknowledged 
at  the  present  duy.  Much,  indeed,  of  the  scrip- 
tural account  respecting  the  original  condition 
of  man  may  have  been  preserved  and  dilftised 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  But  it  cannot 
be  historically  proved  that  our  sacred  history  is 
the  only  ground  of  these  ideas  of  a  golden  pe- 
riod, in  which  all  nations  agree.  These  uni- 
versal ideas  on  this  subject  may  have  arisen 
partly  from  other  sources.  Men  are  everywhere 
alike  in  all  the  essential  parts  of  human  nature. 
And  hence  there  prevails  among  them  a  certiin 
universal  analogy  in  respect  to  language,  man- 
ners, modes  of  tliouirht  and  opinion;  and  from 
this  analogy  their  atireement  on  man)'  pf)ints 
may  be  explaineil,  without  supposing  them  to 
have  learned  or  borrowed  from  one  anotli'T. 
Vide  Introduction,  s.  9,  N".  G. 

(Z/)  One  cause  of  this  notion  of  a  iroldcn  a<^e 
so  widely  ditVused  among  heathen  nations  is  the 
disposition,  which  may  be  seen  in  all  men.  j< 
Ihitik  THE  PAST  belter  and  ntnre  happy  than  t>ib 
PRKSKNT.  This  disposition  has  its  oriuin  in  a 
certain  MTganX  feeling  >f  uur  natures,  of  whicn 


WORKS  OF  GOD 


199 


we  shall  in  a  moment  say  more.  We  shall 
here  speak  only  of  the  disposition  itself,  as  it  is 
seen  among  men.  And  in  accordance  with  it, 
the  higher  one  ascends  into  antiquity  the  more 
happy  and  charming  does  the  world  become  to 
hia  view;  the  nearer  he  approaches  the  times  in 
which  he  lives,  the  more  imperfect  and  dismal 
dots  everything  appear.  It  was  the  same  with 
men  in  respect  to  their  views  of  the  past  a  thou- 
sand years  ago.  And  had  the  world  actually 
degenerated,  physically  and  morally,  a  thousand 
years  ago  as  much  as  the  old  men,  laudatores 
lemporis  acti,  doubtless  then  thought  and  said, 
and  had  each  successive  generation  of  men  since 
proved,  according  to  the  expression  of  Horace, 
progenies  viliaxior,  then  the  world  by  this  time 
would  have  l)ecome  a  mere  waste,  and  the  whole 
human  race  would  have  long  since  perished  I 
Tills  prevalent  belief  that  the  world  from  the 
first  had  been  constantly  deteriorating  was 
now  clothed  in  an  historical  form,  and  taught 
as  actual  truth ;  and  the  fables  thus  invented 
respecting  the  early  state  of  man,  though  tliey 
differ  in  some  particulars,  are  yet  everywhere 
essentially  the  same. 

The  manner  in  which  the  ideas  of  a  golden 
age  may  have  originated,  and  have  been  gradu- 
ally developed  into  those  mythological  descrip- 
tions which  are  found  in  all  nations,  may  be 
shewn  by  the  following  reuiarks,  founded  upon 
experience  : — When  we  have  arrived  at  mature 
years,  and  especially  when  we  are  in  the  decline 
of  life,  the  period  of  our  youth  appears  to  us  far 
better  than  the  present.  We  were  then  more  free 
from  anxiety  than  ever  after;  our  susceptibi- 
lity of  pleasurable  emotions  had  not  then  been 
blunted  ;  our  heart  was  open  to  the  enjoyments 
of  life.  And  when  we  look  around,  and  every- 
thing seems  to  us  to  have  degenerated  since  we 
were  young,  it  is  not  unnatural  to  conclude  that 
the  same  has  been  true  in  every  age;  that  at  a 
very  early  period,  in  the  infancy  of  the  world,  it 
was  full  of  peace  and  happiness,  and  from  that 
time  to  the  present  has  been  gradually  growing 
worse  and  worse.  And  we  are  strengthened  in 
this  conclusion  by  hearing  our  parents  and 
grandparents  speak  in  the  same  way  respect- 
ing the  times  which  they  have  lived  through. 
Thus  at  length  we  come  to  the  conviction  that 
old  times  were  better  than  the  present,  and  that 
the  farther  back  we  go,  the  mor^  delightful, 
happy,  and  perfect  we  shall  find  the  state  of  the 
world.  We  then  proceed  to  fill  up  this  general 
outline  which  we  have  formed  of  a  happy  age. 
And  this  we  do  by  carefully  removing  from  that 
golden  period  all  the  ills  and  imperfections  of^ 
of  our  present  state,  the  physical  sufferings 
which  we  now  endure,  and  also  the  evils  arising 
from  our  socia.  connexion,  and  from  the  progress 
of  refinement.  Then  we  suppose  there  was  no 
need  of  clothing,  there  was  no  rough  and  uncom- 


fortable weather,  there  wpre  no  harmful  beasts, 
and  men  were  not  as  yet  unjust  and  cruel. 
Such  is  the  picture  of  the  primitive  state  of  the 
earth  and  of  the  human  race,  in  which  the  an- 
cient fables  of  almost  all  nations  agree.  It  de- 
serves, however,  to  be  remarked,  that  Mosea 
dissents  from  nearly  all  the  heathen  mytholo- 
gists  who  have  described  the  original  state  of 
man  as  one  of  indolence  and  perfect  rest,  and, 
on  the  contrary,  makes  it  a  state  of  activity  and 
labour. 

These  mythological  descriptions  have,  nc 
doubt,  an  historical  basis,  but  whatever  of  truth 
there  is  in  them  has  been  enhanced  and  beauti 
fied  by  the  imagination  in  its  attempt  to  bring 
up  the  golden  age  to  its  own  ideal  of  perfection.* 
For,  in  reality,  that  happy  state  of  man  of 
which  so  many  dream,  and  which  is  depicted  in 
heathen  mythologies,  is  nothing  more  than  the 
state  of  ^«r6aris/«  with  its  best  side  turned  to 
the  beholder,  beautified  by  the  imagination,  and 
placed  in  that  same  magic  and  enchanting  light 
with  which  we  have  seen  the"  entire  absence  of 
cultivation  covered  over  by  the  genius  of  Rous- 
seau. Vide  his  "  Discours  sur  I'origine  et  les 
fondements  de  I'inegalite  parmi  les  homines.'! 
If  the  worst  side  of  this  state  should  be  exhibit- 
ed, instead  of  pleasing  it  would  shock  and  dis- 
gust all  who  have  ever  enjoyed  the  blessings 
of  civilization  and  refinement." 

In  this  way  we  can  account  for  the  origin  of 
these  universal  ideas  respecting  the  original 
state  of  man,  without  supposing  that  they  were 
altogether  derived  from  the  Mosaic  record. 

(c)  These  remarks  respecting  the  manner  in 
which  the  opinions  and  ideas  of  men  respecting 
a  golden  age  first  originated  and  are  gradually 
developed  are  so  obvious,  and  have  so  much  in- 
ternal truth,  that  they  occur  of  themselves  to 
every  observer  of  the  world  and  of  mankind. 
But  for  this  very  reason,  that  the  universal  ideas 
respecting  the  primitive  state  of  man  can  be  so 
easily  accounted  for,  without  supposing  an  his- 
torical foundation  for  thern,  the  .Mosaic  history 
of  this  original  state  has,  like  the  rest,  been  re- 
garded by  many  as  fabulous.  But  those  who 
have  taken  this  view  of  the  Mosaic  history  have 
overlooked  other  very  important  aspects  of  the 
subject,  and  have  but  a  very  partial  acquaint- 
ance with  it.  Should  they  look  at  this  subject 
on  all  sides  they  would  see  the  necessity  of  ad- 
mitting some  real  truth  as  the  basis  of  these 
wide-spread  conceptions,  and  that  the  claims 
of  the  Mosaic  account  to  our  credence  are 
greatly  superior  to  those  of  heathen  mythologies 
This  will  be  evident  from  the  following  consi- 
derations:— 

(a)  The  general  disposition  of  all  nations  to 
resfard  the  original  condition  of  mankind  as 
eminently  happy,  proves,  beyond  dispute,  that 
they  have  felt  a  certain  pressing  necessity  to 


900 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


believe  that  God,  who  is  supremely  wise  and 
good,  would  have  created  the  human  race  in  a 
better  condition  than  that  in  which  it  is  now 
found.  This  feeling  is  universal  among  men. 
Most  of  the  ancient  philosophers  acknowledged 
it,  nor  have  modern  philosophers  been  able  en- 
tirely to  suppress  it.  Vide  the  writings  of 
Kant.  But  to  mere  philosophers  there  has 
always  been  a  riddle  here,  which  they  have 
endeavoured,  but  have  never  been  able,  satis- 
factorily to  solve.  This  riddle,  so  inexplicable 
to  them,  has  been  perfectly  solved  by  the 
Bible,  in  the  account  which  it  gives  of  the  fall 
of  man  from  a  state  of  innocence  and  happiness. 

(3)  That  something  must  have  taken  place 
to  corrupt  the  human  race  must  seem  at  least 
probable,  from  the  mere  necessity  of  believing 
that  it  was  once  better  than  now.  But  if  a 
book,  accredited  as  a  divine  revelation,  gives 
historical  information  respecting  both  the  ori- 
ginal happy  condition  and  the  commencement 
of  the  degeneracy  of  our  race,  we  are  no  longer 
left  in  uncertainty  with  regard  to  the  fact. 

(y)  The  Mosaic  history  of  the  state  of  inno- 
cence, although  it  agrees  in  some  respects  with 
the  fables  of  the  heathen  respecting  the  golden 
age,  in  other  respects  differs  widely  from  them. 
The  extravagant,  and  plainly  false  and  fabulous 
representations  which  are  found  in  the  writings 
of  Hesiod,  Ovid,  and  Plato,  who  describe  the 
happy  state  as  one  of  ease  and  indolence,  do  not 
occur  in  the  writings  of  Moses.  This  circum- 
stance alone  would  lead  us  to  conclude  that  his 
record  is  of  wiiolly  different  origin  from  theirs, 
and  that  it  is  not  a  mere  fiction,  but  founded  on 
historical  facts.  Moreover,  it  is  more  ancient 
than  any  other  account  which  we  have  of  the 
first  age  of  the  world. 

SECTION  LVII. 

OF  THE    PROPAOATION  OK   THE  HUMAN  RACE. 

The  Mosaic  history  informs  us,  with  a  sim- 
pVicity  which  is  characteristic  of  the  age  in 
which  it  was  written,  that  God  designed  that 
the  human  race  should  be  propagated,  and 
should  extend  itself  over  the  earth  ;  and  that  he 
gave  to  man,  as  well  as  to  other  living  crea- 
tures, the  power  to  pro|)agate  his  own  species. 
Gen.  i.  28,  coll.  v.  22.  Hut  as  man  consists  of 
two  essential  parts,  bndif  and  snul,  the  origin  of 
both  these  in  the  posterity  of  Adam  must  be 
considered. 

I.  Origin  of  the  Human  Bodtf. 
The  Hebrews  generally  dpscrii)e  the  human 
iof/y  as  derived  dire(Hly  from  jiarents,  as  apjiears 
from  the  phrases,  tn  cnmr  from  the.  Initm  of  the 
father,  to  be  in  his  loins,  &c.  (Jen.  xlvi.  21); 
Heb.  vii.  5,  10,  seq.  Sometimes,  however,  they 
speak  of  it,  as  taken  out  of  the  earth,  from  the 


earth,  or  dust ;  and  so  as  returninir  to  the  earthy 
to  the  dust,  <fcc.  Vide  s.  52,  II.  2.  The  pas- 
sage, Ps.  cxxxix.  15,  IG,  may  perhaps  be  most 
easily  explained  in  this  way.  The  human  body 
is  there  represented  as  being  in  a  dark  pit  before 
its  birth,  and  as  formed  in  the  depths  if  the  earth, 
from  lime  and  earth.  The  phrase  v,*^'*  n^^nnn,  is 
in  other  places  entirely  synonymous  with  '^vcr. 
Both  Greeks  and  Hebrews  represented  the  state 
of  man  before  his  birth  as  similar  to  that  in 
which  he  will  be  after  his  death,  and  comprised 
both  conditions  under  the  words  '7wr  and  ahr^i. 
Moses  describes  man  as  coming  from  the  earth, 
and  as  returning  to  it.  And  so,  according  to  the 
notions  of  the  Hebrews,  man  is  in  the  earth,  as 
well  before  his  birth  as  after  his  death;  and 
comes  forth  into  the  material  world  from  that 
same  vast,  subterranean,  invisible  kingdom,  to 
which  he  again  returns.  .Tob,  i.  21  ;  x.  9 ; 
xxxiii.  6.    Eccl.  xii.  7.  Book  of  Wisdom,  xv.  8. 

II.  The  Origin  of  the  Human  Soul. 

Respecting  the  manner  of  the  propagation  o^ 
the  soul  among  the  posterity  of  Adam,  the  sacred 
writers  say  nothing.  The  text,  Eccl.  xii.  7, 
gives  us,  indeed,  clearly  to  understand  that  the 
soul  comes  from  God  in  a  ditferent  manner  from 
the  body  (vide  s.  51, 1.)  ;  but  what  this  manner 
is,  it  does  not  inform  us.  The  texts.  Is.  xlii.  5, 
and  Job,  xii.  10,  which  are  frequently  cited  in 
this  connexion,  merely  teach,  that  God  gave  to 
man  breath  and  life,  and  so  do  not  relate  to  this 
subject.  Nor  can  anything  respecting  the  man- 
ner of  the  propagation  of  the  soul  be  determined 
from  the  appellation.  Father  (f  spirits,  which  wa? 
co(nmonly  given  to  God  among  the  .lews,  and 
which  occurs,  Heb.  xii.  9.  Vide  Wetstein,  in 
loc.  This  appellation  implies  nothing  more  than 
that,  as  man  is  the  father  of  an  offs|>rintr  of  the 
same  nature  with  himself,  so  God,  who  is  a 
Spirit,  produces  spirits.  It  is  doubtless  founded 
upon  the  description  of  God,  Num.  xvi.  22,  as 
"  the  God  of  the  spirits  of  all  flesh."  The  whole 
inquiry,  therefore,  with  regard  to  the  origin  of 
hufnan  souls,  is  exclusively  pbilosoj)hical ;  and 
scriptural  authority  can  he  adduced  neither  for 
nor  against  any  theory  which  we  mav  choose  to 
adopt.  But  notwithstanding  the  philosophical 
nature  of  this  subject,  it  cannot  be  wholly  passed 
by  in  systematic  theolonry,  considering  the  in- 
fluence which  it  has  upon  the  statement  of  the 
doctrine  of  oriijinal  sin.  It  is  on  account  of  ils 
cotmexion  with  this  single  doctrine  (for  it  is  not 
immediately  connected  with  any  other)  that  it 
has  been  so  much  aijitated  by  theoloitians,  espe- 
cially since  the  time  of  Augustine.  They  have 
usually  adopted  that  theory  respecting  the  origin 
of  the  soul  which  was  most  favou  "able  to  the 
views  whicli  they  entertained  respectinij  the  na- 
tive character  of  man.  And  hence  the  follow/rs 
of  Augustine  and  of  Pelagius,  the  advocates  and 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


201 


opponenta  of  the  doctrine  of  native  depravity,  are 
uniformly  ranged  on  opposite  sides  of  the  ques- 
tion concerning  the  origin  of  the  soul. 

There  have  been  three  principal  hypotheses 
on  this  subject,  vi'hich  will  now  be  staled. 

1.  The  hypothesis  of  the.  pre-existence  of  souls. 
Those  who  support  this  hypothesis,  called  Frx- 
txistiaw.  affirm  that  God,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  world,  created  the  souls  of  all  men,  which, 
however,  are  not  united  with  the  body  before 
man  is  begotten  or  born  into  the  world.  This 
was  the  opinion  of  Pythagoras,  Plato,  and  his 
followers,  and  of  the  cabalists  among  the  Jews. 
Among  these,  however,  there  is  a  difference  of 
opinion,  some  believing  that  the  soul  was  ori- 
ginally destfned  for  the  body,  and  unites  with  it 
of  its  own  accord  ;  others,  with  Plato,  that  it 
pertained  originally  to  the  divine  nature,  and  is 
incarcerated  in  the  body  as  a  punishment  for  the 
sins  which  it  committed  in  its  heavenly  state. 
This  hypothesis  found  advocates  in  the  ancient 
Christian  church.  Some  Christians  adopted  the 
entire  system  of  the  Platonists,  and  held  that 
the  soul  was  a  part  of  the  divine  nature,  &c. 
Priscillianus  and  his  followers  either  held  these 
views,  or  were  accused  of  holding  them  by  Au- 
gustine, De  Haeres.  c.  70.  All  who  professed 
to  believe  the  pre-existence  of  the  soul  cannot 
be  proved  to  have  believed  that  it  was  a  part  of 
the  divine  nature.  This  is  true  of  Origen,  who 
agreed  with  the  Platonists  in  saying,  that  souls 
sinned  before  they  were  united  with  a  body,  in 
which  they  were  imprisoned  as  a  punishment 
for  their  sins.  Vide  Huetius,  in  his  "Origeni- 
anee,"  1.  ii.  c.  2,  queest.  6.  The  pre-existence 
of  the  soul  was  early  taught  by  Justin  the  Mar- 
t}'r,  Dial,  cum  Tryphone  Jud.  This  has  been 
the  common  opinion  of  Christian  mystics  of  an- 
cient and  modern  times.  They  usually  adhere 
to  the  Platonic  theory,  and  regard  the  soul  as  a 
part  of  the  divine  nature,  from  which  it  proceeds, 
and  to  which  it  will  again  return.  This  doctrine 
of  the  pre-existence  of  the  soul  is,  however,  al- 
most entirely  abandoned,  because  it  is  supposed 
irreconcilable  with  the  doctrine  of  original  sin. 
And,  if  the  mystics  be  excepted,  it  has  been  left 
almost  without  an  advocate  ever  since  the  time 
of  Augustine. 

2.  The  hypothesis  of  the  creation  of  the  soul. 
The  advocates  of  this  theory,  called  Crcaiiani, 
believe  that  the  soul  is  immediately  created  by 
God  whenever  the  body  is  begotten.  A  passage 
in  Aristotle,  De  Gener.  ii.  3,  was  supposed  to 
contain  this  doctrine,  at  least,  it  was  so  under- 
stood by  the  schoolmen;  and  in  truth,  Aristotle 
appears  not  to  be  far  removed  from  the  ojiininn 
ascribed  to  him.  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  and  Theo- 
doret  among  the  fathers  in  the  Grecian  cliurch, 
were  of  this  opinion;  and  Ambrose,  Hilarius, 
and  Hiernnymns,  in  the  Latin  church.  Th« 
schoolmen  almost  universally  professed  this  doc- 

26 


trine,  and  generally  the  followers  of  Pelagius, 
with  whom  the  schoolmen  for  the  most  part 
agreed  in  their  views  with  regard  to  the  native 
character  of  man.  For  these  views  derived  a 
very  plausible  vindication  from  the  hypothesis 
that  the  soul  was  immediately  created  by  God 
when  it  was  connected  with  the  body.  The 
argument  was  this: — If  God  created  the  souls 
of  men,  he  must  have  made  them  either  pure 
and  holy,  or  impure  and  sinful.  The  latter  sup- 
position is  inconsistent  with  the  holiness  of  God, 
and  consequently,  the  doctrine  of  the  native  de- 
pravity of  the  heart  must  be  rejected.  To  affirm 
that  God  inade  the  heart  depraved,  would  be  to 
avow  the  blasphemous  doctrine,  that  God  is  the 
author  of  sin.  The  theory  of  the  Crtaliani  was 
at  first  favoured  by  Augustine  ;  but  he  rejected 
it  as  soon  as  he  saw  how  it  was  employed  by 
the  Pelagians.  It  has  continued,  however,  to 
the  present  time,  to  be  the  common  doctrine  of 
the  theologians  of  the  Romish  church,  who  in 
this  follow  after  the  schoolmen,  like  them, 
making  little  of  native  depravity,  and  much  of 
the  freedom  of  man  in  spiritual  things.  Among 
the  protestant  teachers,  Meianctlion  was  inclined 
to  the  hypothesis  of  the  Creaiiam;  although, 
after  the  time  of  Luther,  another  hypothesis, 
which  will  shortly  be  noticed,  was  received  with 
most  approbation  by  protestants.  Still  many 
distinguished  Lutheran  teachers  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  followed  Melancthon  in  his  views 
concerning  this  doctrine — e.  g.,  G.  Calixtus. 
In  the  reformed  church,  tiie  hypothesis  which 
we  are  now  considering  has  had  far  more  advo- 
cates than  any  other,  though  even  they  have  not 
agreed  in  the  manner  of  exhibiting  it.  Luther 
would  have  this  subject  left  without  being  de- 
termined, and  many  of  his  contemporaries  were 
of  the  same  opinion. 

3.  The  hypothesis  of  the  propagation  of  the 
soul.  According  to  this  theory,  the  souls  of 
children,  as  well  as  their  bodies,  are  propagated 
from  their  parents.  These  two  suppositions 
may  be  made: — Either  the  souls  of  children 
exist  in  their  parents  as  real  ba'yigs,  (entia,) — 
like  the  seed  in  plants,  and  so  have  been  propa- 
gated from  Adam  through  successive  genera- 
tions, which  is  the  opinion  of  Leibnitz,  in  .'is 
"Theodicee,"  p.  i.  s.  91, — or  they  exist  in  their 
parents  merely  potentially,  and  come  from  them 
per  propai^incin,  or  traducem.  Hence  those 
who  hold  this  opinion  are  called  Traduciani. 
This  opinion  agrees  with  what  Epicurus  says  of 
human  seed,  that  it  is  "owrtaroj  n  xai  ^vxri 
a?td'7;ta(i,ua."  This  hypothesis  formerly  pre- 
vailed in  the  ancient  western  church.  Accord- 
ing to  Hieronymus,  both  Tertullian  and  Apolli- 
naris  were  advocates  of  this  opinion,  and  even 
"maxima  pars  Occidentalium."  Vide  Epist. 
ad  Marcellin.  Tertullian  entered  very  minutely 
into  the  discussion  of  this  subject  in  his  wor» 


20i 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


"  De  anima,"  c.  25,  seq.,  where  he  ofien  uses 
the  word  tradux  ,•  but  he  is  very  obscure  in  what 
he  has  said.  This  is  the  hypothesis  to  which 
the  opponents  rf  the  Pelajrians  have  been  most 
generally  inclined,  (vide  No.  2,)  though  many 
who  were  rigorously  orthodox  would  have  no- 
thing definitely  settled  upon  this  subject.  Even 
Augustine,  who  in  some  passages  favoured  the 
Crealiuni,  affirmed  in  his  book  "  De  origine 
animae,"  nullum  (sententiam)  icmcre  affirmare 
oportebit.  Since  the  reformation  this  theory  has 
been  more  approved  than  any  other,  not  only  by 
philosophers  and  naturalists,  but  also  by  the 
Lutheran  church.  Luther  himself  appeared 
much  inclined  towards  it,  although  he  did  not 
declare  himself  distinctly  in  its  favour.  But  in 
the  '-Formula  Concordiae"  it  was  distinctly 
taught  that  the  soul,  as  well  as  the  body,  was 
propagated  by  parents  in  ordinary  generation. 
The  reason  why  this  theory  is  so  much  prefer- 
red by  theologians  is,  that  it  affords  the  easiest 
solution  of  the  doctrine  of  native  depravity.  If 
in  the  souls  of  our  first  progenitors  the  souls  of 
all  their  posterity  existed  potentially,  and  the 
souls  of  the  former  were  polluted  and  sinful, 
those  of  the  latter  must  be  so  too.  This  hypo- 
thesis is  not,  however,  free  from  objections ;  and 
it  is  very  difficult  to  reconcile  it  with  some  phi- 
losophical opinions  vviiich  are  universally  re- 
ceived. V\'e  cannot,  for  example,  easily  conceive 
how  generation  and  propagation  can  take  place 
without  cWen^/on;  but  we  cannot  predicate  ex- 
tension of  the  soul  without  making  it  a  material 
substance.  Tertnllian  and  other  of  the  fathers 
affirm,  indeed,  that  the  soul  of  man,  and  that 
spirit  in  general,  is  not  perfectly  pure  and  sim- 
ple, but  of  a  refined  material  nature,  of  which, 
consecjuently,  extension  may  be  predicated. 
Vi<ie  s.  19,  ad  finem,  and  s.  51,  I.  ad  finem. 
And  witii  these  opinions  the  theory  of  the  pro- 
pagation of  the  soul  agrees  perfectly  well,  cer- 
tainly far  better,  than  with  the  opinions  which 
we  entertain  respecting  the  nature  of  spirit;  al- 
though even  with  these  opinions  we  cannot  be 
sure  that  a  spiritual  generation  and  propagation 
is  impossible;  fir  we  do  not  understand  the 
true  nature  of  s|)irit,  and  cannot  therefore  deter- 
mine witii  certainty  what  is  or  is  not  possible 
respecting  it.  There  are  some  psychological 
phenomena  which  seem  to  favour  tlie  theory 
now  imder  consideration;  and  hence  it  has  al- 
ways been  the  favourite  theory  of  psychologists 
and  physicians.  The  natural  disposition  of 
children  not  unfreciuenily  resembles  that  of  their 
parents;  and  the  mimtal  excellences  and  imper- 
fectiiuis  of  parents  are  inherited  nearly  as  often 
by  their  children  as  any  bodily  attributes. 
Again;  the  |)owers  of  the  soul,  like  those  of  the 
body,  are  at  first  weak,  and  attain  their  full  de- 
velopment and  perfi'Ction  only  by  slow  de(rree«. 
Many  mure  phenon»'"'a  of  the  same  sort  mitrhi 


be  mentioned.  But  after  all  that  may  be  said, 
we  must  remain  in  uncertainty  with  regard  to 
the  origin  of  the  human  soul.  Important  objec- 
tions can  be  urged  against  these  arguments,  and 
any  others  that  might  be  offered.  And  if  the 
metaphysical  theory  of  the  entire  simplicity  of 
the  human  soul  be  admitted,  the  whole  subject 
remains  involved  in  total  darkness. 


ARTICLE  VII. 


OF  THE  DOCTRINE  RESPECTING  ANGELS.' 


SECTION  LVIII. 

OF  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  DOCTRINE  CONCERN- 
ING ANGELS,  AND  SOME  INTRODUCTORY  HISTO- 
RICAL REMARKS. 

I.  Tht  Importance  of  this  Doctrine. 

1.  Its  practical  importance.  By  one  class 
of  theologians  the  practical  importance  of  this 
doctrine  has  been  very  much  exagsjerated  ;  while 
others,  who  are  mostly  modern  writers,  have 
denied  it  all  practical  utility,  ami  have  gone  so 
far  as  to  insist  that  it  should  be  entirely  omitted 
in  common  religious  instruction.  To  these  views 
we  can  by  no  means  assent,  if  we  make  the 
i5ible  the  source  of  our  knowledge  and  the 
foundation  of  our  belief  in  religious  truth.  Nor 
should  we  allow  ourselves  to  entertain  exagge- 
rated views  of  this  subject,  the  tendency  of 
which  must  be  injurious.  In  the  manner  in 
which  tills  doctrine  is  now  generally  held  among 
Christians,  we  see  the  effect  of  the  levity  and 
irreverence  with  which  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible 
have  often  been  treated  in  late  years  by  theolo- 
gical writers.  The  contempt  with  which  the 
belief  in  angels  is  often  spoken  of  among  com- 
mon Christians  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  when 
we  consider  how  it  has  been  treated  by  the 
teachers  of  relitjion  in  our  schools,  universities, 
and  pulpits.  Those  who  are  preparing  to  be 
teachers  of  religion  should  take  warning  from 
the  evils  which  they  see  produced  by  the  light 
and  irreverent  manner  in  which  the  doctrines  of 
the  Bible  have  been  lately  exhiliited.  Vide  Rein- 
hard's  excellent  sermon,  "  Wie  sich  Christen 
bey  ao  mannichfaclien  Meinungen  uber  die 
(leisterwelt  zu  erhalten  hahen,"  published  in 
the  collection  for  the  year  1795. 

Angels  b(^)iigto  that  invisiiile  world  of  which 
we,  who  are  composed  of  body  and  spirit,  can 
form  only  very  obscure  and  imperfect  notions. 
Their  existence,  and  their  influence  on  the  ma- 
terial world  and  human  affairs,  are  not  within 
Uie  conrnizance  of  our  senses,  and  can  he  known 
to  us  only  by  revelation.     They  are  not  men- 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


9<ld 


tioned  by  Moses  in  his  cosmogony,  (though  he 
appears  from  many  passages  to  have  believed 
in  ihem;)  because  he  confines  himself  in  that 
account  strictly  to  the  visible  world.  And  so 
he  mentions  only  the  breath  of  life  in  man,  al- 
though he  believed  beyond  dispute  that  he  pos- 
sessed also  a  reasonable  soul. 

2.  Its  theorelical  importance.  To  the  theolo- 
gian, tiie  interpreter,  and  the  student  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  human  mind,  this  doctrine  is  of  great 
interest  and  importance.  For  («)  angels  are 
very  frequently  introduced  in  the  sacred  books 
of  the  Jews  and  Christians.  They  are  repre- 
sented as  standing  in  various  relations  to  men, 
and  as  actively  employed  in  our  alTairs.  To 
deny,  therefore,  the  existence  and  agency  of 
good  and  bad  angels,  is  plainly  contrary  to  the 
holy  scriptures.  The  opinion  of  the  Sadducees, 
that  "there  is  neither  angel  nor  spirit,"  (Acts, 
xxiii.  8,)  is  always  rejected  as  false  and  un- 
ecriptural  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament. 
Notwithstanding,  then,  the  disagreeableness  of 
the  doctrine  concerning  angels  to  the  taste  of 
the  age,  it  must  be  exhibited  by  the  religious 
teacher,  whose  invariable  duty  it  is  to  conform 
his  instructions  to  tlie  word  of  God.  (6)  Many 
texts  of  the  Bible  which  relate  to  this  doctrine, 
by  being  misunderstood,  have  led  the  gre.ii  mul- 
titude into  opinions  respecting  the  power  and 
agency  of  angels,  which  are  inconsistent  with 
the  character  of  God,  and  of  an  immoral  ten- 
dency, by  enabling  men  to  shift  the  guilt  of  their 
actions  from  themselves  to  others.  And  tliese 
mistaken  and  hurtful  opinions  have  been  fos- 
tered by  the  incautious  and  indefinite  manner 
in  which  the  teachers  of  religion  have  some- 
times spoken. 

3.  Some  important  doctrines  are  exhibited  in 
the  Bible  as  standing  in  close  connexion  with 
the  doctrines  respecting  angels;  and  for  this 
reason,  if  for  no  other,  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  it,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  it  is  taught 
in  the  scriptures,  is  indispensable.  The  doc- 
trine respecting  sin,  and  the  origin  of  it;  the 
temptation  of  our  first  parents;  the  providence 
of  God  ;  the  state  of  men  hereafter,  when  they 
will  be  brought  into  still  closer  connexion  with 
spiri's;  tliese  and  other  subjects  are  nearly  re- 
lated to  the  doctrine  under  consideration. 

4.  A  critical  investigation  of  this  subject,  in 
which  the  declarations  of  the  holy  -scriptures 
should  be  made  the  chief  object  of  attention, 
would  tend  to  free  men  from  many  superstitions 
which  are  in  the  hiijhest  degree  injurious.  In 
this  view,  this  doctrine  deserves  the  s|)ecial  at- 
tention of  the  teacher  of  religion.  For  the 
mistakes  which  have  prevailed  with  regard  to 
the  agencj'  of  angels,  and  especiviljy  of  bad  an- 
g^els,  have  been  a  most  fruitful  source  of  super- 
stitions destructive  of  the  happiness,  virtue,  and 
piety  of  mankind.     To  correct  tliese  supersti- 


tious mistakes,  and  at  the  same  time  to  teach 
with  wisdom  and  judgment  what  we  are  taught 
in  the  Bible  with  regard  to  the  agency  of  angels, 
is  the  duty  of  the  Christian  minister. 

II.  Introductory  Historical  Rcuarks. 

The  idea  that  there  are  certain  spirits  inter- 
mediate between  God  and  the  human  soul,  and 
employed  as  the  instruments  of  Divine  Provi- 
dence, is  very  widely  diffused  among  men,  and 
has  often  attracted  the  attention  and  elicited  the 
inquiries  even  of  philosophers,  'i'he  opinions 
of  the  Hebrews  upon  this  subject  are  the  prin- 
cipal object  of  our  present  attention;  still,  as 
the  opinions  both  of  .Tews  and  Christians  may 
be  illustrated  by  those  of  other  nations,  we  shall 
bestow  some  attention  upon  tne  latter.  From 
the  writings  of  Moses  we  are  justified  in  con- 
cluding that  the  early  ancestors  of  the  Israel- 
ites— the  patriarchs,  received  uy  revelation  some 
more  full  and  particular  knowledge  respecting 
angels,  which  they  transmitted  to  their  descend- 
ants. But  the  conceptions  which  they  formed 
on  this  subject — the  images  under  which  tliey 
represented  angels  to  their  own  minds,  as  well 
as  the  exprtsnons  which  they  employed  to  de- 
signate their  ideas — were  influenced  by  the  cir- 
cumstance of  time  and  place  in  which  they  found 
themselves,  and  by  their  whole  external  condi- 
tion. To  such  circumstances  the  providence  of 
God  evermore  conforms.  God  treats  and  go- 
verns men  more  hiimano,  and  adapts  the  revela 
tions  which  he  makes  to  their  comprehensioD 
and  mode  of  thinking.  Hence  the  variety  in 
the  manner  in  which  the  divine  revelations  are 
made.  To  illustrate  the  tertus  employed  in  the 
Bible  on  this  subject,  and  some  of  the  fitjurative 
representations  which  it  uses,  is  the  object  of 
the  following  remarks. 

Jehovah  was  worshipped  b)'^  the  ancestors  of 
the  Israelites  as  a  household  god.  They  naturally 
conceived  of  him  at  that  early  age  as  resembling 
themselves.  Vide  s.  18.  Whenever  he  acted, 
he  conformed  to  the  manner  in  which  men  act. 
He  was  not  visibly  present,  but  he  knew  all 
things,  interested  himself  in  the  affairs  of  men, 
and  employed  himself  actively  among  them. 
In  pursuance  of  his  purposes  he  also  employed 
his  servants,  who  according  to  the  analogy  above 
stated,  were  conceived  of  as  household  servants, 
belonging  to  the  father  of  a  family,  and  engaged 
in  the  execution  of  his  commands.  They  fre- 
quently acted  in  his  name,  as  his  ambassadors, 
and  had  committed  to  them  the  oversight,  care, 
and  cTiiardianship  of  men.  This  notion  of  them 
is  discerned  in  all  the  ancient  names  by  which 
they  were  called — viz.,  n>n'  ri-s'^::,  (messenger, 
ambassador,)  "  -p-trn,  irxn  'ty,  Ps.  ciii.  20,  21  • 
Ps.  civ.  4.  They  are  commonly  invisible,  as 
God  is;  although,  like  him,  when  occasion  re- 
quires, they  can  appear  to  men.     Hence  they 


204 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


were  refjarded  as  spirits,  thourrh  not  at  that 
early  period,  in  the  strict  and  purely  metaphy- 
sical sense  of  this  term.     Vide  s.  19,  II. 

Such  conceptions  as  these  respectinir  spiritual 
agents  beingr  very  familiar  and  deeply  interest- 
ing to  those  at  that  age,  would  very  naturally 
occur  to  them  in  their  dreams.  Now  dreams 
were  regarded  by  the  whole  ancient  world  as  of 
divine  oriirin,  and  as  the  vehicles  of  the  divine 
communications  to  men.  By  seeing  angds  in 
their  dreams,  the  belief  of  men  in  their  existence 
was  therefore  still  more  strengthened.  So  in 
Homer,  (Iliad,  xxiii.  103,  seq.,)  Achilles  was 
first  convinced  of  the  real  existence  of  the  souls 
of  the  departed  in  the  under  world  by  the  appa- 
rition of  the  spirit  of  his  friend  Patroclus  in  a 
dream.  And  it  was  perhaps  in  compliance  with 
the  prevailing  belief  that  dreams  were  sent  by 
God  to  instruct  mankind,  that  he  actually  made 
use  of  them  as  one  vehicle  of  his  revelations  to 
Abraham,  Jacob,  and  the  other  patriarchs.  Vide 
Gen.  xxviii.  12,  &c. 

When  the  notion  of  angels  had  once  become 
definite,  and  the  belief  of  their  existence  con- 
firmed, their  agency  in  human  affairs  was  very 
naturally  and  easily  determined.  Everything 
which  took  place  in  such  a  way  that  the  relation 
between  cause  and  effect  was  not  seen — every- 
thing which  could  not  be  assigned  to  a  natural 
cause,  was  ascribed  to  the  immediate  agency  of 
God,  and  of  these  his  invisible  servants.  When 
God  afforded  assistance,  especially  in  an  un- 
usual, unexpected,  and  unhoped-for  manner,  he 
was  supposed  to  do  it  through  the  instrument- 
ality of  angels;  and  in  general,  when  anything 
took  place  under  the  divine  agency  or  permis- 
sion, the  mediate  causes  of  which  were  conceal- 
ed, angels  were  regarded  as  the  agents.  In 
short,  they  were  regarded  as  spirits  engaged  in 
the  service  of  God,  and  employed  as  the  instru- 
ments of  his  providence.  And  this  is  an  opinion 
which  the  sacred  writers  do  not  merely  record 
as  having  been  held  by  others,  and  which  they 
leave  to  depend  upon  its  own  merits,  but  which 
they  themsel  ves  adopt  as  their  own,  and  sanction 
with  their  own  authority.  Vide  Gen.  xvi.  7 — 
12;  2  Kings,  xix.  35  (the  destruction  in  the 
Assyrian  camp);  Psalm  xxxiv.  7;  xci.  11,  12; 
Luke,  xvi.  22;  i.  13,  28;  Heb.  i.  14. 

But  various  objpcts  in  tlie  material  world,  and 
even  inanimate  things,  were  also  sometimes 
called  the  nn^c/s  of  God,  because  they  were  em- 
ployed by  him  in  the  execution  of  his  piir|>nses. 
This  appellation  will  appear  more  natural,  if 
we  consider  that  inanimate  things,  in  which 
there  appeared  to  be  motion  and  a  kind  of  self- 
actuating  power,  were  resrarded  by  the  ancipnt 
world  as  really  possessing  life  and  animation. 
Thus  perhaps  we  may  account  fur  it  that  the 
appellation  ans^e/  is  so  ofipn  figuratively  applied 
to  things  of  the  material  world  by  the  Hebrews, 


especially  in  their  poetic  writings.  Vide  Pt, 
Ixxviii.lfi;  civ.  4  (wind  and  lightning),  coll.  Ps, 
cxlviii.  8,  (cf.  Morus,  p.  89,  Not.  ad.  s.  G:)  1 
Chronicles,  xxi.  14 — 16;  Acts,  xii.  23. 

The  dwelling-place  or  principal  residence  of 
the  angels  was  always  represented  as  with  God 
ill  heaven,  the  abode  of  the  blessed.  Hence  in 
the  scriptural  division  of  the  creatures  of  God 
into  those  in  heaven  and  those  on  earth,  ansels 
are  always  enumerated  with  the  stars,  as  helonir- 
ing  to  the  former  class.  So  Ps.  cxlviii.  1 — 6, 
coll.  ver.  7 — 13. 

2.  When  the  Hebrews  became  acr|naintpd 
with  more  powerful  rulers  than  the  heads  of 
their  families,  and  began  to  abandon  their  early 
patriarchal  mode  of  lifo;  they  looked  upon  God 
in  a  different  manner  from  what  they  had  done 
before,  and  thought  of  him  under  the  imaore  of 
a  mjuhty  oriental  monarch,  and  compared  his 
dwelling  and  his  providence  with  the  palace, 
court,  and  government  of  a  powerful  earthly 
ruler.  The  terms  which  they  now  used,  and 
the  figures  which  they  employed,  were  all  bor 
rowed  from  this  comparison.  It  is  natural  foi 
men  to  compare  God  with  the  most  elevated 
and  powerful  beings  whom  they  see  on  the  earth, 
and  to  pay  to  him  those  external  services  of 
reverence  and  homage  which  are  paid  to  royal 
personages.  Hence  the  name  "i"":,  and  other 
royal  predicates,  were  now  given  to  God.  He 
was  represented  as  the  universal  Lord  and  Judge, 
seated  upon  a  throne,  surrounded  by  hosts  of 
angels  and  servants,  ready  to  execute,  his  com- 
mands, and  standing  before  him  in  different 
offices,  divisions,  and  ranks,  distinguished 
among  themselves,  like  other  beings,  in  di>rnity 
and  em|)loyment.  This  conception  of  the  an- 
gels as  standing  in  different  ranks  and  offices 
is  at  the  foundation  of  many  of  the  figurative 
representations  in  the  Bible;  which  representa- 
tions, however,  though  figurative,  are  intended 
to  teach  the  truth  that  there  are  differences  of 
rank  and  dignity  among  the  angels,  and  that 
some  have  nearer  access  to  God  than  others. 
Vide  1  Kinns,  xxii.  19;  Isa.  vi.  2;  Dan.  vii.  10; 
Luke,  i.  19;  Matt,  xviii.  10.  The  same  altera- 
tion took  place  iti  the  external  rites  of  divine 
service,  which  now  became  more  complex  and 
magnificent;  and  doubtless  much  of  the  in- 
creased splendour  of  the  Jewish  ritual  mav  be 
traced  to  the  influence  of  this  Cf>mparison  of  (iod 
with  an  earthly  king.  In  the  matter  of  ext'rnal 
service,  God  conformed,  as  far  as  he  could  do  so 
without  injury  to  the  truth,  to  their  conceptions 
and  feelings.  An  earthly  prince  bears  some 
resemblance  to  CJod,  and  the  servants  of  Divine 
Providence  to  the  servants  anrl  agei.ts  of  a  prince. 
A  useful  work  on  this  sulij^cl  is  Paulsen's 
"Regierung  der  Morgenlander ;"  Altona,  1T5C, 
4  to. 

3.  The  servants  of  princes  are  accustomed  to 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


SAi 


give  account  to  their  superiors  of  the  state  of 
the  provinces  over  which  they  have  charge,  and 
of  the  good  or  ill  conduct  of  those  placed  under 
their  government,  and  are  then  employed  by 
their  superiors,  in  return,  to  dispense  rewards 
and  punishments.  Now  from  the  resemblance 
above  noticed  between  a  king  and  his  servants 
and  God  and  his  angels,  whatever  was  said  in  re- 
spect to  the  former  was  very  naturally  transferred 
to  the  latter.  And  so  God  is  described  as  sending 
forth  his  messengers,  bearing  good  or  evil,  pro- 
speriiy  or  adversity,  reward  or  punishment,  to 
men,  according  to  their  deserts.  Vide  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  49.  Hence  we  may  explain  the  fact 
that  sickness  and  other  calamities  inflicted  by 
God  are  ascribed  in  the  scriptures  to  the  angels, 
through  whom,  as  his  ministers,  he  inflicts 
them.  Vide  Ps.  Ixxviii,  49  ;  xxxiv.  8  ;  2  Kings, 
vi.  16,  17.  The  angel  of  God  is  represented  as 
the  author  of  the  pestilence  in  David's  time;  2 
Sam.  xxiv.  16;  coll.  Exod.  xii.  13,  23. 

It  should  be  remarked  here  that  in  what  is 
now  extant  of  the  writings  of  the  Hebrews  be- 
fore the  Babylonian  captivity,  the  title  evil  a7i- 
gels  does  not  properly  denote  beings  who  are 
morally  had  in  their  own  nature;  but,  on  the 
contrary,  spirits  whose  nature  is  good,  and  who 
on  this  very  account  are  employed  by  God,  and 
who,  in  whatever  they  perform,  act  under  his 
■will  and  direction.  Tiie  reason  of  this  title  is 
to  be  found,  therefore,  not  in  themselves,  but  in 
the  nature  of  the  work  in  which  ihey  are  em- 
ployed ;  and  the  very  same  angel  is  called  evil 
or  good,  according  as  he  has  it  in  commisoion 
to  dispense  prosperity  or  adversity,  rewards 
or  punishments.  So  in  Homer,  when  the  deity 
inflicts  misfortune,  he  is  called  xaxcj  balfn^v, 
Odys.  X.  64,  coll.  II.  xi.  61,  xx.  87.  Some 
have,  indeed,  attempted  to  shew  that  the  Satan 
mentioned  in  Job,  i.  and  ii.,  ivas  an  evil  spirit 
in  his  own  nature;  but  this  is  uncertain.  He 
is  not  represented  as  being  njmself  wicked  and 
opposed  to  the  designs  of  God,  but  rather  as  a 
complainant  or  accuser.  The  whole  representa- 
tion contained  in  these  chapters  seems  to  be 
taken  from  a  human  court  and  transferred  to 
heaven.     Vide  Michaelis,  in  loc. 

It  is  not  until  the  time  of  the  exile,  or  shortly 
after  it,  that  we  find  distinct  traces  of  th^^  dor- 
trine  that  there  are  angels  who  were  once  good, 
but  who  revolted  from  God,  and  are  no>v  become 
wicked  themselves,  and  the  authors  of  evil  in 
the  world.  The  probability  is,  therefore,  that  this 
doctrine  was  first  developed  among  the  .Tews 
during  their  residence  at  Chaldea  and  shortly 
afterwards.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  many 
other  doctrines  of  the  Bible  which  were  not  re- 
vealed at  first,  but  were  gradually  made  known 
by  means  of  the  prophets  at  later  periods.  We 
cannot,  however,  certainly  prove  that  this  doc- 
trine was  wholly  unknown  to  the  .lews  pre- 


viously to  the  captivity.  It  is* enough  for  us  tc 
know  that  after  this  time  tiie  Jewish  prophets, 
as  acknowledged  messengers  and  ambassadors 
of  God,  themselves  authorized  it,  and  taught  it 
in  their  addresses  and  writings;  and  tiiat  it  i« 
accordingly  now  to  be  received  by  us  as  a  doc- 
trine of  the  ancient  Jewish  revelation.  In  bring- 
ing the  doctrine  concerning  angels  to  a  fuller 
development,  the  following  circumstances  were 
made  use  of  by  Divine  Providence. 

The  Persians,  and  perhaps  also  the  Chal- 
deans, (though  this  is  more  doubtful,)  held  the 
doctrine  of  dualism,  which  afterwards  prevailed 
so  widely  in  the  East.  This  doctrine  is,  that 
there  are  two  cooternal  and  independent  beings, 
from  the  one  of  whom  all  good,  and  from  the 
other,  all  evil  proceeds.  Now  the  doctrine  of 
the  Hebrews  respecting  good  and  bad  angels, 
though  it  appears  at  first  sight  to  resemble  this, 
is  essentially  dilTt-rent,  and  cannot  therefore  have 
been  derived  from  it.  But  wiien  ihe  Hebrews 
were  brought  under  the  dominion  of  the  Persians 
it  became  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  them 
from  falling  into  the  wide-spread  doctrine  of 
their  masters,  that  they  should  he  instructed 
more  minutely  than  ihey  had  previously  been, 
or  needed  to  be,  with  regard  to  good  and  bad 
angels.  And  so  the  later  prophets  brought  to 
light  the  agency  of  good  and  bad  angels  in 
many  events  of  the  early  Jewish  history,  with 
which  angels  had  never  been  known  to  have 
had  any  connexion.  Tiie  fall  of  vian — e.  g., 
had  not  been  ascribed  by  Moses  to  the  agency 
of  an  evil  spirit;  but  this  event  was  afterwards 
ascribed  to  the  influence  of  Satan,  and  of  this 
Christ  himself  approves  in  John,  viii.  Again; 
the  numbering  of  the  people  by  David  is  de- 
scribed in  2  Sam.  xxiv.  1,  as  a  crime  to  which 
he  was  given  up  by  God,  in  anger  against  him  ; 
but  this  same  thing  is  afterwards  ascribed  in 
1  Chron.  xxi.  1,  to  the  direct  influence  of  Sa- 
tan. In  the  same  way  many  events  were  after- 
wards ascribed  to  good  angels,  whose  agency 
in  them  had  not  before  been  known.  Thus  the 
giving  of  the  law  was  not  ascribed  by  Moses  to 
the  ministry  of  angels;  and  tiiis  fact  is  first  in- 
timated in  Psalm  Ixviii.  17,  and  afterwards 
more  clearly  taught  in  the  New  Testament. 

Some  periods  of  Jewish  iiistory  were  more 
remarkable  than  others  for  the  appearance  and 
agency  of  angels.  The  patriarchal  age  is  de- 
scribed in  the  books  written  before  the  captivity 
as  most  distiniruished  for  the  visible  appearance 
of  angels  among  men,  both  with  and  without 
dreams  and  visions.  During  the  age  of  Moses 
and  Joshua,  although  angels  are  mentioned, 
they  do  not  seem  to  have  appeared.  The  com- 
munications of  God  to  men  were  at  that  time 
made  mostly  through  the  oracles  rif  the  pro- 
phets. Angels  again  appear  durii^  the  period 
of  the  Judges.  But  after  the  time  of  Samuel 
S 


206 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


they  do  not  ajjain  appear  in  the  history  of  the 
Jews  before  the  Babylonian  exile  ;  at  which 
time,  and  shortly  afterwards,  they  are  once 
more  introduced.  Shortly  before  the  birth  of 
John  the  Baptist,  angels  were  aj^ain  very  fre- 
quently seen,  and  many  communications  were 
made  through  their  instrumentality.  But  the 
age  of  Christ  and  the  apostles  is  distinguished 
above  all  others  for  the  frequent  appearance  and 
interposition  of  angels,  and  especially  for  the 
agency  of  evil  spirits  upon  the  minds  and  bodies 
of  men.  In  view  of  the  whole  we  may  say, 
with  regard  to  the  appearance  of  angels,  what 
Paul  said,  Heb.  i.  1,  with  regard  to  revelations 
in  general,  that  they  were  rtoXv/Jicpui  xai  no%v- 

4.  Other  nations,  ancient  and  modern,  have 
entertained  opinions  respecting  some  interme- 
diate spirits,  and  their  influence  on  the  world  and 
on  man,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  the 
Israelites,  though  not  necessarily  derived  from 
them.  Such  were  the  opinions  of  the  Egyp- 
tisins,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Diodorus 
Sicnlus,  and  also  of  the  Greeks.  The  latter, 
however,  do  not  appear  in  the  early  stages  of 
their  history  to  have  had  the  idea  of  interme- 
diate spirits  or  angels.  The  Saaiorfj  of  Homer 
are  only  ^foJ  under  a  different  name,  though,  in- 
deed, the  offices  assigned  to  them  and  to  many 
of  the  gods  by  the  Greeks  are  not  more  elevated 
than  those  assigned  by  the  H<^brews  and  other 
nations  to  their  angels  or  intermediate  spirits. 
The  Grecian  philosophers,  however,  for  the  most 
part,  believed  that  besides  God  and  the  human 
soul,  and  intermediate  between  them,  there  were 
other  spiritual  existences.  They  proceeded  on 
the  supposition,  confirmed  by  so  many  experi- 
ments and  observations,  that  there  is  in  nature 
a  general  connexion  or  chain  (i^fipd),  by  which 
all  creatures  are  most  intimately  united  together; 
that  each  class  of  beings  borders  upon  and  runs 
into  others;  so  that  there  is  no  break  in  the  de- 
scending scale  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest. 
When,  therefore,  they  considered  the  immense 
interval  between  Gocl  and  their  own  souls,  they 
naturally  concluded  that  it  must  be  occupied  by 
intermediate  beings,  subordinate  to  God,  but 
superior  to  man;  and  that  these  beings  must 
themselves  exist  in  various  degrees  of  perfection. 
Such  appear  to  have  been  the  opinions  of  Py- 
thafToras.  According  to  the  "  Carmina  Aurea," 
and  Diogenes  Laert.  viii.  segm.  2.3,  he  believed 
that  besides  the  Supreme  Being  there  were  four 
orders  of  intelligences — vix.,  ^nds,  demons,  he- 
mes, and  men.  To  the  first  three  he  ascribed 
about  the  same  offices  as  were  ascribed  by  the 
Hebrews  to  their  angels;  so  that  his  theory 
really  seems  somewhat  to  resemble  the  Biblical 
doctrine.  Considerably  different  from  these  are 
the  views  of  Plato.  vSnme  have  indeed  thought 
that  they  could  see  in  the  Phsedrus  of  Plato,  in 


his  book  '»  De  legibus,"  and  in  some  other  vrit* 
ings  of  his,  the  traces  of  a  distinction  between 
good  and  bad  demons.  But  this  distinction,  as 
Ficinus  justly  remarks,  was  first  niAde  by  the 
followers  of  Plato,  and  especinlly  by  the  Jews 
and  Christians,  who  philosophized  according  to 
the  principles  of  the  new  Platonic  school,  and 
was  then  ascribed  by  them  to  ttieir  great  master. 
The  learned  Jews  of  the  first  and  second  centu- 
ries of  the  Christian  era,  being  conversant  with 
the  Grecian,  and  especially  with  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  adopted  the  doctrines  of  these  dif- 
ferent schools,  and  connected  them  with  the 
doctrines  of  the  Jewish  religion;  and  many 
Christian  teachers  proceeded  in  the  same  way, 
and  connected  the  principles  of  the  Platonic 
school,  with  regard  to  the  doctrine  of  angels 
among  others,  with  what  thej'  were  taught  from 
the  liible,  and  indeed  endeavoured  to  interpret 
the  Bible  in  accordance  with  these  Platonic 
principles.  Aristotle  likewise  admitted  certain 
intelligences  as  intermediate  beings  between 
God  and  men,  and  his  theory  on  this  suhjpct  was 
adopted  by  the  schoolmen.  The  stoics,  too, 
allowed  of  some  intermediate  spirits.  Epicurus, 
on  the  contrary,  denied  the  existence  of  angels 
altogether;  and  in  this  he  was  consistent  with 
himself,  since  he  denied  the  proviilence  of  God, 
whose  instruments  these  intermediate  beings 
were  supposed  to  be  by  other  philosophers. 
Among  the  Jews,  the  Sadducees  denied  th.e  ex- 
istence of  angels.  Vide  Acts,  xxiii.  8.  They 
seem  to  have  regarded  the  passages  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  which  angels  are  spoken  of  as 
figurative,  and  the  whole  account  of  them  as 
mythological.  [The  existence  of  angels  has 
been  wholly  denied  in  modern  times  by  Hobbes, 
Spinoza,  and  Edelmann.] 

Xole. — We  have  no  great  abundance  of  useful 
works  on  the  general  history  of  the  doctrine  of 
angels.  Most  of  them  take  too  confined  and 
narrow  a  view  of  the  subject.  They  merely  re- 
cord the  opinions  of  Jews  and  Christians,  with- 
out shewing  in  what  manner  these  opinions  were 
developed  and  modified.  Among  these  works 
are  the  following:  Dr.  Joach.  Oporin,  Erlaiiterte 
I.ehre  von  den  Engeln;  Hamburg,  l~3!i,  8vo. 
Jac.  Ode,  De  Angelis,  Trajecti  ad  Bhenum, 
1730,  4to,  (a  book  in  which  everytliing  relative 
to  this  subject  is  brought  together,  but  without 
judgment  or  discrimination.)  Jo.  Fr.  Cotta, 
Diss.  ii.  historiam  succinctam  doctriniB  de  an- 
gelis exhibentes;  Tubingae,  1705 — (57,  4to. 
Also,  Petavius,  Theol.  Dogm.  tom.  iii.,  and 
Cudworth,  Syst.  Intellectuale,  c.  5,  with  the 
notes  of  Mosheim.  There  are  some  treatises  of 
very  unequal  value  in  Eichhorn's  "Bibliothek 
der  bib.  Lit."  and  in  Henke's  "  Magazin  fur 
Exeg.  Kirchengesch,  u.  s.  w."  The  treatise  of 
F]wald,  entitler^  "  Die  Bihflb'hre  von  guten  and 
bosen  Engeln,"  published  in  his  "  Christlichen 


WORKS  OF  COD. 


907 


Monatschrift,"  for  the  year  1800,  s.  326,  f.  and 
395,  f.,  deserves  to  be  recommended  to  the  pe- 
ri'.sal  of  the  Christian  teacher. 

SECTION  LIX. 

r  THE  APPELLATIONS  0^  ANGELS ;  THEIR  NA- 
TURE; PROOFS  OF  THEIR  EXISTENCE;  THEIR 
CREATION  AND  ORIGINAL  STATE  ;  AND  THE 
CLASSES  INTO  WHICH  THEY  ARE   DIVIDED. 

I.  Appellations  of  Angels. 

The  most  common  appellation  given  them  is, 
r^xSo,  a'«3s'7C.  The  correspondent  term  in  Hel- 
lenistic Greek  is  ayyfXoj,  messenger,  servant, 
envoy,  ambossadvr.  This  name  is  sometimes 
given  to  men  who  are  engaged  in  any  offices  in 
the  employ  of  others.  Est  nomen  muneris,  non 
naturae,  as  is  justly  remarked  by  Morus,  p.  8G. 
Vide  Num.  xx.  14,  16;  Josh.  vi.  17;  James, 
ii.  25.  Hence  wyyiT-ot,  sxxXrjaiai,  in  the  Apo- 
calypse, and  CJ^^T]  ayyi\oii,  (the  disciples  of 
Christ,  the  apostles,)  in  1  Tim.  iii.  16.  The 
analogy  upon  which  these  names  are  founded 
has  already  been  exhibited,  s.  5S,  H.  1. 

Another  name  given  to  angels,  besides  these 
and  others  which  are  derived  from  their  office 
and  emploj'^ment,  is,  av-i^x  ^22,  children  <f  God; 
Job,  xxxviii.  7,  "Where  wast  thou  when  I  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  earth — when  the  morning 
stars  sang  together,  and  the  sons  of  God  shouted 
for  joy]"  Here,  indeed,  it  may  be  objected, 
that  sons  of  God  may  be  a  poetic  expression  sy- 
nonymous with  morning  stars,  with  which  it  is 
parallel  in  the  construction.  But  no  such  objec- 
tion lies  against  the  passage,  Job,  i.  6,  where  a 
solemn  assembly  of  the  sons  of  God  is  described. 
And  since  even  earthly  kings  were  sometimes 
called  sons  of  God,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Hebrew  idiom  would  permit  the  application  of 
this  name  to  angels,  the  inhabitants  of  heaven. 
Hence  they  were  called  by  the  Jewsfamilia  Dei 
taekslis.  Cf.  Ephes.  iii,  15,  and  Heb.  xii.  22, 
23,  where  the  souls  of  the  pious  dead  are  in- 
cluded in  this  heavenly  family. 

iSiill  another  title,  which,  in  the  opinion  of 
many,  is  given  to  angels,  is  a''n'^N.  That  this 
title  may  be  given  them  is  certain;  since  it  is 
given  even  to  rulers,  judges,  and  all  those  who 
act  as  the  vicegerents  of  God  upon  the  earth. 
But  the  argument  to  prove  that  this  title  is  ac- 
tually given  to  angels  is  mostly  founded  on  the 
fact  that  the  LXX.  render  the  word  D''nSs,  by 
oyyfXot,  in  some  texts  of  the  Old  Testament, 
where,  however,  the  context  does  not  make  this 
rendering  absolutely  necessary.  The  texts  -^ited 
are  Ps.  viii.  6,  and  xcvii.  7,  in  both  of  which  the 
original  a>n'w  is  rendered  by  the  LXX.  iyytxoi — 
a  rendering  which  is  approved  and  retained  by 
Paul,  Heb.  i.  6,  and  ii.  7.  I  am  at  present  in- 
eliued  to  believe  that  even  the  original  writer 


intended  to  denote  angels  by  this  title  m  both 
places,  and  especially  in  Psalm  viii. 

II.  The  Nature  of  Angels, 

The  only  conception  which  we  form  of  angels 
is,  thai  they  are  spirits  if  a  higher  nature  and 
nobler  enduwments  than  nun  possess.  They  are 
described  by  Morus  (p.  9-1,  s.  14)  as  spirilus  deo 
inferiores,  hominihus  superiures.  In  making  our 
estimate  of  them,  we  must  compare  them  with 
the  human  soul  as  the  measure.  The  human 
soul  possesses  understanding  and  free  will,  or,  a 
rational  and  moral  nature,  llence  we  conclude, 
via  eminentix,  that  other  spirits — angels  and  God 
himself — must  possess  the  same;  angels,  in  a 
far  higher  degJL  than  men,  and  God,  in  the 
highest  possible  perfection.  With  respect  to 
the  nature  of  angels,  we  are  informed  in  the 
Bible  («)  that  they  far  excel  us  in  powers  and 
perfections.  Malt.  xxii.  30,  seq.;  2  Pet.  ii.  11. 
(i)  They  are  expressly  called  spirits  (rtijv.aara ;) 
Heb.  i.  14,  rtifi'^tata  Xiitovpyixu.  And  the  at- 
tributes which  belong  to  spirits — understanding 
and  will,  are  frequently  ascribed  to  them — e.  g., 
Luke,  XV.  10;  James,  ii.  19. 

Note. — The  question,  tohcther  angels  have  a 
body,  (more  refined,  indeed,  than  the  human 
bodjs)  is  left  undecided  in  the  Bible.  And  the 
texts  by  which  it  has  been  supposed  to  be  an- 
swered (Ps.  civ.  4,  and  others)  have  no  relation 
to  this  question.  Still  it  is  not  improbable,  tVom 
the  prevailing  opinions  of  the  ancient  world,  that 
the  sacred  writers  believed  that  angels  some- 
limes  assumed  a  body  in  which  they  became 
visible  to  men.  Vide  Morus,  p.  88,  n.  2,  supra. 
The  arguments  a  priori  which  are  frequently 
adduced  in  behalf  of  this  opinion  a''«  .insatisfac- 
tory.  Thus  it  is  said,  that  as  sjiirits  angels 
could  not  act  upon  the  material  world  without 
assuming  a  body.  But  if  God,  as  a  Spirit,  may 
act  on  matter  without  a  body,  why  may  not  other 
spirits  do  the  same?  We  cannot  in  any  case 
determine,  a  priori,  what  can  or  cannot  be  done 
by  spiritual  beings.  This  question  is  therefore 
generally  dismissed  by  modern  theologians  with 
the  remark,  that  the  body  of  angels,  if  they  havo 
one,  must  be  very  unlike  the  human  body. 

The  Christian  Auhers  of  the  Platonic  school 
ascribed  to  all  spirits,  the  supreme  God  alone  ex- 
cepted, a  subtile  body,  sn  subtile  as  to  be  invi- 
sible to  us,  and  imperceptible  by  any  of  our 
senses.  So  Justin  the  Martyr,  Irena^us,  Athen- 
agoras,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  and 
Augustine.  They  appear  to  have  entertained 
about  the  same  notion  of  the  bodies  of  angels 
as  the  Greeks  had  of  the  bodies  of  their  go'fs. 
Vide  Homer,  11.  v.  339—342.  Justin  the  Mar- 
tyr,  (Dial,  cum  Tryph.  Jud.  c.  57,)  and  soma 
others,  believed  that  angels  partook  of  heavenly 
nourishment,  as  the  gods  of  the  Gr€<  ks  partook 
of  nectar  and  ambrosia;  that,  like  them,  the^ 


SOS 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


could  at  choice  become  visible  or  invisible  to 
men,  &c.  The  latter  opinion  is  quite  ancient, 
as  appears  from  the  account  of  Balaam  in  Num. 
xxii.  22 — 31,  and  from  the  representation  of 
Homer,  in  the  Odyss.  xvi.  160,  seq.,  where 
Minerva  is  visible  to  Ulysses,  and  not  to  Tele- 
machus — 

Ov  yap  TT(i>  niii/TCaat  Scoi  (paivovrai  ivapytXs. 

The  ass,  however,  in  the  one  case,  and  the 
dogs  in  the  other,  perceived  the  apparition,  and 
were  frightened.  So  again  in  the  Iliad,  i.  1P8, 
Achilles  beheld  Minerva,  who  stood  before  him, 
Twv  i'  dXTxjv  outt^  uparo. 

At  the  second  Nicene  Council,  in  the  year 
787,  it  was  established  as  a  d^trine  of  tlie  ca- 
tholic church,  that  angels  hare  a  thin  body  of 
fire  or  air.  Afterwards,  however,  Peter  of  Lom- 
bardy,  (Sent.  1.  ii.  dist.  8,)  and  many  other 
schoolmen,  maintained  the  opposite  opinion, 
and  held  that  angels  had  no  body  of  their  own, 
(^Corpus  propritini,)  but  could  assume  one  in 
order  to  become  visible.  So  Gassendus  repre- 
sents that  they  assume  corpora  extraordinaria, 
when  they  design  to  act  upon  the  material 
world.  This  opinion  of  the  schoolmen  respect- 
ing angels  was  founded  upon  the  philosophy  of 
their  great  master,  Aristotle,  who  makes  his  in- 
telliorences  entirely  incorporeal.  Vide  s.  58,  ad 
finem. 

III.  Proofs  of  the  Existence  of  Angels. 

1.  Some  theologians  and  philosophers  have 
undertaken  to  prove  the  existence  of  angels  i)y 
aguments  a  priori.  Their  most  plausible  argu- 
ment is  that  derived  from  the  unbroken  grada- 
tion and  chain  in  which  all  beings  are  seen  to 
exist — an  argument  which  was  employed  by 
many  even  i^f  the  ancient  heathen  philosophers. 
Vide  s.  58,  II.  4.  But  although  the  possibilily 
of  the  existence  of  angels  cannot  be  disproved 
by  any  valid  arguments  a  priori,  so  neither  can 
the  reality  of  their  existence  be  proved  satisfac- 
torily by  arguments  of  this  nature.  All  that 
such  arguments  can  do  is,  to  render  probable 
that  which  must  depend  for  proof  on  different 
evidence;  but  to  deny  the  existence  of  angels 
on  the  ground  of  arguments  «  priori,  is  ex- 
tremely absurd.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  80,  s.  3.  These 
proofs  are  stated,  after  the  method  of  Wolf,  by 
Reinbeck,  in  his"  l}fctrachtungen  uberdie  Augs. 
Conf."  th.  i.  s.  298;  and  also  by  Ewald,  in  a 
treatise  on  this  subject. 

2.  The  sacred  writers  affirmed  tlie  existence 
of  angels  so  clearly  tliat  it  is  hardly  credible 
Ihat  any  one  should  seriously  doubt  their  opi- 
nions on  this  subject.  He  might  as  well  doubt 
whether  Homer,  who  speaks  of  the  gods  on 
every  page,  really  believed  in  them.  Jesus  and 
the  apostles  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  Saddu- 
cees,  that  ihere  are  no  angels,  as  a  gross  error, 


Acts,  xxiii.  8.  The  Pharisees  believed  in  th« 
existence  of  angels,  and  contributed  by  their 
influence  to  render  this  doctrine  almost  univer- 
sally prevalent  among  the  Jews.  In  this  parti- 
cular, Jesus  and  the  apostles  agreed  fully  with 
the  Pharisees,  as  appears  from  innumerable 
texts  in  the  New  Testament.  In  Malt.  xxii.  30, 
Christ  expressly  and  designedly  professes  his 
belief  in  the  existence  of  angels,  in  the  presence 
of  the  Sadducees;  also  in  Matt.  viii.  28 — 31. 
Paul,  too,  as  is  very  clear  from  his  writings, 
believed  in  the  real  existence  of  angels,  and  re- 
tained and  sanctioned,  as  a  Christian  and  an 
apostle,  many  opinions  on  this  subject  which 
he  had  learned  in  the  schools  of  the  Pharisees. 
Thus,  for  example,  both  he  and  Stephen  (Acts, 
vii.  53)  held,  in  common  with  the  Pharisees, 
that  the  Mosaic  law  was  given  through  the 
ministry  of  angels.  Gal.  iii.  19;  Heb.  ii.  2. 
And  he  labours  through  the  whole  of  the  first 
two  chapters  of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  to 
prove  that  Jesus  Christ  was  superior  to  the  an- 
gels, and  a  messenger  of  God  of  a  more  exalted 
character  than  they.  His  meaning  cannot  be, 
as  some  have  strangely  supposed,  that  Christ 
was  superior  to  beings  whom  he  supposed  to 
exist  merely  in  the  fancy  of  the  Jews.  He  has 
so  interwoven  the  theory  of  the  Pharisees  with 
his  own  instructions  on  this  subject,  as  plainly 
to  shew  that  while  he  did  not  countenance 
those  fabulous  representations,  with  which  he 
must  certainly  have  been  acquainted,  in  their 
schools,  he  yet  regarded  their  doctrine  as  essen- 
tially true. 

IV.   The  Creation  nf  Angels,-  their  Perfections, 
and  Number. 

1.  The  Bible  teaches  us  nothing  definitely 
respecting  the  origin  of  angels.  But  when  it 
represents  all  things  as  coming  from  God,  it 
niust  clearly  be  understood  to  imply  that  angels 
also  derive  their  existence  from  him.  Paul  says 
expressly,  Col.  i.  IG,  "God  made  all  things, 
visible  and  //im/i/t."  Their  creation  is  not, 
indeed,  mentioned  by  Moses  in  his  account  of 
the  creation.  And  as  he  undertakes  to  describe 
the  creation  of  only  the  visible  world,  their  crea- 
tion did  not  come  within  the  compass  of  his 
plan.     Vide  s.  19. 

The  question  has  been  asked,  On  which  day 
ff  the  creation  ictre  the  angels  made  ?  and  at 
least  an  historical  view  of  the  opinions  enter- 
tained on  this  subject  must  here  he  exhibited, 
(rt)  Some  have  hehl,  that  the  angels  were  cre- 
ated before  the  visible  world,  and  that  this  is 
the  reason  why  Moses  does  not  mention  them. 
Of  this  opinion  were  Origen,  Chrysoslom,  Hie- 
ronymus,  John  of  Damascus,  and  others,  among 
the  ancients;  and  among  the  moderns,  Heil. 
mann,  Mirliaeli.s,  and  others,  (i)  t)thers  held  V 
that  anuels  were  created  after  man,  because  the  ■  ■ 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


90» 


Creator  proceeded  in  his  work  from  the  lower 
to  the  higher ;  and  so,  as  his  last  upon  the  earth, 
created  man.  So  Gennadius,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. But  this  opinion  was  opposed  by  Augus- 
tine. It  has  been  advocated  in  modern  times 
by  Schubert  of  Helmstadt.  (c)  Others  still 
maintain  that  angels  were  created  on  the  first 
of  the  six  days,  when,  as  they  suppose,  the  hu- 
man soul  and  other  simple  and  incorporeal 
beings  were  made,  and  were  stationed  as  spec- 
tators, o  employed  as  assistants,  of  the  remain- 
ing work  So  Theodoret  of  Mopsvestia,  Augus- 
tine, Peter  of  Lombardy,  and  others ;  and  in 
modern  times,  Calovius,  who  appealed  to  Job, 
xxxviii.  7,  (vide  No.  I.,)  Seller,  and  others. 
Some  hold  that  they  were  created  on  the  fourth 
day,  because  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  were  then 
created,  in  connexion  with  which  angelic  spirits 
are  always  enumerated. 

2.  The  perfections  with  which  angels  were 
endued  can  be  ascertained  only  from  the  analogy 
of  those  of  the  human  soul.  Vide  No  II.  and 
Morus,  p.  88,  s.  9.  Their  intellectual  poivers 
must  be  greater  than  our  own;  they  must  pos 
sess  more  strength  of  thought  and  clearness  of 
conception.  Their  moral  powers,  the  perfections 
of  their  will,  must  also  be  greater  than  ours. 
For  them,  therefore,  to  persevere  in  holiness, 
must  accordingly  be  easier  than  for  men;  and 
hence  the  guilt  incurred  by  them  in  their  fall  is 
represented  as  far  greater  than  that  incurred  by 
men  in  their  apostasy.    We  are  unable,  however, 

*  to  determine  the  exact  measure  of  angelic 
powers  and  excellences.  From  the  fact  that 
men  have  a  state  of  probation  (^staltis  gratise) 
allowed  them,  in  which  their  virtue  may  be  ex- 
ercised and  confirmed,  and  from  whicl^  they 
pass  to  a  state  of  perfection,  enjoyment,  and  re- 
ward, {status  gloria;,)  we  conclude,  that  the 
case  is  the  same  with  regard  to  angels.  The 
New  Testament  says  nothing  expressly  respect- 
ing the  perfections  of  angels,  except  that  they 
possess  greater  strength  and  power  than  men; 
2  Pet.  ii.  II,  iaxit  xai  Swdfiic  fifi^ovii.  Hence 
the  phrase  ayytXoi  6v»auftoj,  2  Thess.  i.  7. 
Hence  also  the  word  dyyfXoj  is  used  adjectively, 
like  0foj,  to  denote  the  excellence  of  a  thing; 
G  Sam.  xiv.  17,  20,  the  wisdom  of  angels;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  25,  ike  food  of  angels;  Acts,  vi.  15, 
the  face  of  angels. 

3.  The  number  of  the  angels  is  by  some  re- 
presented as  very  great;  and  they  justify  this 
representation  by  arguments  (i  priori.  God  has 
made,  they  say,  a  great  number  of  creatures  of 
all  the  different  kinds,  even  in  the  material 
world ;  and  it  is  therefore  just  to  suppose  that 
in  the  more  exalted  sphere  of  spirit  the  creatures 
of  his  power  are  still  more  numerous.  And, 
indeed,  the  Bible  aUvays  describes  God  as  sur- 
rounded by  a  great  multitude  of  heavenly  ser- 
vants.    Vide  Dan.  vii.  10;  Pa.  Ixviii.  17  ;  Jude, 

27 


ver.  14;  Matt.  xxvi.  53.   Cf,  s.  58,  and  Morns, 

p.  89,  note. 

V.  Division  of  Angels. 
Angels  are  divided  into  goodand  evil  in  refer- 
ence to  their  moral  condition.  There  is  no  dis- 
tinct mention  of  apostate  angels  in  the  Bible  be- 
fore the  Babylonian  captivity  ;  though  from  this 
silence  it  does  not  follow  that  the  idea  of  them 
was  wholly  unknown  to  the  ancient  Hebrews. 
Vide  s.  58,  II.  3.  This  idea,  however,  even  if 
it  had  before  existed,  was  more  distinctly  re- 
vealed and  developed  at  the  time  of  the  exile, 
and  afterwards.  It  was  sanctioned  by  Christ 
and  the  apostles,  and  constituted  a  part  of  their 
faith,  as  really  as  it  did  of  the  faith  of  the  Jews 
who  were  contemporary  with  them.  The  name, 
evil  or  bad  angels,  was  taken  from  Ps.  Ixxviii. 
49,  the  only  passage  in  which  it  occurs  in  the 
Bible;  though  even  in  this  passage  it  does  not 
denote  disobedient  angels,  evil  in  a  moral  re- 
sped;  for  in  this  sense  the  phrase  evil  angels  is 
never  used  in  the  Bible;  nor,  on  the  contrary, 
is  the  phrase  good  angels  ever  used  to  denote 
those  who  are  morally  good,  though  indeed  they 
are  sometimes  called  holy  in  this  sense.  But 
although  this  term  is  not  derived  from  the 
sacred  writers,  but  from  the  schoolmen,  it  should 
unquestionably  be  retained,  since  the  meaning 
it  conveys  is  wholly  accordant  with  the  doctrine 
of  the  Bible.  The  term  angel  is  applied  in  the 
Bible  to  evil  spirits  only  in  reference  to  their 
former  state,  when  they  were  still  the  servants 
of  God.  Vide  2  Pet.  ii.  4.  Since  they  have 
apostatized,  ihey  can  no  more,  strictly  speaking, 
be  denominated  his  angels — i.  e,,  servants,  mei>- 
sengers.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  called  in 
the  Bible,  ayyiXoi  tov  SiaQoT-ov,  or  toi  'Earavd, 
Matt.  XXV.  41,  Rev.  xii.  9.  The  phrase,  bad  or 
tmclean  spirits  (not  angels,)  occurs  frequently  in 
the  New  Testament,  especially  in  the  writings 
of  Luke.  Paul,  too,  uses  the  phrase  nvivnanxck 
rr^i  rtoi>;ptaj,  Eph.  vi.  12.  Whenever  the  term 
01  dyyfTwOt  occurs  in  the  New  Testament  without 
qualification,  good  spirits  or  holy  angels  are  al- 
ways intended  ;  as  Matt.  iv.  11,  where  it  is  op- 
posed to  6ca',3o?ioj.  We  proceed  now  to  considw 
these  two  classes  rtiore  particularly. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  HOLY  ANGELS. 

SECTION  LX. 

OF  THE  PRESENT  STATE  AND  EMPLOYMENT  OF 
HOLY  ANGELS. 

I.  Their  Present  State. 
1.  Angels  are  properly  regarded,  according 
to  the  general  remarks,  s.  59,  IV.  2,  as  being» 
possessing  great  intellectual  excellence — intelli- 

82 


910 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


geiice,  knowledge,  and  experience.  Hence, 
whatever  is  great  and  exeellent  is  in  the  Bible 
compared  with  them;  great  wisdom  is  called 
the  wisdom  of  angels  ;  excellent  food,  the  food 
of  angels;  beau'iful  appearance,  the  appearance 
of  angels.  Their  advice  is  accordingly  said  to 
be  asked  for  by  God ;  they  are  summoned  into 
council  before  him,  and  compose,  as  it  were, 
his  senate  or  divan.  Cf.  Job,  i.  and  ii.  This 
does  not  imply  that  God  needed  their  council ; 
but  rather,  that  he  wished  to  instruct  and  em- 
ploy them. 

We  should  beware,  however,  of  exaggerated 
conceptions  of  their  knowledge,  and  should 
never  ascribe  to  them  anything  like  divine  in- 
telligence and  wisdom.  We  should  not  sup- 
pose, for  example,  that  they  are  acquaintt^d  with 
the  thoughts  of  men,  or  that  they  have  a  know- 
ledge which  borders  on  omniscience.  The 
Bible,  while  it  describes  their  great  supRriority 
over  us,  still  represents  their  knowledge  as  very 
limited  and  defective  in  comparison  with  the 
knowledge  of  God,  and  as  capable  of  great  in- 
crease. In  .lob,  iv.  18,  God  is  said  to  charge 
his  angels  with  folly.  In  Mark,  xiii.  3-2,  the 
angels  of  God  are  said  not  to  know  the  hour  of 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  1  Pet.  i.  12,  fij 
a  (Tn^fiov'jiv  ayyfyot  rtcx^axv-^ai. 

2.  They  are  also  described  as  possessing 
great  moral  perfection,  which  is  called  ihe'ir  holi- 
ness. Thus  they  are  sometimes  called  dyioi,,  in 
opposition  to  dza'^apror  also  ix7.fxroi,  Deo  pro- 
hati,  elect,  1  Tim.  v.  21.  Hence  they  take  their 
greatest  pleasure  in  witnessing  and  promoting 
integrity  and  virtue.  In  Luke,  xv.  10,  they  are 
said  to  rejoice  over  the  repentance  of  sinners. 
It  is  in  general  true,  that  the  more  advanced  in 
holiness  one  is  himself,  the  more  pleasure  he 
takes  in  that  of  others,  the  more  interested  is  he 
in  the  diffusion  of  morality  and  piety,  and  the 
more  distressed  at  the  prevalence  of  vice.  And 
if  this  is  the  case  with  man,  how  much  more 
witTi  spirits  of  a  higher  order!  We  see  here, 
why  the  plan  of  redemption  engages  the  interest 
of  the  whole  spiritual  world,  and  fills  angels 
with  delight  and  wonder  when  they  contemplate 
it,  as  is  represented  in  the  New  Testament; 
1  Pet.  i.  xii.;  Eph.  iii.  10.  The  angels  are  de- 
scribed as  very  actively  engaged  before  and  at 
the  birth  of  Christ,  Luke,  i.  They  sung  praises 
to  God  on  this  occasion,  and  announced  his  ad- 
vent to  men,  Luke,  ii.  With  equal  activity  and 
interest  they  attended  him  during  his  life,  mi- 
nistered to  his  wants,  witnessed  his  passion  and 
resurrection,  and  were  interested  in  whatever 
concerned  him.  The  union  of  so  many  natural 
and  moral  excellences  in  the  angels  is  the  rea- 
son why  great  wisdom  is  also  ascribed  to  them. 

3.  From  what  has  now  been  said,  we  may 
determine  what,  in  a  general  view,  is  their  con- 
dition.    It  is  always  described  as  one  of  the 


greatest  happiness;  for  of  this,  their  hollneas, 
which  is  the  essential  condition  of  hapj  iuess  in 
moral  beings,  renders  them  eminently  suscepti- 
ble. Vide  s.  51,  II.  They  are  said  in  the 
Bible  to  stand  in  the  most  intimate  connexion 
with  God,  and  to  behold  his  countenance  conti- 
nually. Matt,  xviii.  10.  When  the  sacred 
writers  would  describe  the  blessedness  of  which 
we  shall  hereafter  be  partakers,  they  do  it  by 
saying,  that  we  shall  then  be  like  the  angels  of 
God  ;  i5ctyyf?^t,  Luke,  xx.  36.  It  is  sometimes 
said,  that  the  angels  are  now  so  confirmed  in 
ijoodness  that  they  cannot  sin.  We  cannot  sup- 
pose, however,  that  there  is  any  absolute  impos- 
sibility of  their  sinning;  for  this  would  be  in- 
consistent with  their  freedom.  It  is  true,  in- 
deed, that  they  never  will  intentionally  and 
deliberately  commit  sin,  or  ivish  to  do  so.  Still 
to  sin  must  be  possible  to  them,  and  to  all  finit* 
beings,  in  short,  to  all  but  God  himself. 

Note. — The  schoolmen,  like  the  Rabbins  be- 
fore them,  proposed  many  questions  on  this 
subject  which  were  wholly  unanswerable;  and 
many,  too,  which  were  extremely  frivolous, 
which  may  also  be  justly  said  of  the  answers 
which  they  gave.  Vide  Moras,  p.  88,  n.  5. 
Among  these  questions  were  the  following: — 
Whether  an  angel  could  be  in  more  than  one 
place  at  the  same  time?  Whether  more  than 
one  angel  could  be  in  the  same  place  at  the  same 
time]  Whether  they  spake  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, or  what  language  was  meant  by  the 
yxJafj/jai  dyyfXwi',  spoken  of  1  Cor.  xiii.  1  ] 

II.  The  Employments  of  Holy  Angels. 

They  are  represented  in  the  Bil)lp  as  the  ser- 
vants of  Divine  Providence,  and  as  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  promoting  the  good  of  men.  The 
text,  Heb,  i.  14,  teaches  explicitly  that  they  are 
all  spirits,  engaged  in  the  service  of  God,  and 
employed  by  him  for  the  good  of  tliose  whom 
he  will  save.  In  Matt.  xxvi.  53,  we  read  that 
God  could  have  sent  more  than  twelve  legions 
of  angels  to  the  service  of  Christ.  Cf.  Matt, 
xviii.  10;  and  also  Psa.  xxxiv.  7,  and  xci.  11, 
where  it  is  said  that  they  encamp  about  the 
righteous,  and  bear  them  up  in  their  hands,  both 
of  which  are  proverbial  phrases.  These  are  the 
general  representations  contained  in  the  Bible 
respecting  the  employments  of  angels  ;  and  be- 
yond these  the  teacher  of  religion  should  not  at- 
tempt to  go  in  the  instructions  which  he  gives. 
There  are  two  cautions  which  it  may  be  well  for 
him  to  suggest  in  connexion  with  this  subject. 

(ff)  We  are  unable,  in  any  particular  cases 
of  providential  protection  or  deliverance  which 
may  occur  at  the  present  time,  to  determine 
whether  the  ministration  of  angels  has  been  em- 
ployed, or  how  tar  their  intervention  has  extend- 
ed. It  is  sutlicjent  for  ns  to  know  that  we  are 
w^atched  over  and  provided  for  by  the  providence 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


211 


of  God,  ami  that  his  ancrels  are  employed  in 
our  behalf;  and  it  is  of  no  importance  to  us  to 
be  informed  ofithe  particular  cases  in  which 
their  agency  is  exerted.  If  we  may  believe  that 
God  is  not  confined  to  the  established  course  of 
nature,  that  he  may  sometimes  turn  aside  and 
afford  us  special  and  extraordinary  assistance, 
protection,  deliverance,  and  instruction,  through 
the  instrumentality  cf  his  angels,  as  we  are 
clearly  taught  to  believe  in  the  Bible,  this  surely 
must  be  sufficient  to  comfort  and  encourage  us 
during  the  dangers  and  difficulties  of  life,  even 
if  may  not  know  when  and  how  these  services 
are  performed. 

(A)  We  are  not  to  conclude  that  because  ex- 
traordinary ajipearances  and  interpositions  of 
angels  are  recorded  in  the  holy  scriptures  as 
having  taken  place  in  former  times,  similar  oc- 
currences are  to  be  expected  at  the  present  day. 
The  events  described  in  such  passages  as  Malt. 
i.  24;  ii.  13;  Luke,  i.  II,  26;  ii.  9;  xxii.  43; 
Acts,  xxvii.  23;  should  be  exhibited  by  the  re- 
ligious teacher,  as  real  occurrences,  indeed,  but 
as  peculiar  to  that  day.  This  is  fir  better  than 
to  attempt  to  explain  away  the  obvious  meaning 
of  these  passages,  as  has  often  been  done,  to  the 
great  injury  of  the  interests  of  truth. 

Moreover,  the  Bible  does  not  teach  that  an- 
gels are  present  with  men  at  all  times  and  under 
all  circumstances,  and  that  they  are  conversant 
uninterruptedly  with  our  affairs.  On  the  con- 
trary, they  are  generally  represented  as  present 
and  active  only  in  extraordinary  cases,  in  unex- 
pected events,  the  occurrence  of  which  cannot 
easily  be  explained  without  supposing  their 
agency.  Vide  Isaiah,  xxxvii.  36;  Acts,  xii.  7. 
Cf.  s.  58,  and  Morns,  p.  89.  Hence  we  find  them 
employed  at  the  giving  of  the  law,  the  last  jtidg- 
ment,  and  other  great  events  of  this  nature,  as 
even  the  Jews  supposed.  Vide  Matt.  xiii.  39, 
41 ;  xvi.  27;  xxv.  31 ;  2  Thess.  i.  7.  They  are 
frequently  exhibited,  especially  in  the  prophetic 
writings,  in  a  symbolical  and  parabolical  man- 
ner ;  and  much  which  is  there  said  concerning 
them  must  be  understood  as  merely  figurative 
representations— e.  g.,  Isa.  vi.  1,  seq. ;  Dan.  x, 
13;  Zac.  iii.  1;  Luke,  xvi.  22.  But  at  the 
ground  of  all  these  figurative  and  parabolical 
representations  lies  the  truth,  that  angels  are 
actively  employed  for  the  good  of  men.  The 
source  of  the  imagery  contained  in  these  pas- 
sages has  already  been  pointed  out  in  s.  58. 
W'e  cannot,  however,  leave  this  subject  without 
considering  more  fully  the  opinions  which  have 
been  entertained  respecting  two  particular  of- 
fices or  works  ascribed  to  angels. 

1.  One  of  these  offices  is  that  of  gttardian 
angels.  The  general  notion  of  them  is,  that  they 
are  appointed  to  superintend  particular  countries 
and  provinces  of  the  earth,  and  also  to  watch 
«ver  individual  men,  and  administer  their  con- 


cerns. We  find  no  clear  evidence  that  this  doc- 
trine was  held  by  the  Jews  before  the  Babylo- 
nian exile ;  and  many  suppose  that  they  adopted 
it  for  the  first  time  in  Chaidea.  The  origin  of 
tliis  ojjinion  at  that  time  is  accounted  for  on  the 
supposition  that  angels  were  compared  with  the 
viceroys  who  ruled  over  the  provinces  of  the 
vast  oriental  kingdoms.  We  find,  indeed,  the 
doctrine  that  angels  were  guardian  spirits,  in  a 
general  sense,  developed  in  the  earlier  books  of 
the  Old  Testament;  but  not  so  clearly  the  opi- 
nion that  each  particular  man  and  country  had 
an  angel  as  an  apjiropriate  and  permanent  guar- 
dian. The  guardian  spirit  (y-^i:  •hnt)  men- 
tioned Job,  xxxiii.  23,  as  promoting  the  virtue 
of  man,  and  interceding  for  him  when  he  lies 
desperately  sick,  does  not  seem  to  be  one  among 
many  of  the  same  kind,  but  altogether  extraor- 
dinary. He  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  man. 
Vide  Dathe  and  Schultens,  in  loc.  Those, 
however,  who  are  spoken  of  in  Dan.  x.  13,  20, 
are  unquestionably  guardian  angels  over  parti- 
cular countries  and  people.  Daniel,  in  a  vision, 
beholds  Michael,  the  guardian  angel  of  the  Jews, 
contending  with  the  guardian  angel  of  the  Per- 
sian empire.  In  whatever  way  this  passage 
may  be  interpreted,  it  discloses  the  idea  that 
angels  were  intrusted  w'ith  the  charge  of  parti- 
cular countries  and  people.  This  idea  was  so 
familiar  to  the  Seventy,  and  so  important  in  their 
view,  that  they  introduced  it  surreptitiously  even 
into  their  version  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  thus 
contributed  to  its  wider  diffusion — e.  g.,  they 
rendered  the  passage,  Deut.  xxxii.  8,  9,  xata 
dpt^uoi'  ayytTMv  0fou.  And  "'n'?s-"'j3,  Ttot  ©foii. 
Gen.  vi.  2,  is  rendered  by  Philo  and  Josephus 
ayyiT^ot,  ®tov.  Cf.  Gen.  xi.  1, 2, 5, 9.  They 
supposed  that  evil  spirits  reigned  over  heathen 
countries — an  opinion  respecting  which  we  shall 
say  more  hereafter.  The  Rabbins  held,  that 
there  are  seventy  people  and  as  many  languages, 
over  which  seventy  angels  preside.  Vide  the 
paraphrase  of  Jonathan  on  Gen.  xi.  and  Deut. 
xxxii.  This  idea  was  the  source  of  many  other 
representations.  Every  star,  element,  plant, 
and  especially  every  man,  was  now  supposed  to 
have  an  appropriate  angel  for  a  guardian. 

We  find  some  traces  of  the  latter  opinion — 
viz.,  that  every  man  had  his  own  guardian  an- 
gel, even  in  the  New  Testament.  In  Acts,  xii. 
15,  when  they  could  not  believe  that  it  was 
Peter  himself  who  appeared,  they  said,  o  dyyfXo; 
avTov  ifirir.  But  Luke  merely  narrates  the 
words  of  another,  without  assenting  to  the  opi- 
nion expressed.  Vide  Wetstein,  in  loc.  Some 
suppose  that  in  Matt,  xviii.  10,  Christ  himself 
utters  and  sanctions  the  opinion  in  question: 
"Their  (^uxp^jv)  angels  behold  the  face  of  my 
Father."  But  neither  does  this  passage  author- 
ize the  opinion  that  each  particular  man  has  his 
I  appropriate  guardian  angel.     Their  angels  may 


21- 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


mean,  those  who  guard  an'I  preserve  them  when- 
ever and  wherever  occasion  inifrht  require;  ac- 
cording to  Heb.  i.  14;  John,  i.  51.  It  does  not 
necessarily  imply  that  there  is  a  particular  angel 
appointed  to  guard  each  individual  man  and  to  be 
his  constant  attendant.  The  word  jtitxpoi,  which 
primarily  signifies  r/;//f/ren,  means  also  Ihose  who 
have  the  disposiliim  t>f  children,  and  are  therefore 
liable  to  be  despised  and  abused.  Vide  ver.  14 
and  Matt.  xi.  11.  The  meaning  of  the  whole 
passacfe  may  be  thus  expressed  : — As  we  are 
very  careful  not  to  olTend  the  favourites  of  those 
who  stand  high  in  favour  with  earthly  kings, 
we  should  be  still  more  careful  not  to  olTend  the 
favourites  of  Divine  Providence — the  humble 
pious — who  are  intrusted  to  the  special  care  of 
those  who  stand  high  in  the  favour  of  God,  (who 
behold  his  face.) 

The  Jews  believed,  moreover,  that  angels  ad- 
ministered the  affairs  of  men  before  God,  brought 
their  supplications  and  complaints  to  him,  &c. 
Many  of  these  opinions  afterwards  prevailed  in 
the  Christian  church,  and  are  found  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  earlier  Christian  teachers.  Much  is 
said  respecting  the  care  of  angels  over  particular 
kingdoms  of  the  earth  by  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
(Strom,  b.  7,)  Origen,  (Contra  Cels.  b.  4  and 
8 ;  also  b.  5,  10,  26,  30,  31 ;  Homilia  1 1  in  Nu- 
meros;  and  in  Gen.  homil.  9,)  and  Eusebius, 
(Demonstr.  Evang.  iv.  7,  seq.)  The  latter 
speaks  of  the  care  of  angels  over  seas,  fruits,  &c. 
The  angel  of  fire  is  spoken  of,  in  conformity 
with  the  opinions  of  the  Jews,  in  Rev.  xiv.  18; 
the  angel  of  water.  Rev.  xvi.  5;  John,  v.  4. 
Similar  passages  respecting  the  guardian  angels 
of  particular  countries  and  people  occur  in  the 
writings  of  the  Platonists,  Jamblicus,  Julian, 
and  others.  Vide  the  work  of  Ode,  before  cited, 
s.  779,  ff.  Much  is  said  respecting  the  guardian 
angels  of  particular  men,  by  Hernias,  Pastor,  b. 
ii..  and  Origen,  who  says,  among  other  things, 
(Adv.  Celsum,  i.  8,)  that  the  angels  bring  the 
prayers  of  men  to  God,  according  to  the  opinion 
of  the  Jews.  So  say  Eusebius,  Basiiius,  Hiero- 
nymus,  Augustine,  Chrysostom,  and  most  of 
the  schoolmen;  and  among  protestant  theolo- 
gians, Baier,  Er.  Schmidt,  Gerhard,  and  others. 
This  idea  of  guardian  spirits  was  likewise 
widely  diffused  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans.  It  is  found  in  the  writings  of  Hesiod, 
though  not  in  Homer.  It  was  received,  and 
philo'sophically  discussed  by  Socrates,  and  by 
Plato  in  various  of  his  works.  Plotinus,  Por- 
phyry, Jamblicus,  and  Proclus,  taught  it  in  the 
manner  peculiar  to  the  new  Platonists.  It  was 
likewise  taught  in  a  similar  manner  at  Alexan- 
dria and  the  other  schools  of  Christian  philoso- 
phy, where  the  maxims  of  the  new  Platonists 
were  adopted.  Thus  this  opinion  was  rapidly 
and  widely  diffused. 

2.  The  assistance  of  angels  at  the  giving  nf 


the  law.  They  are  said  to  have  been  present 
on  this  solemn  occasion,  and  to  have  been  em- 
ployed as  the  instruments  through  whom  the 
law  was  given.  Moses  says  nothing  which 
either  proves  or  disproves  this  opinion.  But 
we  find,  in  Ps.  Ixviii.  17,  that  Jehovah  was  on 
Sinai  with  thousands  of  angels.  We  find  also 
in  the  Septuagint  version  of  Deut.  xxxiii.  2, 
that  God  appeared  at  the  giving  of  the  law  ovv 
jUDpiaii — ix  6f5iu)V  avT'ov  ayyeXot  jxft  avrov. 
This  opinion  was  universally  received  both 
among  Jews  and  Christians  at  the  time  of  the 
apostles,  and  sometimes  occurs  in  the  New 
Testament.  Heb.  ii.  2,  6t'  ayyt'Xwv  ^uXr^^tii 
xdyoj,  (i.  e.,  vofxo^.)  Acts,  vii.  53;  Gal.  iii.  19, 
SittToyfi^  6i'  ayyhXuiv.  Now,  because  God  em- 
ployed angels  as  his  servants  at  the  giving  of 
the  law,  and  published  it  through  them,  and,  as 
the  Jews  supposed,  governed  the  world,  and 
especially  the  Jewish  church,  by  them,  Paul 
says,  Heb.  ii.  5,  that  the  former  world  was  sub- 
ject to  angels,  but  the  times  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment to  Christ  alone.  The  same  opinion  re- 
specting the  giving  of  the  law  by  angels  is 
found  in  Josephus,  Antiq.  xv.  5.  The  Israel- 
ites, he  says,  received  the  law  6i'  dyyEXuv  rtapa 
0fov.  It  is  also  found  in  the  writings  of  tlie 
later  Rabbins.  Vide  Wetstein  on  Gal.  iii.  19. 
Cf.  s.  58. 

Note. — The  manner  in  which  this  whole  sub- 
ject should  be  treated  in  practical  discourse  is 
well  exhibited  by  Morus,  p.  87,  s.  3.  The 
great  principle  which  should  be  first  of  all  in- 
culcated is,  that  DIcine  Providence  aids  those  de- 
pendent on  its  care  in  various  ways,  and  fre- 
quently in  a  way  ivholly  unknown  and  inexpli- 
cable to  us.  This  should  be  shewn  by  examples. 
Among  other  means,  angels  are  employed,  as 
we  are  taught  in  the  Bible,  for  the  good  and 
safety  of  man.  And  since  this  is  so,  it  is  alike 
our  duty  and  privilege  to  live  quietly  and  peace- 
fully, with  trust  in  that  Providence  which  em- 
ploys so  many  means,  both  of  an  ordinary  and 
extraordinary  nature,  for  the  good  of  those  who 
comply  with  the  conditions  prescribed  in  the 
gospel.  We  need  not  be  distressed  even  in 
view  of  death  ;  but  may  go  with  a  cheerful  heart 
from  this  world  into  the  next,  knowing  that  we 
are  attended  by  the  angels  of  (Jod,  and  shall  he 
borne  by  them  into  the  bosom  of  Abraham. 
Vide  Luke,  xvi.  22. 

SECTION  LXI. 

OF  THE  CLASSES  OF  GOOD  ANGELS  ;  THEIlt  NAIMES  ; 
AND  THE  WORSHIP  REiNDERED  THEM. 

I.   Classes  of  Good  Angels. 

Angels  are  described  as  existing  in  a  society 
composed  of  members  of  unequal  dignity, 
power,  and   excellence;  as  having  cliiefs  and 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


31| 


rulers,  and,  in  short,  as  exhibiting  all  those  dif- 
ferences of  rank  and  order  which  appear  in 
human  society,  and  among  the  courtiers  and 
ministers  of  earthly  kings.  It  is  hardly  conceiv- 
able that  a  great  society  should  exist  without 
higher  orders,  and  those  of  a  lower  and  sub- 
ordinate grade.  Hence  the  Biblical  represen- 
tations that  angels  are  divided  into  various 
classes  (sordines'),  over  which  chiefs  are  placed, 
and  to  which  appropriate  employments  are  as- 
signed. 

The  conception  is  not  clearly  expressed  in 
the  books  written  before  the  Babylonian  capti- 
vity, (vide  s.  58;)  but  it  is  developed  in  the 
books  written  during  the  exile  and  afterwards, 
especially  in  the  writings  of  Daniel  and  Zecha- 
riah.  In  Zech.  i.  11,  an  angel  of  the  higher 
order,  one  who  stands  before  God,  appears  in 
contrast  with  angels  of  an  inferior  class,  whom 
he  employs  as  his  messengers  and  agents.  Cf. 
iii.  7.  In  Dan.  x.  13,  the  appellations  pc'Nin  tj", 
and  in  xii.  1,  '^i-un  ■>•;.",  are  given  to  Michael. 
The  Grecian  Jews  rendered  this  appellation  by 
the  term  ap;^a'yyf^oj,  which  occurs  in  the  New 
Testament,  Jude,  ver.  9,  and  1  Thess.  iv.  IG, 
where  we  are  taught  that  Christ  will  appear  to 
judge  the  world  iv  (fwv^  a^ixcyyh.ov.  This  term 
denotes,  as  the  very  analogy  of  language  teaches, 
a  chief  of  the  angels,  one  superior  to  the  other 
angels;  like  dp;i;tfpfv5,  ap^'-'^'^P^.tr^yoi,  ap;^t(jvi- 
raywyoj.  The  opinion,  therefore,  tliat  there  are 
various  orders  of  angels  was  not  peculiar  to  the 
Jews;  but  was  held  by  Christians  at  the  lime 
of  the  apostles,  and  sanctioned  by  the  apostles 
themselves. 

These  distinct  divisions  in  which  angels  are 
arranged  according  to  their  rank  in  the  writings 
of  the  Jews  of  later  times,  were,  however,  either 
almost  or  wholly  unknown  to  the  Jews  contem- 
porary with  the  apostles;  in  proof  of  which  it 
may  be  mentioned,  among  other  things,  ttiat 
Philo,  who  has  much  to  say  respecting  angels, 
lakes  no  notice  of  any  such  divisions.  The  ap- 
pellations, UQxo-ti  i|orcn'ac,  bwd^fi^,  ^povot,,  xv- 
pi6tT;re{,  are  indeed  applied  in  Ephes.  i.  21,  Col. 
i.  IG,  and  other  parallel  texts,  as  they  often  are 
in  the  writings  of  the  Jews  to  the  angels  ;  but 
not  to  them  exclusively,  and  with  the  intention 
of  denoting  their  particular  classes ;  but  to  them 
in  common  with  all  beings  possessed  of  might 
and  power,  those  visible  as  well  as  invisible,  on 
earth  as  well  as  in  heaven.  The  same  is  true 
of  1  Peter,  iii.  22.  A  general  division  of  angels 
into  chiefs  and  subjects  is  indicated  in  Rev.  xii. 
7,  G  MixarjX  xai  oi  ayy(%ot,  avrov,  those  that  be- 
lo7igen  ti)  his  train,  and  were  subject  to  him.  But 
these  general  classes  were  greatly  subdivided  by 
the  later  Jews.  The  fathers,  too,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  their  Platonic  ideas,  went  far  beyond 
the  instructions  of  thf  Bible  in  classifying  the 
angels.     An  example  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the 


work,  De  liierarchia  Cahsti,  which  appeared 
about  the  fifth  century,  and  was  falsely  ascribed 
to  Dionysius  Areopagita — a  work  full  of  the 
most  extravagant  fictions  and  conceits.  This 
work  was  in  high  repute  with  Peter  of  Lom- 
bardy,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  other  schoolmen, 
who  adopted  its  division  of  the  angels  into  nine 
classes. 

The  Cherubim  (cans)  and  Scrap him(c>cic') 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  have  been  con- 
sidered by  some  as  forming  classes  of  angels. 
Vide  Morus,  p.  87,  s.  4.  But  (a)  Cherubim  are 
not,  properly  speaking,  angels,  but  originally 
hieroglyphical  figures  in  the  form  of  beasts  :  like 
the  sphynx  of  the  Egyptians,  the  bird-griffin, 
&c.  They  are  represented  as  bearing  God  when 
he  rides  over  the  heavens,  in  ordur  lu  shoot  his 
lightnings,  and  hence  are  always  mentioned 
when  tempests  are  described.  Psalm  xcix.  1; 
Genesis,  iii.  24.  They  thus  came  to  be  used  as 
symbols  of  the  divine  majesty  and  power,  and 
as  such  were  placed  over  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant, as  pillars  of  the  throne,  and  engraven  on 
the  walls  of  the  temple.  They  were  variously 
composed  of  forms  of  men  and  beasts,  (|wa 
Ttoxijxop^a.)  Vide  Ezek.'i.  5,  seq. ;  INIichaelis, 
De  Cherubis,  equis  tonantibus  Hebra?orurn, 
Commentar.  Soc.  Scient.  Gotiinga?,  t.  i.  p.  157, 
seq.  The  four  beasts  (rsaccipa  5wa)  in  the  Apo- 
calypse (which  in  their  form  resemble  the  Che- 
rubim) are  represented  indeed  as  endowed  with 
speech  and  reason,  and  as  serving  before  the 
throne  of  God  ;  and  yet  as  distinct  from  the  an- 
gels. Vide  Rev.  iv.  6,  seq.;  v.  8 — 14;  vi.  1, 
seq.;  vii.,  xiv.,  xix.  (i)  The  Seraphim  appear 
only  in  the  prophetic  vision,  (Isaiah,  vi.  2,  6,) 
and  there,  judging  from  the  analogy  of  other 
passages,  would  seem  indeed  to  be  angels  who 
surround  the  throne  of  God;  not,  however,  a 
particular  class  or  order  of  angels;  but  in  gene- 
ral, the  nobles  and priiices  of  heaven;  the  name 

being  derived    from   the   Arabic    ■     \^'''j  to  be 

noble,  excellent.     Cf.  Job.  i.  and  ii. 

II.  Names  of  Good  Angeh. 

Wherever  there  are  many  of  the  same  kind  it 
becomes  necessary  to  make  use  of  appropriate 
names  to  distinguish  one  individual  from  an- 
other; and  so  it  was  with  regard  to  the  angels. 
Particular  names  are  given  to  some  of  them  in 
the  Bible,  by  which  we  are  able  to  distinguish 
between  them,  and  by  which  also,  as  some  Jews 
and  Christians  have  supposed,  they  are  actually 
denominated  in  heaven.  We  find  no  names 
given  to  particular  angels  in  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  written  before  the  Babylonian 
exile;  they  occur  for  the  first  time  in  the  books 
written  during  the  captivity  and  afterwards;  in 
Dviniel.and  the  Jewish  and  Christian  apocryphal 
wriiino-s.     These  names  are,  Michael,  Gabriel^ 


214 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


Raphael,  Uriel,  Jeremiel,  Seallhiel,  &c.  The  first 
two  only,  Michael  and  Gabriel,  are  found  in  our 
canonical  bonks.  Vide  Dan.  viii. — xii. ;  Luke, 
1.  19,  26;  Jude,  ver.  9;  Rev.  xii.  7. 

III.   Worship  of  Good  Angels 

It  is  well  known  to  be  a  doctrine  which  still 
belongs  to  the  creed  of  the  Roman,  and,  to  some 
extent,  of  the  Grecian  church,  that  antrels,  and 
indeed  the  souls  of  the  pious  dead,  should  be 
worshipped  and  invoked.  The  teachers  of  these 
churches,  however,  always  protest  decidedly 
ag;aiast  paying  divine  worship  to  angels,  and 
contend  that  a  merely  civil  homage  should  be 
rendered  them,  and  that  they  should  be  snppli- 
c.it.»d  to  intercede  for  us  with  God.  This,  in 
itself  considered,  is  not  sinful,  as  has  been  some- 
times unjustly  asserted.  It  is  not  improper  for 
me  to  request  even  a  pious  man  now  living  to 
intercede  with  God  for  me,  any  more  than  it  is 
improper  for  one  to  request  a  favourite  at  court 
to  int>  rcede  for  him  with  the  king.  The  prac- 
tice of  invoking  the  aid  and  intercession  of  an- 
gels proceeds  on  the  supposition  that  the}'  are 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  atfairs  of  men, 
and  hear  the  prayers  offered  up  to  them.  But 
this  supposition  is  unfounded ;  for  angels  are 
neither  omniscient  nor  omnipresent.  Vide  s. 
GO.  II.  To  invoke  their  aid,  therefore,  before 
we  know  that  they  will  hear  our  prayer,  is  as 
absurd  as  it  would,  be  for  a  subject  at  a  great 
distance  from  court,  and  in  the  retirement  of  his 
own  house,  to  supplicate  the  aid  and  assistance 
of  the  prince  or  minister,  believing  that  his  re- 
quest would  be  regarded.  Hence  it  must  appear 
that  supplication  to  angels  and  saints  is  not  so 
sinful  as  it  is  irrational.  To  these  considera- 
tions we  may  add  the  following: — 

1.  The  Bible  furnishes  us  with  no  example 
of  the  invocation  of  an  absent  angel.  On  the 
contrary,  even  a  present  angel  is  represented  in 
Rev.  xix.  10 :  xxii.  9,  as  seriously  displeased 
with  .lohn,  who  fell  down  before  him,  because 
he  was  his  brother,  and,  like  him,  employed  in 
the  service  of  God,  (tvi'SovXoj.)  Again;  Paul 
teaches  (Heb.  ii.  5)  that  the  Christian  dispen- 
sation is  not  placed  under  the  control  of  angels. 
We  are  instructed  by  the  example  of  .Testis  and 
the  apostles  to  address  our  prayers  directly  to 
(iod  and  to  Christ,  and  that  we  do  not  nr-ed  the 
intercession  and  mediation  of  other  beings.  Re- 
specting the  passage.  Job,  xxxiii.  23,  seq.,  vide 
6.  00,  II. 

2.  The  propriety  of  this  practice  must  like- 
wise be  rendered  very  suspicious  by  the  fact, 
which  experience  has  abumlantly  estuhlfhhod, 
that  wherever  the  invicatinn  of  saints  and  angels 
is  allowed,  the  great  mass  of  mankind,  notwith- 
standing all  the  protestations  of  their  teachers, 
do  actually  render  them,  not  merely  civil  ho- 
mage, but  divine  worship,  and  regard  them  very 


much  as  the  heathen  do  their  gods.  This  has 
been  seen  ever  since  the  worship  of  saints  and 
images  was  introduced  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries. 

The  following  remarks  will  shew  how  the 
worship  of  angels  came  to  be  authorized  and 
established  in  the  church.  It  was  an  ancient 
Jewish  opinion  that  angels  were  intermediate 
persons  between  God  and  men,  that  they  con- 
ducted our  affdirs  with  God,  and  carried  our  de- 
sires and  prayers  before  him.  This  opinion  is 
found  in  the  apocryphal  writings,  Tob.  xii.. 
12 — 15;  also  in  the  book  of  Enoch,  and  is  al- 
luded to.  Rev.  viii,  3,  4.  AVe'do  not  find,  how- 
ever, that  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ  and  the 
apostles  ever  worshipped  the  angels  or  invoked 
their  aid.  Some  indeed  thought  (and  so  Peirce 
and  Michaelis)  that  they  found  an  allusion  to 
the  worship  of  angels  in  Col.  ii.  18,  19,  where 
Paul  warns  his  readers  against  the  faTtdro^po- 
r,vvr^,  and  the^)>;-ixfia  ayyh.u>v  of  some  seditious 
persons  of  Jewish  feelings.  ^\\i  taTtfivofpfonvvrf 
and  ^,))^5x£ta  ayyt?^^  here  signify  hiimiliiy  and 
worship,  like  thai  of  angels,  to  which  these  per- 
sons pretended;  like  ao^ia  ayyfXuv.  Vide  s. 
59,  iv.  2,  ad  finem.  It  is  synonymous  with 
£^fXo^i»j(7zf  Ja,  ver.  23.  What  the  Jews  believed 
with  regard  to  their  angels,  the  Grecians,  and 
especially  the  Platonists,  believed  with  regard 
to  their  demons — viz.,  that  they  conducted  the 
affairs  of  men  with  God,  and  laid  our  prayers 
and  oflerings  bef  ire  him.  Hence  this  idea  be- 
came more  and  more  prevalent  among  the  Gre- 
cian Jews  and  Christian  teachers.  It  occurs  in 
the  writings  of  tlie  fathers  of  the  second  and 
third  centuries — e.  g.,  in  Origen,  (Contra  Cel- 
sum,  viii.  36.)  who  says,  in  cap.  57  of  the  same 
work,  that  anjels  deserve  honour  and  thanks 
from  men.  The  Valentinians  and  other  Gnos- 
tics are  said  by  the  ancients  to  have  gone  fur- 
ther, and  to  have  rendered  a  kind  of  divine 
worship  to  the  angels.  But  this  was  always 
very  much  disapproved  by  the  catholic  fathers, 
until  the  filth  and  sixth  centuries;  as  we  see 
from  the  writings  of  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Irenaens,  Origen,  Eusebius,  Augustine,  and 
Theodoret,  and  by  the  acts  of  the  Council  at 
Laodicea,  about  the  year  3()0,  Can.  35.  But 
when  at  length  the  worship  of  images  and  saints 
came  in  vogue  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries, 
we  find  that  not  only  the  great  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple rendered  ndiginus  homage  to  saints  and  aii- 
irels  as  to  deities,  but  that  even  many  Christian 
teachers  expressed  them.^elves  in  such  an  incau- 
tious mannnr  as  to  justit'y  tiiis  practice.  Not  a 
single  respcct;>ble  theolnijian,  however,  has  ever 
directly  defended  it,  n^^r  is  it  now  defended  in 
the  Romish  church.  The  Trent  Catechism  con- 
tains the  doctrine,  Angelas  pro  its  provinciis  prf 
ces  fund  err  qiiihus  pricsunt ;  and  the  Romish 
church  teaches,  that  It  is  proper  to  pray  to  angeU 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


215 


for  holiness  and  to  seek  their  intercession  in 
arlieu/o  mor.is.  Vide  Jo.  Himmeiius,  De  Na- 
tura  Verae  ac  Religiosas  Invocationis,  Contra 
Barthold.;  Nihusium,  1024.  Protestant  theo- 
logians— e.  g.,  Brochmand  and  Baumgarten — 
have  allowed  that  angels  may  give  good  coun- 
sel, awaken  pious  thoughts,  and  producet  plea- 
surable emotions. 


CHAPTER   II. 

OF  THE  FALLEN  ANGELS,  OR  EVIL  SPIRITS. 

SECTION  LXII. 

OF  THE  EXISTENCE    OF    EVIL  SPIRITS;    AND  THEIR 
APOSTASY. 

In  addition  to  the  works  of  Ode,  Cotta,  and 
others,  mentioned  s.  58,  note,  the  student  should 
consult  the  following,  in  reference  to  the  history 
of  this  doctrine.  J.  G.  Mayer,  Historia  Diaboli, 
&c.,  Ed.  2;  Tubinga^  1780,  Svo— a  work  in 
which  the  existence,  condition,  power,  agency, 
fcc,  of  evil  spirits  are  considered,  and  in  which 
the  common  doctrine  is  defended  ;  and,  on  the 
other  side,  the  work  "  Versuch  einer  biblischen 
Dainonologie,  oder  Untersuchung  der  Leiire 
vom  Teufel  und  seiner  Macht,"  with  a  preface 
and  appendix  by  Semler;  Halle,  177(>,  Svo;  in 
which  the  agency  of  the  devil  is  denied.  Cf. 
the  work  of  Ewald,  above  cited.  Other  works 
relating  to  some  particular  points  in  this  doc- 
trine will  be  noticed,  s.  C5.  [A  complete  view 
of  the  literature  of  this  doctrine  is  contained  in 
Hahn,  Lehrbuch,  s.  G7.] 

I.  The  Existence  of  Evil  Spirits. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true,  as  has  been  often  con- 
tended, that  the  more  savage  and  ignorant  men 
are,  the  more  slavish  is  their  fear  of  such  invi- 
sible beings,  whether  gods,  angels,  or  of  some 
other  name,  as  are  supposed  to  be  evil  and  ma- 
lignant; and  also  that  the  belief  in  the  existence 
and  influence  of  such  beings  commonly  de- 
creases as  science  and  civilization  advance. 
Some  of  the  ancient  nations  believed  in  only 
one  evil  spirit,  while  others  conceived  of  many 
such,  under  the  government  of  one  head.  These 
were  regarded  as  the  authors  of  every  description 
of  evil,  natural  and  moral,  and  to  them  were 
attributed  all  the  diseases  and  calamities  with 
which  men  are  visited.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Jews  respecting  evil  spirits,  which  has  a  general 
resemblance  to  that  of  other  nations,  though  in 
many  points  it  is  entirely  different,  was  not  fully 
developed,  as  has  been  already  remarked  (s.  58, 
II.  3),  until  the  time  of  the  captivity. 

The  existence  of  any  such  evil  spirits  at  are 


exhibited  in  the  Jewish  and  Christian  scriptures 
has  been  either  doubted  or  wholly  denied  by 
some  philosophers  in  every  age.  'i'he  principal 
objections  urged  by  them  against  the  existence 
of  evil  spirits  are  the  following: — 

1.  The  idea  of  a  spirit,  by  nature  wise  and  in- 
telligent, and  yet  opposed  to  God,  seems,  they 
think,  to  involve  a  contradiction.  But  if  this 
objection  were  valid  with  regard  to  angels,  it 
must  also  hold  true  with  regard  to  men  ;  and  it 
would  be  impossible  to  find  a  man  highly  intel- 
ligent and  sagacious,  and  yet  wicked.  [This 
is  the  principal  objection  upon  which  Schleier- 
macher  rests  his  rejection  of  the  common  doc- 
trine respecting  evil  angels.  If  Satan  were  ac- 
quainted with  God,  and  knew  his  power,  he 
could  not  hope  to  succeed  in  opposing  him  ; 
with  all  the  high  intelligence  ascribed  to  him 
he  must  see  the  folly  and  ruin  of  wickedness,  and 
repent,  otherwise  his  understanding  and  his  will 
would  remain  in  fixed  opposition;  whereas  the 
functions  belonging  to  any  real  existence  must 
be  harmonious.  Hence  the  conclusion  is,  that 
the  idea  of  Satan,  as  a  being  possessed  of  high 
intelligence  and  yet  opposed  to  God,  contains 
logical  contradictions,  and  cannot  therefore  be 
received.  But  if  the  existence  of  a  depraved 
will  be  not  inconsistent  with  the  highest  degree 
of  intelligence  with  which  we  are  acquainted  in 
human  beings,  how  can  we  tell  that  it  may  not 
be  consistent  with  a  far  higher,  and  indeed  the 
very  highest,  degree  of  finite  intelligence'?  Be- 
sides, in  a  moral  apostasy,  though  the  defection 
of  the  will  must  precede  the  error  of  the  under- 
standing, yet  the  error  of  the  understanding  is 
sure  to  follow;  and  the  higher  intelligence 
which  angels  by  nature  possess  may  have  be- 
come perverted  by  their  fall,  as  is  the  case  with 
men. — Tr.] 

2.  There  is  no  trace  of  a  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence of  evil  spirits,  even  among  the  Jews,  until 
the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity.  [But  if, 
as  has  been  shewn  in  a  previous  section,  there 
was  no  necessity  for  the  revelation  of  this  doc- 
trine before  that  time,  and  then  it  became  neces- 
sary, the  fact  of  its  being  previously  tinknown 
cannot,  surely,  be  an  argument  against  its  truth 
when  revealed.  It  is  enough  that  it  was  at  any 
time  taught  by  inspired  prophets. — Tr.] 

[3.  Connected  with  the  foregoing  objection, 
and  perhaps  implied  in  it,  is  another,  which 
needs  to  be  more  fully  stated.  It,  is  said,  that 
the  Biblical  doctrine  of  a  Satan  is  derived  from 
the  system  of  dualism  so  prevalent  in  the  East, 
and  is  liable  to  the  objections  to  which  that  sys- 
tem»is  exposed.  This  objection  is  urged  by 
Henke,  Eckermann,  and  others  of  the  same 
school.  But  in  answer  to  this  it  may  be  said, 
that  even  supposing  the  Biblical  doctrine  re- 
specting Satan  to  agree  with  oriental  dualism, 
it  does  not  follow  that  the  former  is  untrue. 


216 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


If  it  is  taught  by  inspired  writers,  it  certainly 
does  not  become  less  true  by  havincr  been  taught 
by  Zoroaster,  and  believed  by  the  Persians,  any 
more  than  the  doctrines  of  God  and  divine  pro- 
vidence are  to  be  discarded  because  universally 
believed.  But  there  are,  it  must  be  remembered, 
very  obvious  ditlerences  between  the  demonolo- 
^y  of  the  sacred  writers  and  of  the  Eastern  phi- 
losophers. According  to  the  latter,  the  two 
Principles  of  good  and  evil  are  co-eternal  and  in 
every  respect  equal;  and  it  is  from  this  repre- 
sentation that  all  the  evils  connected  with  ori- 
ental dualism  result;  and  it  is  in  this  very  point 
that  it  differs  from  the  Biblical  doctrine.  Ac- 
cording to  this,  Satan  himself,  and  all  his  le- 
gions, are  creatures  of  God,  dependent  upon 
him,  and  trembling  before  him.  Thus,  although 
possessed  of  vast  power,  they  are  still  under  the 
entire  control  of  the  Ruler  of  the  universe;  and 
so  our  trust  in  him  remains  unshaken. — Tr.] 

4.  Belief  in  evil  spirits  is  confined,  it  is  said, 
to  rude  and  uncultivated  men,  and  disappears 
as  science  and  civilization  advance,  and  ought 
therefore,  in  these  enlightened  times,  to  be 
wholly  discarded.  But  it  should  be  remembered 
that  learned  men  in  enlightened  periods  some- 
times fall  into  errors,  as  well  as  ignorant  men 
in  barbarous  ages,  and  that  an  opinion  is  not 
true  merely  because  believed  by  the  one,  nor 
false  because  believed  by  the  other. 

Those  who  deny  the  existence  of  evil  spirits 
are  cilled  Ademonists.  Many  of  these,  who  are 
hardly  prepared  flatly  to  oppose  the  authority 
of  the  inspired  writers  and  to  set  aside  their  in- 
structions, undertake  the  useless  labour  of  ex- 
plaining away  the  doctrine  of  the  devil  from  the 
Bible,  and  in  doing  this  resort  to  the  most  forced 
and  unauthorized  modes  of  interpretation.  Vide 
Morus,  p.  93,  s,  13. 

[The  modes  of  interpretation  here  alluded  to 
were  practised  long  since  by  the  Rationalists 
of  the  seventeenth  century — the  Cartesians,  Spi- 
noza, and  his  friends.  A  good- specimen  of  the 
manner  in  which  these  fathers  of  modern  Ka- 
tionalism  disposed  of  the  instructions  of  the  Bi- 
ble upon  the  subject  of  evil  spirits  is  given  by 
Stosch,  in  his  "  Concordia  rationis  et  fidei,"  p. 
8,  8.  17:  "  Quffi  de  angelis  et  daemonibiis  tarn 
in  8.  scriptura  quam  historia  humana  traduntiir, 
sunt  partim  somnia,  partim  visiones  et  appari- 
tiones,  partim  phantasmata,  partim  morbi,  par- 
tim figmenta«t  illiisiones."  But  the  most  plau- 
sible of  all  the  systems  of  Ademonism  is  that 
by  which  Satan  is  made  to  denote,  not  a  real 
existence,  but  some  mode  of  moral  evil.  This 
system  is  well  expressed  by  Ammon  wheft  he 
says,  "  Acquiescamus  non  tam  in  existcniin  et 
faetiK,  quam  nolione  Satanw,"  .Sum.  'I'heol. 
Christ,  p.  lfl;>.  The  particular  form  of  itmral 
evil  denoted  by  the  word  Suttui  is  very  various 
according  to  different  authors,  each  of  whom 


modifies  it  to  suit  his  own  philosophical  system. 
Thus,  according  to  one,  it  is  that  disposition 
which  pursues  evil  for  its  own  sake,  and  not  for 
any  advantages  with  which  it  may  be  connect- 
ed— -pertinaciain  damnuui prupriuin  vel alienum 
ugendi,  absque  illecebris  carnis,  vtl  inundi,  site 
g/orix  vansc.  In  the  school  of  Kant,  Satan  is 
the  ibEA  nf  what  is  absolutely  displeasing  in  the 
sight  nf  God,  and  so  is  the  direct  opposite  of  the 
Son  of  God,  who,  according  to  Kant,  is  the  idea 
of  what  is  absolutely  well-pleasing  with  God. 
Thus  in  each  different  system  does  Satan,  at  the 
option  of  the  framer,  assume  a  different  form, 
and  act  a  different  part. — ^Tr.] 

Our  modern  theologians  have  often  chosen  a 
middle  course,  and  endeavoured  to  \inite  the 
opinions  of  those  who  totally  deny  the  existence 
of  demons,  and  of  those  who  contend  strongly 
for  their  existence  and  agency  ;  but,  as  is  usual 
with  those  who  endeavour  to  please  opposite 
parties,  they  have  given  satisfaction  to  neither. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  appearance  of  rejecting 
the  authority  of  the  holy  scriptures,  they  admit 
the  existence  of  evil  spirits,  while,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  difficulties  to  which  the  common  doc- 
trine is  liable,  and  to  conform  to  the  prevailing 
notions  of  the  day,  they  deny  that  the  devil  can 
exert  any  power  on  men,  at  least  at  the  jrrescnt 
time,  (a  very  necessary  limitation  for  them  to 
make;)  that  to  us,  therefore,  it  is  all  the  same 
as  if  he  did  not  exist ;  and  that  when  Christ  and 
the  apostles  spoke  of  the  agency  of  the  devil, 
they  merely  accommodated  themselves  to  the 
popular  superstitions  of  the  Jews,  while  they 
themselves  neither  believed  in  demoniacal  in- 
fluence, nor  even,  as  some  will  go  so  far  as  to 
say,  in  the  existence  of  a  devil.  (Of  this  num- 
ber, the  most  distinguished  perhaps  is  VVegschei- 
der,  who  thus  gives  his  views  in  his  "  Insiilu- 
tiones,"  s.  lOG:  "Verisimile  est  magistrum 
ilium  divinum  reclius  quidem  de  demonologia 
Judajorum  cogitantem,  at  formulis  quibusdam 
usum  symbolicis,  regnum  divinum  regno  dia- 
bolico  oppositum  adumbrantibus,  quae  apud  Ju- 
dseos  tunc  temporis  pervulgata;  erant,  a  disci- 
pulis  suis  non  satis  intellectum  fuisse,  et  ipsain 
providentiam  divinam  posteritati  doctrinam 
istam  emendendam  tradi  voluisse."  Cf.  Do 
Wette,  Bib.  Dogm.  s.  211.— Tn.] 

But  these  views  are  liable  to  very  weighty 
objections ;  for, 

(«)  Since  it  was  a  great  object  with  Jesus 
to  free  mankind  from  hurtful  prejudices,  and 
especially,  during  his  earthly  ministry,  to  era- 
dicate the  errors  which  prevailed  among  the 
Jews,  we  may  be  very  certain  that  he  would  not 
have  spared  their  belief  in  the  existence  and 
agency  of  the  devil,  if  he  had  regarded  it  as  false 
It  is  said,  indeed,  that  it  was  necessary  for  him 
to  indulge  those  prejudices  of  the  Jews  which 
he  could  not  at  once  eradicate,  and  tnat  when 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


SfT 


bespoke  of  the  influences  of  Satan  it  was  merely 
in  condescension  to  those  deep-rooted  Jewish 
prejudices.  But  an  examination  of  his  words, 
in  the  connexion  in  which  they  stand,  will  con- 
vince us  that  this  was  not  the  case.  Christ 
does  not  merely  forbear  to  contradict  this  prevail- 
ing doctrine,  or  merely  allude  to  it  incidentally, 
but  he  frequently  brings  it  directly  forward,  and 
expressly  teaches  the  existence  of  the  devil  and 
his  agency  upon  men.  Thus,  for  example,  in 
John,  viii.  38,  44,  he  speaks  of  the  devil,  with- 
out having  the  least  inducement  on  the  part  of 
his  hearers  for  so  doing,  and  this  in  the  very 
same  discourse  in  which  he  demands  from  them 
implicit  faith  in  everything  which  he  says,  on 
nis  simple  word,  and  in  which  he  declares  his 
utter  abhorrence  of  all  falsehood  and  deception. 
Vide  ver.  38 — 47.  And  he  frequently  mentions 
this  doctrine  in  his  discourses,  when  he  could 
have  had  no  motive  for  doing  so  from  a  desire 
of  pleasing  his  hearers,  and  siding  with  their 
prejudices.  Vide  Matt.  xii.  22 — 31,  43 — 45; 
xiii.  39.  Had  not  Christ  himself  believed  this 
doctrine  he  would  have  introduced  it  as  seldom 
as  possible  into  his  discourses,  and  would  have 
thrown  out  hints  here  and  there,  by  which  the 
more  discerning  would  have  discovered  that  he 
himself  entertained  different  opinions  on  the 
subject.  It  could  not  certainly  have  been 
through  fear  of  any  consequences  injurious  to 
himself  attending  the  denial  of  this  doctrine, 
that  he  was  induced  to  indulge  and  authorize  it ; 
since  tiie  Sadducees  had  before  renounced  it 
without  experiencing  persecution;  and  since 
Christ  was  never  known  in  other  cases  to  give 
way  to  any  false  or  dangerous  opinions,  how 
much  soever  the  Pharisees  and  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple might  have  been  attached  to  them.  Thus, 
for  example,  he  fearlessly  opposed  their  doctrine 
respecting  traditions,  though  this  was  far  more 
important  in  their  view  than  the  doctrine  re- 
specting angels. 

(6)  Christ  himself  informs  us,  that  during 
his  life  on  earth  he  privately  taught  his  disci- 
ples many  things  which  were  not  to  be  pub- 
lished by  them  till  after  his  ascension,  (Matt. 
X.  26,  27;)  and  that  much  which  he  could  not 
teach  them,  because  they  were  unable  to  bear 
it,  would  be  communicated  to  them  by  the  Pa- 
racletus,  John,  xvi.  12,  13.  But  we  do  not 
find  that  among  these  more  familiar  instruc- 
tions the  disciples  were  taught  that  there  is  no 
devil,  or  that  he  is  not  the  author  of  evil,  or  that 
he  is  destitute  of  all  power.  On  the  contrary, 
Christ  expressly  and  particularly  sanctions  a 
belief  in  evil  spirits,  in  presence  of  his  disci- 
ples, (M.itthew,  xiii.  3f),  seq.;  Luke,  xxii.  31;) 
and  even  mentions  the  fact  that  the  prince  of 
this  ivnrld  in  judged,  (not  that  there  is  no  Satan.) 
as  one  of  those  things  of  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
would  convince  the  world  through  their  instru- 
28 


mentality.  After  the  ascension  of  .Tesus,  the 
apostles  made  use  of  the  same  expressions  and 
representations  with  regard  to  evil  spirits  which 
he  himself  had  employed;  as,  1  John,  iii.  8; 
1  Pet.  V.  8;  and  often  in  the  Acts.  With  what 
freedom  and  fearlessness  does  Paul  often  attack 
the  prevailing  prejudices  and  superstitions  of 
the  Jews  and  Greeks!  But  so  far  is  he  from 
either  opposing  this  doctrine,  or  merely  passing 
it  by  unnoticed,  that  he  expresses  his  own  be- 
lief in  all  the  essentials  of  the  Jewish  deraon- 
ology  ;  Ephes.  ii.  1,  2,  seq.;  vi.  11,  seq.  et 
passim.  The  apostles,  indeed,  held  this  doc- 
trine in  a  manner  somewhat  different  froui  that 
in  which  it  was  held  by  the  Jews,  and  discard- 
ed many  of  their  gross  and  fabulous  representa- 
tions; but  yet,  as  it  must  appear  from  what  has 
been  said,  they  themselves  really  believed  it. 
Our  modern  philosophers  are  at  liberty  to  follow 
their  own  convictions  upon  this  sui)ject,  and  to 
reason  upon  their  own  principles;  but  they  are 
not  at  liberty  to  ascribe  t.'ieir  hypothesis  to 
Christ  and  the  apostles,  nor  to  impose  upon  the 
common  people  this  boasted  wisdom,  wTiich 
they  will  never  relish,  and  by  which  they  will 
be  rather  confounded  than  enlightened. 

Our  belief  of  this  doctrine  must  rest  ulti- 
mately on  our  conviction  of  the  divine  mission 
of  Christ  in  its  most  full  and  proper  sense.  If 
we  receive  him  as  a  divinely-commissioned 
teacher,  we  must  abide  by  his  decision  on  this 
subject  as  well  as  on  all  others,  whatever  diffi- 
culty we  may  find  in  the  way.  Otherwise,  we  are 
driven  to  the  alternative  of  saying  either  that 
Christ  did  himself  believe  and  teach  the  exist- 
ence of  evil  spirits,  though  they  do  not  exist, — 
in  which  case  he  is  not  an  infallible  teacher, — 
or,  that  Christ  did  not  himself  believe,  but  yet 
taught  the  existence  of  evil  spirits,  in  which 
case  his  moral  character  is  impeached.  The 
same  is  true  in  regard  to  the  apostles. 

\_Xole  1. — In  confirmation  of  the  remark  of 
the  author,  that  our  belief  of  this  doctrine  must 
depend  ultimately  on  the  testimony  of  Christ,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  attempts  which  have  been 
made  to  prove  the  existence  of  evil  spirits  by 
arguments  a  prior/,  have  proved  as  unsuccess- 
ful as  the  attempts  to  disprove  it  by  arguments 
of  the  same  nature.  The  most  noted  attempt  of 
this  kind  is,  perhaps,  that  made  by  Heinroth,  in 
the  last  chapter  of  his  late  work,  "Ueber  die 
Wahrheit."  He  there  endeavours  to  demon- 
strate the  existence  of  evil  spirits  from  the  apos- 
tasy of  man,  which  he  thinks  can  be  accounted 
for  only  on  the  supposition  that  he  was  tempted 
by  a  being  who  had  previously  fallen.  Man 
was  made  pure  and  holy,  and  could  therefore 
find  no  inducement  to  disobedience  from  any- 
thing in  his  own  nature.  The  inducement  to 
sin  must  therefore  have  come  to  him  from  with- 
out; and  as  hj  acts  only  in  view  of  seeming 
T 


fl8 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


good,  he  must  hive  been  made  to  believe  that 
transgression  would  conduce  to  his  advantao^e; 
in  short,  he  must  have  been  deceived.  But  he 
could  not  have  been  deceived  by  God,  nor  any- 
thing in  the  world  in  which  he  was  placed, 
which  is  a  work  and  revelation  of  God  ;  and  if 
deceived  at  all,  therefore,  it  must  have  been  by 
an  older  apostate,  a  spirit  of  evil,  :i  father  ff  lies; 
and  only  on  the  admission  of  such  a  spirit  can 
the  incontrovertible  fact  of  the  fall  of  our  race 
be  in  any  way  accounted  for.  But,  in  the  first 
place,  this  tem|)tation  does  by  no  means  account 
for  that  moral  act  in  which  the  essence  of  theapos- 
tasy  consisted.  A  change  in  man's  moral  charac- 
ter must  have  already  taken  place,  before  trans- 
gression could  have  been  made  alluring.  With- 
out this  previous  defection  of  his  will  from  God, 
and  ilie  consequent  disorder  of  his  powers  and 
darkness  of  his  mind,  he  could  have  seen  no  at- 
traction in  what  was  forbidden,  and  could  have 
looked  upon  the  inducements  to  it,  as  Christ 
did,  only  with  abhorrence,  and  certainly  never 
would  have  preferred  them  to  the  infinitely 
stronger  inducements  which  the  government  of 
God  holds  out  to  the  obedient;  and  even  if, 
without  this  change,  he  had  yielded  to  the  in- 
fluence of  some  delusion  from  without  to  which 
he  had  been  subjected,  he  would  have  been 
chargeable  with  minlake  only,  and  not  have  been 
guilty  of  sin.  And,  in  the  second  place,  the 
agency  of  a  tempter,  though  employed  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact  in  the  apostasy  of  man,  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  account  for  it.  If  the  fall 
of  Adam  cannot  be  accounted  for  except  by  the 
influence  of  temptation,  neither  can  that  of 
Satan  ;  and  the  tempter  himself  must  have  been 
before  tempted  and  deceived.  But  if  .Satan — a 
spiritual  existence,  and  stationed  near  the 
throne  of  God — could  have  apostatized  without 
having  been  drawn  away  by  an  older  apostate, 
certainly  this  may  be  supposed  of  Adam,  in 
whom,  both  from  his  nature  and  his  circum- 
stances, apostasy  must  have  been  more  proba- 
ble. The  argument  of  Heinroth  is  liable, 
therefore,  to  the  twofold  objection,  that  the 
agency  of  a  tempter  does  not  fully  account  for 
the  apostasy  of  Adam,  and  that  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  account  for  it,  since  the  tempter  him- 
self fell  without  any  such  agency,  though  pos- 
sessed of  a  nature  and  placed  in  circumstances 

far  more  favourable  to  obedience Tr.] 

Nole  2. — Since  demons  and  their  influence 
are  mentioned  so  frpcpiently  in  the  New  'IVsla- 
ment,  the  doctrim;  whii^h  relates  to  them  ought 
not  to  be  omitted  in  popular  instruction.  If  it  is 
passed  by,  the  common  people  will  fall  into 
very  erroneous  and  superstitious  notions  with 
regard  to  evil  spirits.  The  truth  ought  there- 
fore to  be  exhii)itcd  with  wise  caution,  in  such 
a  way  as  to  obvi;itc  both  unbelief  and  supersti- 
tion, to  rectify  false  views,  and  yet  so  as   to  \ 


leave  the  authority  of  the  Bible  uninfringed, 
and  the  whole  sense  of  scripture  unj)erverted. 
The  following  is  the  simple  scriptural  view  of 
this  subj.ct  which  the  religious  teacher  should 
e-xhibit: — («)  Christ,  by  his  death  and  the 
gracious  dispensation  which  he  aduiinisters,  has 
taken  away  from  the  devil  the  power  of  injur- 
ing his  true  followers;  those,  therefore,  who 
are  sincerely  pious  towards  God,  and  believers 
in  Christ,  and  followers  of  his  instructions,  have 
nothing  to  fear,  (i)  The  existence  of  demons 
and  their  influence  may,  however,  furnish  us 
with  motives  to  piety  and  virtue,  and  serve  to 
deter  us  from  vice  and  corruption  If  we  are 
pious,  we  are  citizens  of  the  kini^dom  of  God; 
if  ivicli-ed,  citizens  of  the  kingdom  of  Satan — re- 
presentations by  which  the  states  of  moral  good- 
ness and  badness  are  figuratively  described. 
Vide  Morus,  p.  90,  s.  8,  seq.  [Cf.  Bretschneider,  • 
Handbucli,  b.  i.  s.  723.] 

II.  Apostasy  of  Evil  Spirits. 

All  the  angels,  according  to  the  .lews  and  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament,  were  placed  ori- 
ginally in  a  state  of  innocence  and  holiness; 
some  of  them  afterwards  sinned,  apostatized  from 
God,  and  were  consequently  punished.  Respect- 
ing the  time  at  which  this  apostasy  took  place, 
or  in  wl)at  the  sin  of  the  fallen  antrels  consisted, 
we  are  not  clearly  informed  in  the  scriptures; 
hence  very  difl'erent  opinions  have  been  enter- 
tained on  these  subjects. 

1.  Some  suppose  that  the  first  sin  of  the 
apostate  angels  was  the  temptation  which  they 
offered  to  the  progenitors  of  the  human  race. 
This  opinion  has  been  advocated  in  modern 
tiuips  by  Cocceius,  Vitringa,  lleilmann,  .Schmid 
of  Wittenberg,  and  others.  The  devil  is  not  in- 
deed expressly  mentioned  in  the  narrative  in 
Gen.  iii. ;  but  after  the  Israelites  were  made  bet- 
ter acquainted  with  the  nature  and  influence  of 
evil  spirits  (s.  58),  they  always  supposed  that 
they  were  intended  in  this  passage,  and  that 
death  and  sin  had  come  into  the  world  by  Satan. 
So  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  ii.  24,  and  the  New- 
Testament  everywhere.  They  accordingly  re- 
garded the  devil  as  the  tempter;  but  it  does  not 
ap])ear  that  they  regarded  the  temptation  as  his 
first  otl'ence,  that  by  which  he  first  rebelled 
against  God.  On  the  contrary,  they  seem  to 
presuppose  that  he  was  previously  wicked.  The 
passage,  John,  viii.  4  I,  cannot  therefore  be  em- 
ployed, as  Ilt'ilmann  has  employed  it,  in  support 
of  this  opinion.  'I'he  sense  of  this  passage  may 
be  thus  given: — "You  resemble  the  devil  in 
your  dispositions  and  conduct,  (ix  toi  narpof 
rov  Sta joXoh  f-ift ;)  he  was  a  murderer  from  the 
beginning,  (liilipioTtozTdin;  (Lt'.o,);^;;?.  alluding  to 
the  murder  of  Abel  by  Cain,  Gen.  iii.;  1  .John, 
iii.  12,  and  other  events,)  and  remained  not  in 
tlie  trul/i,  (the  knowledge  and  worship  of  God, 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


m 


31  moral  rectitude,  or  both  united  ;)  the  love  of 
truth  and  integrity  is  not  in  him ;  it  is  his  plea- 
sure to  speak  and  propagate  falsehood  and  error, 
(to  ^-fvSoj,  Rev.  xxi.  27;  xxii.  15;)  for  he  is 
the  author  (narjjp)  and  patron  of  falsehood  and 
error,  (unbelief,  superstition,  and  immorality,  of 
which  he  is  always  represented  as  the  founder.)" 
This  passage  certainly  does  not  teach  that  this 
was  the  first  instance  in  which  Satan  revolted 
from  God. 

2.  Others  place  the  chief  offence  of  the  evil 
spirits  \n pride,  which  was  shewn,  according  to 
some,  in  one  way,  according  to  others,  in  an- 
other. So  Athanasius,  Hieronymus,  Augustine, 
and  others,  particularly  the  Latin  fathers,  who 
were  followed  by  many  of  the  schoolmen,  and 
in  modern  times  by  Luther,  Buddeus,  Mosheim, 
Cotta,  and  others.  They  refer  to  the  passage  1 
Tim.  iii.  G, -(which,  however,  admits  of  another 
interpretation,)  and  also  to  the  proud  expressions 
which  are  ascribed  to  the  seducer  of  men  in  the 
holy  scriptures.  Gen.  iil.  5;  Matt.  iv.  9.  This 
view  is  partially  correct;  but  the  first  sin  of  the 
fallen  angels  may  be  ascertained  still  more  de- 
finitely. 

3.  We  are  led  to  believe  by  the  writings  of 
the  apostles  that  in  many  particulars  they  agreed 
with  the  .Tewish  teachers  of  their  own  day  re- 
specting the  first  transgression  of  fallen  spirits. 
We  may  accordingly  consider  the  Jewish  opi- 
nions, in  these  particulars,  as  sanctioned  by  the 
assent  of  the  apostles.  Now  the  Jews  held, 
especially  after  the  Babylonian  captivity,  that 
God  entrusted  to  angels,  as  overseers  or  govern- 
ors, particular  provinces  of  the  earth,  and  also 
the  heavenly  bodies  (cf.  s.  60,  IL),  while  their 
more  proper  home  and  abode  was  heaven.  The 
Jews  further  held  that  some  of  these  angels 
were  discontented  with  their  lot,  and  entered 
into  a  rebellious  concert  among  themselves. 
They  proudly  aspired  to  higher  posts  than  those 
assigned  them,  revolted  from  God,  and  deserted 
heaven ;  and  then,  for  their  punishment,  were 
thrust  by  God  into  Tartarus,  like  the  giants  or 
Titans,  who,  according  to  the  Grecian  mytho- 
logy, were  cast  as  rebels  out  of  heaven.  Tarta- 
rus is  now  their  proper  abode,  as  heaven  was 
formerly  ;  and  from  thence  they  exert,  under  the 
the  Divine  permission,  an  influence  upon  the 
world.  Tiiey  seduced  our  first  parents,  and 
brought  sin  and  death  into  the  world  ;  they  reign 
over  heathen  nations,  whom  they  led  into  idol- 
atry:  they  also  rule  wicked  men — i.  e.,  exert 
a  controlling  influence  over  them  ;  but,  together 
with  those  over  whom  they  have  ruled,  they 
will  be  punished  in  Tartarus  after  the  day  of 
judgment.  With  this  account  tlie  Jews  min- 
gled many  fabulous  and  unscriptural  representa- 
tions, which  were  adopted  even  by  many  of  the 
Christian  fathers ;  but  the  general  account  above 
given  is  ver'    clearly  authorized  even  in  the 


New  Testament,  especially  in  the  passages  9 
Pet.  ii.  4,  and  Jude,  ver.  C,  7.  The  first  passage 
teaches,  that  we  cannot  expect  that  God  will 
leave  transgression  unpunished;  "for  he  spared 
not  the  angels  that  sinned,  but  cast  them  down 
to  hell  (raprapuxjttj),  where  he  keeps  them  in 
reserve  for  future  punishment,  (fij  xpi'-jti.)" 
Still  clearer  is  the  parallel  text,  Jude,  ver.  G, 
where  we  are  taught  that  God  keeps  enchained 
(irto  ^o^ov)  in  Tartarus,  reserved  for  the  judg- 
ment of  the  great  day,  the  angels  rovj  firi  -Tr^f^r;' 
aavraj  -trjv  iavttLv  ap;^}ji',  d^.Xa  dnoXirtoiTa;  ro 
t6ior  oixtr^piov.  'Ap;^^  does  not  here  signify, 
their  original  state,  but  the  duminion  entrusted 
to  them  as  governors.  'Yr^pilv  is  iucri,  conscrvare, 
to  retain,  and  the  latter  clause  is  not  a  descrip- 
tion of  their  punishment,  but  of  their  crime. 
Thus  Jude  and  Peter,  though  they  by  no  means 
take  part  in  all  the  Jewish  notions  with  regard 
to  the  apostasy  of  the  fallen  angels,  clearly 
authorize  the  general  doctrine  of  the  Jewish 
teachers,  as  given  above. 

Note. — The  question  has  been  asked,  how  it 
can  appear  probable,  or  even  possible,  that  such 
perfect  beings  as  angels  are  represented  to  be. 
with  all  their  intelligence  and  knowledge,  could 
have  fallen  in  this  manner,  and  so  foolislily  have 
rebelled  against  God,  with  whom  they  must  have 
been  acquainted  ?  It  might  be  asked,  with  equal 
plausibility,  how  it  is  possible  that  men  can  act 
so  frequently  as  they  do  against  the  clearest 
knowledge  and  strongest  convictions  of  dulyl 
We  often  find  num,  endued  with  the  greatest  ta- 
lents, and  possessing  tlie  clearest  discernment, 
who  are  yet  grossly  vicious,  and  act  in  a  man- 
ner unaccountably  foolish  and  unadvised.  Emi- 
nent intellectual  endowments  are  not  unfre- 
quently  attended  by  eminent  virtues,  and  then 
are  eminently  useful;  but  they  are  also  fre- 
quently accompanied  by  vices,  and  then  are  to  the 
last  degree  hurtful.  But  were  it  not  that  expe- 
rience justifies  this  remark,  it  would  be  easy  to 
demonstrate,  a  priori,  that  high  inti-lligence  and 
moral  depravity  could  not  possibly  go  together. 
Demonstrations  a  priori  on  such  subjects  are 
therefore  wholly  inadmissible. 

SECTION  LXIII. 

OF  THE  NATURE  AND  ATTRIBUTES  OF  EVIL  SPI- 
RITS; THEIR  PRESENT  AND  FUTURE  CONDITION; 
THEIR  NUMBER,  CLASSES,  AND  NAMES. 

I.  Their  Nature  and  Attributes. 
The  essential  constitution  of  human  nature  is 
not  altered  by  the  depravity  of  the  heart.  Man 
continues  to  possess  the  inborn  excellences  and 
perfections  of  his  nature,  however  depraved  he 
may  be  as  to  his  moral  condition.  The  case  is 
the  same  with  evil  spirits,  as  they  are  represent- 
ed in  the  Bible.  In  common,  then,  with  good 
angels,  they  are  still  spiritual  beings,  and  even 


220 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


in  their  present  state  possess  the  excellences 
and  perfections  which  are  peculiar  to  spiritual 
existences — great  intellectual  powers,  internal 
energy  and  c.ctivity.  Vide  s.  59,  II.  And  if 
good  angels  are  invested  with  a  body,  or  can 
assume  one  as  occasion  requires,  the  same  must 
be  supposed  with  respect  to  evil  spirits.  Vide 
ubi  supra.  But  their  moral  slate,  their  will  and 
affections,  are  described  as  very  depraved  and 
evil.  They  therefore  employ  their  intellectual 
powers  in  behalf  of  evil  and  not  of  good  ;  they 
act  in  opposition  to  the  divine  purposes,  and  are 
the  enemies  of  truth  and  righteousness,  John, 
viii.  44.  The  aofla  avu^iv  xartpx'^f^^"*!  'S  con- 
trasted with  (jo<j>ta  6a(uor(w5>^j,  James,  iii.  15; 
and  men  are  warned  of  the  /tf^Sf tat  rov  6(a36- 
Xov,  Eph.  vi.  11;  ii.  2.  1  Pet.  v.  8.  I\Iatt. 
xiii.  39. 

If.  Their  Present  and  Fulure  State. 

Their  condition  is  described  as  extremely  un- 
happij.  Vide  Matt.  xxv.  41.  Even  the  natu- 
ral consequences  of  sin — the  power  and  domi- 
nion of  the  passions,  the  remembrance  of  their 
former  happy  condition,  the  frustration  of  their 
wishes  and  plans,  remorse  of  conscience,  &c., 
would  be  enough  to  render  them  miserable. 
But  these  are  not  all  which  they  endure;  since 
positive  punishments,  as  we  are  taught  in  the 
scriptures,  are  inflicted  on  them,  and  will  be 
more  especially  after  the  day  of  judgment.  We 
are  not  able  to  determine  accurately,  from  the 
languages  of  the  Bible,  which  is  for  the  most  part 
figurative,  in  what  these  punishments  consist. 
The  principal  texts  relating  to  this  point,  besides 
that  already  cited  in  Matt.  xxv.  41,  46,  are  2 
Pet.  ii.  4,  and  Jude,  ver.  6.  Taprapovi',  or,  as 
the  Greeks  otherwise  write  it,  xarara^ira^wl-v, 
signifies,  in  Tarlartirn  dejiccre,  (e  crclo.)  Tar- 
tarus, in  the  Grecian  mythology,  is  the  place 
of  punishment  and  condemnation.  Hesiod,  in 
his  Tlieogony,  and  Plato,  in  his  Gorgias,  repre- 
sent it  as  the  prison  of  the  Titans.  But  at  a 
later  period  it  came  to  signify  the  general  place 
of  suflVring.  It  is  that  part  of  u^tjj  where  the 
wicked  were  confined,  and  is  represented  as 
dark,  and  deep  under  the  earth.  The  place  of 
punishment  was  more  commonly  described  by 
the  Jews  as  s:n  n-o,  ythva,  and  eternal  fire.  But 
as  their  notion  of  yfivto.  corresponded  perfectly 
with  the  Grecian  idea  of  Tartarus,  they  adopted 
thn  latter  term  into  their  own  dialect,  as  in  many 
other  cases.  In  this  place  condemned  men  and 
spirits  are  confined  ;  and  hence  the  latter  are 
said  to  suffer  such  jud^rments  and  dreadful  tor- 
ment as  will  constitute  tiie  punishment  of  wick- 
ed nipn  after  this  life.  Such  is  the  representa- 
tion, M.itt.  xxv.  41,  4r>,  "Depart  into  evrrlastinir 
fire,  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  flUirf/.v."  The 
phrase,  T.'tpai;  i^o>f<>v  T(af>if>u>xr  (he  bound  them 
in  dismal  Tartarus  with  cliains),  describes  their 


misery  as  unavoidable  and  remediless.  Great 
wretchedness  is  often  described  by  the  Hebrews 
under  the  image  of  captives  bound  in  a  d  irk  pri- 
son. The  evil  spirits  are  not  as  yet,  however, 
chained  for  ever  in  Tartarus — i.  e.,  tliey  are  not 
now  confined  to  this  single  place  of  misery. 
They  sometimes,  under  divine  permission,  roam 
beyond  their  prison,  and  exert  their  influence 
upon  men.  Vide  Revelation,  and  Luke,  viii. 
31,  &c.  But  a  more  strict  confinement  and  a 
higher  degree  of  punishment  are  impending 
over  them,  as  over  wicked  rnen,  and  will  fall 
upon  them  at  the  last  day  :  ttj  x^ioiv  tr^fioiirai, 
cf.  ver.  9,  and  Jude,  ver.  G,  tij  scpJcrii'  ^jyuXrj 
T^fiipa^.  Cf.  Matt.  xxv.  41.  The  question  of 
the  demon,  Matt.  viii.  29,  ijX^fj  cLSf  rtpo  ;cat- 
poD  jSa^aiauat  jj,uaf,  alludes  to  this  impending 
punishment.  Cf.  2  Pet.  ii.  4.  Hence  the  evil 
spirits  are  described  zs  fearing  God,  and  trem- 
bling before  him  as  their  Judge;  James,  ii.  19, 
6at;tioi'ta  ^pt33ot'3'.. 

JVote. —  IVi  II  evil  spirits  repent,  obtain  fur  irive- 
ncss,  and  be  restored  to  happiness?  These  are 
questions  which  have  often  been  asked  in  mo- 
dern times,  and  to  which  various  answers  have 
been  given.  Origen  was  the  first  among  Chris- 
tian teachers  who  distinctly  avowed  the  opinion 
that  evil  spirits  would  repent,  and  be  restored 
to  happiness.  Vide  Augustine,  Con.  Jul.  v.  47, 
and  vi.  10.  This  opinion  has  been  adopted  in 
modern  times  by  theologians  of  the  most  ditVer- 
ent  parties;  by  Eberhard,  in  his  "  Apologie  des 
Sokrates,"  th.  i.,  by  Lavater,  in  his  "  Aussicht 
in  die  Ewigkeit,"  th.  iii.,  [Bretschneider,  in  his 
Ilandbuch,  b.  i.  s.  G91,]  and  others. 

If  we  had  nothing  but  reason  to  guide  us  in 
our  inijuiries  on  this  subject,  we  should  proba- 
bly argue  thus: — («)  If  wicked  men  truly  re- 
pent, n  form,  and  comply  with  the  other  condi- 
tions prescribed,  God  will  forgive  them,  and 
remove  the  punishment  of  their  sins.  But  con- 
sidering that  these  spirits  are  in  the  highest  de- 
gree depraved,  that  their  vicious  propensities,  so 
long  cherished,  must  have  taken  deep  root,  and 
that  the  hai)it  of  sin  must  have  become  confirmed, 
we  must  conclude,  from  all  human  analogy,  that 
their  repentance  and  reformation  must  be  ex- 
tremely diflicuit,  though  we  might  not  be  able 
to  pronounce  it  absolutely  impossible,  (bi)  But 
should  they  from  the  heart  repent  of  their  sins, 
and  were  it  possible  for  them  to  fulfil  the  other 
conditions  prescribed,  it  is  probable  that  God, 
who  is  perfect  goodness,  and  who  is  ready  to 
forgive  men  on  certain  conditions,  and  who  de- 
sires the  salvation  and  happiness  of  all  his  crea- 
tures, would  also  forgive  them,  and  restore  them 
to  his  favour;  f)r  at  least,  he  might  perhaps  rf> 
move  the  positive  punishments  inflicted  on  ihem, 
should  tiipy  com|)ly  with  the  conditions  pre- 
scribed ;  if  indeed  we  can  su[)posp  tli(>ir  situa- 
tion such  that  conditions  could  be  offered  them— 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


a  point  which  we  are  unabiC  to  determine.  But 
(c)  since  every  good  action  has  its  natural  and 
permanent  good  consequences,  and  every  evil 
action  its  natural  and  permanent  evil  conse- 
quences, it  is  certain  that  the  happiness  of  such 
repentant  angels  must  always  be  less  in  amount 
than  the  happiness  of  those  who  never  sinned, 
and  have  persevered  in  obedience.  The  former 
must  always  take  a  lower  stand,  in  point  of 
happiness  and  character,  than  the  latter;  and  in 
this  sense  we  may  affirm,  even  on  principles  of 
reason,  that  their  punishment  will  be  eternal. 

But  if  we  inquire  what  Christ  and  the  apos- 
tles teach  on  this  subject,  we  can  find  nothing  to 
justify  the  hope  that  the  fallen  angels  will  be  re- 
stored. Their  punishments  are  described  as 
Siofiot  dtStot,  Jude,  ver.  6  ;  as  nvp  alijvcov,  xb%a.6i.i 
oiurioj,  Matt.  xxv.  41,  46.  These  expressions 
do  not,  indeed,  necessarily  denote  positive  pu- 
nishments, although  it  cannot  be  shewn  that 
natural  punishments  are  here  exclusively  in- 
tended. There  is  some  plausibility  in  the  argu- 
ment that  the  words  atwnoj  and  aiStoj,  like  the 
Hebrew  aSij?,  do  not  denote  eternity,  in  the  strict 
philosophical  sense,  but  only  a  long  and  inde- 
terminate ditrution.  Vide  s.  20,  III.  But  while 
this  remark  is  doubtless  true  in  itself,  yet  in  the 
passage  cited.  Matt.  xxv.  46,  x67.am<;  aiuivio^ 
and  ^icrj  attoi'tos  are  contrasted,  and  if  in  the  lat- 
ter case  ationoj  is  allowed  to  denote  absolute 
eternity,  what  right  have  we  to  use  it  in  the 
former  case,  in  a  less  strict  sense?  From  these 
words,  therefore,  no  argument  can  be  drawn  in 
behalf  of  the  cessation  of  the  punishments  of 
fallen  spirits;  nor  can  it  be  shewn  that  these 
punishments  are  merely  natural.  The  argu- 
ment for  restoration  is  therefore  left  by  the 
scriptures  very  doubtful.  The  consideration  of 
the  question  will  be  resumed,  s.  157,  158. 
[however  hesitating  and  undecided  the  theolo- 
gians of  the  Lutheran  church  may  be  with  re- 
gard to  the  endless  punishment  of  the  fallen 
angels,  the  doctrinal  standards  of  their  church 
express  no  doubts;  and  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion (Art.  xvii.)  expressly  condemns  those, 
*'5«/  s:ntiunt,  hominibus  damnatis  ac  DiABOLis 
Jinem  pncnarum  futnrum  esse.^^  Neander  sug- 
gests, that  the  doctrine  of  the  final  and  perfect 
restoration  of  all  things  (drtoxara'crracrijrfairwj), 
which  is  ascribed  to  Origen  as  its  autlior,  was 
the  result  of  the  principles  of  the  Alexandrine 
Gnosis,  and  was  abandoned  by  him  at  a  later 
period  of  his  life.  Allg.  Kirchengesch,  b.  i. 
abth.  3,  s.  1098— Tr.] 

III.  Nutnber  and  Classes  of  Evil  Spirits. 

The  New  Testament  gives  us  no  definite  in- 
formation with  respect  to  tiie  number  of  evil 
spirits;  but  they  were  supposed  by  the  Jews  to 
be  very  many  (Luke,  viii.  30),  and  indeed  are 
often  mentioned  m  the  New  Testament  in  the 


plural.  We  are  likewise  informed  that  evil 
spirits  compose  a  kingdom,  and  exist  in  a  social 
relation;  and  hence  the  phrase  jy  ,3aaiXfJO  tov 
Saraid,  Malt.  xii.  26.  This  representation 
must  be  understood  in  the  same  way  as  that  in 
reference  to  good  angels.  Vides.  Gl,n.  They 
have  a  leader,  jirince,  or  commander,  (o  ap;^tov 
■rCjv  haLfiovltov,  Matt.  xii.  24,)  represented  often 
as  a  fallen  archangel,  and  called  Beelzi-bub  (vide 
No.  iv.),  also,  by  way  of  eminence,  6tu/3oXoj, 
Sarai'ttf,  x,  t.  X.  In  Rev.  xii.  7,  9,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  good  angels  who  fought  on  the  side 
of  Michael,  the  angels  of  Satan  are  called  ol 
ayyfXot  avfoi.  The  names  devil  and  Satan 
are  not  used  in  the  Bible  in  the  plural,  and  are 
applied  only  to  the  ap;^wv  tuv  ba-ifioviutv.  It  is 
not  therefore  according  to  scriptural  usage  to 
speak  oi  devils  in  the  plural. 

IV.  Names  of  Evil  Spirits. 

Respecting  the  title  evil  cng-e/,  vide  s.  59,  V. 
[Cf.  Bretschneider,  Handbuch,  b.  i.  s.  627; 
Hahn,  Glaubenslehre,  s.  294,  Anm.] 

1.  General  appellations  of  evil  spirits  as  a  body. 
(«)  nvtvf^ata  axa^apra — i.  e.,  morally  impure 
and  evil;  Luke,  xi.  24,  et  passim.  Synony- 
mous with  this  is  (i)  7ivii\uara  noi'rjxi,  Luke, 
vii.  21 ;  Ephes.  vi.  12,  to.  nvsv^anxa  rr^i  Ttovn]- 
piaj.  (c)  Aaiuoi'f  J  or  8ai,udna.  The  etymology 
of  this  word  is  quite  uncertain.  In  Homer  and 
all  the  most  ancient  Grecian  writers  it  means 
neither  more  nor  less  than  gods,  (^foi.)  And 
although,  in  process  of  time,  it  acquired  various 
additional  meanings,  it  always  retained  this.  It 
is  accordingly  used  by  the  LXX.  to  denote  the 
heathen  gods  (d'''?'''?!*,)  and  also  in  1  Cor.  x.  20, 
21,  and  Rev.  ix.  20,  where  iai/udna  and  eibiuXa 
are  connected.  It  was  very  commonly  used  in 
this  sense  by  the  Attic  writers ;  and  so,  when 
Paul  was  at  Athens,  (Acts,  xvii,  18,)  some  be- 
lieved that  he  wished  to  introduce  ^si'a  6at,u6>ta, 
fortign  deities.  But  the  name  bai^ovii  was 
afterwards  given  by  the  Greeks  to  those  invi- 
sible beings  whom  they  supposed,  in  connexion 
with  their  deities,  to  exert  an  agency  in  the 
world.  Hence  haijxovf^,  is  the  name  given  by 
Pythagoras,  Plato,  and  others,  to  the  human 
soul,  even  when  connected  with  the  body,  but 
especially  when  separated  from  it.  The  inter- 
mediate spirits  between  God  and  our  race — 
deified  men,  and  heroes,  were  also  called  de- 
mons. And  lastly,  the  internal  spring,  iMpulse, 
the  foreboding  or  presentiment  if  the  mind,  which 
appeared  so  inexplicable  to  Socrates,  and  which 
he  therefore  personified  and  deified,  was  called 
by  him  his  6at/idwoi'.  Whenever  this  invisible 
agent  was  the  cause  of  good  to  men,  it  was 
called  dya^6ai;U(ov  or  (iha.Uiu,v;  and  when  the 
cause  of  evil,  xa.xohai^u>v.  At  the  time  of 
Christ  and  the  apostles,  fiaZ/uov  was  a  common 
appellation  given  by  the  Grecian  Jews  to  evil 
t2 


S33 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


sjn'ritsi  those  morally  so,  and  indeed  by  the 
Apocryphal  writers  also.  Vide  Tob.  iii.  8, 
Ttoi't^pov  iaiuoviov.  In  the  evangelists,  the 
phrases  rcvfiuata  dxci^apra  and  novrjxi  are  in- 
terchanged, times  without  number,  with  bai,- 
juoi'ff  and  rti'f vua  Saiuoviov  axa^prov.  In  Matt, 
xii.  "24,  Satuorfj  are  distinctly  mentioned  as  be- 
longing to  the  kingdom  of  the  devil.  The 
woman  who  is  described  in  Luke,  xiii.  11,  as 
nvevua  txov^a  (vi^j vft'aj,  is  said  (ver.  16)  to  be 
one  ^j/  Ur^'^iv  o  Sararaj.  Vide  s.  61,  I.  2.  The 
opinion  of  Farmer,  therefore,  in  his  "  Kssay  on 
Demoniacs."  that  other  spirits — gods,  departed 
souls,  Sec,  and  not  devils — were  intended  in  the 
New  Testament  by  this  appellation  is  unfound- 
ed. In  James,  ii.  19,  6at.fj.6vLa  has  clearly  the 
signification  above  given.  But  how  came  hai- 
fiove<i  tit  have  this  peculiar  signification  among 
the  Grecian  Jews?  The  LXX.  usually  rendered 
the  Hebrew  words  which  signify  idols  by  the 
word  baifiovfi,  and  the  Greeks  called  their  gods 
by  this  name.  Now  the  Jews  connected  with 
this  name  their  idea  that  evil  spirits  ruled  in  the 
heathen  world,  and  caused  themselves  to  be 
worshipped  as  gods,  under  the  names  of  Jupiter, 
Mt-rcurf/,  &c.,  and  had  seduced  the  heathen  into 
tliis  idolatry.  Hence  Sai^uovfj  and  evil  spirits 
came  to  be  regarded  by  them  as  synonymous 
terms. 

2.  But  one  of  the  evil  si)irits  is  represented 
as  their  prince,  leader,  commander.  Vide  No. 
iii.,  and  Morns,  p.  91,  s.  10.  He  is  called  by 
various  names,  (a)  Satan,  jrr,  Sararaj,  lite- 
rally, enemy,  fiend,  accuser,  Ps.  cix.  6;  Job,  ii. 
(s.  58) ;  Matt.  xvi.  23 ;  and  hence,  by  way  of 
eminence,  ^r«nce/5s  daemonum,  because  he  is  re- 
presented as  the  greatest  enemy  of  man,  and  of 
the  kingdom  of  truth  and  holiness.  Synony- 
mous with  this  title  are  the  names  o  ix^poi  and 
o  ai'n'Sixoj.  (b)  O  Ttovrjpoi,  malignus,  noxious, 
the  foe  of  man.  This  name  is  frequently  given 
him  by  John;  as  1  John,  ii.  13,  14.  (c)  Aici- 
PoV)j  is  the  most  common  Grecian  name  of  the 
devil  ;  and  from  this  word  our  devil  and  the 
German  Teufel  are  derived.  It  signifies  fiend, 
destrni/er  of  priice,  calumniator.  The  LXX.  ren- 
dered the  Hebrew  pj*  by  6ta3o?wo;,  Job,  i.  6  ;  Ps. 
cix.  6.  This  name  was  sometimes  applied  to 
men.  1  Tim.  iii.  11 ;  Tit.  ii.  3.  (r/)  BfXi'aX  or 
Bf>.iap,  2  Cor.  vi.  15,  from  ^^■hz,  compounded 
of  '""3,  not,  and  *?;•>,  high — i.  e.,  low,  alijcct.  It 
has  di(r<irent  senses.  In  the  Old  Testament  it 
sometimes  signified  the  under  world,  the  king- 
dom of  the.  dead.  Psalm  xviii.  5;  and  sometimes 
uniuorlhy  men,  abject  principles,  Deut.  xiii.  13. 
After  the  Babylonian  exile  it  was  frequently 
used  as  the  name  of  the  devil,  and  occurs  once 
in  this  sense  in  the  New  Testament,  2  Cor.  vi. 
15,  "What  concord  hath  Christ  with  Heliall" 
— i.  e..  How  can  the  worship  of  Christ  con- 
sist with  the  worship  of  the  devil  (idolatry)  ? 


(e)  Bf(>^fj3ov3,  or  B»Xs fi^ovx,  who  is  expresilj 
called  a^^x*^^  *''*'•'  ixunoni^v.  Matt.  xii.  21.  This 
was  an  appellation  very  common  among  the 
Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ.  In  2  Kings,  i.  2, 
Beelzebub  appears  as  a  god  of  the  Philistines. 
The  name  when  written  with  final  ^3,  is  derived 
from  3i2r  '■^•;z.  It  most  probably  means,  God  of 
the  flies,  Fly-Baal,  Deus  averruncus  inu^carum^ 
whose  office  it  was-to  protect  his  worshippera 
from  the  flies,  which  were  among  the  greatest 
plagues  of  Egypt  and  Philisiia.  [It  corres- 
ponds with  the  Greek  Ztuj  urto^twoj.]  Accord- 
ing to  the  later  Jews,  it  means  dominus  crimi- 
nationis,  accuser,  complainant,  and  is  synony- 
mous with  6ta/3o?.oj  and  Saraiaj,  from  the  Sy- 
riac  aa-t,  which  signifies  criminari.  The  other 
form,  BifXi^iSovX,  is  derived  from  "ri:;  ''^"2,  and  is 
either  an  intentional  alteration  of  the  word  into 
an  epithet  of  disgrace,  and  so  signifies  deu-i  ster- 
coris  (Mistgott),  from  ^i'j,  ttcrcus ;  or  signifies, 
dtus,  or  pncfectus  sepulcri,  (as  Sur  signifies  in 
Chaldaic  and  Syriac,)  dominus  iuferni,  or  infc- 
rorum,  6  xpcttoj  ix^v  tov  "^avdrov,  Heb.  ii.  14. 
It  was  at  first,  then,  the  name  of  the  angel  of 
death,  and  afterwards  of  the  devil,  when  he  was 
supposed  to  be  the  same  person.  (/)  'O  Spcixui/ 
o  (Wf'yaj,  and  o  tiij'ts  o  ap;^aioj.  Rev.  xii.  9,  13. 
This  appellation  might  have  been  given  to  him 
from  his  general  character  for  cunning  and  de- 
ceit, (o  rCKavutv  tr}v  oixov/xii'/jv.^  But  the  word 
tt,j;^aioj  evidently  alludes  to  Gen.  iii.,  since  the 
agency  of  the  devil  in  the  occurrence  there  de- 
scribed was  doubtless  believed  by  the  Jews  at 
the  time  of  Christ. 

3.  The  Jews  gave  particular  names  to  evil  as 
well  as  to  good  spirits.  Among  these  is  Ai/uo- 
Satof,  ./Ismodi,  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Tobias, 
iii.  S,  also  •Samuel,  .Izazcl,  kc.  But  none  of 
these  proper  names  of  evil  spirits  occur  in  the 
New  Testament,  unless  the  name  of  the  angel 
of  destruction,  'A>i(xf)bJjv — i.  q.,  'ArtoXXvur, — o 
ayy f%oi  tr"i  ujivoaov,  Rev.  ix.  11,  be  considered 
as  such. 

SECTION  LXIV. 

OF  THE  EMPLOYMENTS  AND  THE  EFFECTS  OT 
EVIL  SPIRITS. 

I.  Objections  to  the  common  theory. 

The  power  of  Satan  and  his  influence  upon 
men  were  formerly  stated  in  a  very  exaggerated 
manner,  and  represented  as  excessively  great 
and  fearful ;  and  this  view  was  the  more  plausi- 
ble, as  it  seemed  to  be  supported  by  many  pas- 
sages in  the  New  Testament.  But  this  mistake 
would  have  been  avoided  if  the  true  spirit  of  the 
Bible  had  been  more  justly  apprehended,  and 
ihe  true  meaning  of  its  laniruage  better  under- 
stood. \'ideNo.  ii.  According  to  the  commcn 
theory,  evil  spirits  were  supposed  to  be  activel? 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


331 


employed  at  their  own  pleasure  all  over  the  I 
earth,  to  have  immediate  influence  on  the  souls 
of  r.^en  ;  to  inspire  wicked  thoughts,  doubts,  and 
anxieties ;  to  intrude  themselves  into  all  societies 
ami  mysierics ;  and  to  rule  in  the  air,  and  over 
the  whole  material  world.  Such  are  the  opinions 
which  formerly  prevailed  to  a  ^eat  extent,  and 
which  are  often  found  in  the  older  ecclesiastical 
•writer^.  They  were  long  preserved,  and  trans- 
mitted from  one  age  to  another  with  more  or  less 
of  exaggeration.  And  many  theologians  of  the 
prolestant  church,  even  in  the  sixteenth  centi'ry, 
held  opinions  on  this  subject  which  were  more 
conformed  to  the  prevailing  superstitious  ideas 
of  that  age  than  to  reason  or  scripture.  Luther 
and  Melancthon  were  inclined  to  the  belief  that 
good  and  evil  spirits  were  at  all  times  present  in 
the  world,  and  stood  in  a  very  intimate  relation 
to  men.  In  the  symbols  of  the  Lutheran  church, 
however,  the  connexion  of  superior  spirits  with 
the  world  is  not  very  minutely  determined,  and 
the  doctrine  of  demons  is  exhibited  in  the  gene- 
ral Biblical  phraseology.  Thus,  in  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  many  texts  of  scripture  are 
cited,  but  no  definite  meaning  is  affixed  to  them. 
Many  of  the  ideas  formerly  prevalent  on  this 
subject  are  either  wholly  without  foundation,  or 
are  carried  beyond  the  bounds  of  truth.     For, 

1.  It  is  contradictory  to  the  ideas  of  the  power, 
wisdom,  holiness,  and  goodness  of  God  which 
we  derive  from  the  Bible  and  from  reason,  to 
ascribe  to  the  devil  such  vast  and  almost  infinite 
power.  Nor  can  we  see  any  rational  way  of 
accounting  for  it  that  God  should  permit  so  great 
and  injurious  an  influence  to  be  exerted  in  the 
world. 

2.  The  opinion  maintained  by  some  that  evil 
spirits  can  produce  wicked  thoughts  in  the  minds 
of  men  by  an  immediate  influence  is  incapable 
of  proof.  The  evil  influences  exerted  on  the 
human  mind  have  by  some  been  supposed  to  be 
as  immediate  and  efllcient  as  the  divine  influ- 
ences ;  and  as  God  infuses  good  thoughts,  as  he 
inspired  prophets  and  apostles,  so  does  Satan,  it 
is  supposed,  directly  infuse  evil  thoughts  into 
the  minds  of  the  wicked,  and  into  the  minds  of 
the  good  also,  when  he  is  permitted  so  to  do  by 
God.  That  these  inspirations  of  the  devil  can 
be  distinguished  by  any  certain  signs  from 
thoughts  and  desires  which  arise  in  the  mind 
from  other  sources  is  not  pretended  ;  this  opi- 
nion, therefore,  cannot  be  established  by  expe- 
rience, and  certainly  it  cannot  be  derived  from 
scripture;  at  least,  the  opinion  that  evil  spirits 
jo  always  or  commonly  exert  an  immediate  in- 
fluence of  this  kind  cannot  be  proved  from  the 
Bible. 

3.  This  theory,  when  carried  to  the  length  to 
which  it  has  someti  mes  been  carried,  is  incon- 
sistent with  httvmx) freedom.  If  the  agency  of 
Sa\an  was  of  the  nature  often  believed,  man 


would  not  he  the  agent  of  the  wicked  actions  he 
seems  to  perform,  but  merely  the  instrument  of 
the  irresistible  influence  of  Satan ;  and  thus  an 
excuse  for  sin  would  be  furnished. 

4.  In  many  texts  in  the  New  Testament  in 
which  the  common  origin  of  particular  sins  is 
described,  Satan  is  not  mentioned,  but  their  ex- 
istence is  accounted  for  in  another  way,  agree- 
able alike  to  reason  and  experience.  Cf.  espe- 
cially James,  i.  13 — 15,  "  Let  no  man  say,  when 
he  is  tempted,  I  am  tempted  of  God.  Every  man 
is  tempted  when  he  is  drawn  away  of  his  own 
lust,  and  enticed,  when  he  gives  indulgence  to 
rising  desires,  which  is  internal  bin.  \V  hen  lust 
hath  conceived  it  bringeth  forth  sin,  (it  breaks 
forth  in  sinful  words  and  works,  wliich  is  exter' 
nal  sin  ,•)  and  sin,  when  it  is  brought  into  the 
world,  bringeth  forth  death,  (its  uniform  conse- 
quence is  misery. y  Cf.  Matthew;  xv.  19  ;  Gal. 
v.  16 — 21 ;  Rom.  vii.  5,  8,  seq. 

From  these  texts,  however,  we  cannot  con- 
clude, as  some  have  done,  that  the  Bible  excludes 
the  agency  of  Satan  in  the  sins  of  men.  This 
would  be  an  extreme  equally  contrary  to  the 
scriptures  with  the  other,  for  the  Bible  expressly 
teaches  («)  that  Satan  is  hostile  to  man,  and  is 
active  in  promoting  wickedness,  Eph.  ii.  2,  vi. 
11,  seq.,  &c.  Morus,  p.  92,  93,  n.  i.  (h)  That 
he  contributes  something  to  the  sins  wliich  pre- 
vail among  men — e.  g.,  1  Cor.  vii.  5,  where 
Satan  is  distinguished  from  axpamo..  incontinence, 
to  which  he  is  said  to  tempt  men;  from  which 
it  is  clear,  as  Morus  justly  observes,  that  Satan 
is  not  used  in  the  scriptures  to  denote  merely  an 
abstract  idea,  and  moral  evil.  Vide  ubi  supra, 
n.  2.  (c)  That  he  opposes  goodness;  Luke, 
viii.  12;  John,  viii.  44;  and  is  therefore  the 
enemy  of  Christianity  and  morality.  Vide  ubi 
supra,  n.  3.  This  is  what  the  Bible  teaches; 
still  it  does  not  deny  that  the  ignorance  of  man, 
his  sinful  passions,  and  other  causes,  have  a 
tendency  to  lead  him  to  sin;  nor  does  it  under- 
take to  determine  the  manner  in  which  Satan 
does  what  is  ascribed  to  him  ;  nor  does  it  justify 
us  in  deciding  in  particular  cases  whether  Satan 
has  had  any  agency  in  the  crimes  committed,  or 
what  and  kuiv  muck  it  may  have  been.  So 
thought  Origen  (rttpt  ap;^wt',  iii.)  and  many  of 
the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  who  endeavoured  to 
rectify  the  unscriptural  notions  respecting  the 
power  of  the  devil  which  were  entertained  by 
many  of  their  contemporaries. 

The  extravagant  opinions  which  formerly  pre- 
vailed  on  this  subject  were  the  means  of  much 
injury,  as  appears  from  experience,  (o)  They 
led  the  common  people  to  what  was.  in  effect,  a 
belief  in  two  gods — a  good  and  an  evil  deity  ; 
and  also  to  entertain  false  conceptions  of  the  at- 
tributes of  the  true  God,  which  could  not  have 
been  without  a  practical  influence  on  the  life. 
(3)  They  often  furnished  a  real  hindrance  to 


»34 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


moral  improvement;  for  instead  of  seeking  for 
the  origin  of  sin  in  themselves,  and  endeavour- 
ing to  stop  its  sources, — instead  of  becoming 
acquainted  with,  and  avoiding  the  external  oc- 
ca'-ions  of  sin, — they  laid  the  whole  blame  of  it 
upon  Satan,  and  when  they  had  made  him  guilty, 
held  themselves  sufficiently  justified  and  excul- 
pated, (y)  They  gave  rise  to  many  other  false 
opinions  and  superstitious  practices,  similar  to 
some  already  existing  among  the  Jews.  Ori- 
gan, Eusebius,  and  Augustine,  represent  demons 
as  fluttering  about  in  the  air,  from  the  misun- 
derstanding of  Eph.  ii.  2.  Vide  No.  ii.  Euse- 
bius spealis  of  them  as  present  at  pagan  sacri- 
fices, regaling  themselves  with  the  sweet  savour, 
according  to  an  opinion  which  prevailed  both 
among  the  Jews  and  Greeks  respecting  their 
gods.  Sometimes  they  are  represented  as 
speaking  in  the  heathen  oracles,  and  plotting 
evil  against  men  at  prayer;  to  secure  themselves 
against  wlTich,  the  ancient  saints,  as  appears 
from  the  fabulous  histories  of  their  lives,  were 
accustomed  to  make  use  of  the  sign  cf  the  cross. 
They  were  supposed  to  keep  themselves  in  de- 
serts, swamps,  and  subterranean  caves,  Is. 
xxxiv.  13,  14;  Matt.  iv.  I;  Luke,  xi.  24;  I 
Sam.  xviii.;  and  also  to  dwell  in  men  before 
their  baptism,  even  in  the  children  of  Christian 
parents,  and  not  merely  in  the  heathen,  as  was 
at  first  supposed  ;  and  this  gave  origin  to  the  rite 
of  exorcism.  Vide  Diiierlein,  Disp.  de  redemp- 
tione  a  potestate  diaboli;  Altorf,  1774,  4to;  also 
in  his  "  OpusculaTheologica ;"  Jenae,  1789, 8vo, 
Tollner,  Theol.  Untersuchungen,  th.  i.  st.  2, 
'  Die  Lehre  von  den  Versuchungen  des  Teufels 
ist  nicht  praktisch."  liunge,  Man  muss  audi 
dem  Teufel  niciit  zu  viel  aufijiirden;  Bremen, 
177G,  8vo. 

In  opposing  these  false  and  superstitious  no- 
tions, many,  however,  fell  into  an  opposite 
fault,  and  wholly  denied  the  power  and  influ- 
ence of  evil  spirits,  and  explained  the  passages 
of  the  nihle  relating  to  this  subject  in  an  arbi- 
trary manner,  in  order  to  make  them  agree  witii 
their  own  previously  estalilished  theories.  It 
was  with  tlie  texts  relating  to  tiiis  doctrine  that 
the  I{alionalists  i)egan,  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  to  indulge  themselves  in 
that  arbitrary  mode  of  interpretation  which  they 
have  since  ap|tlied  to  such  other  doctrines  of  the 
Bible  as  tliey  have  wished  to  reject. 

II.  Remarks  on  some  texts  relating  to  this  subject. 

The  general  notion  which  formerly  prevailed 
among  tlie  Jews  respecting  evil  spirits,  ami 
which  has  been  adopted  and  authorized  by  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament,  is,  that  they  are 
the  authors  and  promoters  of  evil  amontr  men, 
John,  viii.  41.  The  following  general  doctrines 
are  at  the  basis  of  the  Biblical  representations 
of  this  subject. 


1.  God  is  indeed  the  governor  of  all  mankind; 
but  he  is  especially  the  kind  father,  benefactor, 
and  protector  of  those  who  truly  reverence  his 
authority,  obey  his  precepts,  and  in  their  conduct 
endeavour  to  imitate  him.  Of  those  his  kingdom 
is  composed  ;  they  are  citizens  of  it,  children  (^ 
God i  by  which  appellation  is  meant,  that  they 
are  those  who  honour,  love,  and  obey  him,  as 
dutiful  children  do  their  father;  and  whom, 
therefore,  he  loves  in  return,  as  a  good  father 
does  ills  dutiful  children.  Now  as  the  Israelites 
were  in  ancient  times  selected  by  God  as  the 
means  of  diffusing  the  true  knowledge  of  him- 
self and  pure  morals,  and  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  other  great  designs,  they  are  called,  ia 
an  eminent  sense,  his  people,  his  children,  and 
he,  their  king  and  father.  These  titles  are  pro- 
perly transferred  by  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  to  Christians,  who  take  the  place  of 
the  Israelites,  and  succeed  them  in  all  their 
rights.  Christians  now  constitute  the  kingdom 
of  God  ;  they  are  his  house,  his  funiily ;  he  is 
their  father  and  counsellor;  and  he  employs  in 
their  behalf  the  good  angels,  who  are  the  invi- 
sible instruments  of  his  providence.  After  the 
same  manner,  the  great  mass  of  mankind — the 
X05U0J,  (as  the  heathen  world  is  called,  from  the 
multitude  of  which  it  is  composed,)  and  the 
crxoroj,  (as  it  is  also  called,  from  the  ignorance 
and  moral  corruption  that  prevails  over  it) — has 
also  its  invisible  head.  It  is  governed  by  the 
spirits  who  are  at  enmity  with  God,  and  by  their 
prince  the  devil.  To  whomsoever  men  yield 
obedience,  his  children  they  are,  and  to  his 
kingdom  they  belong,  John,  viii.  41.  And  thus 
all  those  who  follow  their  sinful  passions  and 
desires,  who  are  the  servants  of  sin,  and  resist 
the  will  of  God,  are  said  to  obey  the  devil,  or  to 
stand  under  his  dominion,  because  they  act  ac- 
cording to  his  will,  and  imitate  him.  And  so 
the  heathen,  who  have  no  true  knowledge  of 
Ciod,  and  whose  moral  cliaracter  is  debased,  are 
said  to  belong  to  his  kingdom.  Tlie  supremacy 
here  spoken  of  is,  then,  of  a  moral  nature,  found- 
ed upon  resemblance  in  conduct,  moral  charac 
ter,  and  opinion. 

2.  There  is  another  doctrine  intimately  con- 
nected with  this.  As  Satan  opposes  the  designs 
of  God,  and  does  only  evil,  he  is  represented  as 
the  seducer  of  our  first  parents,  and  so  the  author 
of  sin  among  men,  and  of  all  its  evil  conse- 
quences. Vide  Book  of  Wisdom,  ii.  24.  He  is 
generally  described  as  the  great  enemy  of  man, 
(i  ixri^ou  arjipconoxrovoj.  Vide  Morus,  p.  92, 
sec.  11.  According  to  this  view,  the  events 
narrated  in  Gen.  iii.  were  referred  to  Satan  by 
the  Jews,  in  which  they  were  followed  by  the 
New-Testament  writers,  John,  viii.  44;  1  John, 
iii,  8;  llev.  xii.  9.  Since  the  lime  ol  the  tirst 
apostasy,  men  are  born  with  a  strong  and  pre- 
dominant bias  and  propensity  to  sin,  Rom.'vii. 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


225 


23,  coll.  V.  12,  19.  Tliis  now,  and  everything 
regarded  as  a  consequence  of  the  apostasy  to 
which  Satan  tempted  our  first  parents,  is  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  his  kingdom,  and  is 
ascribed  to  his  inlluence,  even  in  those  cases  in 
which  he  himself  may  not  have  been  imme- 
diately engaged.  Thus  all  errors,  especially 
those  in  religion,  all  wickedness,  deceitfulness, 
and  whatever  else  is  offensive  to  God,  are 
ascribed  to  him,  even  when  he  hiniself  has  not 
been  personally  or  immediately  active  in  pro- 
moling  them;  and  this,  because  he  is  the  first 
cause  of  all  this  evil  which  has  followed  ;  just 
as,  on  the  contrary,  all  the  good  which  is  op- 
posed to  this  evil  is  ascribed  to  God,  even  in 
those  cases  where  he  has  not  immediately  pro- 
duced it,  only  because  it  is  according  to  his 
will,  and  results  from  the  wise  institutes  which 
he  has  founded.  And  so  everything  connected 
with  moral  evil,  as  cause  or  as  consequence, 
and  all  wicked  men,  (o  xoijuo;,  o  axoro;,)  belong 
to  the  kingdom  of  Satan,  (vide  Morus,  p.  91, 
Num.  1 ;)  while,  on  the  contrary,  all  the  pious, 
and  all  moral  goodness,  with  its  causes  and  con- 
sequences, belong  to  the  kingdom  of  light — the 
kingdom  of  God,  or  of  Jesus  Christ.  Vide  the 
texts  referred  to,  tihi  supra.  From  what  lias 
now  been  said,  light  is  cast  upon  the  following 
Biblical  representations  and  expressions  : — " 

(a)  The  prevalence  of  immorality  and  the 
difi'usion  of  false  religious  observances  are 
striking  proofs  of  the  great  corruption  of  human 
nature;  they  are  accordingly  ascribed  in  a  pe- 
culiar sense  to  the  influence  of  evil  spirits,  who 
are  hence  called  the  gods  or  rulers  of  this  world. 
Eph.  ii.  2,  ap;^u»'  trji  t'^ovstaj  rov  atpoj,  prince 
of  the  power  of  darkness,  (a>jp,  tenebrw.  Homer, 
Od.  ix.  I'l'l ;  Virgil,  acre  sepsit) — i.  e.,  of  the 
heathen  world,  darkened  by  ignorance  and  error. 
Cf,  Eph.  vi.  12,  ot  xoajxoxpdropai  rov  cxozovi 
rov  atwvo;  tovtov.  To  the  former  passage  the 
apostle  subjoins  the  declaration  that  evil  spirits 
were  ivfpyovvtti  iv  rioij  r^5  drtfi^sJaj,  and  in 
ver.  3  nieiiiions  ai  trtt^VjUiat  r^s  oapzoj,  the  de- 
sires which  spring  from  our  bodily  nature,  and 
which  lead  to  immorality.  Satan  is  called  in 
the  same  sense  o  ^toj  tou  aiuivoj  tovtov,  who 
blinds  the  understanding  of  the  unbelieving,  2 
Cor.  iv.  4;  also  apx^v  rov  xoofiov,  John,  xii. 
31 ;  xvi.  11 ;  and  paganism,  irreligion,  and  im- 
morality, are  called  e^ovuia  rov  ^ardid,  Acts, 
xxvi.  18 ;  while  the  Christian  church,  the  object 
of  which  is  to  make  men  pious,  and  to  prepare 
them  to  become  citizens  of  the  society  of  the 
blessed  above,  is  called  /3owiXfia  roii  Ttov  Qiov, 
Col.  i.  13 

(b)  CliHSt  came  into  the  world  in  order  to  re- 
move the  misery  and  disorder  arising  from  the 
seduction  of  our  first  parents  by  the  devil,  and 
to  shew  us  the  way  to  true  holiness  and  happi-  j 
tiess.     1  John,  iii.  8,  f(j>ttv£pw^»; — im  xvo'j  ro 

29 


?pya  roi)  5ta,36xov,  and  according  to  Col.  ii.  15 
Christ  prevailed  and  triumphed  over  Satan. 
The  works  of  the  devil  are  sin,  and  everything; 
by  which  sin  and  unbelief  are  occasioned. 
Where  sin,  and  misery  as  its  consequence,  pre- 
vail, there  Satan  rules.  John  says,  in  the  pas- 
sage above  cited,  o  rtonliv  rrjv  ofia^)riav,  ix  rov 
Siajioxov  hriv.  Thus  he  rules  over  unbelieving 
Jews  and  Christians,  as  well  as  over  the  hea- 
then, John,  viii.  44. 

(c)  All  the  hindrances  to  the  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  to  the  prevalence  of  that  piety  and 
holiness  which  Christianity  is  intended  to  pro- 
mote— all  the  temptations  and  persecutions 
which  Christians  are  called  to  endure; — in 
short,  the  whole  system  of  efforts  opposed  to 
Christianity,  are  regarded  as  the  works  of  ^atun, 
and  the  enemies  of  Christianity  as  his  instru- 
ments. Morus,  p.  91,  s.  9,  note.  Hence,  when 
Judas  formed  the  infernal  purpose  (as  we  should 
say)  of  betraying  Christ,  it  is  said,  the  devil  en- 
tered into  him — i.  e.,  took  possession  of  him, 
John,  xiii.  2,  27,  coll.  Acts,  v.  3.  By  the 
wiles  of  the  devil,  Eph.  vi.  11,  seq.,  the  persecu- 
tions which  Christians  were  called  to  endure, 
and  the  efforts  made  to  turn  them  aside  from  the 
truth,  are  principally  intended.  Cf.  1.  Pet.  v. 
8,  9,  where  Ttaib^^aTa  are  expressly  mentioned. 
The  enemies  of  Christians  are  the  instruments 
by  which  he  brings  suffering  upon  them,  ia 
order  to  injure  them  and  lead  them  to  apostasy 
and  unbelief.  He  has  a  hand  also  in  the 
schisms,  controversies,  and  heresies  which  arise 
among  Christians  themselves,  2  Cor.  ii.  11;  xi. 
14,  15.  6(axoi'ot  Saram.  Unbelief  in  particulai 
individuals  is  also  ascribed  to  him,  Luke,  xxii. 
31,  as  are  all  gross  vices  and  crimes. 

(rf)  Death,  and  every  oiher  evil  which  may 
be  regarded  as  the  punishment  of  sin,  is  also 
ascribed  to  the  devil,  and  is  said  to  have  com& 
into  the  world  through  him  ;  Book  of  Wisdom, 
ii.4  ;  John,  viii.  44  ;  Heb.ii.  14.  In  the  last  pas- 
sage he  is  described  as  the  one  who  has  power  over 
death,  to  xpaToj  ix^v  rov  ^avdrov,  which  is  taken 
from  the  ima^e  of  the  angel  of  death,  Asmodi, 
or  Samael.  And  as  sickness  may  also  be  re- 
garded as  the  punishment  of  sin,  they  too  are 
often  represented  as  the  works  of  the  devil. 
We  are  prevented,  however,  from  considering 
Satan  as  the  sole  and  independent  cause  of  the 
death  of  men,  by  those  texts  in  which  the  power 
over  life  and  death,  and  the  whole  disposal  of 
the  destinies  of  man,  is  ascribed  to  God  alone. 
The  representation,  therefore,  that  Satan  is  the 
author  of  deaih  and  misery,  is  to  be  understood 
figuratively;  for  he  is  such  to  individuals  only 
as  he  was  the  first  cause  of  that  apostasy  of  maa 
which  brought  death  and  misery  upon  our  race. 
Still  we  are  taught  in  the  Bible,  that  for  the 
same  wise  reasons  which  lead  him  to  permit 
other  evils,  for  the  attainment  of  certain  good 


wc 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ends,  not  otherwise  attainable,  God  allows  more 
power  to  evil  spirits,  in  particular  cases  and  at 
certain  times,  than  they  commonly  possess. 

(e)  But  evil  spirits,  according  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Bible,  cannot,  with  all  their  efforts,  do 
us  harm,  unless  we  resemble  them  in  our  dis- 
position, and  are  ourselves  devoted  to  sin;  1 
John,  V.  18;  iii.  8;  John,  viii.  44.  Christ  has 
robbed  evil  spirits  of  their  power,  has  conquered 
them — i.  e.,  has  rendered  them  harmless  to  those 
who  believe  in  hiin  ;  and  this  he  has  done,  partly 
by  delivering  us  from  the  punishment  of  sin, 
and  partly  by  freeing  us  from  its  power  and 
dominion, — the  one,  by  his  sufferings  and  deatli, 
the  other,  by  his  instructions  and  example.  All 
those,  therefore,  who,  in  compliance  with  his 
precepts,  and  in  conformity  with  his  example, 
keep  themselves  from  sin,  or  are  pardoned  for 
sins  already  comnlitted,  are  secured  against  the 
temptations  and  wiles  of  evil  spirits,  1  John,  v. 
18.  Prayer,  faith  in  Christ,  the  wholesome  use 
of  his  precepts,  watchfulness,  in  short,  the  means 
prescribed  in  the  Bible  for  security  against  vice 
and  sin, — these,  and  only  these,  are  the  means 
appointed  for  security  against  evil  spirits;  Eph. 
vi.  11 — 18;  1  Peter,  v.  8,  seq.  ;  James,  i.  14; 
iv.  7.  Moras,  p.  93,  n.  6.  The  excuse,  there- 
fore, that  one  has  been  tempted  of  the  decil,  and 
is  on  that  account  exculpated,  is  always  un- 
founded, even  in  those  cases,  if  such  occur,  in 
which  it  is  capable  of  proof  that  the  inducement 
to  sin  was  really  offered  by  the  devil;  for  he 
could  not,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible, 
have  found  this  opportunity  unless  the  nature 
of  our  hearts  had  been  depraved,  1  Cor.  vii.  5. 
In  those  cases  only  in  which  men  indulge  the 
sinful  desires  of  their  own  hearts  (James,  i.  14) 
are  they  liable  to  temptations  either  from  the 
devil  or  any  other  quarter;  they  themselves, 
in  such  cases,  are  always  in  fault. 


APPENDIX. 

POWER  OF  SATAN  OVER  THE  HUMAN  UODY 
AND  THE  MATERIAL  WORLD. 


SECTION  LXV. 

or    THE    BODILY    POSSESSIONS    RECORDED    I.V    THE 
NEW    TESTAMENT. 

I.  Meaning  of  the  term  "Possession." 

Originally  it  was  doubtless  supposed  to  de- 
note a  real  indivellinir  in  the  human  body.  An 
agent,  in  order  to  exert  an  influence  on  the  hu- 
man body,  must,  it  was  thought,  be  near  to  it, 
and  substantially  dwell  in  it,  as  the  soul  dwells 
in  the  body.  Such  was  at  first  the  general,  in- 
determinate notion.     But  it  was  afterwards  re- 


fined upon,  and  the  belief  in  a  literal,  sul  stantial 
indwelling  of  the  devil  was  abandoned,  and  the 
term  possession  was  understood  to  indicate 
merely  the  powerful  influence  which  Satan 
sometimes  exerted  in  controlling  and  abusing 
the  bodies  of  men  said  to  be  possessed.  In  the 
New  Testament  we  do  indeed  sometimes  meet 
with  a  phrase  like  the  following,  ^aTataj 
f  iatJT^^t  V  tii  ru'tt  ( lovSaf),  John,  xiii.  27; 
but  by  this  phrase  nothing  more  than  an  obsessio 
spiritualis,  an  influence  upon  the  mind,  is  intend- 
ed ;  and  the  common  expressions  are,  t^nv  5at- 
^oitoi',  SaiuoK^fo^ot,  x.t.X.  The  term  posses- 
sion is  not  used  in  the  New  Testament,  although 
Josephus  speaks  of  ^oirjia  ni'evuara  xai  boj.^6- 
vio.  iyxa^t^ofieva.  (insidentia).  Ant.  vi.  11 ;  and 
of  7ivtvjxa.ra  ii'Svouti'a,  (induentes  se,  sive,  in- 
gredientes.)  Bell.  Jud.  vii.  G.  The  words  to 
possess,  and  possession,  are  exact  translations  of 
the  Latin  words  possidere,  obsidere,  possessio,  ob- 
sessio,  which  were  first  used  in  relation  to  this 
subject  by  the  Latin  fathers  and  schoolmen. 
Obsidere  is  synonymous  with  occupare,  implere, 
and  is  so  employed  by  Cicero,  where  he  says, 
corpiiribtis  omnis  uhsidetur  locus.  It  was  then 
spoken  figuratively  of  the  orator,  who  possesses 
himself  of  his  hearers,  and  gains  them  over  to 
his  own  views,  obsidet  ac  tenet  auditorem,  Ci- 
cero, De  Orat.  62.  Possidere  is  also  sometimes 
used  for  tenere,  in  pot  estate  sua  habere.  So  Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  XXX.  1,  says,  with  regard  to  magic, 
possideri  ed  hominum  sensus  vinculis,  the  senses 
of  men  were  controlled  by  magic  as  by  chains, 
were  held  absolutely  under  its  power;  and  in 
the  same  place,  Galiias  posscdit  ina<j;ia,  because 
it  was  very  prevalent  and  deeply  roolt^d  in  Gaul. 
Hence  when  one  was  afflicted  with  an  obstinate 
and  fixed  disease,  he  was  said  p-mcssum  esse  f 
so  Aurelian,  a  physician  in  Africa,  near  the 
close  of  tlie  second  century,  says  of  one  who 
was  afflicted  with  epilepsy,  passione possessum 
esse.  This  phraseology  was  now  applied  par- 
ticularly to  those  diseases  which  were  ascribed 
to  the  immediate  agency  of  demons.  The  Bi- 
blical terms  which  have  the  nearest  resemblance 
to  this  phraseology  are  those  which  arc  found 
in  Luke,  xiii.  IG,  where  Satan  is  said  to  have 
bound  {Ihr^ni)  a  sick  woman;  and  in  Acts,  x. 
38,  where  some  are  described  as  xaroSviaarfvd- 
fxtvoi  vrtii  rov  5ia3o3u)v. 

n.  History  of  this  Doctrine. 

1 .  Amonu;  the  Greeks.  The  belief  of  this  doc- 
trine is  found  among  many  heathen  nations  both 
of  ancient  and  modern  times.  The  general  ori- 
gin of  this  idea  is  to  be  sought  in  the  fact  that 
uncultivated  men  are  in  the  habit  of  ascribing 
everything,  the  immediate  cause  of  which  they 
do  not  perceive,  (especially  if  the  thing  is  in 
any  degree  extraordinary,)  to  the  direct  influ- 
ence of  the  Deity,  or  of  same  other  spiritual 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


827 


fcwent  more  powprFul  than  man.  Whatever  of 
this  kind  is  o-ood  or  desirable  they  regard  as  an 
effect  proceeding  immediately  from  good  spirits; 
end  the  opposite,  from  evil  spirits.  Cf.  s.  58, 
II.  Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  evil  spirits  were 
considered  often  as  the  authors  of  all  kinds  of 
sickness,  and  especially  of  those  diseases  which 
"were  attended  with  unusual  and  inexplicable 
phenomena.  For  the  cure  of  such  diseases,  which 
were  supposed  to  be  miraculously  inflicted  by  a 
malignant  deity,  or  by  demons,  and  therefore 
to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  human  art,  resort  was 
had  to  miraculous  remedies.  The  diseases  which 
have  commonly  been'  regarded  by  different  na- 
tions as  of  this  miraculous  nature  are,  meian- 
ckoli/,  madness ,-  also  such  nervous  diseases  as  are 
attended  with  the  more  frightful  appearances — 
tramp,  epilepsy,  lunacy,  &c.  These  general 
opinions  prevailed  among  the  Greeks,  as  ap- 
pears from  the  writings  of  some  of  their  oldest 
physicians — e.  g.,  Hippocrates,  who  lived  400 
years  before  Christ,  and  wrote  nfpi  t"^5  ''p^f? 
rciaof,  also  Galen,  and  Aretreus  of  Cappadocia, 
■who  is  quoted  by  Wetstein,  Nov.  Test.  torn.  i. 
p.  282,  seq.  Hence  it  was  common  among  the 
Greeks  to  use  the  phrases  iaifiovav,  xaxobaifxo- 
VU.V,  and  baiuoviov  tx^i^i',  as  synonymous  with 
ftutVftJ^ot.  This  is  seen  in  the  writings  of  Xe- 
nophon,  Aristophanes,  and  others;  and  also  in 
the  New  Testament,  as  John,  vii.  20;  x.  20, 
21.  In  the  earliest  ages,  the  Greeks  ascribed 
such  diseases  as  those  above  mentioned  to  some 
malignant  deity.  Thus  it  is  said  even  in  Homer, 
Odyssey,  v.  3'J6 — 

But  when,  at  a  later  period,  the  doctrine  of  in- 
termediate spirits  was  received  among  the 
Greeks,  and  these  spirits  were  called  Satuorfj, 
(demigods,  heroes,  and  the  souls  of  the  depart- 
ed ;)  they  were  now  censidered  as  the  authors 
of  these  evils ;  and  this  not  by  the  people  only, 
but  by  many  of  the  philosophers,  who  adopted 
these  ideas  into  their  «yslems,  and  formed  theo- 
ries respecting  them,  as  was  the  case  with  the 
New' Pythagoreans  and  the  New  Platonists,  es- 
pecially in  I'gypt,  hoth  before  and  after  the  birth 
of  Christ.  But  Hippocrates,  Galen,  and  some 
other  Greek  physicians,  who  supposed  they 
could  explain  these  diseases  in  part  from  natu- 
ral causes,  rejected  this  prevailing-  opinion  as 
superstitious;  and  in  this  many  of  the  philoso- 
phers agreed  with  them.  Origen  remarks,  in 
his  Commentary  en  INIatt.  xvii.,  that  the  physi- 
cians in  his  day  did  not  believe  in  possessions. 
They,  however,  retained  the  expressions  which 
were  in  common  use  among  the  people  on  this 
subject;  such  zs baifiovi^tn'^at, Sai/iuv  £i(j£p;tf'r(u, 
i^ifi^stai,,  ex3d7.%ftai,  ^fiai  rouot. 

2.  JImong  the  Jews. 

(a)  There  is  no  mention  made  of  possessions 


in  any  part  of  the  Old  Testament,  either  in  the 
older  books,  or  in  those  composed  after  the  Ba« 
bylonian  exile.  It  is  indeed  often  said  that  par- 
ticular diseases,  or  deaths,  were  inflicted  by 
God,  or  by  his'  angels,  even  by  evil  angela 
(messengers  of  evil)  sent  by  him.  Vide  s.  58. 
But  this  does  not  at  all  correspond  with  the  idea 
of  demoniacal  possessions  entertained  at  a  later 
period  by  the  Jews.  There  is  one  passage, 
however,  1  Sam.  xvi.  14 — 23,  where  an  evil 
spirit  is  said  to  come  upon  Saul,  which  has 
sometimes  been  appealed  to  on  this  subject. 
But  the  evil  spirit  here  mentioned  was  not  one 
whose  r/iora/ character  was  evil  ;  and  in  this  re- 
spect, therefore,  the  case  of  Saul  is  distinguish- 
ed from  the  cases  of  bodily  possession  in  the 
New  Testament.  The  evil  spirit  here  mention- 
ed is  an  evil  spirit  from  Jehovah,  in  opposition- 
to  the  good  spirit  which  came  from  Jehovah 
upon  David,  ver.  13,  and  previously  upon  Saul 
himself,  1  Sam.  x.  10.  This  good  spirit  in- 
spired him  with  a  high  and  kingly  disposition, 
and  with  resolution  for  great  and  good  deeds; 
but  the  other  spirit  was  to  him  the  messenger 
of  evil,  and  harassed  him  with  anxiety  and  me- 
lancholy, which  ended  in  total  madness.  Nor 
is  there  any  mention  of  bodily  possessions  in 
the  Grecian  apocryphal  books  which  were  writ- 
ten before  the  coming  of  Christ;  in  short,  no 
trace  of  this  opinion  can  be  found  among  the 
Jews  before  the  Christian  era. 

(i)  But  the  age  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  is 
altogether  remarkable  in  this  respect.  There 
were  then  in  Judaea  and  Galilee  many  sick  per- 
sons, whose  diseases  were  considered  by  the 
great  body  of  the  Jews  (the  Sadducees,  perhaps, 
only  excepted)  as  the  effects  of  the  agency  of 
evil  spirits.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  this  is 
not  found  to  be  the  case  at  all  in  the  age  pre- 
ceding that  of  Christ,  nor,  at  least  in  the  same 
degree,  in  those  which  followed  it.  We  see 
from  the  New  Testament  that  Jesus,  and  after 
him  the  apostles,  healed  many  of  these  diseases ; 
nor  do  we  anywhere  find  that  Jesus  assigned 
other  causes  for  these  diseases  than  those  to 
which  they  were  supposed  to  be  owing  by  the 
contemporary  Jews  ;  nor  that  on  this  subject 
more  than  on  others  the  apostles  and  evangelists 
undertook  to  go  farther  than  their  Master.  We 
see  also,  from  the  New  Testament,  that  the 
Pharisees  interested  themselves  in  this  subject, 
and  at  least  attempted  the  cure  of  some  of  these 
diseases.  Cf.  Matt.  xii.  27.  The  truth  of 
these  facts — viz.,  that  there  were  at  that  time 
sick  persons  of  this  description  in  Palestine  and 
its  vicinity — that  they  were  there  almost  univer- 
sally regarded  as  possessed  of  evil  spirits,  and 
that  many,  especially  from  among  the  Pharisees, 
appeared  as  exorcists,  is  confirmed  by  the  testi- 
mony of  Josephus,  Ant.  viii.  2.  A  few  only  of 
the  Jews,  who  pretended  to  be  more  liberal  and 


228 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


enlightened  than  the  rest,  either  wholl}'  rfjecied 
the  belief  of  possessions,  and  indeed  of  the  ex- 
istence of  evil  spirits,  (as  was  done  by  the  Sad- 
ducees  in  Palestine,)  or  adopted  the  opinion  of 
the  later  Greeks,  according^  to  which  demons 
were  regarded,  not  as  evil  angels,  but  as  a  sort 
of  intermediate  spirits — the  souls  of  .the  de- 
ceased, &c.,  as  was  done  by  some  of  the  mure 
learned  Jews,  who  wished  to  conform  to  the 
philosophy  of  the  age.  Of  this  class  was  Jose- 
phus.  who  says,  Bel.  Jud.  vii,  6,  ra  xa\ovfi.cva 

(c)  The  Jews  of  later  limes,  after  the  second 
century,  believed  very  generally,  not  only  that 
there  had  been  possessions  formerly,  but  that 
instances  of  the  same  kind  sometimes  occurred 
even  in  their  own  day.  The  latter  opinion  was. 
however,  denied  by  Maimonides  and  some  other 
Rabbins  ;  while  others,  with  the  Sadducees,  re- 
jected the  whole  doctrine  of  evil  spirits,  and 
declared  themselves  decidedly  for  adscmonism. 
Vide  Wetstein,  ubi  supra. 

3.  Among  Christians  since  the  second  century. 

(a)  The  early  Christian  teachers  since  the 
second  century  are  united  in  the  opinion  that 
the  so  called  demoniacs  of  the  New  Testament 
were  truly  possessed  by  the  devil,  because 
Christ  expressly  declared  them  to  be  so.  This 
was  the  opinion  of  Origen  himself.  They 
moreover  believed  that  there  might  be,  and  ac- 
tually were,  demoniacs  in  their  own  day;  al- 
though we  have  not  sufficient  evidence  to  con- 
vince us  that  those  whom  they  regarded  as  pos- 
sessed were  so  in  truth.  But  as  this  was 
believed  by  the  Christians  of  that  day,  exorcists 
soon  appeared  among  them,  who  adjured  the 
demons  in  the  name  of  Jesus  to  depart,  and  who 
were  afterwards  in  many  places  established  as 
regular  officers  of  the  church,  and  placed  in  the 
same  rank  with  the  clergy.  Among  these  Chris- 
tian teachers  of  the  second  and  third  centuries 
th^re  were  many  New  Platonists,  who  contri- 
buted much  to  the  diffusion  of  the  belief  that 
possessions  continued  beyond  the  first  ages  of 
the  church,  and  who,  in  full  accordance  with 
the  philosophic  theory  which  they  had  adopt- 
ed, understood  by  the  demons  supposed  to 
occupy  the  body,  not  evil  spirits,  but  ^vxai 
drto^ai'ovrwv — the  opinion  of  Josephus,  as 
stated  above.  No.  i.  Such  is  the  doctrine 
expressed  by  Justin  the  Martyr,  Apoll.  ii. 
This  latter  opinion,  however,  was  not  univer- 
sal, and  gradually  disappeared,  as  the  influ- 
ence of  the  New  Plutonic  ])hilosophy  ceased  ; 
thontrh  a  belief  in  the  continuance  of  real  pos- 
sessions Still  prevaii<-d  both  in  the  Eastern  and 
Western  church,  and  in  the  latter  was  reiain»'d 
even  by  the  schoolmen.  At  no  time,  however, 
WTis  the  belief  that  evil  spirits  have  power  to 
possess  the  bodies  of  men,  even  since  the  age 


of  Christ,  more  prevalent  in  the  Western  chur«K 
than  from  the  end  of  the  ♦'fteenth  to  the  middha 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  Hence  we  find  tliM 
this  belief  was  received  even  by  Luther  ar»4l 
Melancthon,  and  other  theologians  of  both  the 
protestant  churches,  and  was  transmitted  by 
their  disciples  to  those  who  came  after  tht-m. 

(i)  But  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  some  doubts  arose  with  regard  to  demo- 
niacal possessions,  and  in  general  with  respect 
to  the  whole  notion  that  the  power  of  evil  spi- 
rits, especially  over  the  material  world,  still 
continued.  These  doubts  were  engendered  at 
first  by  the  prevalence  of  the  principles  of  the 
Cartesian  philosophy.  The  first  public  attack 
was  made  upon  this  doctrine  in  England,  about 
the  year  IfiTf),  and  was  shortly  followed  up  in 
France.  But  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  this 
doctrine  was  made  by  Balthasar  Becker,  a  Car- 
tesian philosopher,  and  a  preacher  at  Amster- 
dam, who  in  1()90  published  at  Leuwarden  a 
quarto  volume,  entitled.  The  Enchanted  JFurld, 
afterwards  translated  into  German  by  Schwager, 
and  published  at  Leipsic,  1T31-82,  with  a  pre- 
face  and  notes  by  Scmler.  This  work  attracted 
great  notice,  and  the  author  of  it  was  severely 
persecuted.  He  did  not  deny  the  existence  of 
evil  spirits,  but  only  their  influence  upon  men, 
and,  of  course,  all  demoniacal  possessions,  even 
those  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  His 
opinions  met  with  great  approbation  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century  in  England 
and  the  Netherlands,  and  were  adopted  and  ad- 
vocated by  Wetstein,  Le  Clerc,  and  many  other 
Arminian  theologians;  but  in  (Germany  and 
Holland  these  opinions  were  uniformly  reject 
ed  by  the  protestant  theologians  diirin""  the 
first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century;  nor  did 
even  Thomasius  agree  with  Becker  on  this  sub 
ject.  Semler  was  the  first  among  the  pro- 
testant theologians  of  Germany  who  adopted, 
with  some  modifications,  the  opinions  of  Becker, 
and  supposed  that  the  demoniacs  of  the  New 
Testament  were  people. afflicted  with  common 
and  natural  diseases.  He  first  published  an  es- 
say, I)e  dffmoniacis  quorum  in  Nov.  Test,  fit 
mentio;  Halle,  1700;  and  afterwards  his  larger 
work,  T/ntersuchung  der  damonisclien  Leuie; 
Halle,  17(>'2 ;  which  were  followed  by  still  other 
writings  on  the  same  subject.  This  opinion  at 
first  excited  great  attention,  and  had  to  encoun- 
ter strong  opposition,  but  it  gradually  gained 
ground,  until  it  has  now  become  almost  the 
prevailinirojiinion  among  the  learned  theologians 
of  the  protest, uit  church.  Some,  however,  even 
of  modern  timr's,  have  declared  thfir  opinion  that 
the  question  is  not  altogether  settled,  and  that 
there  remains  something  to  be  said  upon  the 
other  sidi!.  In  thf  English  church  the  npinion 
of  Semler  has   found  many  advocates,  anion^ 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


whom  Hngo  Farmer,  the  anthor  of  an  Essay  on 
Demoniacs,  is  distinguished.  In  the  Romish 
churcli,  the  old  doctrine  that  the  so  called  de- 
moniacs of  the  New  Testament  were  really  pos- 
sessed of  devils,  and  that  these  possessions  were 
not  confined  to  that  particular  age,  remained  the 
common  and  professed  belief  during  the  greatest 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  But  during  the 
last  few  years,  many  of  the  theologians,  even 
of  this  church,  have  come  over  to  the  opinions 
prevailing  among  protestants.  The  interest  on 
this  subject  was  revived  in  the  protestant  and 
catholic  churches  in  Germany  by  the  practices 
of  the  celebrated  conjurers,  Schropferand  Gess- 
ner,  who  appeared  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  As  the  difference  of  opi- 
nion was  very  great,  (some  protestant  theolo- 
gians— e.  g.,  Crusius  and  Lavater,  maintaining 
not  only  that  there  might  possibly  be  posses- 
sions and  conjurations  at  the  present  day,  but 
that  such  were  sometimes  actually  known,) 
many  works  were  written  on  both  sides  of  the 
question.  The  result  of  this  discussion  in  the 
minds  of  the  more  unprejudiced  and  moderate 
was,  that  although  God,  fir  particular  reasons, 
and  for  the  sake  of  certain  ends,  might  formerly 
have  permitted  demoniacal  possessions,  there  is 
no  proof  that  there  are  any  such  at  the  present 
day;  and  there  are  no  infallible  signs  by  which 
these  alleged  possessions  can  be  certainly  distin- 
guished at  the  present  day  from  diseases  merely 
natural. 

III.  Remarks  on  the  Possessions  recorded  in  the 
New  Testament. 

1.  The  common  opinion  at  the  present  time 
is,  that  all  these  disorders  are  to  be  explained  by 
merely  natural  causes ;  and  that  w  hen  Jesus  and 
the  apostles  attributed  them  to  the  influence  of 
evil  spirits,  they  spoke  in  accommodation  to  the 
prevailing  error  of  their  contemporaries.  The 
ancients,  it  is  said,  from  their  want  of  patholo- 
gical science,  referred  many  diseases  which  were 
purely  natural  to  demoniacal  influence;  and  this 
was  the  case  with  regard  to  the  diseases  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament.  Christ  and  his 
apostles  did  not  appear  in  the  character  of  theo- 
retic physicians,  and  were  not  required  by  their 
calling  to  give  instruction  concerning  the  true 
causes  of  human  diseases.  Such  is  the  reason- 
ing often  employed  at  the  present  day  ;  and  in 
this  way  do  some  attempt  to  escape  from  diffi- 
culties, and  to  free  Christ  from  the  charge  of 
entertaining  the  superstitious  opinions  of  his 
countrymen  ;  but,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  they 
thus  involve  themselves  in  greater  difficulties 
than  they  attempt  to  escape.  The  question  re- 
specting the  reality  of  the  possessions  recorded 
in  the  New  Testament  is  at  least  open  to  dis- 
cussion, and  cannot  be  decided  in  that  authori- 


tative and  peremptory  tone  which  has  of  late 
sometimes  been  assumed.  That  demoni;ica' 
possessions  are  impussihle  cannot  be  proved  ;  not 
can  it  be  shewn  from  the  fact  of  there  being  none 
at  the  present  time  that  there  never  were  any  A 
disease — e.  g.,  epilepsy — which  may  be  owiniy 
at  one  time  to  a  natural  cause,  may  at  another 
be  produced  by  the  agency  of  an  evil  spirit;  nor 
can  the  oiipositOi  of  this  be  proved.  It  is  also 
possible  that  Divine  Providence  may  have  suf- 
fered in  a  former  period,  for  the  attainment  of 
particular  ends,  what  it  no  longer  permits  now 
that  those  ends  are  obtained.     Vide  No.  3. 

2.  There  are,  indeed,  difficulties  attending  the 
doctrine  of  demoniacal  possessions,  and  :iiany 
things  about  it  are  dark  and  inexplicable ;  but, 
great  as  these  difllculties  may  Lu,  liiuse  which 
follow  from  rejecting  this  do(;trine  are  still 
greater.  They  who  deny  the  reality  of  demoni- 
acal possessions  will  find  it  difficult  either  to 
maintain  the  authority  of  Christ  as  a  teacher^ 
especially  as  a  divine  teacher,  and  the  highest 
ambassador  from  God  toman,  (which  he  always 
affirmed  himself  to  be,)  or  even  to  vindicate  his 
moral  character.  This  subject  is  commonly 
treated  at  the  present  day  in  altogether  too  par- 
tial a  manner;  and  I  regard  it  as  the  duty  of  the 
Christian  theologian,  arising  especially  from  the 
wants  of  the  age  in  which  we  live,  boldly  to  re- 
sist all  such  partial  views  in  matters  of  religion, 
not  concerned  as  to  the  judgment  which  may  be 
formed  of  him  by  the  multitude,  if  he  can  but 
succeed  in  gaining  the  minds  of  the  more  candid 
and  enlightened,  which  he  may  depend  will, 
sooner  or  later,  be  found  on  the  side  of  truth. 
In  reference  to  this  subject,  two  things  are  per- 
fectly undeniable — viz.,  (a)  that  Jesus  himself 
spoke  of  these  diseases  as  efl'ects  produced  by 
evil  spirits,  and  never  gave  the  remotest  occasion 
to  suppose  that  he  believed  they  were  anything 
else,  not  even  in  his  more  confidential  discourt^es 
with  his  disciples,  nor  in  those  cases  in  which 
he  would  have  found  it  necessary  to  contradict 
the  prevailing  opinion,  if  it  had  been  different 
from  his  own,  IMatthew,  viii.  28 — o2;  xvii.  m—- 
21  ;  Luke,  x.  17—21 ;  Matt.  xii.  28,  29. 

This  being  the  case  with  Christ,  it  will  not 
be  thought  strange,  (&)  that  bis  apostles  and 
other  disciples  should  always  have  been  of  the 
same  mind  ;  and  that  the  evangelists  did  regard 
these  sick  persons  as  true  demoniacs  is  obvious 
at  first  sight.  Cf.  Matt,  viii,  28,  seq.  If  Christ 
and  the  apostles  had  regarded  this  opinion  as 
erroneous  they  would  not  have  hesitated  to  de- 
clare it  so,  even  if  their  doing  this  had  been  at- 
tended with  danger  from  the  Jews;  for  where 
truth  was  concerned,  they  were  not  accustomed 
to  be  governed  by  regard  to  consequences.  They 
could  not,  however,  have  had  any  reason  to  ap- 
prehend serious  disadvantages  from  denying  the 
U 


23U 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


reality  of  demoniacal  pos'^essions ;  for  this  was 
done  by  the  entire  sect  of  the  Sadducees,  amoiig 
whom  most  of  the  rulers  and  great  men  in  Pa- 
lestine were  found,  and  who,  although  they 
went  so  far  as  to  deny  even  the  existence  of  good 
and  evil  spirits,  were  left  to  the  undisturbed  en- 
joyment of  their  belief.  That  accommodating 
policy  which  some  have  ascribed  to  Christ  and 
the  apostles  can  hardly  be  reconciled  with  the 
principles  of  that  pure  morality  wliich  they 
theinsp.lves  taugiit,  and  according  to  which,  in 
other  cases  similar  to  those  now  under  consider- 
ati  m,  they  themselves  unhesitatingly  and  inva- 
ri;ii)!y  acted. 

The  whole  dispute  may  be  summed  up  in  the 
following  points— viz.,  («)  Those  who  consider 
Ciirist  as  merely  a  human  teacher,  and  yet  one 
who  acted  on  the  highest  moral  principles,  must 
allow  that  he  at  least  sincerely  believed  what  he 
so  often  asserted ;  and  in  no  other  way  can  his 
moral  character  be  vindicated.  Such  persons 
might  still  doubt,  notwithstanding  the  declara- 
tion of  Christ,  whether  this  doctrine  is  true, 
since  they  might  suppose  that  he,  like  other 
human  teachers,  might  err  from  the  imperfection 
of  his  knowledge,,  and  thus  be  the  means  of 
leading  others  astray,  or  of  confirming  them  in 
their  errors,  (i)  But  those  who  regard  Christ 
as  an  iiifaUibk  divine  teacher,  in  the  full  and 
proper  sense  of  the  word,  and  as  he  is  declared 
to  be  in  the  New  Testament,  must  assent  to  his 
decision  on  this,  as  on  every  other  su'iject,  and 
they  must  have  the  courage  to  profess  this, 
however  many  difficulties  they  may  find  in  tlie 
way,  and  although  philosophers  and  illuminali 
should  array  themselves  in  opposition,  and 
scoffers  should  treat  them  with  ridicule  and 
contempt,  (c)  In  order  to  avoid  the  pressure 
under  which  they  feel  themselves  placed  by  the 
above-mentioned  alternative,  many  will  say, 
that  while  they  would  not  deny  that  Jesus  was 
an  upright  man,  and  a  teacher  worthy  of  esteem, 
they  cinnot  yet  receive  him  as  a  divine  teacher, 
in  such  a  sense  as  to  require  ihern  to  believe  a 
doctrine  like  this  on  his  mere  aulhoritif,  But  if 
they  will  be  consistent,  they  will  bring  them- 
selves in  this  \\.\y  into  great  straits.  For  Jesus 
declared  himself,  on  every  occasion,  and  in  the 
most  decisive  manner,  to  he  an  infitllib'c  dicint 
teaelier,  whose  words  were  true,  and  must  be 
believed  on  his  mere  authority.  Now  if  Christ 
was  not  such  a  teacher  as  he  declared  himself 
to  be,  the  following  dilemma  arises;  either 
Christ  did  not  think  himself  such,  aliliougii  he 
expressly  affirmed  it,  and  then  he  f  prf  ited  his 
character  for  integrity;  or  he  only  imagined 
himself  to  be  sutih,  and  then,  though  a  good 
man,  he  must  have  been  a  weak  and  deluded 
enthusiast,  and  thus  he  forfeited  the  chaiacter 
which  the  New  Testament  gave  him,  and  which 


he  claimed  for  himself,  of  a  sure  and  venerable 
teacher,  upon  whose  guidance  and  instruction 
men  might  safely  rely.  ■  Everything,  therefore, 
depends  upon  the  belief  of  l/u:  divine  missiun  a)id 
authority  if  Christ ;  anil  from  this  point,  there- 
fore, which  many  would  be  glad  to  evade,  the 
discussion  must  proceed. 

3.  The  following  are  the  views  and  principles 
respecting  demoniacal  possessions,  and  the  de- 
sign with  which  tiiey  were  permitted,  which  are 
found,  without  intermixture  of  philosopiiy,  an- 
cient or  modern,  in  the  New  'J'estamenl,  and 
wliich  therefore  should  be  laid  before  his  hearers 
by  the  religious  teacher,  as  far  as  they  are  capa- 
ble of  being  understood,  (a)  Satan  and  other 
evil  spirits  feel  a  hatred  to  men,  which  is  mani- 
fested in  various  ways.  Vide  loc.  cii.  s.  6J,  II. 
(i)  It  was  important  that  this  hostility  should 
be  rendered  very  clear  and  obvious  to  men,  and 
esj)ecially  at  the  lime  of  Christ,  when  a  new  era 
commenced,  which  needed  to  be  strongly  dis- 
tinguished, at  its  very  introduction,  from  every 
other.  For  this  reason,  power  was  granted  to 
evil  spirits  to  possess  the  bodies  of  men,  or  to 
affect  them  with  dreadful  diseases — a  power 
wliicli  they  had  not  possessed  before,  and  of 
which  they  have  since  been  deprived.  Vide 
-Malt.  xii.  2S;  Luke,  xiii.  KJ,  coll.  v.  11,  and  x. 
17 — 20;  John,  xvi.  11;  Acts,  x.  38,  seq.  (c) 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  power  was  granted  to 
Jesus  and  his  apostles  to  shew,  in  a  manner 
eijually  clear  and  striking,  by  the  cure  of  the 
diseases  which  demons  indicted,  that  the  object 
of  the  coming  of  Christ  was  to  destroy  the  power 
of  evil  sjiirits,  to  render  their  hostility  to  our  race 
harmless,  and  to  free  all  those  who  wished  to 
be  freed  from  the  evils  ascribed  to  demoniacal 
agency.  Cf.  loc.  supra  cit.  and  John,  xvi.  11 ; 
I  John,  iii.  8,  and  those  cited  s.  Gl.  The  per- 
mission of  these  possessions,  therefore,  secured 
an  important  moral  end,  whicii  could  not  be  as 
well  secured  in  anj'  other  way,  at  that  particu- 
lar age  of  the  world.  ((/)  In  no  other  way  coul  J 
the  great  oi)ject  for  wliich  Christ  came  into  tlie 
world,  and  to  which  he  so  ofion  alludes,  i)ft 
so  strongly  represented,  or  so  deeply  imj)ressed, 
as  by  tiiese  facts  filling  under  the  cognizance 
of  the  senses.  Tlie  mere  teaching  of  this  reli- 
gion, unaccompanied  by  any  such  facts,  would 
have  produced  on  lieirers  like  his  a  feeble  im- 
pression, compared  with  that  made  by  those 
wonderful  works  which  proved  both  the  teacher 
and  his  doctrine  to  be  divine,  hhcta  produce 
always  a  ifreater  effect  upon  mm  than  abstract 
instruction;  and  hence  Cod  so  frequently  em- 
ploys them,  as  we  see  bolli  from  the  Bible  and 
from  experience,  in  the  instruction  which  le 
gives  to  men.  at  least  makes  use  of  them  to. ren- 
der the  instruction  he  has  otherwise  imparled 
more  impressive  and  certain. 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


231 


SECTION  LXVI. 

OF    MAGIC    AND   SPECTRES. 

I.  Of  Magic. 

1.  We  sliall  here  present  some  historical  ob- 
Bervations  on  the  subject  of  magic,  and  then 
some  conclusions  drawn  from  them  ;  for  nothintr 
more  is  necessary  for  the  refutation  of  magic 
than  that  it  be  exposed  to  the  light  of  history. 
The  existence  of  spiritual  agents,  either  friendly 
or  hostile  to  our  race,  is  here  presupposed  ;  and 
magic  is  founded  on  the  belief  of  their  influ- 
ence, and  secret  and  invisible  power.  Wherever 
this  secret,  invisible  power  of  superior  spirits 
is  granted  to  men,  there  is  a  foundation  for 
magic,  whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  the  spirits 
by  whom  it  is  granted,  whether  they  are  gods, 
or  angels,  or  demons,  or  of  some  other  denomi- 
nation. The  many  erroneous  conceptions  of 
ignorant  and  uncultivated  men  with  respect  to 
the  influence  of  these  spirits,  and  the  custom 
of  ascribing  to  their  agency  everything  which 
cannot  be  easily  explained  on  natural  princi- 
ples,— these,  with  other  things,  furnish  a  suf- 
ficient ground  for  the  propensity  to  magic  which 
is  seen  among  so  many  persons,  and  in  so  many 
nations.  This  superstition  has  indeed  appeared 
in  dilferent  forms  among  difl'erent  people;  but 
as  they  all  proceed  from  the  same  general  ideas, 
they  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  each  other  in 
all  their  diversities,  and  agree  in  the  means 
which  they  prescribe  to  propitiate  or  appease 
these  superior  spirits,  or  to  avert  the  threatened 
,  evil.  Magic,  in  its  largest  sense,  is  the  art  of 
performing  something  which  surpasses  the  na- 
tural powers  of  men,  by  the  aid  of  superior  spi- 
rits. And  the  less  general  cultivation  one  has, 
the  less  knowledge  he  possesses  of  the  powers 
of  nature  and  their  effects,  the  more  inclined 
will  he  be  to  magic,  and  to  all  kinds  of  super- 
stition which  relate  to  the  natural  world.  The 
qiieation  has  sometimes  been  asked.  In  what  na- 
tion was  magic  first  practised]  and.  Who  was 
its  first  inventor  or  teacher]  And  in  answer  to 
these  questions,  the  Chaldeans  and  Persians 
have  been  mentioned.  (SV?ie  dubio,  says  Pliny 
(xxx.  I),  orta  in  Ferside  k  Zoroastre,  ut  inter 
auclores  constat.  But  this  inquiry  is  useless, 
since  magic  is  practised  by  ail  savage  nations, 
and  they  would  be  led  to  it  naturally  by  the  su- 
perstitious ideas  above  mentioned,  and  need  not 
be  supposed  therefore  to  have  derived  it  from 
other  sources.  Vide  Tiedemann,  De  IMagia; 
Marburg,  17*^7. 

When  rude  and  uncultivated  man  wishes  in 
any  way  to  better  his  condition,  or  to  accomplish 
what  appears  to  him  difiicult  or  impossible,  he 
resorts  to  magic,  or  the  aid  of  spirits.  («)  Those 
who  wished  to  be  rich,  or  prosperous,  to  live 
comfortably,  to  regain  their  own  health,  or  to 


procure  health  for  otiiers,  were  accustomed  to 
resort  to  supernatural  assistance,  to  magic  medi- 
cines, cures  eft'ected  by  incantation,  alchymy, 
philtres,  &c.  The  more  mysterious,  dark,  and 
enigmatical  the  means  prescribed  by  this  art,  the 
more  welcome  were  they,  and  the  more  effica- 
cious were  they  believed  to  be.  Even  the  ef- 
fects produced  by  the  natural  virtues  of  herbs, 
medicines,  &c.,  were  ascribed  by  some  to  the 
influence  of  spirits;  hence  Pliny  says  (xxx  1), 
Nutam  primum  (magiam)  e  medicina  nemo  du- 
bitat,  ac  specie  salutari  irrepsiase  velut  alliorem 
sanctioremque  medicinam.  {b)  Those  who 
wished  secretly  to  injure  others,  or  to  be  re- 
venged upon  them,  were  wont  to  employ  vari- 
ous herbs,  roots,  or  formulas  of  speech,  for  the 
purpose  of  bewitching  or  enchanting  the  objects 
of  their  dislike ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  resorted 
to  amulets,  charms,  &c.,  when  they  wished  to 
repel  the  injury  to  themselves  from  like  prac- 
tices in  others.  Real  injury  has  been  done  in 
magical  practices  by  the  use  of  actual  poisons, 
though  the  operation  even  of  these  is  ascribed 
by  many  to  spirits.  Hence,  venejicium  ((fap^ua- 
z£ia)  signifies  both  the  minij;lin'j;  of  poison  and 
sorcery.  So  Pliny  (xxx.  2),  llabd  (magia) 
quasdam  veritatis  umbras ;  scd  in  his  veneficia 
artes  pullent,  non  mui^icx.  {d)  Those  who 
wished  to  acquire  the  knowledge  of  things  un- 
known to  them,  (e.  g.,  who  their  enemies  were, 
who  stood  in  the  way  of  their  success,  who  had 
stolen  their  property,  &c.,)  or  who  wished  to 
learn  their  future  destiny,  supposed  that  by  con- 
sulting spirits  they  could  best  obtain  the  desired 
information.  Pliny,  in  the  passage  above  cited, 
says,  "Nullo  (homine)  non  avido  futura  de  se 
sciendi,  atque  de  ccelo  verissime  peti  credente." 
Hence  divination,  dreams,  and  apparitions,  have 
always  been  among  the  instruments  of  which 
the  magician  has  availed  himself. 

Among  men  entertaining  the  superstitious 
opinions  here  described,  the  supposed  confidant 
of  superior  s^pirits  would  naturally  command  re- 
spect and  influence.  These  magicians  (for  so 
those  were  called  who  were  supposed  to  possess 
familiar  spirits)  were  sometimes  impostors, 
sometimes  themselves  deluded,  sometimes  both 
at  once.  The  various  practices  to  which  they 
resorted  in  ancient  and  modern  times  may  be 
easily  explained  from  what  has  already  been 
said.  The  moskt  common  are  the  following— 
\\z.,  fascination  bij  evil  glances,  by  ivords,  pray- 
ers,  incantations,  (carmina,  formulas  which 
were  sung,)  Ecci'.  x.  11 ;  Ps.  Iviii.  5,  6;  Horn. 
Odys.  de  Circe;  Virgil,  Eel.  viii.  69,  seq.; 
JEn.  iv.  487,  seq.  Necromancy,  the  art  of  ob- 
taining the  secrets  of  the  future  by  conjuring 
up  the  dead;  Homer,  Odys.  xi.,— a  very  com- 
mon practice  in  the  East,  and  among  the  He- 
brews, who  were  addicted  to  idolatry.  A  male 
practitioner  of  this  art  among  the  Hebrews  was 


232 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


called  21N,  and  a  female,  (for  it  was  practised  by 
females,)  a^N-n'r'ya,  a  woman  who  has  a  spirit  of 
necromancy ;  in  the  plural,  ni3'N,  sorceresses.  Lev. 
XX.  27;  Is.  xxix.  4.  Of  this  class  was  the 
witch  of  Endor,  whom  Saul  consulted,  1  Sa- 
muel, xxviii.  Cf.  Is,  viii.  19.  Enchantment  by 
mat^ic  herbs,  ointmettts,  medicines,  and  different 
means  <f  exciting  the  feelings  and  passions. 

But  the  belief  in  the  connexion  between 
wicked  men  and  evil  spirits  or  malignant  dei- 
ties, and  the  injury  to  others  which  wizards  of 
this  description  could  do  with  the  assistance 
afforded  them,  has  been  more  frijjhtful  in  its 
consequences  than  any  other.  The  magical 
practices  of  such  men  were  called  by  the  Ara- 
bians the  black  art,  in  distinction  from  what  was 
done  by  those  who  had  connexion  with  good 
spirits,  which  was  called  by  them  white  magic, 
(maaia  alba.)  This  form  of  magic  existed  also 
among  the  Hebrews,  who  were  addicted  to 
idolatry  ;  for  the  Canaanites,  and  other  heathen 
nations  with  whom  they  were  connected,  be- 
lieved in  black  deities,  atri  dii — i.  e.,  harmful 
gods,  the  authors  of  mitfchicf,  not  morally  wicked, 
like  the  devils  of  the  Jews  after  the  captivity. 

So  we  find  p|ub,  (from  the  Arab.  ■  q..a,  ob.scu- 
ravit,  eclipsi  affecit  Deus  solem,  and  synonymous 

f  ^  ^ 

with  t_JUk*s>-,  caliginavit  oculos,)  magic,  black 

art;  and  tJ'^c,  a  magician,  practitioner  of  the 
black  art.  Nah.  iii.  4;  Deut.  xviii.  10.  Great 
mischief  has  been  done  by  the  professors  of  the 
black  art,  who,  under  pretence  of  majrical  prac- 
tices, have  not  unfrequently  committed  murder, 
or  administered  poison.  Hence  in  many  of  the 
ancient  lantruages,  the  practice  of  magic  and  the 
mingling  if  poison  were  denoted  by  the  same 
word  ;  in  (ireek,  by  ij^apfioxfca,  in  Latin,  by  ve- 
neficium,  venrfica ;  hence,  too,  the  operations  of 
poison  and  of  magic  are  confounded  by  savage 
people — e.  g.,  by  the  African  negroes.  Vide 
Oldcndorp's  History  of  the  Mission  to  the  Ca- 
ribbean Islands,  where  the  terrii)le  consequences 
of  the  belief  in  magic  among  barbarous  men  are 
described.  The.  practice  of  black  niaijic  was 
therefore  forl)iddpn  by  many  of  the  ancient  legis- 
lators, and  especially  by  Moses,  Kx.  xxii..  Lev. 
XX.,  Deut.  xviii.  The  latter  forbade  the  practice 
of  it  by  the  Jews,  partly  from  its  intimate  con- 
nexion with  idolatry,  and  partly  from  the  injury 
done  by  m;igicians,  as  real  murderers  ami  poi- 
soners. Magic,  however,  remained  in  vogue 
among  the  .lews.  Before  the  exile,  they  sup- 
posed the  supernatural  power  of  magicians  was 
derived  from  the  heatiien  idols;  but  after  the 
exile,  when  they  wholly  renounctid  idolatry, 
they  supposed  that  black  macrjc  was  perforniod 
by  the  aid  of  evil  angels.  No  traces  of  this  opi- 
nion, however,  are  to  be  met  with  shortly  after 
the  exile;  but  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ 


believed  both  in  the  connexion  of  men  with  gooJ 
spirits  and  in  their  fellowship  and  alliance  with 
devils;  and  of  this  the  Pharisees  accused  even 
Jesus,  Malt.  xii.  24. 

2.  The  source  of  modern  scientific  magic 
which  has  prevailed  so  extensively  even  among 
the  civilized  nations  of  Asia  and  Curope,  must 
be  sought  in  the  principles  of  the  New  Platonic 
philosophy,  which  first  flourished  in  Eygpt. 
The  enthusiastic  adherents  of  this  philosophy 
during  the  second  and  third  centuries  brought 
the  ancient  religion  of  the  Greeks  and  the  super- 
stitious opinions  which  prevailed  among  liiem 
into  a  scientific  form,  and  gave  them  a  learned 
aspect.  Vide  Meiner,  Betrachtungen  iiber  die 
neuplatonische Philosophic;  Leipzig.  1782, 8vo. 
Eberhard,  Ueber  den  Ursprung  der  wissen- 
schaftlichen  Magie,  in  Num.  7  of  his  "  Neuen 
vermischten  Schriften;"  Hglle,  1788.  They 
gave  out  their  own  notions  as  purely  Platonic, 
and  in  order  to  secure  them  a  more  favourable 
reception,  invested  them  with  the  Platonic  ideas 
respecting  demons,  purification  of  souls,  union 
with  the  Deity,  &;c.  They  divided  magic  into 
two  parts  : — (a)  ©fovpyi'o,  ^forpyizjj  tixvy],  ma- 
gia  alba — i.  e.,  the  art  of  gaining  over  good  dei- 
ties or  good  demons,  and  of  procuring  their  as- 
sistance and  cooperation  by  means  of  appointed 
ceremonies,  fasts,  sacrifices,  &c.  This  art  was 
also  called  ^faytoyt'a,  (^foytjpia'?)  the  art  of  en- 
listing the  gods  on  one's  side;  ^(onxia.,  x.  r.  %. 
(i)  Vor^rfia.  (from  yor?,  incantator,  prxsli giator,") 
prn;stigi:r,  magia  atra,  tvitchcraft,  the  art  of  se- 
curing the  assistance  of  evil  spirits.  This  divi- 
sion was  made  by  Jamblicus,  Proclus,  Porphyry, 
and  other  New  Platonists. 

When  now  the  principles  of  the  New  Platonic 
philosophy  became  prevalent  among  Christian 
people,  theurgy  and  witchcraft  were  adopted 
among  otiier  doctrines,  though  in  a  form  some- 
what modified,  and  intermingled  with  Jewish 
and  Christian  ideas.  Vide  Lactaiitius,  Insiilt. 
I)iv.  ii.  14,  IG.  The  spread  of  these  opinions 
was  also  proinoted  by  the  enthusiastical  writ- 
ini;s  which  were  published  in  the  fifth  century 
under  the  assumed  name  of  Dionysius  Areopa- 
gita.  It  was  the  almost  universal  opinion  of  the 
ecclesiastical  fathers  that  oracles,  auguries,  and 
the  whole  system  of  heathen  divination,  were 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  devil,  and  were  a  product 
of  this  their  so  called  yoj^rfto.  Vide  Lactan- 
tius,  1.  1.  Van  D.ile,  De  Oraculis  vett.  elhni- 
corum  ;  Amsterdamiie,  1700.  Among  the  Jews, 
some  adopted  the  opinions  above  described, 
others  adhered  to  their  cal)alislic  dreams,  and 
jjrelended  to  work  wonders  with  words  and 
phrases  taken  from  the  Bil)le,  with  the  name 
of  God  or  angels,  &c. ;  all  which  ran  into  lh« 
theurgy  just  noticed.  Among  the  Saracens 
also,  theurgy  was  very  much  practised;  and  es- 
pecially in  the  twelfth  century,  they  employed 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


938 


themselves  very  zealously  in  searching  for  the 
phHusoj)hcr''s  stune  by  the  practices  of  white  ma- 
gic; and  transmitted  their  results  to  the  Chris- 
tians both  of  Asia  and  Europe.  It  may  be  said 
in  general  of  Jewish  and  Christian  teachers, 
that  while  they  condemned  heathen  theurgy, 
they  did  not  do  this  on  account  of  its  being  a 
superstitious  practice,  but  because  of  the  homage 
rendered  by  it  to  strange  gods  ;  for  the  gods  and 
demons  of  the  heathen  were  regarded  by  Jews 
and  Christians  as  devils  or  fallen  angels.  But 
while  they  condemned  theurgy  as  involving 
this  homage,  they  retained  the  art  itself,  unal- 
tered except  in  its  name.  During  the  middle 
ages,  m;igic  was  indeed  in  many  places  ex- 
changed for  astrology,  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
troduction of  the  physics  of  Aristotle;  still 
magic  was  not  wholly  exterminated,  nor  were 
tiie  different  kinds  of  it  (l^toiipyia  and  yoj;rf<a) 
ever  in  more  repute  in  the  w-est  than  during  the 
sixteenth  and  a  part  of  tlie  seventeenth  centuries, 
shortly  before  and  after  the  Reformation.  The 
heads  of  theologians,  civilians,  and  conmion 
people,  were  filled  with  the  notion  that  there 
were  in  reality  alliances  between  wicked  men 
and  wicked  spirits,  and  not  unfrequently,  even 
in  tlie  protestant  church,  have  persons  been  con- 
demned as  wizards  and  witches.  Bj'  degrees, 
however,  the  notions  of  some  of  the  learned, 
especially  of  the  Cartesian  scliool,  became  more 
clear  on  this  subject;  and  in  England  and  the 
Netherlands  some  ventured  openly  to  avow 
their  own  opinions,  and  publicly  to  express 
their  belief  in  the  unreasonableness  of  the  popu- 
lar superstitions.  Among  these  writers,  Becker 
was  foremost.  He  was  followed  in  England 
by  Webster  and  others,  and  in  protestant  Ger- 
many by  Christ.  Thomasius,  in  his  work 
■'Theses  de  crimine  magiae  ;"  Halse,  1701  ;  and 
in  other  works,  in  which  he  further  developed 
the  principles  expressed  in  his  Theses.  His 
opinionsexcited  at  first  great  opposition,  which, 
however,  did  not  last  long,  so  ashamed  did  the 
princes,  theologians,  and  common  people  of  the 
protestant  church  become  of  this  superstition  ; 
the  trials  of  the  witches  were  abandoned,  and 
provision  was  made  for  the  bettor  instruction  of 
the  people  and  the  enlightening  of  the  public 
mind.  But,  after  all,  there  is  still  in  protestant 
countries  a  deep-rooted  belief  in  magic,  which 
is  likely  yet  to  continue.  How  man}'  people 
of  all  classes,  even  in  the  midst  of  enlightened 
Germany,  were  deceived  and  led  away  by  the 
conjurer  Schropfer,  and  afterwards  bj'  Cagli- 
ostro !  And  by  how  many  secret  societies  has 
the  belief  in  magic  been  industriously  propa- 
gated among  the  hitrh  and  the  low!  Besides 
the  works  of  Becker,  Thomasius,  Semler, 
Tiedemann,  Meiner.  and  Eherhard,  which  have 
been  already  cited,  cf.  Hnuber,  Bibliotheca  Ma- 
gics, 3  torn. ;  Lemgov.  1735 — 41, 8vo,  where  the 
30 


hurtfulness  of  these  magical  practices  Js  shewn 
from  authority  and  history.  Hennings,  Das 
Grab  des  Aberglaubens,  4  Samml.;  Frankfurt, 
1777,  8vo.  Vide  Noesselt's  "Bucherkennt- 
niss." 

Note  1. — The  act  of  producing  unusual  and 
striking  effects  by  means  of  the  known  powers 
of  nature,  is  called  mas^ia  valurah's,  because 
these  effects,  however  marvellous  and  magical 
they  may  appear  to  tlie  ignorant,  are  yet  really 
produced  by  natural  means.  Such,  for  example, 
were  many  of  the  effects  produced  by  the  magi- 
cians of  Egypt;  Ex.  vii.  Vide  Wiegleh,  Na- 
tiirliche  Magie;  Berlin,  1779,  8vo;  coniinued 
afterwards  by  Rosenthal. 

IVule  2. — The  philoso[)hy  of  many  secret  or- 
ders, both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  relies 
upon  magic  for  the  attainment  of  its  object.  It 
is  built  on  the  cabalistic  theory,  that  man  in  his 
original  perfection  was  a  very  different  being 
from  man  in  his  present  state;  that  he  possess- 
ed even  more  natural  powi>rs  than  he  now  does; 
in  short,  that  he  was  in  tlie  image  oi .Idam  Kad- 
mon,  the  original  god-man,  the  first  and  purest 
eftluence  of  all  the  divine  powers  and  attributes; 
that  he  .vas  immortal,  the  friind  of  superior  spi- 
rits, lord  erf  the  invisible  world,  and  master  of 
secret  sciences  and  arts.  To  restore  human  na- 
ture to  this  its  original  perfection  was  the  object 
of  philosophy  ;  and  the  mysterious  means  by 
which  this  end  could  be  accomplished,  (the  phi- 
losopher's stone,)  were  supposed  to  have  been 
communicated  to  Adam  by  suptrior  spirits,  and 
transmitted  by  tradition,  hieroglyphics,  and  va- 
rious secret  writings,  through  Seth,  Enoch, 
Noah,  Moses,  Solomon,  Hermes  Trismegistus, 
Zoroaster,  Orpheus,  and  others  of  the  initiated. 
This  order  was  accessible  to  men  of  all  reli 
gions,  and  among  its  members  we  find  the  Ara- 
bians Adfar  and  Avienna,  Artesius,  Raymund, 
Lullus,  Nic.  Flamel,  and  Basil.  Valentine. 
This  mystery  was  brought  from  the  East  into 
Europe  by  Christ.  Rosenkreutz,  who  lived  in  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  It  was  call 
ed  the  phi /iisaphcr^s  slo7ic,  though  it  ccmprehend- 
ed  more  than  mere  akhymy,  or  the  art  of  enno 
bling  metals,  and  the  secret  of  preserving  life 
a  thousand  years.  This  mystery  had  for  its 
higher  object  the  entire  elevation  of  man,  bodily 
and  spiritually;  and  this  object  it  sourrht  to  ef- 
fect by  means  of  magic,  or  a  mysterious  con- 
nexion with  good  spirits.  In  comparison  with 
this  object,  the  mere  making  of  aold  w  as  regard- 
ed as  a  very  petty  achievement  by  these  adepts, 
and  was  so  insignificant  in  their  view,  as  many 
of  them  assure  us,  that  raiher  than  employ  them- 
selves about  it  they  would  always  remain  poor. 

II.   Of  Spectres. 
A  belief  in  spectres  was  formerly,  and  is  still, 
almost  universal,  and   this,  becuise  it  results 
u2 


234 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


immediately  from  certain  feelings  and  ideas 
rthicli  are  widely  dilTused  among  men.  Spec- 
tres are  called  by  tlie  Greeks,  a6u7.a,  apparitions, 
visions,  farms  which  can  be  seen,  shaduW'shapcs  ; 
i!so  fu^iuara  (from  foirto)  and  ^avtdnuara 
(from  4>a»'ra^id,)  phantmns,  phantasms.  Vide 
Mark,  vi.  41).  They  are  called  by  the  Latins 
spectra,  (from  the  obsolete  speeio,  cerno ;)  also 
iiionatra. 

What  are  spectres  ?  Accord inor  to  the  concep- 
tions of  the  Greeks,  Latins,  Hebrews,  Oriental- 
ists, and  indeed  of  most  nations,  they  are  the 
souls  of  the  departed,  returned  a^ain  to  the  earth, 
and  rendered  visible  to  men.  The  nations  now 
mentioned,  and  others  less  cultivated  than  these, 
supposed,  indeed,  that  departed  souls  (the  ghosts 
or  manes  of  the  dead)  immediately  after  death 
wandered  down  to  Hades  ("'^xr),  (vide  Homer, 
and  Isaiah,  xiv. ;)  and  that  they  had  definite 
places  appointed  them  there,  secluded  from  the 
upper  world,  to  which  they  were  not  allowed  to 
return  in  ordinary  cases.  Vide  2  Sam.  xii.  23  ; 
Job,  vii,  9.  10 ;  Luke,  xvi.  22,  23 ;  Isa.  xxxviii. 
10,  seq.  But  as  the  living  sometimes  saw  the 
deceased  in  their  dreams,  and  as  an  excited 
ima«[ination  often  depicted  before  their  waking 
eyes  the  imaire  of  some  departed  frieYid,  so  that 
they  seemed  to  themselves  to  see  and  to  hear 
him,  they  naturally  fell  into  the  belief  that  tlie 
shades  sometimes  ascend  from  Hades,  and  be- 
come visible  to  men,  or  in  some  other  way 
(perhaps  by  knocking)  give  signals  of  their 
presence.  In  conformity  with  these  concej)- 
tions,  the  rich  man  in  Hades  is  said  in  the  pa- 
rable to  pray  that  one  of  the  dead  nn'uh!  be  sent  to 
his  fathcr''s  house,  Luke,  xvi.  27,  30.  'I'hese 
ghosts  in  Hades  were  represented  as  beings 
possessing  fine,  aerial  bodies,  in  which,  though 
they  were  fir  less  gross  and  palpable  than  iht- 
flesh  and  bones  of  our  earthly  bodies,  they  yet 
sometimes  rendered  themselves  visible  to  mim. 
Vide  s.  59,  II.,  s.  150.  Traces  of  this  opinion 
are  found  among  the  Jews,  and  also  among  the 
Latins  and  Greeks;  thus  Homer  speaks  ftf  j3po- 
Tutv  «i6wX.o  xa.tx6vt<^v,  and  says  of  them, 

Oil  y'op  cirl  aapKai  tI  Kat  iaria  iiTj  cxovaiv. 

Cf.  Luke,  xxiv.  39,  ttvfvpa  oapxo  xai  oaria  ovx 
t;t(i.  Vide  texts  from  various  writers  cited  by 
Wetstein  in  his  Com.  on  Luke,  xxiv.  37.  From 
these  prevailing  conceptions,  the  passages, 
Luke,  xxiv.  37,  and  Mark,  vi.  49,  50,  may  be 
explained,  and  upon  the  existence  of  such  su- 
perstitions the  delusions  of  the  ancient  necro- 
mancers were  foiinded — e.  g.,  of  the  witch  of 
Kndor,  I  Samuel,  xxviii.  7,  sef).  It  was  with 
these  notions  in  his  mind  that  Thomas  took  the 
appearance  of  Jesus  to  be  the  apparition  of  a 
dfpart<>d  spirit  in  a  shadowy  body,  (fuSioXoi.) 
and  was  unwilling  to  believe  that  he  had  ap- 
peared to  the  other  disciples  in  the  true  bud\ 


which  he  had  upon  the  earth,  John,  xx.  25. 
John  relates  (chap,  xxi.)  that  Jesus  ate  with  his 
disciples  after  his  resurrection,  in  order,  it  would 
seem,  to  discountenance  the  idea  that  he  appear- 
ed only  with  tne  airy  body  of  a  spectre.  The 
common  opinion  on  this  subject  was  adopted  by 
Plato  in  his  Phaedon,  and  was  afterwards  fur- 
ther developed  and  remodelled  to  suit  themselves 
by  the  new  Platonists.  Vide  Scripta  Varii  ar- 
gumenti.  Num.  iii.,  Progr.  super  origine  opini- 
onis  de  immortalitate  animorum;  Ilallae,  1790. 
It  was  also  adopted  by  many  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian teachers;  it  is  found  in  the  writings  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  fathers ;  and  was  turned  to 
(jood  account  by  the  Romanists  in  their  doctrine 
of  purgatory. 

It  would  naturally  occur  to  the  minds  of  Jews 
and  Christians  that  the  devil,  and  the  demons 
in  subjection  to  him,  might  have  some  hand  in 
these  apparitions.  Some  accordingly  maintained 
that  it  was  the  devil  who,  for  various  sinister 
purposes,  occasioned  the  return  and  appearance 
of  departed  spirits ;  while  others  asserted  that 
spectres  were  only  illusions  practised  on  us  by 
Satan,  that  the  ghosts  of  the  departed  never  ap- 
peared, and  that  there  were  no  other  than  devil- 
ish sjHctres.  Of  this  opinion  were  many  of  the 
philosophers  and  theologians  of  the  protestant 
church,  in  opposition  to  those  of  the  Romish. 
Nor  have  there  been  wanting  those  who  have 
attempted  to  explain  ghostly  appearances  from 
physical  causes.  Cardanus  and  Jul.  Cses.  Ba- 
nini  contended  that  spectres  were  exhalations 
from  the  wasting  corpse,  which,  becoming  con- 
densed during  the  more  damp  and  silent  air  of 
the  night,  assumed  at  len'ith  the  external  form  of 
the  deceased.  Of  the  ])hilosophers  who  divided 
man  into  three  parts — hodj/,  soul,  and  spirit,  (s. 
51,  I.,)  some  have  supposed  that  it  is  the  spirit 
only  which  after  death  appears  as  a  spectre. 
This  was  the  opinion  of  Paracelsus,  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  in  this  he  was  followed  by 
many  theosophists  and  astrologers.  He  called 
this  spectral  spirit  rts/r«/,  because  he  supposed 
that  it  was  composed  of  the  two  upper  elements, 
air  andftre,  and  was  therefore  longer  in  dissolv- 
ing after  death  than  the  material  body,  and 
could  float  about  in  the  atmosphere.  He  was 
followed  in  this  by  Jacob  Boehmen,  and  also 
by  Rob.  Fludd,  and  others  of  the  ancient  Ro»« 
crucians. 
i  But  these  philosophers  would  have  been  bet- 
I  ter  employed  in  inquiring,  in  the  first  place, 
wlu'ther  the  stories  of  ghostly  appearances 
I  which  they  undertook  to  explain  were  real  and 
I  well-estaMishetl  facts.  This  inqtiiry,  however, 
they  rarely  maile,  and  usually  took  for  granted 
I  the  truth  of  what  they  had  heard  on  tiiis  subject. 
!  But  if  we  examine  impartially  the  variouti 
i  ghost-stories  which  are  told,  we  shall  be  broun^t 
I  to  the  conclusion  that  spectres  are  not,  for  the 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


236 


most  part,  real  beings,  but  creatures  of  the  ima- 
gination, which  often  exercises  so  irresistible  a 
control  over  men,  that  they  think  they  perceive 
with  their  external  senses  what  has  no  exist- 
ence, or  at  least  exists  in  an  entirely  different 
way  from  that  in  which  it  appears  to  them. 
And  in  these  cases  fear  and  terror  usually  pre- 
vent all  further  investigation.  Besides,  there 
are  some  persons  who  are  mischievous  and 
thoughtless  enough  to  work  upon  the  fear  and 
credulity  of  others,  and  who,  merely  for  their 
own  interest  or  amusement,  will  terrify  them 
with  frightful  appearances.  Again;  the  su|)er- 
stitiuus  notions  which  are  contracted  by  many 
in  early  life  become  so  deeply  and  firmly  rooted 
in  their  minds,  that  often  they  cannot  be  eradi- 
cated during  their  whole  lives;  and  this  fur- 
nishes a  psychological  explanation  of  the  fact, 
that  even  those  philosophers  who  believe  in  no- 
thing of  the  kind  are  often  not  less  agitated  than 
others  with  the  superstitious  fear  of  ghosts. 
Still,  however,  no  considerate  and  sober  philo- 
soplier  would  allow  himself  to  decide  positively 
that  spectres  are  in  all  cases  unreal ;  for  no  one 
can  jiresume  to  maintain  that  the  appearance  of 
disenibndied  spirits  among  the  living  is  wliolly 
iiitjjDnsiblc,  and  can  never  take  place.  In  addi- 
tion to  ihe  works  cited  s.  65,  60,  cf.  Hennings, 
Von  Alindm^en  und  Visionen;  Leipzig,  1782, 
Svo;  also  his  work,  "  V'on  Geistern  und  (leister- 
sehern;"  Leipzig,  1780,  Bvo.  Jung,  Geister- 
kunde;  Nurnberg,  1808,  8vo, — an  attempt  to 
furnish  a  scriptural  answer  to  the  question. 
How  far  we  are  to  believe  in  presentiments, 
visions,  dreams,  apparitions,  &c. ;  containing, 
however,  nothing  very  satisfactory,  though 
written  with  the  best  intentions. 


ARTICLE  VIII. 

OF  THE  DOCTRINE  RESPECTING  DIVINE 
PROVIDENCE. 


SECTION  LXVII. 

WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  THE  PROVIDENCE  OF  GOD  ; 
AND  HISTORICAL  REMARKS  RESPECTING  THIS 
DOCTRINE. 

I.  Definition  of  Providence.  * 

Providence,  defined  as  ta,its  inherent  nature. 
IS  the  piiwer  which  God  exerts  without  interrup- 
tion in  and  upon  nil  the  wurks  oj  his  hands.  The 
•elation  in  which  all  things  staml  to  God,  and 
•he  influences  which  he  exerts  upon  them,  are 
always  represented  in  the  Hible  as  depending 
upon  the  creation.  As  the  creator  of  all  things, 
God  possesses  the  power  and  the  right  to  use 
them  according  to  his  own  pleasure;  and   to 


cause  them,  and  all  which  is  done  by  them,  to 
promote  his  own  designs.  Hence  the  provi- 
dence of  God  is  justly  denominated  by  the 
schoolmen  ihe  secoiid  creation.  Vide  s.  46. 
but,  defined  as  to  its  external  effect,  and  as  far 
as  it  is  visible  to  the  eyes  of  men,  providence 
may  be  said  to  be  ihe  irovcrnnient  and  prcserva^ 
iion  ff  all  thinirs  ,•  or  the  constant  care  and  over- 
sight (f  God  for  all  his  works;  and  this  defini- 
tion, which  is  the  one  that  jNIorus  gives,  is  the 
most  easy  and  intelligible.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  76, 
s.  1,  2. 

Note  1. — ^The  word  providence  (Germ,  vorsc' 
hung)  is  derived  from  the  hMin  proridenfia,  and 
this  from  the  Greek  rtpm-oia,  which,  however, 
is  not  found  in  any  of  the  canonical  books, 
though  it  occurs  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  xiv. 
3;  xvii.  2.  'i"he  words  npovodv  and  providere 
properly  signify  to  fwesee,  fiitura  prospicere ; 
and  rtpoi'ota  and  providentia,  accordingly  signify 
foresight.  But  providere  not  only  signifies  to 
foresee,  but  also  to  exercise  forecast,  praccavere, 
and  thus,  in  a  general  sense,  to  tvaleh  over,  to 
care  for,  curare,  procuTare.  In  this  sense  it  is 
employed  by  Cicero,  (Nat.  Deor.  ii.  65,)  JS'on 
universe  generi  hominurn  solum,  sed  etiam  sin- 
gulis a  deis  conslli  et  provider!  solet.  Corres- 
ponding with  providere  are  the  following  He- 
l)rew  verbs — viz.,  yi%  nx-<,  and  the  other  verba 
videndi  et  ad.^piciendi,  as  uOn,  Psalm  xxxiii.  13, 
(cf.  £(j)opai'.  Homer,  Od.  xiii.  214  ;  upcii-,  II.  xxiv. 
291;  and  the  phrase,  Deus  contemplans  maria 
et  terras,  Cicero,  Nat,  Deor.  i.  20;)  ns?  ^p?, 
Psa.  viii.  5,  (cf.  Unofivao^iai,  11.  xxiv.  428;) 
2x:r\,  a'J£3,  nu'j.  Num.  vi,  26  ;  idi;  and  also  the 
following  Greek  verbs — viz.,  ifpovflv,  (livKiiv^ 
(I  Pet.  V.  7;  1  Cor,  ix,  9,)  frttaxfrtrf^ibai,  nhi- 
rai,  ini.'^ivwaxtiv.  Corresponding  witli  provi- 
denlia  are  the  following  Hebrew  substantives— 
viz.,  Till, 'JKT,  nxy,  ni^u'nc,  p>otr,  mni  'j-iS  i'''» 
and  the  following  Greek  substantives— viz., 
xftifxata,  uhoi,  hi.oXoyi6^oi,  x.  r.  %. 

Note  2. — The  doctrine  of  divine  providence 
is  of  the  very  first  importance,  and  contributes 
greatly  to  the  peace  and  happiness  of  human  life. 
Were  it  not  that  God  maintained  a  constant  and 
watchful  care  over  his  works,  all  piety  would 
iuHDediately  cease,  A  god  who  did  not  concern 
himself  in  the  affairs  of  the  world,  and  especially 
in  the  actions  of  inen,  would  be  to  us  as  good 
as  none  at  all.  In  that  case,  should  men  live  in 
a  virtuous  and  pious  manner,  they  would  have  no 
approbation  to  expect  from  him  ;  should  they  be 
guilty  of  crimes,  they  would  have  no  punishment 
to  fear;  were  they  persecuted,  they  could  think 
of  God  only  as  the  idle  witness  of  their  wrongs; 
were  they  in  circumstances  of  sufferinff  and  sor- 
row, they  could  find  no  consolation,  if  God  were 
unmindt'ul  of  them.  But  if,  on  the  other  hand, 
I  am  entitled  to  believe,  that  even  in  times  of 
the  greatest  adversity  God  careth  for  me  as  a 


23^ 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


father,  and  will  overrule  all  events  for  my  o-reat- 
est  j^ood,  I  may  then  be  composed  and  unshaken, 
and  may  rise  above  depression  and  despair. 

II.  History  of  Opinions  respecting  this  Doctrine. 

1.  Rude  and  uncultivated  nations  have  at  first 
no  idea  of  the  world  as  a  whole ;  they  do  not 
once  think  of  its  orin^in,  of  its  internal  con- 
nexion, or  of  the  government  which  is  exercised 
over  it.  Vide  sec.  45,  Nos.  1,  2.  And  when 
by  den;rees  they  have  attained  to  the  thought 
that  everj'tliing  which  exists  must  have  a  cause, 
they  unconsciously  adopt  the  notion,  that  chance 
or  necessity  is  the  cause  of  all  things  ;  and  with 
this  vague  and  indefinite  notion  remain  for  a 
long  time  satisfied.  Vide  Meiners,  Historia 
doctrinje  de  Deo  vero,  p.  1.  Respecting  the  re- 
lation which  exists  between  God  and  the  world  ; 
respecting  his  power,  and  the  influence  which 
he  exerts  upon  the  works  of  his  hands,  the  con- 
ceptions of  people  in  the  first  stages  of  improve- 
ment were  of  course  very  confined  and  imper- 
fect. Vide  s.  46,  II.  They  represented  the 
Deity  to  their  minds  as  resembling  themselves 
as  closely  as  possible;  they  compared  him  to 
earthly  princes  and  rulers,  possessing,  like  them, 
though  in  a  higher  degree,  power  and  influence  ; 
they  considered  him  therefore  as  a  being  whose 
protection  was  to  be  sought,  and  whose  anger 
was  to  be  dreaded  ;  but  at  the  same  time  they 
ascribed  to  him  many  human  weaknesses  and 
imperfections.  Of  many  of  his  attributes  they 
appear  to  have  had  very  elevated  and  worthy 
conceptions;  and  especiali)'^  of  his  power,  as  is 
evident  from  the  representation  of  Homer,  Zfvj 
hvva.to.1,  oLTtavta'  and  yet  even  of  this  attribute 
their  views  were  in  son)e  respects  defective. 
For  as  an  earthly  monarch,  though  possessed 
of  the  greatest  power,  and  of  the  best  will,  is 
sometimes  prevented  from  acting  in  the  manner 
which  he  approves  and  desires,  by  the  occur- 
rence of  some  unforeseen  events,  or  by  the  con- 
trol of  necessity;  even  so,  they  supposed,  was 
God  himself,  tholigh  possessed  of  a  vastly  supe- 
rior power,  and  acting  in  a  sphere  of  vastly 
greater  extent,  yet  equally  liable  to  be  hindered 
by  contingent  events,  and  equally  subject  to 
tliat  irresistible  necfsstty  (^fatum.  ^oi|ia),  by 
which  gods  and  men  were  alike  controlled. 
And  not  only  in  the  respect  above  mentioned 
was  God  su|)posed  to  resemble  human  rulers, 
but  also  in  mat'ers  of  mere  propriety  ;  and  as  it 
was  reputed  inconsistfnt  with  the  dignity  of  a 
•uler  to  concern  himself  in  all  the  petty  afll'airs 
jf  his  subjects,  so  it  was  supposed,  a  minute 
nspection  and  particular  care  over  all  his  wnrks 
would  be  inconsistent  with  the  majesty  of  (Jod. 
Such  were  the  popular  no. ions  respecting  the 
deities  which  preva  'ed  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  and  which  are  expressed  in  Homer, 
Hesiod,  Pindar,  and  other  early  Grecia-*  poets. 


On  the  one  hand,  their  conceptions  of  the  pro« 
vidence  of  (Jod,  and  his  government  over  the 
world,  were  very  just  and  elevated  ;  they  consi- 
dered all  events  as  depending  upon  his  will; 

dAA'  i/roi  fill/  ravra  Scuii'  in  yoviaai  urcirai, 

II.  XX.  435,  and  represented  him  as  the  witnes* 
and  judge  of  the  conduct  of  men  ; 

Zciif  ttijiciai  Tiaaii    tfterfiaws,  uotc  xal  uAAuvj 
ai'SpoJirouj  iipo/ja,  icul  rifvrat,  eonj  uiiaprij, 

Od.  xiii.  213.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  these 
conceptions  were  mingled  with  others,  which 
appear  to  us  extremely  unworthy,  and  inconsist- 
ent with  the  divine  character. 

Among  the  ancient  nations,  the  Chaldeans 
were  distinguished  by  their  belief  in  the  doctrine 
offate,  which  they  associated  with  their  astro- 
logy; hence  the  ivAme.fatum  Chalitaicum,  or  aS' 
tro/uiricum ;  though  this  doctrine  was  by  no 
means  confined  to  them.  Among  the  Greeks, 
the  philosophers  made  the  popular  notions  re- 
specting the  Deity  the  basis  of  their  philoso- 
phical reasonings.  From  the  belief  which  was 
almost  universally  entertained  of  two  original 
and  eternal  principles — God  and  matter,  neither 
of  which  was  the  author  of  the  other  (vide  s. 
4(),  II.),  their  views  respecting  the  agency  of 
God  in  the  material  world,  and  of  his  power 
over  it,  and  consequently  respecting  his  provi- 
dence, must  have  been  extremely  defective  and  . 
erroneous.  The  first  amonir  the  Grecian  philo- 
sophers who  advocated  the  doctrine  of  fate,  iVom 
whose  control  not  even  the  Deity  was  excepted, 
was  Heraclitus.  It  was  afterwards  defended  by 
Parmenides,  Democritus,  and  others;  and  even 
by  Aristotle,  if  the  testimony  of  Cicero  (De 
Fato,  c.  17)  is  to  be  received,  wiiich  is  somewhat 
doubtful,  Mut  as  this  doctrine  involved  inadequate 
conceptions  of  divine  providence,  and  infringed 
upon  the  freedom  of  God  and  of  other  rational 
beings,  it  was  remodelled  by  Plato,  and  so  ex- 
plained by  him  as  to  be  more  easily  reconciled 
with  other  established  truths;  though  he  does- 
not  always  adhere  to  his  own  principles.  The 
stoics  are  known  as  strict /o/w/ks/a-,  though  the 
precise  sense  in  which  they  held  this  doctrine 
is  a  subject  of  dispute  among  the  learned.  Lip- 
sius  maintained  that  the  fate  of  the  stoics  wag 
nothing  more  than  the  so  called  rational  fate — 
i.  e.,  the  order  estai)lished  by  God,  in  the  exer- 
cise of  his  freedom  and  wisdom,  according  to 
which  certain  events  must  necessarily  take 
place.  In  the  stoical  fate,  however,  there 
was  always  involved  a  physical  nccosity,  al- 
though they  represented  it  as  a  predetermina- 
tion which  did  nnt  exclude  the  freedom  of  the 
will,  and  which,  while  it  secured  the  eirtainty  of 
particular  events,  did  not  make  them  nicifsary. 
This  is  indeed  contradictory;  l)ut  it  did  not  ap- 
pear 60  to  them.     Vide  Tiedemann,  System  del 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


237 


Stoischen  Philosophic,  th.  ii.  s.  129 — 142;  Leip- 
zig, ITTtJ,  8vo.  According  to  the  doctrine  of 
Epicurus,  the  Deity  was  wholly  removed  from 
the  world.  In  his  system,  as  it  is  represented 
Dy  Diogenes,  Laertius,  and  Seneca,  the  notion 
of  providence  is  absolutely  denied.  He  supposed 
that  the  peace  of  the  blessed  gods  would  be  in- 
terrupted by  the  labours  and  cares  incident  to 
the  government  of  the  world. 

2.  This  doctrine  of  an  inevitable  necessity 
being  found  inconsistent  with  the  scriptural  re- 
presentations of  the  providence  of  God,  and  be- 
ing also  liable  to  the  greatest  objections  on  philo- 
sophical grounds,  has  been  justly  abandoned  and 
rejected  by  Christian  philosophers  and  theolo- 
gians. But  in  determining  the  manner  in  which 
God  governs  the  world,  they  have  shewn  a  great 
discrepancy  in  their  opinions,  and  on  account  of 
the  bearing  of  this  question  on  that  concerning 
the  origin  and  causes  of  sin,  have  made  it  the 
subject  of  great  controversy.  They  may  be 
ranked,  according  to  the  systems  which  they 
have  adopted,  in  three  classes,  each  of  which 
has  its  representatives  even  among  the  ancient 
schoolmen. 

(a)  The  OccasionaUMs,  who  adopted  the  sys- 
tem of  occasional  causes  (systema  causarum  oc- 
casionalium),  occasionalism.  They  maintained 
that  God  is  the  immediate  cause  of  the  actions 
of  his  creatures,  and  that  they  only  furnish  him 
an  occasion  for  what  he  does,  and  accordingly 
are  only  passive  instruments  by  which  he  abso- 
lutely and  irresistibly  accomplishes  his  own 
designs.  According  to  this  system,  what  are 
elsewhere  called  seco7id  causes  are  only  occasiones 
agendi.  They  are  also  called  Prxdeterniirumtes, 
because  they  supposed  a  prxdelerminatio,  or 
prcemotio  pliT/sica.  Of  this  class  were  many  of 
the  schoolmen,  particularly  the  Thomists  and 
Dominicans,  among  whom  Gabriel  Biel  distin- 
guished liiniself  as  an  advocate  of  this  theory, 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  Tlie  same  notion  re- 
specting the  manner  of  God's  agency  in  the 
world  was  adopted  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
by  many  of  the  disciples  of  Des  Cartes  ;  and 
indeed  his  principles  necessarily  involved  it. 
Among  theologians,  the  disciples  of  Cocceius, 
and  some  Arminians,  were  the  advocates  of  this 
system.  Its  most  zealous  and  acute  defemlers, 
however,  were  Malebranche  and  Bayie,  though 
the  latter  dissented  in  many  particulars  from  the 
former.  The  names  of  Twiss,  IMaccov,  and 
Turretin,  deserve  to  be  mentioned  in  this  class. 
In  the  Romish  church,  the  Dominicans  still  con- 
tinue the  advocates  of  this  theory.  With  regard 
lo  this  theory  it  must  be  said,  that  it  is  hard  to 
see  its  consistency  with  the  freedom  of  the 
human  will;  nor,  indeed,  is  its  inconsistency 
denied  by  Bayle.  Man  is  thus  subjected  to  ne- 
cessity ;  his  good  and  bad  actions  are  not  im- 
putable to  him,  but  to  God,  who  acts  through 


him,  as  a  mere  instrument.  But  the  law  of  ne- 
cessity, when  applied  to  moral  beings,  or  within 
the  world  of  spirits,  is  extended  beyond  its 
proper  sphere,  which  is  the  material  world. 
Tliis  theory,  therefore,  which  involves  a  neces- 
sity of  acting,  is  utterly  inapplicable  to  moral 
beings,  whose  highest  law  of  acting  xa  freedom. 
[Respecting  the  system  of  occasional  causes, 
the  student  may  consult  Halm,  Lehrbuch  des 
christiichen  Glaubens,  s.  73,  s.  31(),  320.  Bret- 
Schneider,  Handbuch  der  Dogmatik,  b.  i.  s.  93,8. 
GIO.  Tennemann,  Grundriss  der  Gesch.  der 
Philos.  s.  373,  378.— Tr.] 

(Jj)  Perceiving  that  tills  theory  was  untenable, 
and  injurious  in  its  influence  on  morality,  some 
adopted  one  exactly  opposite,  and  maintained 
that  the  creatures  of  God  acted  immediately  in 
and  through  themselves,  in  the  exercise  of  the 
powers  with  which  they  had  been  once  endowed 
by  the  Creator,  and  independently  of  his  assist 
aiice.  They  compared  the  movements  and  al 
terations  which  appear  in  the  creation  to  those 
of  a  machine,  (e.  g.,  of  a  clock,)  which,  being 
once  made  and  wound  up,  goes  for  a  time  of 
itself,  without  the  further  assistance  of  tlie  artist, 
and  when  he  is  no  longer  present.  This  theory 
is  called  the  system  of  nuc/uniism,  and  was 
proposed  by  Durandus,  in  the  fourteenth  cen 
tury,  and  by  other  schoolmen.  Its  first  advocati 
was  Scotus,  and  it  has  been  adopted  by  man> 
of  the  modern  mechanical  philosophers,  ant- 
even  by  Richard  Baxter.  Some  have  mad/ 
use  of  Bonnet's  System  of  development,  in  or 
der  to  confirm  and  complete  this  theory.  Bu 
this  theory,  as  well  as  the  one  to  which  it  it 
opposed,  is  liable  to  great  objections.  It  ex 
hibits  God  in  a  light  which  is  inconsistent 
with  his  perfections.  It  represents  hini  as  an 
artist  who  leaves  his  work,  when  he  has  com- 
pleted it,  or  idly  beliolds  its  operations.  Nor 
does  this  theory,  less  than  the  former,  i.-npinge 
upon  the  doctrine  of  freedom  and  accountability. 
If  it  is  consistently  carried  through,  it  removes 
many  of  the  most  important  motives  which 
ethics  or  religion  can  furnish  ;  for  |)ractical  uses, 
therefore,  it  is  wholly  unfit.  Vide  Jerusalem, 
Betrachtungen,  th.  i.  s.  114.  Also  the  writings 
of  Kant,  which  contain  many  profound  discus- 
sions on  this  subject.  [Cf.  De  la  JMettrie, 
L'llomme  machine,  1748,  4to.  Coleridire,  Aids 
to  Reflection,  p.  243,  Amer.  Kdition. — Tit.] 

(c)  In  consequence  of  the  diflicuhies  and  ob- 
vious errors  attending  the  theories  above  men- 
tioned, many  of  the  schoolmen  were  led  to  adopt 
a  scheme  whicli  is  intermediate  between  these 
opposite  extremes.  They  maintained  that  God 
has  indeed  endowed  his  creatures  with  active 
powers;  but  that  still  his  own  concurrent  aid 
(concursus)  is  essential  to  their  exercise  ;  since 
without  it  neither  the  thin;:  itself  which  is  sup- 
posed to  act,  nor  its  power  of  action,  coi.ld  tor  • 


238 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGi^. 


moment  subsist ;  so  that,  in  all  the  actions  of  his 
creatures,  there  is  a  joint,  concurrent  awncy  of 
God.  By  this  theory,  most  of  the  dilficulties 
altendinor  this  subject  are  obviated ;  it  is  also 
found  to  be  the  most  accordant  with  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  Bible,  and  to  commend  itself 
more  than  any  other  to  sound  reason.  It  has 
therefore  been  justly  adopted,  though  with  vari- 
ous modifications,  by  most  of  the  modern  philo- 
sophers and  theoloarians.  In  the  sequel  of  this 
Article  it  will  be  more  fully  developed.  [Cf. 
Bretschneider,  Handbuch,  b.  i.  s.  9-2,  s.  605.] 

But  after  all  that  has  been  thouirht  and  writ- 
ten upon  this  subject,  it  still  remains  encom- 
passed with  difficulties;  and  this,  for  the  reason 
that  it  is  impossible  for  men  to  form  any  distinct 
conceptions  respecting  the  proper,  internal  man- 
ner of  the  divine  agiency.  In  order  to  represent 
it  to  our  minds,  we  must  liken  it  to  the  manner 
in  which  men  ar-t;  and  thus  our  whole  know- 
led  ije  of  the  subject  is,  from  the  necessity  of  the 
case,  symbolical,  and  trreatly  deficient.  From 
this  historical  sketch,  however,  and  especially 
from  No.  I,  one  thinjr  is  clear — viz.,  that  the 
simple  theory  respectinjr  the  providence  of  God, 
which  is  now  almost  universally  received  as 
true,  owes  its  orig^in  neither  to  heathen  mytho- 
locry  or  philosophy,  but  to  the  Bible,  where  it 
was  exhil)ited  before  it  ever  entered  the  mind 
of  any  philosopher.  Vide  Staiidiin,  Materialien 
zu  einer  Geschichte  der  Leiire  von  (iotles 
Fiirsehung,  in  his  "  Magazin  fiir  Religions- 
geschichte,"  b.  iii.  St.  1,  s.  234,  tF;  Hanover, 
1801,  8vo. 

SECTION  LXVII. 

OF  THE  PROOF  OF  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  DIVINE  PROVI- 
DENCE ;  AND  OF  THE  DIVISIONS  UNDER  WHICH 
IT  HAS  BEEN  TREATED. 

I.  Proof  of  this  Doctrine. 

I.  Proof  from  reason.  This  proof  depends 
upon  the  truth  of  the  position  that  the  world  is 
not  self-existent,  but  was  created  by  God  ;  and 
this  proposition  is  proved  by  the  same  argu- 
ments by  which  the  divine  existence  is  proved. 
Vide  s.  15,  46.  Presuming  that  this  position 
may  now  be  considered  as  fully  established,  we 
derive  proof  of  the  providence  of  God  from  two 
sources — viz.,  from  his  own  nature,  and  from 
that  of  his  works. 

(^n)  From  the  nature  and  attributes  of  God. 
That  God  is  not  only  able,  but  willing  to  take 
care  of  all  his  creatures,  is  demonstrable  from 
the  idea  of  the  most  perfect  being;  cf.  s.  1.5. 
That  he  is  able  to  do  this,  appears  from  his  oin- 
nixriciiee,  by  which  he  knows  the  circumstances 
and  wants  of  all  his  creatures;  from  his  »i)i.i- 
d^'y.  by  which  he  underslanils  in  what  manner 
and  by  what  means  the  world  may  be  sustained 


and  governed ;  and  from  his  ommpotetite,  by 
which  he  can  accomplish  everything  which  he 
desires.  That  he  is  willing  to  do  this,  follows 
alike  from  his  wisdom  and  his  iroodness.  Vide  s. 
24,  28.  If  it  is  the  design  of  God  to  advance 
his  creatures  to  that  degree  of  perfection  and 
well-bein<r  of  which  they  are  susceptible,  it 
must  also  be  his  will  to  watch  over  them,  and 
to  exercise  towards  them  his  providential  care, 
to  sustain  them,  and  to  promote  their  welfare 
by  means  which  his  wisdom  approves  as  best. 
And  his  willing  to  do  this  is  his  actually  doing 
it;  for  to  suppose  God  to  will  anything,  the 
attainment  of  which  depends  upon  his  abso- 
lute power,  which  yet  he  does  not  execute, 
would  be  to  ascribe  to  him  weakness  and  im- 
perfection. This  metaphysical  proof,  however, 
when  stated  in  its  full  extent,  is  not  suiTiciently 
intelligible  to  be  used  in  popular  instruction. 

(Jb)  From  the  nature  of  created  things.  For 
it  is  obvious  that  the  creatures  of  God  are  no 
more  able  to  perpetuate  their  beinu'  than  they 
were  to  contribute  at  first  to  their  own  existence. 
To  sustain  and  perpetuate  existence  requires  no 
less  power  than  to  create.  Besides,  the  wise, 
orderly,  and  harmonious  movement  of  all  created 
things,  in  conformity  with  the  plan  on  which 
they  were  adjusted,  and  for  the  promotion  of  the 
ends  fur  which  they  were  made,  which  is  every- 
where visible  in  the  universe,  suiricienily  evinces 
the  care  and  government  of  an  all-wise  and  al- 
mighty being.  Cf.  s.  69.  To  this  it  is  object- 
ed that  CJod  mi^ht  have  so  made  the  world  that 
it  would  preserve  itself,  and  stand  in  no  need 
of  the  providence  of  its  author;  but  from  this 
objection  the  system  of  mechanism  (noticed  s 
67,  II.  b)  immediately  results;  and  this  system, 
as  was  remarked,  excludes  moral  freedom,  and 
subjects  everything  to  the  law  of  necessity. 
Cf.  s.  26. 

\^Note. — Besides  these  proofs  of  the  provi- 
dence of  God,  the  theologians  of  tiie  school  of 
Kant  have  proposed  another,  similar  to  that  of 
the  divine  existence.  Art.  ii.  s.  15,  II.  It  is 
briefly  this :  we  cannot  recognise  the  law  of 
duty  written  upon  our  hearts  as  a  divine  com- 
mand, unless  we  believe  that  there  is  a  moral 
government  which  will,  in  the  end,  make  the 
happiness  which,  as  sensitive  beings,  we  natu- 
rally desire,  proportionate  to  the  morality  of  our 
actions;  we  cannot  derive  the  strength  which 
is  necessary  to  a  course  of  undeviating  virtue 
amidst  the  temptations  to  which  we  are  ex- 
posed, from  anything  but  a  faith  in  a  holy  go- 
vernor of  the  world,  and  disposer  of  the  destinies 
of  men.  And  hence — viz.,  from  the  necessitr 
of  believing  in  providence  in  order  to  virtuous 
moral  action — they  argue  the  truth  of  this  doc- 
trine, and  call  it  a  postulate  of  our  practical  rea- 
son. There  is  still  another  proof  which  deserves 
a  distinct  mention — viz.,  that  which  may  bt  do- 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


239 


rived  from  the  ^eat  historic  events  which  have 
taken  place  in  the  world, — the  giving  and  trans- 
mission of  a  divine  revelation — the  founding  of 
religious  institutes,  as  the  Mosaic  and  the  Chris- 
tian— the  r.iising  up  of  prophets,  apostles,  and 
defenders  of  the  faith — the  ordering  of  particu- 
lar events,  such  as  the  Reformation — the  more 
remarkable  deliverances  noticed  in  the  lives  of 
those  devoted  to  the  good  of  the  world,  &c. — 
all  of  which  indicate  the  wise  and  benevolent 
care  of  God  over  the  human  family,  and  toge- 
ther constitute  what  may  be  called  the  historic 
proof  of  the  providence  of  God.  This  proof  is 
exhibited  in  an  interesting  manner  in  the  scrip- 
ture biography  of  Hess,  in  Niemeyer's  Charac- 
teristics of  the  Bible,  and  works  of  a  similar 
kind. — Tr.] 

2.  From  the  holy  scriptures.  Cf.  Morus,  p. 
76,  seq.  s.  3.  Many  of  the  texts  which  might 
be  .cited  will  be  omitted  here,  and  introduced  in 
their  more  appropriate  places  in  the  sections 
which  follow.  Of  the  texts  which  treat  of  the 
general  subject  of  providence  more  at  large,  and 
which  exhibit  many  of  the  truths  connected  with 
this  doctrine,  the  following  are  the  most  import- 
ant:— Ps.  viii.  xix.  xc.  (s.  20,  III.)  xci.  civ. 
(vide  Article  on  the  Creation,)  and  cxxxix. 
(s.  22,  1, ;)  in  the  New  Testament,  Matt.  vi. 
25—32;  X.  29—31  ;  Acts,  xvii.  24—28. 

In  the  texts  above  cited  we  are  taught  the 
following  truths: — (a)  The  preservation  of  the 
existence  of  all  things  depends  on  God  alone, 
(i)  God  is  the  ruler  and  proprietor  of  the  uni- 
verse, his  title  in  it  being  founded  in  his  having 
created  it.  (c)  The  state  and  circumstances  of 
all  created  things  are  determined  by  God ;  he 
needs  nothing;  but  his  creatures  receive  from 
him  the  supply  of  all  their  wants.  (rZ)  No- 
thing is  so  insignificant  as  to  be  unworthy  of 
his  notice;  his  providence  extends  even  to  the 
smallest  objects,  (e)  Through  his  watchful 
care  all  his  creatures,  in  their  several  kinds,  en- 
joy as  much  good  as  from  their  nature  they  are 
susceptible  of.  (/)  But  his  providence  is  most 
conspicuous  in  reference  to  the  human  race, 
both  as  a  whole  and  as  composed  of  individual 
men.  He  preserves  their  lives,  provides  them 
with  food,  clothing,  and  everything  which  they 
need.  Their  actions  and  their  destinies  are  un- 
der his  guidance  and  at  his  disposal ;  and  their 
race  is  preserved  from  generation  to, generation 
through  his  care.  The  whole  is  comprised  in 
the  words  of  Paul,  Acts,  xvii.  28,  iv  avr<^  ^ufxev 
xoi  xivovfxi^  xai  iofiiv. 

These  scriptural  representations  have  many 
practical  uses.  They  furnish  us  with  the  means 
of  forming  just  notions  of  God,  and  with  mo- 
tives to  induce  us  to  reverence  and  serve  him, 
Acts,  xvii.  27.  These  considerations  are  cal- 
culated to  inspire  our  minds  with  confidence  in 
God,  and  to  teach  us  to  regard  him  as  a  kind 


and  benevolent  father.  Cf.  thb  texts  cited  from 
Mattiiew,  and  Is.  xl.,  ad  finem.  Indeed,  the 
whole  object  and  tendency  of  this  doctrine,  as 
exhibited  in  the  sacred  writings,  is  to  excite 
and  cherish  pious  dispositions  in  our  minds 
It  leads  us  to  think,  with  regard  to  every  passing 
event,  that  God  knows  it ,-  to  feel  that  it  is  ex- 
actly as  he  willed  it,  and  in  it  to  see  liis  agency. 
If  we  were  duly  influenced  by  what  we  are 
taught  in  the  Bible  of  the  providence  of  God, 
we  should  do  all  our  works  under  a  sense  of  his 
presence,  ininiov  roi;  ©foi;,  and  our  constant 
maxim  would  be  ov8iv  avtv  &eov.  Vide  Matt. 
X.  29,  &c.  Morus,  p.  76,  s.  3,  p.  78,  Note. 
Such  exalted  and  worthy  conceptions  of  the 
providence  of  God  as  these,  which  occur  every- 
wliere  in  the  Bible,  and  which  must  accord  with 
the  judgment  and  the  feelings  of  every  one  who 
is  not  wholly  perverted,  may  be  sought  in  vain 
in  the  writings  of  the  ancient  philosophers,  who 
were  unacquainted  with  the  Bible.  And  it  is 
to  the  Bible  alone  that  modern  philosophers  are 
indebted  for  the  more  correct  principles  which 
they  inculcate  upon  this  subject. 

JVote, — The  work  of  providence  and  preserva- 
tion is  usually  ascribed  in  tiie  Bible  to  the 
Father,  as  is  also  the  work  of  creation  ;  and  it  is 
principally  as  the  creator  and  preserver  of  the 
world  that  he  is  called  Father.  Vide  s.  36. 
There  are,  however,  some  texts  in  the  New 
Testament,  in  which  both  the  creation  and  pre- 
servation of  the  world  are  ascribed  to  the  Son — 
e.  g.,  Heb.  i.  3,  ^fptov  rtaiTa  ^r^f.iart,  Svmuswj 
axtov,  and  Col.  i.  17, ra  rturra  h  avro  oviioTr^xi, 
both  of  which  have  already  been  exauiined  in 
the  article  respecting  the  creation,  s.  47,  II.  2. 

II.  Scholastic  Divisions. 

1.  The  providence  of  God  is  divided,  in  rela- 
tion to  its  objects,  into  general  (generalis),  so  far 
as  it  extends  to  all  existing  things;  specia, 
(specialis),  so  far  as  it  relates  to  moral  beings — 
to  men  and  human  affairs;  znd  particular  (spe- 
cialissima),  so  far  as  it  extends  to  the  moral 
beings,  who  fulfil  the  ends  of  their  existence — 
the  pious  and  virtuous.  Vide  Morus,  p.  78, 
s.  4.  Strictly  speaking,  however,  God  cannot 
be  said  to  care  more  or  less  for  one  class  of  his 
creatures  than  for  another.  His  providence,  in 
itself  considered,  is  the  same  for  all;  but  all 
have  not  an  equal  capacity  to  receive  the  proofs 
and  benevolent  expressions  of  his  care :  an  irra- 
tional creature  is  not  susceptible  of  the  same 
kind  and  degree  of  perfection  and  welfare  as  a 
rational  being;  nor  a  vicious,  as  a  virtuous 
man.  Hence  it  seems  to  us  as  if  God  had  more 
care  for  the  animate  than  for  the  inanimate  crea- 
tion; for  men,  than  for  beasts;  for  the  pious, 
than  for  the  wicked  ;  though  the  real  ground  of 
the  difference  in  their  condition  lies  in  their  own 
orreater  or  less  capacity  for  the  divine  favour 


340 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Now  the  universe,  so  far  as  we  know,  consists 
of  the  three  classes — inanimatr  things,  crea- 
tures endowed  with  life  and  activity  but  pos- 
sessing no  rational  and  moral  powers,  and  mo- 
ral beings.  The  latter  are  by  far  the  most  ex- 
alted and  noble,  the  nearest  related,  so  to  speak, 
to  their  author,  and  those  in  whom  his  designs 
mostly  terminate.  They  are  not  placed,  like 
the  lower  orders  of  being,  under  the  law  of  ne- 
cessity, and  treated  like  machines;  which  would 
be  inconsistent  with  the  free  nature  which  has 
been  given  them.  The  highest  aim  which  God 
can  be  supposed  to  have  had  in  view  in  the 
creation  and  government  of  the  world,  is  a 
moral  end ;  and  to  subserve  this  end,  to  wliicli 
all  others  are  subordinate,  he  governs  not  only 
the  moral  kingdom,  but  the  whole  material  and 
animal  creation. 

2.  The  particular  manner  in  which  God  pre- 
serves and  governs  the  world  can  no  more  be 
understood  by  us  than  the  manner  in  which  he 
first  created  it.  Vide  s.  46.  But  in  order  to 
obtain  some  definite  conceptions  of  this  subject, 
we  compare  the  operations  of  God  to  those  of 
men;  though  in  doing  this  there  is  danger  of 
ascribing  to  God  the  imperfections  which  belong 
only  to  man.  Now  when  men  exercise  care 
over  anything,  there  are  two  things  which  may 
be  considered — the  care  itsc/f,  as  exercised  by 
them,  and  the  effect  or  result  of  it. 

(«)  The  care  itself,  (actio  interna.)  Since  a 
man,  when  he  exercises  care  over  others,  must 
have  the  knowledge  of  what  they  need,  and  un- 
derstand the  means  by  which  their  wants  can 
be  supplied  ;  must  then  come  to  a  determination 
to  make  use  of  the  means  approved  as  proper; 
and  lastly,  must  carry  his  determinati m  into 
effect ;  so  it  was  supposed  to  be  with  God,  in 
the  care  which  he  exercises  over  the  world  ;  and 
this  gave  rise  to  the  scholastic  division  of  the 
providence  of  God  into  three  acts — viz.,  Tt^to- 
yi'4091.5  (praescienlia),  the  knoivledge  of  God  of 
the  wants  of  his  creatures,  and  of  the  best 
means  of  supplying  them  ;  rt(Jo^ffiij  (decretum), 
his  determination  to  make  use  of  these  means; 
and  5iax?;7ij  (executio,  administratio),  his  actual 
fulfilment  of  his  determination.  But  here  it 
must  be  remembered  that  this  can  be  said  only 
antliropopatliically  of  God,  since  in  his  mind 
there  is  no  succession  of  acts. 

(Jt)  The  effect  of  this  care,  (actio  externa.) 
In  order  to  render  the  manner  of  this  external 
agency  of  God  in  his  providence  in  some  degree 
intelligible,  the  schoolmen  have  assumed  three 
external  acts  of  providence — viz.,  preservation 
(conservatio),  coop  ration  (concnrsus),  and  go- 
•^ernment  (gubernatif)) ;  and  under  these  three 
heads  the  doctrine  of  divine  providence  is  usual- 
ly treated.  («)  Preservation  (conservatio)  is 
that  mighty  and  efficient  agency  of  God  by 
which  created  things  continue  to  exist,  by  which 


the  identity  of  their  being  is  preserved  ;  efficient 
tin  Dei,  r/ua  ipsx  sultstantiec  pergunt  esse.  It  ex- 
tends to  things  already  existing,  and  in  this  ia 
distinguished  from  the  act  of  cre./tion  ;  though, 
in  reality,  the  preservation  of  the  world  is 
only  a  continuation  of  the  act  of  creation,  and  is 
therefore  sometimes  properly  called,  creatio  con- 
tinuata.  (3)  Cooperation  (concursus)  is  that 
act  of  God  by  which  he  preserves  the  powers 
originally  imparted  to  created  things,  (jitd  vires 
substantiarum  durant.  The  term  concursus,  as 
as  used  by  the  schoolmen,  is  synonymous  with 
auxilium ;  but  it  is  a  very  inconvenient  term, 
and  leads  naturally  to  the  inquiry,  whether  God 
assists  men  and  cooperates  with  them  in  their 
wicked  actions?  This  division  has  been  wholly 
omitted  by  some  modern  theologians  (e.  g.,  by 
Doederlein),  on  the  ground  that  the  preservation 
of  the  existence  of  a  thing  without  the  preserva- 
tion of  its  powers  cannot  be  conceived,  and  that 
this  division  is  therefore  necessarily  involved 
in  the  preceding;  which  is  indeed  true,  as  to 
fact,  though  the  preservation  of  the  simple  sub- 
stance of  a  thing,  and  the  preservation  of  its 
powers  of  acting,  may  be  made  the  subjects  of 
distinct  consideration  by  the  mind,  (y)  Go- 
vernment (gubernatio,  providentia  stricte  sic 
dicta)  is  that  act  of  God  by  which  he  so  orders 
all  the  changes  which  take  |)lace  in  the  world, 
and  so  guides  all  the  actions  of  his  creatures, 
as  to  promote  the  highest  possible  crood  of  the 
whole,  and  of  everv  part.  According  to  the 
usual  method  cf  theological  writers  we  shall 
proceed  to  treat  of  this  doctrine  under  the  three 
foregoing  heads;  in  such  a  way,  however,  that 
what  is  said  respecting  the  first  two  divisions 
(preservation  and  cooperation)  will  be  con- 
nected together.  Respecting  the  division  of 
providence  into  ordinata  and  miraculosa,  vide  s. 
7-2,11. 

Note. — Notice  of  some  of  the  principal  works 
on  the  providence  of  God.  The  ancient  heathen 
philosophers  said  much  on  this  subject  which 
was  just  and  practically  useful,  ttiough  mingled 
with  much  that  was  erroneous.  Cf.  Xenojihon's 
Memorabilia,  the  writings  of  Plato,  and  other 
disciples  of  Socrates.  Cf.  also  the  writings  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  and  of  other  stoics.  The 
work  of  Cicero,  De  Natur.  Deor. ;  and  of  Se- 
neca, D(!  Providentia,  deserve  particular  men- 
tion. Some  of  the  early  ecclesiastical  father* 
ilevoted  whole  works  to  this  subject.  Chry 
sostom  wrote  a  book  on  providence.  Gregory 
of  Nazianzen  treated  of  it  in  his  discourses 
particularly  the  sixteenth.  Theodoret  wrota 
"Sermones  de  Providentia."  Salvianus  Mas- 
siliensis,  a  Latin  father  of  the  fifth  century, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  De  gubernatinne  Dei." 
In  modern  times,  the  theory  of  this  subject  has 
been  ably  discussed  in  the  writings  of  Kant, 
and  other  works  on  the  piiilosophy  of  religion 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


Works  of  a  more  practical  and  popular  cast  are 
the  following: — Jacobi,  Betrachtungen  iiber  die 
weisen  Absichten  Gottes;  Hanover,  1705 — GG, 
8vo;  Jerusalem,  Betrachtungen  iiber  die  wicht- 
igsten  Wahrheiten  der  Religion  ;  Sander,  Ueber 
die  Vorsehung;  Leipzig,  1780 — 81,8vo;  also 
the  work  "  Fiir  Anbeter  Gottes,  1780,  by  the 
same  author;  Zollikofer,  Betrachtungen  iiber 
das  Uebel  in  der  Welt;  Leipzig,  1777,  Bvo; 
and  many  of  the  Sermons  of  this  author;  Jacob, 
Von  der  Religion;  Koppen,  Die  Bibel,  ein 
Werk  der  gottlichen,  Weisheit,  in  which  excel- 
lent work  there  are  many  fine  and  useful  remarks 
on  this  subject. 

SECTION  LXIX. 

OF  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  EXISTENCE  AND 
OF  THE  POWERS  OF  CREATED  BEINGS  AND 
THINGS. 

I.  Preservation  of  Creatures  in  General. 

The  great  end  which  God  has  in  view  in  his 
providence  over  the  world  is  the  welfare  of  his 
creatures.  On  him  does  their  existence  and 
well-being  every  moment  depend.  'Yhe powers 
which  they  possess  from  the  beginnining  of 
their  existence,  and  the  laws  by  which  these 
powers  are  exercised,  have  their  only  ground  in 
the  divine  will.  This  will  of  God  is  the  effi- 
cient cause  of  the  existence  of  his  creatures, 
and  of  all  the  powers  which  they  possess;  and 
not  only  so,  but  of  the  continuance  of  these 
ceatures,  with  their  powers  and  laws.  These 
laws,  in  conformity  with  which  the  powers  of 
created  things  develop  themselves,  are  com- 
monly called  the  laws  of  nature.  These  pro- 
positions need  to  be  farther  illustrated  and  esta- 
blished. "- 

1.  The  proof  that  God  preserves  the  existence 
and  the  powers  of  all  created  things  is  drawn 
from  the  following  sources : — 

(a)  From  the  contingency  of  the  world.  The 
world  does  not  necessarily  exist;  it  has  not  the 
ground  of  its  existence  in  itself;  but  it  is  contin- 
gent, and  depends  upon  the  will  of  God.  Vide 
s.  15,  46.  It  must  therefore  continue  to  exist 
through  the  same  power  which  first  gave  it 
being.  The  purpose  of  God  to  create  the  world 
could  not  have  been  confined  to  the  first  instant 
of  its  creation,  but  must  have  comprised  its 
whole  future  being  and  permanent  .existence. 
Now  this  purpose  of  God  is  unalterable,  and 
cannot  be  hindered  or  turned  aside  by  the  inter- 
vention of  any  object;  but  must  endure  while 
the  creation  continues.  The  continuance,  there- 
fore, of  the  creation, through  every  moment  of 
its  existence,  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the 
purpose  of  God  respecting  its  first  existence,  that 
It  can  hardly  be  separated  from  it,  even  in 
thouglit.  Of.  the  theory  of  the  divine  decrees, 
s.  32. 

31 


(i)  From  experience  Jind  history.  That  God 
preserves  the  works  wiiich  lie  has  created  may 
be  rendered  very  obvious  from  a  survey  of  the 
world  and  a  review  of  its  p.ist  history.  Of.  es- 
pecially the  work  of  iSander  al)ove  mentioned, 
and  the  works  on  teleology  noticed  s.  15,  1.  3, 
ad  finem.  If  we  look  no  further  than  the  phy- 
sical world,  and  confine  our  attention  to  its  wise 
adaptation  to  the  ends  which  it  is  made  to  an- 
swer, we  shall  be  driven  to  the  conviction 
that  it  is  not  the  work  of  cliance  or  blind  acci- 
dent, but  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  constituted 
by  an  intelligence  which,  though  invisible, 
guides  and  governs  all  things  with  infinite 
wisdom.  The  following  are  examples  of  innu- 
merable teleological  observations  which  miglit 
be  made.  No  single  species  of  animals  has  pe- 
rished, notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  di.ne 
to  destroy  them,  and  all  the  dangers  to  which 
they  have  been  exposed  from  floods,  earthquakes, 
&c. ;  nor  has  any  species  undergone  essential 
alterations.  The  nature  and  qualities  of  the 
horse,  the  lion,  the  crocodile,  &<•.,  are  still  the 
same  as  they  were  described  to  be  by  Moses, 
Homer,  Aristotle,  and  other  ancient  writers. 
Between  the  individuals  also  of  the  difierent 
species,  the  same  relations  and  proportions 
which  have  always  been  observed  still  exist. 
Wild  and  dangerous  animals  multiply  less  ra- 
pidly than  tame  and  domestic  ones.  The  short- 
lived animals,  and  particularly  insects,  propa- 
gate their  kind  in  great  numbers;  those  that 
live  longer  produce  fewer  young.  Were  the 
ephemeral  insects  no  more  prolific  than  the  lion 
and  the  elephant,  their  race  would  be  soon  ex- 
tinct; and  were  the  progeny  of  the  lion  and  ele- 
phant as. numerous  as  that  of  the  insect  tribes, 
the  earth  would  soon  be  insufficient  to  support, 
or  even  contain  them,  and  other  species  of  ani- 
mals would  be  driven  out  and  destroyed  before 
them.  In  the  material  world  there  is  a  constant 
ebb  and  flow;  on  the  one  hand,  decay,  death, 
and  destruction;  on  the  other,  life,  and  ever- 
renewed  activity  and  motion  ;  in  short,  through- 
out the  world  there  are  conflicting  powers,  by 
which  the  things  that  belong  to  it  are  at  one 
time  wasted  and  destroyed,  at  another  revived 
and  animated;  but  yet,  after  all,  everything 
exists  in  the  most  just  proportion  and  perfect 
order ;  and  every  a|)parent  dissonance  is  resolved 
at  last  into  an  uninterrupted  harmony.  Every 
sensitive  being  stands  in  such  a  relation  to  the 
rest  of  the  world  that  it  finds  what  is  necessary 
for  its  support  and  welfare.  And  any  one  who 
will  consider  all  this  with  attention,  will  be  led 
t^  the  conclusion  that  it  results  from  the  consti- 
tution of  a  Being  who  is  supremely  intelligent, 
and  who  guides  all  things  in  such  a  way  as  to 
promote  his  own  purposes.  What  is  so  suitably 
arranged,  so  wisely  and  accurately  adapted  to 
its  ends,  and  so  perfectly  adjusted  to  all  its  rela 


943 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


tions,  cannot  possibly  be  the  work  of  blind 
chance.  Against  such  a  supposition  the  reason 
of  man  instantly  revolts. 

[.We. — The  validity  of  this  proof  from  expe- 
rience is  denied  by  Staiidlin,  (Lehrb.  s.  273,) 
and  also  by  Bretschneider,  for  the  following  rea- 
sons : — (1)  Our  experience  is  too  young  and  too 
limited  to  enable  us  to  derive  an  argument  from 
it  with  certainty.  (2)  From  experience  it  can- 
not be  shewn  that  everything  has  been  the  same 
ftom  the  beginning  of  the  creation  as  it  now  is. 
(3)  The  argument  from  experience  is  rendered 
uncertain  by  the  fact  that  several  species  of  ani- 
mals— e.  g.,  the  mammoth — are  wholly  extinct, 
and  other  facts  of  a  similar  nature.  They 
therefore  rest  the  proof  of  the  preservation  of 
the  world  by  the  agency  of  God,  solely  upon 
the  metaphysical  and  scriptural  arguments. — 
Tr.] 

(c)  From  the  express  declarations  of  the  holy 
scriptures,  which  coincide  with  what  we  are 
taught  by  experience  and  history,  and  which 
indeed,  by  their  example,  lead  us  to  make  the 
observations  and  to  draw  the  conclusions  just 
stated.  Among  the  most  explicit  of  these  decla- 
rations are  those  contained  in  Psalm  civ.  8 — 16, 
•27,  2S,  and  particularly  ver.  29.  ^'Thou  takest 
away  their  breath,  they  die,  and  return  to  their 
dust.  Thou  sendest  forth  thy  spirit,  they  are 
created  :  and  thou  renewest  the  face  of  the  earth." 
•Here  also  the  words  of  Christ,  which  are  so 
Ajseful  as  examples  of  proper  instruction,  should 
be  particularly  mentioned.  Matt.  vi.  26,  seq.; 
«.  29.  According  to  these  representations,  not 
a  hair  falls  from  the  head  of  man,  not  a  bird  falls 
to  the  ground,  not  a  flower  withers  in  the  field, 
without  the  notice  and  will  of  God.  Hence 
we,  who  were  made  for  such  higher  purposes, 
should  confidently  trust  in  God,  and  renounce  all 
painful  solicitude  and  despondency,  all  doubt 
and  despair.  For  if  God  takes  care  of  the  less, 
how  much  more  will  he  of  the  greater!  of  us, 
•therefore,  whose  destination  is  so  much  more 
exalted  than  that  of  his  other  creatures.  Our  life, 
our  activity,  our  whole  existence,  proceeds  from 
iiim  ;  and  as  a  father,  he  constantly  cares  for  us, 
Acts,  xvii.  28. 

2.  In  considering  the  powers  which  God  im- 
•parts  to  his  creatures,  and  the  continuance  of 
which  he  secures,  two  things  nee<l  especially  to 
be  noticed — viz.,  their  di  irrce  and  their  use. 

(ff)  The  (lei^rrr  (modus)  of  these  powers. 
And  this  again  is  either  e.s.sf';»/fff/ — i.  e.,  necessa- 
rily requisite  to  the  very  existence  of  the  thing, 
80  that,  in  defect  of  it.  it  would  cease  to  be  what 
it  is,  or  continfTcnl,  accideiilal,  inasmuch  as  the 
proportion  of  powers  in  different  individuals  be- 
longing to  the  same  kind,  may  be,  and  actually 
id,  ditferent.  These  contingent  powers  and  ca- 
pacities are  either  imuile  or  nct/tiired,  and  in- 
creased and  strengthened  by  discipline  and  ex- 


ercise. For  example  :  it  is  essential  to  the  ex- 
istence of  a  man  that  he  |.ossess  reason,  memory, 
and  imagination;  these  are  vires  essentiahs ;  but 
one  man  surpasses  another  in  these  powers,  and 
this  is  what  is  contingent.  One  man  has  e.  na- 
tural and  innate  talent  for  poetry,  music,  paint- 
ing, or  some  other  art  or  employment;  another 
acquires  skill  in  these  things  by  eBort  and  dili- 
gence. Now  in  this  dilTerence  of  degree  in  these 
powers,  and  in  the  wise  proportion  and  allotment 
of  them  to  animate  and  inanimate,  rational  and 
irrational  creatures,  the  wise  providence  of  God 
is  clearly  exhibited. 

(J))  Tlie  use  of  these  powers  is  granted  to  the 
creatures  of  God  for  their  own  advantage  and 
the  good  of  the  whole.  This  is  very  obvious  in 
the  case  of  the  natural  instincts  imparted  to  ani- 
mals. Vide  Ileimarus,  Von  den  Trieben,  beson- 
ders  den  Kunsltrieben  derThiere — an  excellent 
work.  In  this  respect  man  is  far  inferior  to  the 
lower  orders  of  creatures.  I3ut  in  place  of  in- 
stinct he  has  reason  and  free  will,  by  which  he 
is  determined  to  action.  Vide  s.  26.  I.  And  in 
this  his  great  advantage  over  other  creatures  con- 
sists; by  this,  his  mond  nature,  he  resembles 
(fod,  and  is  more  nearly  related  to  him  than  othec 
creatures  who  inhabit  the  earth.  And  God  h-aG 
enabled  man  so  to  use  his  powers  that  the  free- 
dom of  the  human  will  shall  not  be  at  all  in- 
fringed. 

I'^rom  what  has  now  been  said  it  appears  («) 
that  God  is  the  first  cause  of  all  liie  powers 
which  his  creatures  possess,  (i)  That  God 
may  be  said  in  a  certain  sense  to  cooperate 
(concurrere)  with  the  free  actions  of  men,  since 
he  grants  them  the  powers  necessary  to  action, 
even  to  free  action,  and  continually  preserves 
the  powers  which  he  has  given;  and  moreover 
is  able  to  overrule  their  evil  actirms  so  as  to 
make  them  promote  the  greatest  good.  But  (c) 
since  this  language  is  liable  to  misapprehension, 
and  might  be  understood  in  such  a  sense  as 
would  be  inconsistent  with  the  freedom  of  the 
will,  and  would  represent  God  as  the  author  and 
promoter  of  sin,  it  is  better  to  make  an  accuratft 
distinction  between  the  powers  themselves 
granted  to  moral  beings,  and  the  exercise  of 
these  powers  in  free  actions.  The  powers  of 
action  come  from  God;  but  he  has  left  the  use 
and  exercise  of  these  powers  to  moral  beings. 
This  is  involved  in  the  very  idea  of  moral  being, 
which  would  cease  to  be  moral  if  it  wt-re  sub- 
jected to  the  control  of  necessity,  and  not  suf- 
fered to  choose  and  to  do  what  it  saw  to  be  best, 
according  to  the  laws  of  freedom.  Vide  s.  2(5, 1. 
(Jod  is  not,  therefore,  the*efl!icient  caiise  of  tho 
free  actions  of  moral  beings.  This  distinction 
is  thus  expressed  by  the  schoolmen:  iJium  eoti' 
curnre  \n  .•MATETRiAi.f:  aeliotiis  liberie — I.  e.,  fJod 
gives  to  men  the  powers  of  action,  and  preserves 
these  powers  every  moment,  but  not  ad  KohMALB 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


netioms  libera: — i,  e.,  he  is  not  the  efficient  cause 
of  the  free  actions  themselves.  Thus,  for  ex- 
ample, when  a  man  opens  his  mouth  to  lie,  or 
to  forswear,  God  g^rants  him  the  power  at  that 
very  inomont  to  open  his  mouth  and  to  speak 
(concurrit  ad  materiale  actiunis ;)  but  the  use  of 
this  power  {^furmule  aclionis)  is  left  to  the  man 
himself,  and  he  might  open  his  mouth  to  speak 
the  truth,  and  to  glorify  God.  The  action, 
therefore,  whatever  it  is,  is  his  own,  and  for  it 
he  hiuiself  is  accountable;  which  could  not  be 
the  case  if  the  action  proceeded  from  another. 

Note. — In  contemplating  the  preservation  of 
the  existence  and  of  the  powers  of  all  created 
beino^s,  we  find  great  occasion  to  recognise  and 
admire  the  divine  wisdom  and  goodness,  and  also 
a  powerful  "motive  to  seek  for  true  holiness. 
This  is  the  application  which  the  sacred  writers 
made  of  this  doctrine;  and  hence  the  ample  in- 
struction on  this  subject  which  they  give  us  is 
so  eminently  calculated  to  produce  a  good  prac- 
tical effect.  Cf.  s.  24  and  s.  28,  II.  Also  Ci- 
cero, De  Natur.  Deor.  ii.  39,  seq.,  and  47. 

II.  Preservation  of  Men. 

1.  Men  are  the  only  creatures  of  God  upon  the 
earth  who  possess  a  moral  nature,  or  who  have 
reason  and  freedom  of  will;  and  as  possessing 
these,  they  are  capable  of  a  far  higher  degree  of 
perfection  and  hapj)iness  than  the  lower  orders 
of  creation.  Hence  the  care  of  God  for  them  is 
more  apparent,  and  seems  to  be  more  active  and 
efficient,  than  for  his  other  creatures.  Matthew, 
vi.  2G,  oi'x  vfieii  fiaXJ^ov  6ia(j»£pfr«  avtCjv  ;  Acts, 
xvii.  2G,  28,  yiroj  Qfov  iaixei'.  Of  this  watchful 
care  of  God  for  the  preservation  of  men  we  have 
abundant  proof  in  the  history  of  our  race.  Vide 
Siissmilch,  Goettliche  Ordnung  in  denVeran- 
derungen  des  mensclichen  Geschlechts  ;  Berlin, 
1788,  8vo.     But  more  |)articularly — 

2.  The  life  and  all  ihe  poivers  of  each  indivi- 
dual of  the  human  race  depend  upon  God.  Mo- 
rns, p.  77,  n.  3. 

(a)  Our  life  depends  upon  God. 

(a)  As  to  its  origin ;  for  although  our  parents, 
B9  the  instruments  of  God,  are  the  means  by 
which  we  come  into  the  world  ;  yet  God  is  truly 
our  creator,  and  the  author  of  our  existence. 
We  are  taught  everywhere  in  the  holy  scriptures 
that  God  formed  us,  &c. ;  Job,  x.  8,  11,  12; 
Acts,  xvii.  25,  27;  Ps.  cxxxix.  13 — 16;  and 
also  that  he  secures  the  continuance  of  the  life 
which  he  imparts,  orders  all  its  changes,  deter- 
mines the  time,  place,  circumstances,  and,  in 
short,  everything  respecting  it,  Psalm  xc,  xci., 
cxxxix. ;  Acts,  xvii.  24 ;  Matthew,  vi.,  x.  The 
Hebrews  represented  this  truth  in  a  very  plain 
and  striking  manner,  by  supposing  God  to  keep 
ft  book  of  fate  and  book  of  life,  in  which  every 
man  is  enrolled,  and  has,  as  it  were,  his  own 
portion  assigned  him,  Ps.  cxxxix.  16.     Hence 


to  be  blotted  out  from  the  book  of  life  is  the  sam« 
as  to  die,  Exod.  xxxii.  32;  Ps.  Ixix.  28.  Th;j 
meaning  of  the  representation  is  this  — God  dfr« 
termines  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  our  lives 
he  is  perfectly  acquainted  with  our  whole  de»' 
tiny  ;  everything  in  our  whole  existence  depends 
upon  him,  and  is  under  his  control  and  govern- 
ment. 

(/3)  As  to  its  termination.  However  contin- 
gent the  time  of  our  death  may  appear,  it  is  siill 
at  the  disposal  of  God  ;  Job,  xiv.  5,  "Thou  hast 
appointed  his  bounds  which  he  cannot  pass." 
Ps.  xc.  3,  "Thou  turnest  man  to  destruction, 
and  sayest.  Return,  ye  children  of  men ;"  Psalm 
xxxi.  15;  xxxix.  4,5.  These  texts,  however, 
and  others  of  a  similar  nature,  have  been  often 
erroneously  supposed  to  imply  an  unconditional 
decree  of  God  respecting  the  life  and  death  of 
every  man.  Against  this  erroneous  opinion  of 
an  unconditional  decree  of  God,  determining  ir- 
revocably the  bounds  of  the  life  of  man,  the 
Christian  teacher  should  carefully  guard  his 
hearers,  since  it  is  not  unfrequenily  entertained 
even  by  those  who  are  cultivated  and  enlight- 
ened, as  well  as  by  those  who  are  ignorant.  It 
may  encourage  the  most  rash  and  foolhardy  un- 
dertakings; and  where  it  is  thoroughly  believed 
and  consistently  carried  out  into  action,  it  must 
lead  to  the  neglect  of  the  proper  means  of  reco- 
very from  sickness,  and  of  the  necessary  pre- 
cautions against  approaching  danger.  For  if  the 
fixed  period  of  my  life  is  now  arrived,  may  one 
say  who  is  of  this  opinion,  these  remedies  can 
be  of  no  service  to  me ;  if  it  is  not  yet  come,  they 
are  wholly  unnecessary.  This  error  has  been 
for  a  long  time  widely  diffused  over  the  East; 
and  Mahommed  himself  was  a  strict  fatalist  and 
predestinarian.  He  believed  that  every  event 
in  the  life  and  the  very  hour  of  the  death  of  every 
man  was  settled  by  an  unalterable  predetermi- 
nation. This  doctrine  has  received  the  name 
of  fatum  Turcicum  among  modern  European 
Christians,  because  among  all  the  Mahomme- 
dans  by  whom  it  is  professed,  the  Turks  are 
those  with  whom  the  Europeans  are  most  ac- 
quainted, and  in  whom  they  have  seen  the  evil 
influence  of  this  doctrine  most  clearly  displayed. 
It  would  be  more  properly  denominated /(;/u»» 
Muhammedicum.  The  opinion  that  the  bound 
of  human  life  is  unalterably  determined  was  also 
adopted  by  those  ancient  philosophers  who  be- 
lieved in  the  doctrine  of  fate.  Vide  s.  67. 
Hence  the  stoical  dilemma  of  which  mention  is 
made  by  Cicero,  in  his  treatise,  "  De  Falo;"  Si 
fatum  tibi  est,  ex  hoc  morbo  convalescere,  sive 
medicum  adhibucris,  sive  rwn,  convalesces ;  [and 
the  saying,  JSisifaiale  segro  mori, facile  evadeti 
cuifatale  mori,  vel  pediculi  morsu  conficiretur.'] 
On  this  principle  suicide  might  be  justified,  or 
at  least  palliated,  as  has  been  actually  done, 
God  does  indeed,  in  every  case,  foresee  and 


9U 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


know  how  \nng  a  man  will  live,  and  the  result 
will  perfectly  agree  with  this  fort^knowled'^^e, 
since  the  omniscient  God  cannot  be  mistaken  in 
what  he  knows.  But  to  stop  here  would  be  to 
take  only  a  partial  view  of  some  of  the  divine 
attributes,  which  would  lead  into  error.  God 
has  indeed  formed  a  purpose  respecting  the 
length  of  the  life  of  every  man  ;  but  for  the  very 
reason  that  he  is  omniscient,  he  has  formed  this 
purpose  only  on  consideration  of  natural  and 
moral  causes;  his  providence  therefore  does  not 
make  it  in  itself  unconditionally  necessary  that 
any  man  should  die  at  such  a  particular  time. 
The  purpose  of  God  is'a  conditional  one,  founded 
upon  a  knowledge  of  all  the  circumstances  into 
which  the  individual  who  is  the  object  of  it 
would  come,  and  also  upon  the  knowledge  of  all 
his  free  actions.  Vide  s.  32, 1,  ad  finem.  God 
foresees  how  the  body  of  every  man  will  be  con- 
stituted; in  what  situation  it  will  be  placed  ;  of 
what  character  his  moral  actions  will  be,  and 
what  consequences  will  flow  from  them,  &c. 
And  from  his  foreknowledge  of  all  these  circum- 
stances respecting  him,  God  forms  his  purpose, 
fixing  the  termination  of  his  life.  The  bodily 
conntitulion  which  a  man  brings  with  him  into 
the  world,  and  which  is  afterwards  afllected  by 
so  many  circumstances,  perfectly  known  to  God, 
and  under  his  control,  is  one  of  the  conditions 
upon  which  the  purpose  of  God  respecting  the 
end  of  human  life  is  founded  ;  and  this  period, 
so  far  as  it  depends  upon  our  bodily  constitution, 
cannot  be  passed  over.  When  the  clock  runs 
iown,  it  stops;  when  the  flower  blossoms,  it 
fades  ;  and  man  cannot  give  himself  a  new  body, 
nor  can  God,  except  by  miracle.  This  period 
of  life,  depending  upon  the  natural  constitution 
of  the  body,  and  upon  other  natural  circum- 
stances, is  called  the  natural  bound  of  human 
life;  and  this  cannot  be  prolonged  by  man  him- 
self. Now  if  a  man  dies  earlier  than  he  would 
naturally  have  done,  whether  from  his  own  fault 
or  that  of  others,  or  from  some  outward  accident, 
(the  cause,  however,  of  whatever  kind,  being 
known  to  God,  and  under  his  providence  and 
control.)  his  death  is  said  to  be  unualural, 
fxtraordiiviri/,  or  sometimes  conscfjurns,  in  op- 
position to  the  other,  which  is  called  antece- 
dent. The  cases  hen^  supposed  are  described 
in  the  Uihle  by  the  phrases,  to  fulfil  onc^K  dai/n, 
(vs'  rs  s^s,)  or  not  to  fulfil  them,  Isa.  Ixv.  20. 
And  in  this  way  are  we  to  understand  those  pas- 
sages in  which  (Jod  is  said  to  len^l/tm  out,  or  to 
nbrid<xe,  the  life  of  man.  The  meaning  of  these 
tprms  is.  that  God  so  directs  the  course  of  nature 
that  a  particular  man  lives  longer  than  he  would 
naturally  have  lived,  or  than  he  was  expected  to 
live.  Hence  it  appears  that  man  can  do  nothing 
himself  to  prolong  his  life  beyond  the  natural 
limits  of  human  existence;  l)ut  that  he  may  do 
nuch  to  shorten  it.     To  return  now  to  the  sto- 


ical dilemma.  When  a  man  is  sick,  he  most 
call  f >r  a  physician,  and  make  use  of  prescriDed 
remedies,  because  he  cannot  be  certain  that  thfi 
end  of  his  life  has  now  come.  The  purpose  of 
God  respecting  his  life  or  his  death  is  in  this 
case,  as  we  must  conceive  it,  merely  conditional. 
If  he  uses  the  proper  means,  he  will  recover;  if 
not,  he  will  die;  and  God,  as  he  is  omniscient, 
knows  which  of  these  courses  he  will  pursue, 
and  therefore  whether  he  will  die  or  live.  A 
vehement  controversy  arose  on  this  subject,  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  between  the  reformed 
philosophers  and  some  theologians  of  the  Ne- 
therlands, on  occasion  of  the  work  of  Beverovi- 
ci  US,  Quxstiones  Epistolicas  de  vita:  terminofalali ; 
Dortrecht,  1G34,  8vo;  and  enlarged,  Leiden, 
IfJSC),  Ito. 

(J))  Our  powers  depend  upon  God.  These 
powers  are  very  various;  but  they  may  be  class- 
ed under  two  general  divisions,  the  powers  of 
soul  and  of  body — spiritual  and  corporeal  powers. 
Now  as  man  did  not  give  himself  these  powers, 
so  neither  can  he  retain  possession  of  them  by 
his  own  strength  or  skill.  Hence  they  are 
justly  described  in  the  Bible  as  the  gift  of  God. 
Worldly  respectability,  mental  endowments, 
sound  judgment,  memory,  learning — all  are 
given  by  God;  and  that  one  man  surpasses  an- 
other in  these  respects  is  owing  to  his  will  and 
his  wise  government,  Exod.  iv.  11;  James,  i. 
17;  I  Cor.  iv.  7.  Those  happy  combinations 
of  circumstances  by  which  we  are  sometimes 
enabled  to  accomplish  with  ease  the  enterprises 
with  regard  to  which  we  and  others  were  ready 
to  despair,  are  to  be  ascribed  to  God,  although 
we  are  often  disposed  to  consider  them  as  the 
effect  of  chance.  We  owe  the  success  of  all 
our  undertakings,  not  to  our  own  wisdom  and 
skill,  but  solely  to  the  wise  and  benevolent  pro- 
vidence of  God.  To  lead  men  to  feel  this,  is  a 
great  object  with  the  sacred  writers,  who  every- 
where recommend  to  them  the  exercise  of  the«80 
pious  and  humble  dispositions  by  which  they 
may  be  strengthened  in  their  faith  in  God,  and 
preserved  against  pride  and  selfish  blindness. 
Hence  they  always  ascribe  the  powers  of  man, 
and  bis  success  in  exercising  them,  directly  to 
Gr)d,  as  the  first  cause;  in  such  a  way,  however, 
that  second  causes,  which  also  depend  upon  him, 
are  not  excluded.  INlorus,  p.  77,  n.  1,  2.  In 
this  connexion,  reference  should  be  made  to  Ps 
cxxvii.,  where  we  are  taught  that  our  mos 
strenuous  efl^orts  will  be  in  vain,  unless  Got. 
grants  us  success. 

Note. — Such  ineditafions  respecting  the  pre- 
servation of  our  existence,  powers,  and  tha 
healthful  and  successful  employn)ent  of  them, 
are  very  instructive  and  practical.  They  Hre 
calculated  to  fill  our  minds  with  peace  and  joy, 
and  to  excite  hearty  gratitude  to  God,  Christ 
makes  use  of  these  considerations  to  9hew  us 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


U 


hat  we  should  not  be  distrustful  of  God,  and 
should  not  trouble  ourselves  with  anxious  cares. 
Since  God  takes  so  much  care  of  the  various 
orders  of  being-,  of  beasts,  and  even  of  inanimate 
thinjrs,  how  much  more  will  he  care  for  us,  to 
whom  he  has  given  a  destination  by  far  more 
noble  than  theirs !  Matt.  vi.  25,  seq.  He  espe- 
cially warns  us  against  anxious  cares  as  to  our 
bodily  support,  since  they  withdraw  us  from 
more  important  concerns,  and  render  us  disqua- 
lified for  religion,  and  divine  instruction.  Luke, 
viii.  14,  ou  /xt|)t^)at  tov  )3tov  ovur(vi.yovO0  Tov 
7.dyov,  the  cares  of  life  prevent  the  eflicacy  of 
divine  truth  upon  our  hearts. 

SECTION  LXX. 

OF   THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    GOD. 

I.  Statement  of  this  Doctrine. 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  it  appears 
that  God  is  perfectly  acquainted  with  all  tiie 
(J/icienl  causes  which  exist,  both  those  which 
are  free  in  their  agency  and  those  that  are  other- 
wise; that  he  knows  every  act  of  these  causes, 
and  all  the  ejfccts  which  they  produce,  and  that 
he  guides  and  controls  them  all  at  his  pleasure, 
and  makes  them  subservient  to  his  own  designs. 
And  it  is  in  this  his  guiding  and  controlling  all 
the  ciianges  and  all  tiie  actions  of  his  creatures, 
6-)  as  to  promote  the  highest  good  of  the  whole, 
and  of  each  part,  that  the  government  of  God 
consists.  The  good  of  the  whole  involves  that 
of  all  the  parts  of  which  it  is  made  up,  and  one 
cannot  be  secured  exclusively  of  the  other.  The 
sum  of  the  good  of  all  the  individuals  under  the 
government  oi  God  constitutes  the  good  of  the 
whole.  Hence  the  propriety  of  making  the 
good  of  each  part  an  object  of  the  government 
of  God. 

In  order  to  form  a  correct  judgment  respect- 
ing the  good  secured  in  the  world  under  the  go- 
vernment of  God — a  subject  on  which  mistakes 
ar3  very  common,  the  following  principles  should 
be  kept  in  mind. 

1.  The  degree  of  perfection  and  happiness 
attainable  by  different  beings  varies  according 
to  their  dilTerent  relations.  All  beings  are  not 
susceptible  of  an  equal  degree  of  good.  The 
beast,  for  example,  seeks  for  nothing  further 
than  the  satisfaction  of  his  hunger  and  thirst, 
and  the  gratification  of  his  other  natural  appe- 
tites. But  moral  beings  require  more  than  this 
for  their  happiness;  they  have  a  higher  destina- 
tion, and  are  capable  of  a  higher  good.  And 
even  among  men  themselves,  the  external  good 
of  which  they  are  capable  is  dilTerent  according 
to  the  original  constitution,  the  abilities,  and 
even  the  age,  of  different  individuals.  The  good 
which  would  be  adapted  to  a  child  is  not  such 
as  would  satisfy  the  desires  of  a  man. 


2.  Such  is  the  constitution  which  God  has 
given  to  the  world,  that  the  happiness  of  one  is 
often  subordinate  and  must  be  sacrificed  to  the 
happiness  of  another.  This  is  clearly  taught 
by  experience  i  though  doubtless  philosophers 
would  prove,  if  the  testimony  of  experience 
were  not  so  explicit,  that  this  could  not  be  so. 
We  find,  however,  that  many  animals  serve  for 
the  nourishment  of  others,  by  whom  they  are 
constantly  devoured.  And  how  many  of  them 
are  there  which  daily  suffer  from  the  free  -.c- 
lions  of  men  !  For  us,  with  all  our  short-siglit- 
edness,  to  call  in  question  the  wisdom  and  ji^s- 
tice  of  what  God  thus  ordains,  or  permits.  ;ind 
to  suppose  that  it  could  or  should  have  been 
otherwise,  is  unwarrantable  presumption.  It  is 
enough  for  us  to  know  that  .-.i.ch  is  the  divine 
plan,  which  wo  are  unable  fully  to  comprehend, 
but  which,  for  the  very  reason  that  God  chose 
it,  is  the  wiseist,  best,  and  most  adapted  to  its 
ends.  So  we  ;;re  taught  by  the  holy  scriptures, 
and  further  than  this,  with  all  our  speculative 
philosophy,  we  cannot  go.  Vide  s.  48,  ad 
finem,  and  s.  71,  II. 

3.  Happiness  is  frequently  connected  with 
certain  conditions,  on  the  fulfilment  of  which 
our  enjoyment  of  it  depends.  For  example  :  the 
enjoyment  of  good  health  depends  in  a  great 
measure  upon  temperance.  If  any  one  fails  to 
comply  with  these  established  conditions,  the 
loss  of  the  good  which  he  had  hoped  for  is  to 
be  ascribed  to  himself,  and  not  to  God. 

These  considerations  are  overlooked  by  the 
great  body  of  mankind ;  and  hence  it  is,  that 
when  affairs  do  not  take  the  turn  which  they 
wish,  they  complain  and  murmur  respecting  the 
divine  governm.ert.  The  mistakes  most  fre- 
quent on  the  Gubjoct  of  divine  providence  are 
the  following — viz.,  (o)  Men  are  apt  to  consider 
their  whole  happiness  as  placed  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  a  certain  kind  of  advantages,  perhaps 
that  very  kind  of  whicii  they  are  deprived  ;  per- 
haps, too,  advantages  which  possess  no  intrin- 
sic value,  which  are  trinsient  and  unci^rtain, 
and  which,  if  obtained,  could  not  make  the  pos- 
sessor truly  happy.  The  poor  often  desire, 
most  of  all  things,  that  thpy  may  be  rich  ;  and 
the  sick,  that  they  may  enjoy  good  health.  But 
how  undesirable  is  it  often,  both  for  their  tem- 
poral and  eternal  welfare,  that  their  wishes 
should  be  gratified  !  (b)  Men  are  prone  to  for- 
get that  the  sfood  of  the  whole  is  to  be  consulted 
fir,  and  that  individuals  must  often  sacrifice  to 
the  general  welfare  some  private  advantages, 
for  which,  however,  they  are  to  receive  an  equi- 
valent in  other  ways,  as  they  may  confidently 
expect,  from  the  goodness  of  God,  and  as  expe- 
rience even  in  the  present  world  has  often 
proved,  (c)  Men  are  prone  to  regard  dispro- 
portionately the  present  pain  and  unhapjiiness 
which  they  experience,  and  to  forget  that  under 
x2 


346 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


their  sufferings  and  deprivations  there  may  be 
coi;i-ealed  the  germ  of  a  greater  temporal  and 
eternal  good.  (</)  Men  are  disposed  to  charge 
God  unjustly  with  denying  them,  or  depriving 
them  of  certain  advantages,  the  loss  of  which 
is  wholly  their  own  fault.  How  many  of  tiie 
sick  ami  the  destitute  complain  of  God  as  the 
author  of  their  sufferings,  while  their  own  con- 
scipncps  must  assure  them  that  they  alone  are 
to  blame  ! 

II.  Froof  of  this  Doctrine. 

1.  From  the  natural  constitution  nf  the  world, 
(argnmentum  physicum,)  it  is  impossible  for 
tht^  human  mind  to  conceive  how  the  admirable 
order  and  harmony  which  appear  in  the  uni- 
verse, where  all  things  are  so  intimately  con- 
nected, run  into,  and  depend  upon  one  another, 
like  the  links  of  a  chain,  should  exist  without 
the  superintendence  and  control  of  an  infinitely 
wise  and  almighty  Being.  Consider  here  the 
intliience  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  growth  of 
plants,  upon  the  life,  health,  and  support  of  ani- 
mate beings.  Reflect,  too,  that  one  country  has 
a  surplus  of  certain  useful  productions,  of  which 
another  country  is  wholly  destitute.  The  former 
cannot  use  its  surplus  productions,  the  latter  is 
compelled  to  seek  elsewhere  what  its  own  soil 
does  not  produce,  and  to  obtain  it  where  it  can 
be  found  in  the  greatest  abundance.  This  gives 
rise  to  trade,  activity,  enterprise  ;  and  these  bring 
in  wealth,  &c. 

2.  From  erperience,  (argumentum  histori- 
cum.)  'I'his  may  be  either /)er.sortrt/ or  general, 
and  so  is  called  by  Morns  dupliccm  providtntiac 
se/iolrim,  p.  83,  s.  8.  This  proof,  when  rightly 
exhibited,  is  very  obvious  and  intelligible,  even 
to  the  unlearned.  In  the  events  which  lake 
place  around  us,  let  the  attention  be  directed  to 
the  cf/u^es  by  which  they  are  effected — to  the 
time,  place,  and  other  circumstances  in  which 
these  cfiuses  acted.  Bv  their  slow  and  often 
unnoticed  combination,  effects  are  produced  at 
which  every  one  is  astonished.  The  smallest 
occurrences  ot\en  lead  to  the  greatest  revolu- 
tions; wicked  actions  are  made  the  means  of 
good,  and  result  in  the  advantage  of  those  whom 
they  wtire  desiirned  to  injure,  so  that  many  can 
say.  with  Joseph,  ((Jen.  1.  20,)  "Ye  thought 
evil  against  me,  hut  (»od  meant  it  for  good." 
Men  who  are  to  he  the  means  of  emin(^nt  good 
to  the  world,  or  to  perform  some  disiinijuished 
service,  must  be  called  forth  \ipon  the  stajje  of 
action  at  exactly  the  most  proper  time,  in  ex- 
actly the  most  suitable  plice,  and  at  precisely 
the  most  iavourable  juncture  of  other  fircnm- 
stancps.  When  history  is  studied  with  these 
considerations  kept  in  mind,  (and  in  the  study 
of  history  they  should  never  be  omitted,  as  they 
are  now.  alas!  too  frequently,  by   those  who 


teach  this  branch  to  the  young,)  what  to  the 
ignorant  and  thoughtless  might  appear  to  he 
ciiance  or  accident,  exhibits  clear  marks  of  a 
guiding  Providence.  And  this  is  the  hi^h  posi- 
tion, from  which  those  who  have  tlie  scriptures 
in  their  hand  can  survey  all  the  events  recorded 
in  the  history  of  the  world.  We  may  refer  to 
the  history  of  Joseph,  to  the  ancient  history  of 
the  Jews,  that  of  the  diffusion  of  Ciiristianity, 
of  the  Reformation,  and  the  more  important 
events  of  our  own  times,  as  remarkable  exam- 
ples. Vide  Schroeckh,  Disp.  hisloria  provi- 
dentiam  divinam,  quando  et  qnam  clare  loqua- 
tur;  Vitebergaj,  177(3.  J.  G.  Miiller,  Briefe 
iiber  das  Studium  der  Wissenschaften,  beson- 
ders  der  Geschichte;  Ziirch,  1798, 8vo — a  work 
full  of  valuable  remarks  drawn  from  experience, 
which  deserve  to  be  considered,  especially 
by  the  teachers  of  religion,  and  to  be  carefully 
applied  by  them  to  practice.  But  we  ought  by 
no  means  to  confine  our  attention  to  the  great 
events  which  are  recorded  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  To  one  who  is  an  attentive  observer  of 
all  the  changes  throuirh  which  he  himself  passes 
his  own  life  will  furnish  abundant  materials  fo» 
the  most  interesting  and  useful  observations 
respecting  the  providence  of  God.  And  such 
observations  are  uiicommonly  useful  in  popular 
instruction.  They  tend  to  awaken  and  cherish 
religious  dispositions.  If  men  suppose  that  God 
exercises  no  care  over  them,  they  have  no  ground 
or  motive  to  love  and  worshi))  him.  13ut  since 
ho/iness  is  the  true  end  for  whiirh  we,  as  moral 
beings,  were  made,  and  since  our  capacity  for 
happiness  is  in  exact  proportion  to  our  holiness, 
we  ought  to  pay  particular  attention  to  those 
dealings  of  Divine  Providence  with  us  by  which 
this  great  end  is  promoted.  To  every  man 
whose  moral  character  is  in  any  considerable 
degree  improved  and  advanced,  whatever  he  has 
experienced  himself,  or  noticed  in  others,  tending 
to  the  promotion  of  holiness,  possesses  an  inex- 
pressible interest;  and  any  who  are  destitute  of 
feeling  on  this  point,  and  can  ridicule  the  spiri- 
tual experiences  of  pious  Christians,  and  what 
they  communicate  of  their  experiences  to  others, 
either  by  writing  or  by  oral  relation,  give  mourn- 
ful proof  that  they  themselves  are  as  yet  unre- 
I'ormed,  and  are  turnin'j  aside  t'rom  the  true  end 
of  their  being.  One  who  is  tauijht  in  his  youth 
to  refer  everytliinir  in  his  own  life  to  God,  and 
to  search  for  the  traces  of  divine  providence  in 
what  befals  himself,  will  learn  to  look  at  the 
lives  of  others  and  at  the  history  of  nations  in 
the  same  manner  and  with  the  same  intereo 
and  will  of  course  he  dissatisfied  when  he  sees 
that,  in  ojiposition  to  the  example  of  the  sacred 
writers,  God  is  wholly  left  out  of  the  account 
by  so  many  historians.  But,  on  the  contr.iiy, 
hs  who  himself  lives  in  the  woild  without  God, 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


347 


may  be  content  with  a  history  in  which  the 
hand  of  God  is  unnoticed,  and  indeed  will  be 
displeased  with  any  other. 

3.  From  the  Bihk.  Morns,  p.  79 — 81,  s.  G. 
That  God  is  the  creator,  proprietor,  and  governor 
of  the  world,  that  all  things,  even  the  small- 
est, depend  upon  him,  and  that  with  infinite 
wisdom  he  overrules  all  for  the  highest  good, 
are  principles  everywhere  assumed  in  the  Bible. 
The  texts  which  relate  to  providence,  in  the  more 
general  view  of  it,  were  cited  s.  G8,  1.  2.  The 
texts  which  relate  more  particularly  to  the  divine 
government  may  be  divided  into  the  following 
classes  : — (a)  Tiiose  in  which  the  guidance  and 
direction  of  all  events,  both  small  and  great,  are 
expressly  ascribed  to  God,  Matt.  vi.  31 ;  Acts, 
xvii.  25,  2(j ;  1  Chronicles,  xxix.  (al.  xxx.)  12. 
{b)  Those  in  which  particular  changes  and  oc- 
currences, past,  present,  and  to  come,  are  referred 
to  God  as  the  author;  Isa.  xliii.  12;  Acts,  iv. 
28  ;  Psa.  xc. ;  Pro  v.  xvi.  1,  33,  "  The  lot  is  cast 
into  the  lap,  but  the  whole  disposing  thereof  is 
of  the  Lord."  (c)  Those  which  contain  divine 
promises  and  threatenings,  and  which  would  be 
without  meaning  on  any  supposition  but  that 
God  is  the  governor  c/f  the  world  and  the  dis- 
poser of  the  destinies  of  men  ;  Exodus,  xx.  12  ; 
Psa.  xc,  xci.,  &c.  ((Z)  Those  in  which  God 
is  entreated  to  avert  calamities,  to  put  an  end 
to  distress,  to  bestow  blessings,  &c. ;  or  those 
in  whicii  the  granting  of  such  requests  is  pro- 
mised, Psalm  xxii.  5;  cxxviii.;  Matt.  xxvi.  39; 
1  Thess.  iii.  10,  11.  In  order  that  this  may  be 
correctly  understood,  it  should  be  compared 
with  what  was  before  said  respecting  the  will 
and  the  |)urposes  of  God,  s.  20,  32. 

Note. — It  has  been  already  frequently  re- 
marked, that  according  to  a  mode  of  thinking 
tnd  speaking  common  among  the  ancients,  many 
things  were  represented  as  resulting  immcdialcly 
from  the  agency  of  God,  though  they  were  in 
reality  effected  through  the  instrumentality  of 
second  causes,  which  perhaps  were  merely  not 
mentioned, perhaps  w'ere  overlooked,  or  possibly, 
at  that  early  period  of  the  world,  noteven  known. 
Vide  s.  58,  II.  The  mode  of  representation  here 
referred  to,  and  expressions  and  narrations 
founded  upon  it,  occur  frequently  in  the  Bible, 
•  in  Homer,  and  the  ancient  writers.  Thus,  for 
example,  when  we  should  say,  it  tliuvdcrs,  it 
rains,  there  is  an  earthquake,  the  ancients  said, 
God  thunders,  &c.,  Psa.  xxix.;  civ.  32.  Gen. 
xi.  7,  8;  xix.  24,  "God  rained  upon  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  brimstone  and  fire  from  the  Lord  out 
of  heaven."  Many  events,  therefore,  which 
would  seem,  from  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
spoken  of,  to  be  the  results  of  the  immediate 
agency  of  God,  and  to  be  accomplished  in  an 
extraordinary  way,  were  really  effected  by  na- 
tural causes.  However,  since  these  natural 
causes  depend  upon  the  government  of  God,  this 


mode  of  speaking  is  in  itself  correct.  And  it  is 
because  we,  in  the  present  age,  have  so  little  of 
the  religious  feeling  of  the  ancient  world  that 
we  misunderstand  their  more  ])ious  and  religious 
mode  of  expressing  themselves,  and  even  feel  it 
to  be  offensive.  The  teacher  of  religion  should, 
however,  closely  follow  the  example  of  the  sa- 
cred writers  in  this  respect,  and  ever  imitate  and 
preserve  this  more  religious  phraseology  which 
they  employ,  and,  like  them,  refer  everything  to 
God.  And  if,  in  order  to  prevent  superstition, 
he  should  think  it  necessary  to  say  that  such  an 
event  took  place  naturally,  he  must  be  careful 
that  he  be  not  understood  to  mean  that  it  took 
place  without  God,  and  that  he  does  not  thus  he- 
come  the  means  of  causing  his  hearers  to  forget 
God,  and  to  live  at  a  distance  from  him.  He 
ought,  on  the  contrary,  in  such  cases,  to  shew 
that  although  a  particular  event  may  have  been 
natural,  it  was  not  the  less  owing  to  the  agency 
of  God  ;  that  nature  is  only  an  instrument  in  the 
hands  of  God  ;  and  that  nothing  therefore  t^ikes 
place  which  is  not  according  to  his  will  and 
purpose. 

SECTION  LXXI. 

THE  GOVERNMKNT  OF  GOD  IN  RELATION  TO  THE 
FREEDOM  OF  MAN,  AND  TO  THE  EVIL  EXISTING 
IN  THE  WORLD. 

I.  In  Relation  to  the  Freedom  of  Man. 

On  the  one  hand,  the  freedom  of  the  hun)an 
will  is  unimpaiied  by  the  government  of  God; 
and,  on  the  other,  the  government  of  God  is  un- 
obstructed and  undisturbed  by  the  free  actions 
of  men.  The  freedom  of  man  must  at  all  events 
be  maintained,  for  morality  and  accountability 
depend  upon  it.  If  he  is  not  free  to  choose  and 
to  act,  he  cannot  be  accountable  for  his  actions; 
for  tl.ey  are  not  within  his  own  power.  We 
have  already  established  the  position  (s.  22, 1.), 
that  C<o(\  foresees  those  actions  which  result  from 
the  freedom  of  man,  and  the  consequences  of 
them,  as  well  as  those  which  are  necessary,  or 
less  contingent;  but  that  the  former  do  not  cease 
to  be  free  because  they  are  foreknown.  This 
principle  must  be  assumed  as  true  in  reasoning 
on  this  subject.  We  are  not  to  expect,  there- 
fore, that  the  government  of  God  over  moral 
beings  will  be  shewn  by  his  compelling  them  to 
perform  good  or  bad  actions.  That  men  are  free 
in  what  they  do  is  everywhere  assumed  in  the 
Bible,  and  must  be  presupjiosed  in  every  system 
of  morals.  Vide  Luke,  viii.  5 — 15 ;  xiii.  G — 9 ; 
James,  i.  13 — 15. 

Still,  however,  the  free  actions  of  moral  beings 
are  under  the  most  minute  inspection  and  the 
most  perfect  control  of  God.  For  these  actions 
are  dependent  (a)  upon  the  poicers  which  man 
possesses,  and  for  these  powers  he  is  indebted 


248 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


to  God  alone.  Vide  s.  69.  (i)  Upon  the  laws 
of  his  physical  and  moral  nature — i.  e.,  the  laws 
(in  one  case,  of  motion,  and  in  tlie  other,  of 
ihoufrht)  according  to  whicli  he  exercises  his 
peculiar  powers;  and  these  laws  are  given  and 
establislied  hy  God.  Vide  ubi  supra,  (c)  Upon 
external  fircumstances — upon  things  witlioul  the 
man  himself;  and  these  things,  as  all  others,  are 
under  the  control  of  God.  Man,  then,  as  a  mo- 
ral being,  is  free  to  will,  to  resolve,  and  to  act 
according  to  his  resolutions.  God  furnishes  him 
with  occasions  of  acting  in  the  external  objects 
around  him;  he  also  gives  him  his  powers  of 
action,  and  preserves  to  him  their  exercise;  but 
then  permits  him,  though  under  his  own  guid- 
ance and  supervision,  to  exert  his  powers  ac- 
cording to  his  own  will,  and  to  perform  his 
actions  freely.  Vide  s.  GO,  I.  ad  finem.  How 
this  can  be,  we  shall  find  it  difficult  to  under- 
stand, however  sagacious  and  fine-spun  our 
philosophical  theories  may  be;  but  that  thus  it 
is,  that  notwithstanding  the  providence  of  God 
we  remain  free  in  our  actions,  must  be  firmly 
maintained  if  we  would  not  degrade  ourselves 
below  the  standard  of  moral  beings,  if  we  would 
not  falsify  the  dictates  of  that  moral  feeling  so 
deeply  implanted  by  the  Creator  himself  in  our 
heart:*,  and  if  we  would  not  consequently  over- 
turn the  first  and  most  important  doctrines  of 
morality.  Every  man's  own  consciousness,  the 
clear  dictates  of  his  moral  nature,  convince  hini 
that  he  is  free,  beyond  the  necessity,  or  even  the 
possibility,  of  a  further  demonstration.  Cf.  the 
writings  of  the  modern  philosophers  of  the  dif- 
ferent schools — Eberhard,  Ueber  die  Freyheit; 
and  Jacob's  clear  and  perspicuous  treatise  on  the 
same  subject,  acconling  to  the  principles  of  the 
Critical  jihilosophy,  contained  in  Iviesewetter's 
work,  "  Ueber  den  erslen  Grundsatz  der  Moral- 
philosophie;"  Leipzig  und  Halle,  17*^8,  8vo. 
On  account  of  the  deficiencies  and  difficulties 
attending  metaphysical  demonstrations  of  free- 
dom, and  the  perplexed  and  endless  speculations 
by  which  both  sides  of  this  question  have  been 
hrgued,  Kant  rejected  them  all  as  insufficient, 
and  as  leading  into  error;  and  would  have  us 
depend  mr)re  upon  experience,  and  believe  and 
hold  fast  the  doctrine  of  human  freedonj,  because 
it  is  so  indispensable  in  morals  that  without  it 
rnoralitv  cannot  be  conceived  to  exist,  [This 
view  of  Kant,  implying  that  freedom,  while  it 
is  a  postulate  of  our /jrwc/Zcrt/ reason,  (i.  e.,  ne- 
cessary to  be  assumed  in  order  to  nif)ral  action,) 
is  yet  inconsistent  with  our  l/tcorelical  reason, 
(i.  e.,  incapal)le  of  demonstration,  ami  <;ontrary 
to  the  conclusions  to  which  lite  reflecting  mind 
arrives,)  is  now  very  generally  rejected.  We 
cannot  admit  a  twofold  and  contradictory  reason, 
nor  can  we  adopt  a  principle  for  practice  to 
which  our  speculative  reason  is  statedly  op- 
posed.    It  is  justly  remarked  by  Hockshammer, 


in  his  brief  but  coinprehensive  treatise  on  tha 
Will,  that  even />rrtc//crt/ freedom  cannot  be  ade- 
quately maintained,  if,  while  we  must  deem  Dur- 
selves  free,  we  are  yet  left  to  suspect,  by  the 
decisions  of  our  speculative  reason,  that  in  real- 
ity we  act  from  some  concealed  necessity,  undei 
the  laws  of  which  our  inmost  being  is  placed. 
Vide  Bockshammer,  Ueber  die  Freyheit  de3 
mensch.  Willens,  s.  5,  f . ;  Stuttgart,  1821. — 
Tr.]  The  more  full  investigation  of  the  whole 
subject  belongs  rather  to  the  department  of  mo- 
ral science  than  here. 

The  exhibition  of  this  subject  in  popular  in- 
struction should  be  kept  as  free  as  possible  from 
all  philosophical  subtleties;  and  it  would  be 
well  if  the  teachers  of  religion,  froio  regard  to 
their  own  peace  and  comfort,  as  well  as  that  of 
their  hearers,  would  abide  by  the  following 
simple  principles,  which  accord  alike  with  scrip- 
ture and  experience,  (a)  God,  with  a  view  to 
the  real  welfare  of  man,  gives  him  the  means 
and  opportunities  necessary  to  withhold  him  from 
the  choice  of  evil,  and  to  lead  him  to  what  is 
right,  (i)  For  many  of  our  free  actions,  he 
furnishes  us  with  inducement  and  encourage- 
ment in  the  external  circumstances  in  which  he 
has  placed  us;  and  he  so  orders  these  circum- 
stances as  to  promote  what  we  ourselves  under- 
take, and  to  give  it  a  happy  issue.  He  makes 
use  of  these  circumstances  also  as  a  warning  to 
us  and  others  to  abstain  from  such  actions  as 
we  find  attended  with  unhappy  consequences. 
These  encouragements  and  warnings  may  serve 
as  examples  to  shew  the  consistency  between 
the  divine  government  and  human  freedom  ;  for 
we  are  still  at  liberty,  and  have  it  siill  within 
our  power,  to  do  that  to  which  we  are  encour- 
aged, and  to  abstain  from  that  from  which  we 
are  warned ;  and  in  both  cases  we  remain  tht 
authors  of  our  own  free  actions,  (e)  God  re- 
wards men  for  their  good  actions,  and  punishes 
them  for  those  that  are  bad  ;  which  he  could  not 
do,  were  men  not  free  in  performing  them. 
Viile  s.  31.  {(I)  God  frequently  prevents 
wicked  actions,  which  men  had  intended  and 
resolved  to  perform.  The  brethren  of  Joseph, 
for  example,  were  not  able  to  execute  their  de- 
signs against  his  life.  Gen.  xxxix.  God,  how- 
ever, does  not  always  do  this;  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, sometimes  permits  the  wicked  actions  of 
men,  since  otherwise  he  would  destroy  their 
freedom.  But  then  these  wicked  actions  are 
overruled  by  him  to  be  the  means  of  good.  Gen. 
1.  20;  Acts.  ii.  3G.  If  in  any  case,  however, 
they  are  wholly  irreconcilable  with  the  wise  and 
benevolent  plan  of  his  government,  or,  which  is 
the  same  thinsr,  cannot  be  made  to  contribute  to 
the  general  good  which  he  seeks  to  promote,  he 
thru  directly  prevents  them.  What  actions  and 
events  belong  to  this  class  it  is  impossible  for 
us  to  say,  and  can  be  known  only  to  the  omni- 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


Mf 


scient  God.  (e)  The  result  and  issue  of  all  ac- 
lions,  good  and  bad,  depend  solely  upon  God. 
Vide  s.  70.  Many  a  scheme,  which  appeared 
in  itself  to  be  a  masterpiece  of  human  wisdom 
and  prudence,  has  failed  of  success,  while  the 
most  foolish  and  inconsiderate  undertakings 
have  been  prospered.  Vide  Eccles.  ix.  11; 
Prov.  xvi.  1,  seq. ;  James,  iv.  13 — 15.  This 
would  be  seen  by  us  much  more  frequently  if 
we  were  not  accustomed  to  look  rather  at  the 
result  than  at  the  intention  and  plan.  If  the  re- 
sult is  favourable,  we  judge  favourably  of  the 
design  itself;  and  the  reverse.  Hence  it  is  that 
we  find  praise  and  blame  so  unjustly  awarded 
in  history.  When  we  tiiink  to  benefit  ourselves 
or  others  by  a  particular  course  of  action,  we 
often  injure  both  ourselves  and  others  ;  and  the 
reverse.  Hence  it  is  said,  that  while  the  free- 
dom of  men  and  other  moral  beings  is  not  de- 
stroyed by  the  divine  government,  it  is  yet  cnn- 
fincd  and  Hmited.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  81,  s.  3,  6, 
Notes.  [Also  Bretschneider,  Dogmatik,  b.  i. 
s.  644,  s.  yS,  6.] 

II.  In  Relation  to  Evil. 

1.  The  many  evils  which  exist  in  the  world, 
and  the  calamities  which  befal  the  human  race, 
have  from  tlie  earliest  times  been  regarded  as  a 
standing  dbjection  against  the  providence  of 
G'-id.  How  they  can  consist  with  his  wisdom 
and  goodness,  and  consequently  with  his  provi- 
dence, is  a  question  which  men  at  all  times  have 
found  it  difficult  to  answer  These  evils  are 
either  physical  or  moral ;  and  the  permission  nf 
;ither  of  them  has  appeared  to  be  subversive  of 
livine  providence.  The  existence  of  evil  was 
drought  forward  as  an  argument  against  provi- 
dence by  E]|)icurus.  Vide  Lucretius,  De  Rerum 
Natura,  1.  V. ;  Cicero,  De  Nat.  Deorum;  Lac- 
lanlius,  De  ira  Dei,  c.  13.  The  stoics,  on  the 
3tho'.  hand,  undertook  to  answer  this  objection. 
Vide  Seneca,  De  Beneficiis,  iv.  4,  seq.  'JMiis 
:>bjection  appeared  so  strong  to  Bayle,  that,  in 
»he  article  on  Manicheism,  in  his  Dictionary,  he 
pronounces  it  unanswerable.  But  Leibnitz,  in 
(lis  "Theodicee,"  endeavoured  to  resolve  the 
ioubts  of  Bayle,  and  to  establish  a  correct  phi- 
/osoj)hical  theory  respecting  the  exi.-;tence  of 
fivil.*  An  argument  has  sometimes  been  drawn 
4gainst  providence  from  the  complaints  of  the 
iacred  writersjespecting  the  evil  existing  in  the 
world,  and  the  unhappy  fate  of  man,  especially 
(hose  which  occur  in  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes. 


[•  Voltaire  also  opposed  the  doctrine  of  provi- 
lence  in  a  poem  on  the  destruction  of  Lisbon ;  and 
Khen  this  doctrine  was  ably  dcfomlcd  by  Roussoau, 
in  his  Letter  on  Optimism,  he  replii'd  by  a  philoso- 
phical romance  entitled  "  Candide,"  in  wliioh  he 
presents  an  appallin!^  picture  of  the  disorders  of  the 
world,  from  whieh  he  takes  occasion  to  deride  the 
notion  of  an  overruling  providence. — Th.] 
32 


But  the  object  of  the  futl.or  of  this  bool<  is  not 
so  much  to  arraign  the  providence  of  God, as  to 
shew,  frcm  the  instability  of  fortune,  and  the 
uncertainty  of  human  schemes,  that  we  should 
learn  true  wisdom,  and  that  since  providence 
affords  us  a  sufficiency  of  good  things,  we  should 
study  the  art,  so  rarely  understood,  of  making  a 
wise  use  of  them,  by  which  alone  we  can  bo 
contented  and  happy,  Eccles.  iii.  vii.  ix. 

In  reply  to  these  objections,  it  may  be  said, 
that  if  the  providence  of  God  can  be  proved 
from  other  arguments,  the  existence  of  evil  can 
afford  no  reason  to  doubt  or  deny  it.  On  the 
contrary,  we  must  conclude,  that  since  God  per- 
mits and  sulTers  evil  in  the  world,  it  must  be 
according  to  his  wisdom,  and  be  ])erfpctly  con- 
sistent with  his  providence,  although  we  may 
not  be  able  to  understand  how  it  can  be  so,  and 
why  he  did  not  constitute  a  difl'erent  order. 
Vide  Seneca,  De  providentia,  sive  quare  bonis 
viris  mala  accidant,  cum  sit  providi-ntia.  The 
will  and  the  power  of  God  may  be  regarded 
either  as  exerted  unconditionalhj,  uticoiifined  by 
any  established  order,  or  as  exerted  in  conform- 
ity with  a  certain  established  order  of  things. 
In  the  exercise  of  his  absolute,  unconditional 
power,  God  could  remove  evil  out  of  the  way; 
but  he  will  not  always  do  this,  because  it  is 
against  the  order  which  from  his  wisdom  he 
found  it  necessary  to  establish.  He  indeed 
foresaw  the  existence  of  evil,  and  permits  it, 
(cf.  Ps.  Ixxxi.  12,  13;  Acts,  xiv.  IG;  Rom.  i. 
24 ;)  but  so  far  as  it  is  evil,  he  can  never  have 
pleasure  in  it,  or  himself  promote  or  favour  it; 
James,  i.  13 — 17.  He  has  admitted  it  into  his 
general  plan,  because  he  can  make  it,  in  its  con- 
nexion w  ith  other  things,  the  means  of  a  good, 
which,  without  it,  either  could  n('t  be  elfected 
at  all,  or  at  least  not  so  well,  as  by  its  being 
permitted.  What  Christ  said,  INIiitt.  xiii.  29,  is 
very  true,  that  if  the  tares  were  pulled  up  the 
wheat  would  be  pulled  up  with  them;  and  that 
to  prevent  this,  the  tares  and  the  wheat  must  be 
suflTered  to  grow  together.  We  are  acquainted 
with  only  a  small  part  of  what  is  euibraced  in 
the  universe  of  God  ;  and  even  this  small  part  is 
understood  by  us  very  imperfectly;  and  as  to 
the  true  internal  relation  of  things — ihe  ends 
for  which  they  exist,  and  the  consequences  by 
which  they  are  followed,  our  knowledge  is  ex- 
tremely defective;  we  are  therefore  unable  to 
form  a  right  judgment  respecting  ihp  relation  of 
evil  to  good,  and  of  the  amount  of  evil  to  the 
amount  of  good. 

Seneca  says,  Contro.  iv.  27,  "Necessitas 
magnum  humanas  feliciiatis  patrocinium" — 3c- 
cesaity  is  a  great  consolation  in  the  iii/jfi'nniis  of 
men.  If  by  necessity  he  meant  that  blind,  in- 
evitable fate  to  which  the  irods  themselves  nro 
subject,  then  is  it  a  poor  consolation  indeed; 
for  what  comfort  would  it  be  to  a  malefactor, 


950 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


when  carried  towards  the  place  of  execution, 
to  be  connnually  informed  that  lie  must  die, 
and  there  is  no  escaping  it.  But  if  necessity 
may  be  understood  to  mean  tlie  order  of  thinnfs 
which  (iod  saw  it  necessary  to  constitute,  then 
the  maxim  above  stated  is  perfectly  true  ;  it  is 
accordant  with  the  Christian  spirit,  and  full  of 
consolation,  althougli  this  necessity  may  involve 
many  things  which  are  unintelligible  and  dis- 
agreeable to  us.  For  if  God,  who  is  infinitely 
wise  and  benevolent,  has  constituted  this  order, 
it  must  be  good,  and  adapted  to  the  end  which 
he  has  in  view,  however  otherwise  it  may  ap- 
pear to  us. 

Again;  men  who  are  dissatisfied  with  their 
lot  often  complain  that  certain  blessings  are 
denied  them,  without  inquiring  whether  they 
themselves  are  susceptible  of  these  blessings, 
and  without  remembering  the  many  blessings 
which  they  already  enjoy.  Besides,  the  opinions 
of  men  respecting  happiness  are  so  various, 
and  sometimes  so  foolish,  that  it  would  seem 
impossible  that  their  wishes  should  all  be  grati- 
fied. Things  sometimes  desired  as  the  greatest 
blessings  would  be,  if  possessed,  the  greatest 
injury  to  both  soul  and  body  ;  and  the  good- 
ness of  Providence  is  shewn  in  withholding 
them.  Cf.  ZollikofTer,  Betrachtungen  iiber  das 
Uebel  in  der  Welt.  Jacobi,  Ueber  die  VVeisen 
Absicliten  Gottes.  De  Maree,  Gottesverthei- 
digung  iiber  die  Zulassung  dos  Bosen. 

2.  Anotiier  argument  against  providence  is, 
that  the  ungodly  often  prosper  in  the  world, 
while  the  righteous  sutTer  affliction.  This  is 
thought  to  be  indirectly  inconsistent  with  the 
wisdom  and  goodness  of  God,  and  therefore  to 
disprove  a  superintending  providence.  The 
minds  of  reflecting  persons  have  from  the  earli- 
est times  been  disturbed  by  this  doubt;  and  the 
advocates  of  providence  have  endeavoured  in 
various  ways  to  solve  it.  It  is  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament,  and  receives  various 
answers,  iiccordingto  thedilTerent  aspects  which 
the  subject  assumes — e.  g..  Psalm  xxxvii.xxxix. 
xlix.,  and  especially  Ixxiii. ;  Job,  xvi.  et  passim. 
Many  also  among  the  Grecian  philosophers  were 
very  much  jjerplexed  on  this  subject;  and  Di- 
ogenes the  Cynic  declared,  ♦'  that  the  prosperity 
of  the  wicked  disproved  the  power  and  wisdom 
of  the  <rods;"  Cicero,  De  Nat.  Deor.  iii.  34. 
Others,  however,  and  particularly  the  stoics, 
undertook  to  answer  this  objection ;  and  Seneca, 
in  liis  book  "  De  Providentia,"  investiorntps  the 
question  how  the  righteous  can  siilfer,  if  theri- 
is  a  divine  providincel  According  to  the  opi- 
nion of  n.iyle  this  objection  cannot  be  met  by 
an\1  salisf.ictory  answer.     But, 

(n)  This  objection  results  in  a  great  measure 
from  ignorance,  and  from  the  low  and  false  esti- 
mate put  upon  the  real  advantages  which  the 
([odly  enjoy,  and  the  true  happiness  which  flows 


from  the  possession  of  them.  Most  of  those 
who  urge  the  objection,  that  the  riyliteous  sutler 
adversity,  while  the  wicked  prosper  in  the 
world,  place  hap|)iness  in  external  t/iin^s,  in  the 
possession  of  wealth,  or  in  sensual  indulgences; 
and  of  course  regard  the  poor  man,  who  is  littlo 
thouijht  of  by  the  world,  as  unhap|)y.  But  in 
this  they  mistake,  overlooking  the  essential  dis- 
tinction between  true  and  only  apparent  good. 
True  advantages,  such  as  health  of  body,  know- 
ledge of  the  truth,  holiness  of  heart,  and  others, 
both  of  a  physical  and  moral  nature,  make  men 
happy  by  their  own  proper  tendency.  These 
are  the  true  spiritual  goods,  the  treasures  in  hea- 
ven, of  which  Christ  speaks;  by  the  possessijn 
of  which  alone  the  soul  is  prepared  for  the  true 
happiness  of  moral  beings.  But  besides  these, 
there  are  other  things,  such  as  riches,  the  enjoy- 
ments of  sense,  power,  and  honour,  which  may 
become  advantages  by  a  wise  and  rational  use 
of  them,  but  which  otherwise  are  injurious,  and 
the  occasions  of  unhappiness  to  men.  They 
are,  however,  regarded  by  many,  even  when 
unwisely  and  im|)roperly  used,  as  real  blessings, 
because  they  excite  sensations  agreeable  to  the 
carnal  mind.  But  to  those  who  form  a  right 
judgment  respecting  them,  they  are,  when  im- 
properly used,  only  apparent  blessings,  because 
the  pleasure  which  they  produce  is  transient, 
and  turns  at  last  to  pain.  The  writer  of  Psalm 
xlix.  very  justly  decides,  therefore,  that  the  life 
of  the  profligate  is  only  outwardly  and  in  ap- 
pearance happy,  and  is  often,  in  reality,  only 
splendid  and  showy  misery,  to  envy  which 
would  be  extremely  foolish.  In  Psalm  Ixxiii,, 
Asaph  points  to  the  end  of  the  wicked,  and 
shews  that  their  prosperity,  being  unsubstantial, 
is  suddenly  and  in  a  moment  lost.  We  cannot 
certainly  regard  that  as  a  good  in  reference  to 
another,  or  account  him  as  happy  for  the  pos- 
session of  anythin<j  which  he  himself  does  not 
truly  enjoy.  But  it  is  not  unfrequenlly  the  case 
that  the  thinjjs  most  esteemed  by  the  world,  so 
far  from  making  the  possessor  happy,  are  the 
occasion  of  disquietude  and  misery.  And  so  it 
is  often  said  in  common  life,  that  the  fortune  of 
the  rich  and  powerful  is  only  shinim;  miscri/  ,• 
that  they  are  not  to  be  envied  ;  that  we  would 
not  exchantje  places  with  them,  ^c. 

(/;)  When  this  is  consideretl,  and  the  state 
of  the  virtuous  and  the  vicious  is  then  eompared, 
that  of  the  former,  though  replete  with  external 
sulTeriiigs,  must  be  pronounced  to  he  more  hap- 
py than  that  of  the  latter,  F'>r  alihoujjh  the 
ijood  man  may  have  no  worldly  honour,  no 
earttily  riches,  no  superfluity  of  pleasures,  he 
has  true,  s))iritual,  goud  treasures  in  heaven, 
which  inolh  and  rust  do  not  corrupt,  and  which 
are  secure  from  thieves,  (Matt,  vi,  10,  20:)  and 
although  he  were  i)owed  down  under  external 
alHntions,  he  would  yet  maintain  his  integrity 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


251 


of  heart,  and  the  reward  which  the  favour  of 
God  secures — the  greatest  of  all  the  blessinos 
which  men  can  enjoy.  Vide  Matt,  xvi.25.  He 
has  cheerfulness  and  tranqi^illity  of  soul;  while 
those  who  seek  their  wood  in  external  things  are 
constantly  disquieted  by  passions,  cares,  and 
disappointments.  But  this  blessedness  which 
which  the  virtuous  man  enjoys  niakes  but  little 
show  in  the  world,  and  is  hence  so  often  under- 
valued by  worldly  men.  They  find  it  impos- 
sible to  see  or  believe  that  there  can  be  any 
happiness  in  things  for  which  they  have  so  little 
taste.  This  train  of  thought  is  much  dwelt 
upon  by  the  stoical  philosophers,  and  by  the 
sacred  writers. 

(c)  It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that 
the  virtuous  always  endure  more  external  sut- 
ferintrs  than  the  wicked ;  for  the  righteous  are 
frequently  j)rosperous,  even  in  tlieir  worldly 
aflairs ;  while  the  wicked  are  unsuccessful  in 
all  their  \indertakings.  But  these  cases  are  less 
noticed,  because  they  seem  to  follow  in  the  na- 
tural course  of  things. 

((/)  Even  good  men  often  bring  upon  them- 
selves tiie  sufferings  which  they  endure  by  their 
own  fault ;  they  do  not  in  all  cases  act  according 
to  the  law  of  duty  and  the  rules  of  prudence; 
and  in  such  cases  they  cannot  justly  ask  to  be 
excepted  from  the  common  lot  of  faulty  and  in- 
judicious men,  and  must  expect  to  endure  the 
unhappy  consequences  of  their  errors  and  follies. 
Christ  says,  Luke,  xvi.  8,  "The  children  of  this 
world  are  wiser  in  their  generation  than  the 
children  of  light" — i.  e.,  those  whose  alTections 
are  fixed  upon  the  world,  the  worldly-minded, 
are  often  more  wise  with  regard  to  the  things  of 
time  than  those  whose  alTectifins  are  fixed  upon 
heaven  are  with  regard  to  their  heavenly  trea- 
sures. The  former  have  more  care  for  their 
welfare  in  the  present  life  than  the  latter  for 
their  blessedness  in  the  world  to  come.  Should 
pious  and  good  men  exhibit  the  same  zeal  and 
prudence  which  worldly  men  exhibit  in  ma- 
naging their  worldly  affairs,  how  much  would 
they  accomplish  for  their  own  advantage  and 
that  of  others  !  But  since  they  do  not  always 
come  up  to  this  standard,  they  must  sufi'er  the 
evil  con'^equences  of  their  delinquency. 

(f)  Nothing  is  more  common  than  for  us  to 
err  in  our  estimate  of  the  moral  state  and  cha- 
racter of  other  men.  All  are  not  pious  and  vir- 
tuous who  appear  to  be  such,  and  are  esteemed 
such  by  their  fellow  men.  And  it  is  equally 
true  that  all  who  are  accounted  ungodly  are  not 
the  gross  criminals  and  offenders  they  are  some- 
times supposed  to  be.  Vide  Luke,  xviii.  10, 
seq.  The  character  of  many  a  man  is  made 
out,  by  those  who  look  \ipon  him  with  hatred 
or  envy,  to  be  much  worse  than  it  really  is. 
One  man  commit-  <-vne  flagrani.  out-breaking 
crime,  which   brings   hira   into   ilisgrace,  and 


draws  upon  him  the  contempt  of  the  world  ;  but 
he  may  be,  at  the  same  time,  of  a  better  dispo- 
sition, and  less  culpable  in  the  sight  of  God  than 
many  a  reputed  saint,  who  covers  over  his  real 
shame  with  the  hypocrhical  pretence  of  virtue. 
Vide  John  viii.  3,  7,  10,  11.  And  since  this  is 
the  case,  and  it  is  always  difficult,  and  some- 
times impossible  for  us,  who  caimot  search  the 
heart,  lo  determine  the  true  moral  character  of 
men,  and  of  their  actions,  we  ought  to  be  ex- 
tren»ely  cautious  in  deciding,  whether  the  good 
or  evil  which  befalls  them  is  deserved  or  not. 
In  most  cases,  our  judgments  on  liiis  subject 
are  certainly  very  erroneous. 

(/)  The  afllio'ions  which  good  men  endure 
are  beneficial  to  them  and  to  others,  and  are  pro- 
motive of  their  highest  welfare.  Tbty  often 
prevent  a  greater  evil  which  was  threatening 
them  ;  exercise  and  strengthen  their  piety,  virtue, 
and  confidence  in  God;  increase  their  zeal  in 
the  pursuit  of  holiness,  and  consequently  their 
true  happiness;  and  thus  verify  the  declaration 
of  Paul,  Horn.  viii. '28,  "That  all  things  work 
together  for  the  good  of  those  who  are  friends 
of  God."  Cf.  Horn.  v.  .3;  James,  i.  2;  Matt. 
V.  10;  Heb.  xii.  5 — 13,  especially,  ver.  11, 
which  appears  to  be  copied  directly  from  the 
heart  of  an  atiiicted  saint.  "  No  chastening  for 
the  present  seenieth  joyous,  but  grievous;  ne- 
vertheless, afterward  it  yieldeth  the  peaceable 
fruits  of  righteousness  to  them  who  are  exer- 
cised thereby."  Hence  the  sufferings  of  good 
men  are  sometimes  called  n(^^>a'jfloi,  because  by 
means  of  then)  their  characters  are  jiroved  and 
their  faith  is  tried  and  strengthened. 

(^')  But  there  is  one  other  consideration, 
which  may  remove  all  our  doubts,  and  make  us 
contented  when  we  see  the  innocent  oppressed 
and  suffering,  and  the  wicked,  who  forget  God, 
in  a  prosperous  condition — viz.,  that  the  present 
life  is  only  the  first,  imperfect  stage  of  our  exist- 
ence— a  state  of  probation,  in  \\hich  we  are  to 
prepare  for  another  and  more  perfect  state.  This 
consoling  doctrine  respecting  the  future  life  and 
retriluition  beyond  the  grave,  is  one  of  tlie  chief 
doctrinesof  Christianity,  from  which  everything 
proceeds,  and  to  which  everything  is  referred; 
and  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  con- 
stantly make  use  of  it,  and  seek  to  comfort  the 
pious  by  the  truth  that  divine  justice  will  not 
be  fully  exbiliited  until  the  future  state  shall 
commence,  and  that  then  the  rightecis  shall  be 
richly  recompensed,  by  the  exceeding  greatness 
nf  their  future  reward,  for  all  the  evil  thty  have 
suffered.  Vide  Rom.  viii.  17;  1  Peter,  iv. 
12—14  ;  2  Cor.  iv.  17,  18,  and  the  parable  of 
Lazarus,  Luke,  xvi.,  especiall}'  ver.  25.  But 
of  those  who  act  here  upon  the  earth  from  im- 
proper motives,  even  if  they  perform  actions 
which  in  tiiemselves  are  crood  and  praiseworthy. 
Christ  says,  thti/  have  their  reward — i.  e.,  thej 


ist 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


may  indeed  obtain  temporal  advantaCTes,  but 
God  will  not  reward  th^iu  witli  the  treasures  of 
the  future  world,  Matt.  vi.  2,  5,  16. 

SECTION  LXXII. 

OF  THE  NATL'RE  AND  ATTRIBUTES  OF  DIVINE 
PKOVIDENCE. 

I.  It  is  UniversaL 

It  extends  to  every  creature  and  to  every  event 
in  the  universe — to  the  small  and  insignificant, 
as  well  as  to  the  great  and  important.  The 
Bible  everywhere  teaches,  that  the  purpose  of 
God  extends  not  merely  to  the  whole,  and  to  the 
connexion  of  all  its  parts,  but  to  each  and  every 
part,  their  relations  and  their  alterations.  His 
knowledge  must  accordingly  comprehend  the 
Bmallest  and  most  apparently  insignificant  cir- 
cumstances. This  follows  even  from  the  scrip- 
tural idea  of  creation.  Vide  s.  46.  Cf.  Ps. 
cxiii.  5,  6,  "  He  dwelieth  on  high,  and  hunibleth 
himself  to  behold  the  things  in  heaven  and 
in  the  earth."  Ps.  cxxxviii,  6,  "Thouoh  the 
Lord  be  high,  yet  hath  he  respect  unto  the 
lowly."  Ps.  xxxvi.  6;  cxlviii.  Matt.  x.  29, 
30,  "  Not  a  sparrow  falls  to  the  ground  without 
his  notice;  he  numbers  the  hairs  of  our  heads." 

The  doctrine,  that  the  providence  of  God  ex- 
tends even  to  the  minutest  tilings,  (providentia 
circa  minima,)  leads  us,  when  it  is  properly  con- 
sidered, to  entertain  a  very  exilied  idea  of  God 
and  his  attributes,  in  that  he  thinks  and  cares 
for  every  creature  which  he  has  made  during 
every  moment  of  its  existence,  and  in  every  situ- 
ation in  which  it  is  placed.  But  because  the 
manner  in  which  the  providence  of  (Jod  can  ex- 
tend to  all  individuals  is  incomprehensible  by 
the  human  understanding,  and  because  rnen  are 
prone  to  compare  God  with  thegiselves,  this 
doctrine  has  been  often  either  wholly  misunder- 
stood or  directly  denied.  Since  it  is  supposed 
inconsistent  with  the  dignity  of  princes  and  the 
great  of  the  earth  to  concern  themselves  with 
small  affairs,  the  case  is  thought  to  be  the  same 
with  God  ;  and  his  honour,  it  is  imagined,  is  as- 
serted, by  denying  that  he  cares  for  what  is 
small  and  insignificant.  This  doctrine  was  ac- 
cordingly either  doubted  or  denied  l)y  most  even 
of  the  Grecian  philosophers ;  and  indeed  it  could 
not  appear  to  tiiem  with  that  degree  of  clearness 
in  which  it  appears  to  us,  considering  that  their 
ideas  respecting  matter  and  the  creation  of  the 
world,  and  the  relations  in  which  matter  and  the 
world  stand  to  God,  were  so  iniperfeet,  and  so 
wholly  unlike  those  which  we  have  derived  from 
the  liible.  Vide  s.  45,  46.  Aristotle  main- 
tained that  the  providence  of  God  extends  to 
heavenly  things,  but  not  to  things  on  the  earth 
(according  to  Diogenes  and  Plutarch.)  The 
Stoics,  or  ^be  contrary,  believed  in  a  providence 


extending  to  individual  things,  in  a  sense,  h  jw 
ever,  somewhat  uitlerent  from  that  common  with 
us.  Vide  Seneca,  De  Providentia,  and  ("icero, 
De  Nat.  Deor.  ii.  6^,  66;  also  Plato,  De  Uep. 
X.,  where  this  doctrine  is  ably  defended.  The 
views  entertained  by  some  even  of  the  Christian 
fathers  on  this  subject  were  extremely  erroneous. 
Such  are  those  expressed  by  Hieronymus.  in 
his  Commentary  on  Hab.,  where  he  says,  "The 
divine  majesty  cannot  stoop  so  low  as  to  interest 
itself  to  know  how  many  verinin  are  each  mo- 
ment produced  on  the  earth,  and  how  many  pe- 
rish ;  how  many  flies,  fleas,  and  gnats  there  are ; 
how  many  fishes  the  sea  contains;"  &c.  His 
opinions,  however,  were  opposed  by  Gregory  of 
Nazianzen,  Oral,  xvi.,  and  by  Chrysostom,  in 
his  book  "  De  Providentia;"  and  very  rational 
and  scriptural  o|)inions  on  this  subject  were 
expressed  by  many  other  of  the  ecclesiastical 
fathers.  In  modern  limes,  the  Socinians  liave 
been  accused  of  denying  that  providence  extends 
to  small  things;  at  least  such  was  said  to  be  the 
opinion  expressed  in  the  writings  of  some  of 
the  leaders  of  this  sect;  but  from  the  ol)scurity 
of  their  language,  the  truth  of  the  accusation 
remains  doubtful.  Many  of  the  modern  scep- 
tics and  free-thinkers  in  England,  the  Nether- 
lands, France,  and  Germany,  haveeitherdouhted 
and  denied  the  providence  of  God  altogether,  or 
at  least  providentia  circa  minima.  So  Bayle, 
De  la  Mettrie,  Voltaire,  the  author  of  the  %.s- 
tcme  dc  la  Nature,  and  Frederic  IL,  in  the 
works  of  the  philosopher  of  Sans  souci.  Letter 
Seventh. 

The  doctrine  that  the  providence  of  God  is 
universal,  and  extends  to  every  individual  crea- 
ture, may  be  confirmed  and  illustrated  by  the 
following  observations : — 

1.  Ttie  division  of  the  creatures  of  God  into 
classes  and  kinds  answers  no  other  purpose  than 
to  assist  the  feebleness  of  the  human  understand- 
ing, which  cannot  at  once  survey  all  things  in 
their  true  connexion.  We  are  therefore  com- 
jielled  to  begin  with  particulars,  and  then  pro- 
ceed to  what  is  general;  to  begin  with  what  is 
more  easy,  anil  proceed  to  what  is  more  diffi- 
cult, in  order  to  render  the  connexion  of  the 
whole  in  some  measure  comprehensible  to  our 
minds.  But  God  knows  all  things  immediately 
and  at  once;  there  is  no  succession  in  his 
knowledge.  Vide  s.  22,  H.  This  his  know- 
ledge can  occasion  him,  therefore,  no  trouble  or 
expense  of  time,  in  which,  as  is  the  case  with 
us,  more  important  concerns  must  be  negUcteii 
or  deferred.  Employment  about  small  tliinL's 
is  made  an  ohjertion  to  men,  because  they  are 
prone  to  re<rard  trifles  as  important,  (which  can 
never  be  said  of  (iod,)  and  bceause,  on  account 
of  them,  they  are  prone  to  neglect  what  is  of 
more  value.  This  danger  has  been  transferred 
very  inconsiderately  to  God.     But  as  nothing 


WORKS  OF  GOD 


253 


is  too  great  for  him,  so  nothing  is  too  small. 
He  cannot  therefore  be  dtstraclcd,  as  Frederic 
II.  supposed,  by  being  employed  about  small 
concerns. 

2.  The  divine  purpose  must  necessarily  ex- 
tend to  particular  things;  since  otherwise  his 
knowledge  must  be  as  imperfect  and  fragmentary 
as  our  own.  From  the  theory  of  the  omni- 
science and  the  decrees  of  God  stated  in  s.  22, 
32,  and  there  proved  to  be  according  to  scripture 
and  reason,  it  appears,  that  when  God  thinks 
of  men  he  does  not  think  of  them  iri  i^entrul,  but 
in  particular — of  all  men  individually,  and  in 
all  the  various  circumstances  and  conditions  in 
which  they  exist  every  moment.  In  this  way 
does  he  thinlc  of  the  whole  world,  and  of  all  its 
separate  parts,  from  eternity;  and  similar  to 
this  is  his  decree  respecting  the  universe,  and 
all  its  parts.  No  alteration,  therefore,  can  be 
made  in  the  smallest  portion  of  the  world,  which 
he  did  not  consider  and  embrace  in  his  eternal 
decree. 

3.  That  a  human  ruler  cannot  devote  equal 
attention  to  all  the  objects  which  are  under  liis 
inspection,  and  that  he  is  compelled  to  set  some 
of  them  aside  as  comparatively  unimportant,  and 
to  give  himself  little  or  no  concern  about  them, 
is  the  consequence  of  human  im|)erfection.  The 
greater  the  powers  of  his  mind  are,  the  more  will 
he  be  able  to  occupy  himself  with  particular  ob- 
jects, and  those  of  minor  consequence;  and  the 
more  he  does  this,  the  more  just  and  impartial 
an  estimate  will  he  be  able  to  form  of  the  whcle, 
and  consequently  the  more  wisely  and  prosper- 
ously will  he  be  able  to  administer  his  govern- 
ment. Hence  Plato  justly  remarked,  that  a  per- 
fect ruler  must  have  an  equal  care  for  all  his 
subjects,  and  all  the  offices  of  state,  and  allow 
none  of  them  to  pass  unregarded,  lest  the  w^hole 
should  suffer  injury  from  his  neglect  of  a  part. 
Vide  Cicero,  De  Officiis,  i.  25.  It  is  this  rest- 
less activity,  which  seizes  upon  everything,  even 
things  which  would  appear  insignificant  to  men 
of  common  minds,  and  turns  them  to  its  own  ac- 
count, which  is  so  universally  admired  and  ap- 
plauded in  Cffisar,  Frederic  II.,  and  other  distin- 
guished rulers  of  ancient  and  modern  times.  If 
this  is  true  with  regard  to  human  rulers,  how 
much  more  so  with  regard  to  God  in  admii  i^f^r- 
ing  his  government;  since  he  is  not  wanting 
either  in  the  knowledge,  power,  or  will,  requisite 
to  the  most  particular  providence.  If  God  did 
not  exercise  a  watchful  care  over  particular  per- 
sons and  things,  how  would  he  be  able  to  secure 
the  good  of  the  whole,  which  is  composed  of  so 
many  parts,  all  intimately  connected  ?  The 
whole  is  only  the  aggregate  of  many  small 
portions;  and  the  smallest  is  as  inseparably 
connected  with  the  largest,  as  the  links  are  in  a 
chain,  or  the  wheels  in  a  clock.  The  greatest 
«volutions   which   have   taken    place    in   the 


world — wars,  &c.,  have  often  proceeded  from 
the  smallest  causes;  from  a  small  spark,  great 
conflagrations,  which  have  occasioned  a  wide- 
spread misery  and  destruction.  In  these  cases, 
what  is  small  is  inseparably  connected  with 
what  is  great.  The  providence  of  God,  there- 
fore, either  extends  to  all  things,  even  to  those 
which  we  denominate  small,  or  there  is  no  di- 
vine providence.  From  this  alternative  there  is 
no  escape. 

4.  Men  are  accustomed  to  regard  many  things 
as  small,  insignificant,  useless,  and  even  injuri- 
ous, because  they  are  unable  to  see  their  use 
and  importance  in  the  connexion  of  things. 
This  is  therefore  a  proof  of  the  weakness  of  the 
human  understanding,  and  of  the  great  imper- 
fection of  human  knowledge,  liut  as  God 
crciiltd-A\\  these  things, and  continually  prolongs 
their  existence,  he  must  regard  them  as  useful 
and  necessary,  and  adapted  to  promote  his  ends, 
in  their  connexion  with  the  whole.  How  then 
can  it  be  inconsistent  with  his  dignity  to  watch 
over  them,  and  to  preserve  them  !  If  it  was 
not  dishonourable  for  God  to  give  them  exist- 
ence, it  cannot  be  dishonourable  for  him  to  pre- 
serve to  them  the  existence  he  has  given.  And 
indeed  his  wisdom,  power,  and  goodness,  are 
at  least  as  evident,  and  often  more  so,  in  his 
least,  as  in  his  greatest  works.  Cf.  Plato,  De 
Repub.  x. 

II.  It  is  Benevolent,  Wise,  Unsearchahle. 

This  follows  incontrovertibly  from  what  has 
already  l)een  said,  and  is  perfectly  accordant 
with  the  instructions  of  the  Bible.  Vide  Ps. 
Ixxiii,  16,  civ.  24  ;  Job,  xxxvi.  xxxvii.,  and  espe- 
cially xxxviii.;  Eccl.  iii.  11,  viii.  17,  xi.  5; 
Rom.  xi.  33,  31;  in  which  passages  the  wisdom 
and  unsearchableness  of  God  are  particularly 
noticed.  This  benevolent  and  wise  government 
of  God  is  administered  in  such  a  way  as  to 
promote  the  highest,  which  is  a  vwral  good, 
among  all  moral  beings,  in  order  to  prepare 
them  to  partake  of  that  true  and  abidir.g  happi- 
ness which  can  be  attained  only  by  holiness; 
since  it  is  principally  for  moral  beings,  who  are 
more  nearly  related  to  God  than  any  other,  that 
he  has  created,  preserves,  and  governs  all 
things. 

We  must  here  attend  to  the  question.  In  what 
relation  the  mirnclcfi  so  often  mentioned  in  the  holy 
scriptures  stand  to  the  government,  of  God?  We 
must  here  presuppose  what  has  already  been  said 
respecting  miracles,  s.  7,  III. ;  and  proceed  there- 
fore directly  to  consider  the  philosopho-theolo- 
gical  theory  respecting  miracles,  and  to  shew  in 
what  manner  the  objections  urged  against  it  maj 
be  answered. 

1.  The  changes  in  the  world  ordinarily  take 
place  under  tie  divine  government,  according  10 
the  laws  or  the  course  of  nature,  since  they  are 


854 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


effected  througli  the  powers  which  God  has  o^iven 
to  his  creatures,  though  not  without  his  concur- 
rence, but,  on  the  contrary,  under  his  constant 
guidance  and  inspection.  Now  if  anything  takes 
place  which  cannot  be  explained  by  these  laws, 
or  which  transcends  them,  it  is  extraordinary, 
and  is  regarded  as  an  immediate  production  of 
God,  (in  distinction  from  what  takes  place  ac- 
cording to  tiie  course  of  nature,  which  is  said 
to  be  a  mediate  production  of  God,)  and  is  com- 
monly called  a  miracle.  vSince  now  both  of 
these  effects  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  providence 
of  God,  it  is  divided  into  ordinary  and  extraor- 
dinary ;  and  because  these  extraordinary  effects 
are  produced  both  on  the  body  and  on  the  mind, 
miracles  are  divided  into  those  which  take 
place  ill  the  material  world,  and  in  the  spiritual 
world. 

Note. — Many  things  produced  by  the  mediate 
agency  of  God  are  ascribed  to  his  immediate 
agency,  from  ignorance  of  the  second  causes  by 
which  his  agency  is  exerted.  Hence  ignorant 
and  inexperienced  men  are  accustomed  to  see 
more  miracles,  and  to  believe  in  them  more  rea- 
dily, than  learned  men,  who  are  better  able  to 
observe  the  natural  causes  by  which  these  effects 
are  produced.  And  this  it  is  which  renders 
learned  and  scientific  men  often  incredulous  and 
sceptical  upon  the  subject  of  miracles.  But  they 
are  apt  to  presume  too  much  on  their  own  know- 
ledge, and  to  think  they  can  explain  many  things 
which  they  really  do  not  understand.  It  is 
also  a  great  fault,  though  a  very  common  one, 
to  draw  a  general  principle  from  what  often 
occurs,  and  to  apply  it  to  all  cases.  Because 
many  pretended  miracles  have  been  proved  false, 
Hume  declares  that  all  miracles,  those  of  the 
the  Bible  not  excepted,  are  such,  and  thus  re- 
jects the  most  credible  testimony. 

2.  'rhepossibilily  of  such  extraordinary  effects 
produced  by  God  is  proved  in  the  following 
manner — viz.,  («)  They  are  naturally  possible — 
i.  e.,  God  has  power  to  produce  such  effects. 
He  is  indeed  himself  the  author  of  the  laws  of 
nature,  but  he  is  not  bound  by  them — i.  e.,  he 
is  not  so  bound  by  them  that  he  must  necessa- 
rily act  in  every  case  in  accordance  with  them  ; 
he  can  alter  them,  suspend  them,  or  depart  from 
them;  which,  indeed,  follows  as  a  just  conse- 
quence from  his  omnipotence,  (/y)  They  are 
also  morally  possible — i.  e.,  they  are  not  incon- 
sistent with  the  divine  wisdom,  provided  they 
tend  to  promote  some  important  end,  which 
could  not,  or  at  least  could  not  so  well,  be  se- 
cured in  any  othf  r  way ;  nor  can  it  be  shewn, 
i  priori,  that  such  cases  may  not  occur.  Mira- 
cles cannot,  then,  be  shewn  to  be  either  morally 
or  physically  impossible,  and  to  attempt  to  do 
this  is,  as  Kant,  Fichte,  and  other  modern  plii- 
loaophers  have  allowed,  most  unpardonable  pre- 


sumption.    Of.  the   similar  reasoning  of  the 
stoics,  in  Cicero,  De  divin.  i.  52,  scq. 

3.  The  proof  of  the  reality  of  miracles  depends 
upon  credible  testimony.  We,  as  Christians, 
regard  the  testimony  of  the  holy  scriptures  as 
credible,  the  historical  truth  of  the  events  related 
in  them  being  supposed  already  established.,  for 
w'bich  cf.  s.  7,  HI.  The  miracles  mentioned  in 
the  scriptures  are  all  of  such  a  nature  as  to  prove 
the  divinity  of  the  truths  and  doctrines  which 
are  taught  in  them,  to  seal  the  divine  mission  of 
the  teacher,  in  short,  to  promote  various  imports 
ant  ends,  especially  those  of  a  moral  kind.  At 
the  time  when  these  miracles  were  performed, 
when  men  would  believe  nothing  without  signs 
and  wonders,  they  were  doubtles^f  special  ser- 
vice, but  their  utility  is  by  no  means  confined  to 
those  particular  times,  but  they  must  answer  the 
same  great  ends  with  all  who  are  convinced  of 
their  historical  truth.  For  if  miracles  are  true, 
God  proved  by  them  his  unlimited  dominion 
over  the  powers  of  nature;  and  to  a  being  who 
proves  this  we  are  bound  to  yield  assent  and 
render  obedience. 

4.  Tindal,  Hume,  Morgan,  Voltaire,  and 
others,  who  contend  against  miracles,  bring  for- 
ward the  a  priori  objection  that  miracles  would 
presuppose  an  imperfection  in  the  original  plan 
of  God.  It  would  he,  they  say,  very  unphiloso- 
phical  to  represent  God  as  a  workman  who  had 
not  properly  planned  or  executed  his  work,  and 
who  is  obliged,  when  the  wheels  of  the  machine- 
ry stop,  or  the  house  is  ready  to  fall,  himself  to 
interpose,  and  regulate  and  rectify  what  is  wrong. 
Such  ideas,  they  think,  would  suit  wtdl  with 
that  early  state  of  society  in  which  Jupiter  was 
supposed  to  examine  the  vault  of  heaven,  to  see 
if  it  were  rent,  but  are  entirely  unsuitnd  to  our 
enlightened  and  philosophical  age.  To  this  it 
may  be  answered, 

(«)  That  miracles,  like  everything  else  in  the 
world,  formed  a  part  of  the  original  plan  of  God, 
and  were  embraced  in  his  eternal  purpose  re- 
specting the  world  and  all  its  changes.  Vide  s. 
32.  In  this  purpose,  it  must  have  been  deter- 
mined that  in  the  course  of  ordinary  events,  in 
particular  places,  and  at  certain  times,  miracles 
should  take  place;  for  God  must  have  foreseen 
that  some  of  his  plans  would  either  wholly  fail, 
or  could  not  be  so  well  accomplished  by  the 
ordinary  course  of  events,  as  by  his  special  in- 
terference. This  answer  was  given  by  Leibnitz 
and  Wolf. 

(li)  The  contradiction  which  the  human  under- 
standing appears  to  find  in  miracles  is  owingto 
the  fact  that  men,  from  the  very  constitution  of 
their  minds,  connect  together  the  causes  and  ef- 
fects of  the  material  world  by  the  idea  of  tieccs- 
nity,  and  cannot  do  otherwif-e.  But  in  the  view 
of  God,  who  sees  all  things  as  they  really  ar& 


WORKS  OF  GOD. 


25ft 


there  are  no  necessary  effects,  even  in  the  mate- 
rial world  ;  but  his  will  is  in  all  things  free,  and 
upon  his  will  alone  therefore  does  it  depend  to 
produce  any  effect  which  may  be  conducive  to 
his  designs.  A  miracle  now  is  a  new  effect 
aside  from  the  usual  chain  of  events,  which  can- 
not therefore,  like  ordinary  effects,  be  connected 
with  what  h-as  preceded  and  with  what  follows 
by  the  law  of  a  sufficient  reason,  and  which  we 
are  therefore  led  irresistibly  to  ascribe  to  a  power 
which  has  unlimited  control  over  the  material 
world,  and  thus  arises  the  idea  of  a  mirac/e. 
But  still  there  is  no  real  change  in  things  them- 
selves, and  as  soon  as  the  miracle  ceases  they 
proceed  as  they  did  before,  and  are  still  connect- 
ed together  by  the  rules  of  the  maxim  of  a  stif- 
jicient  reason.  Thus  we  see  that  miracles  are 
possible,  but  we  are  unable  to  comprehend  how 
they  can  be  performed  ;  just  as  we  are  unable  to 
understand  how  God  could  create  a  world  from 
nothing. 

5.  From  these  principles  it  also  follows  that 
no  miracles  are  wrought,  in  cases  in  which  the 
designs  of  God  can  he  fully  and  in  their  whole 
extent  attained  by  natural  means.  And  hence 
we  may  conclude,  that  miracles  are  of  unfrequent 
occurrence,  and  that  their  reality  must  be  attested 
b)'  witnesses  who  cannot  be  justly  suspected 
cither  of  intentional  fraud,  or  of  enthusiasm, 
credulity,  or  any  unintentional  self-deception, 
before  we  can  be  justified  in  believing  them.  It 
cannot  be  said  that  God  is  more  glorified  by 
miracles  than  by  the  common  course  of  nature. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  is  equally  glorified,  to  say 
the  least,  by  the  common  course  of  nature,  as  by 
miracles.  In  miracles  his  bare  omnipotence  be- 
comes more  conspicuous,  but  in  the  course  of  na- 
ture, his  infinite  wisdom  and  power  are  alike 
evidenced.  The  opinion  here  opposed  arises 
from  the  puerile  notion,  that  it  must  be  more 
difficult  and  laborious  for  God  to  perform  a  mi- 
racle than  to  produce,  in  the  ordinary  way,  the 
natural  changes  which  take  place  in  the  world, 
and  that  the  former  therefore  is  more  to  his  glory. 
But  to  God  nothing  is  difBcult,  and  nothing 
causes  him  labour.  The  production  of  the  na- 
tural world,  the  constitution  of  its  laws,  and  the 
regulation  of  its  changes,  require,  in  themselves 
considered,  as  great  an  exertion  of  power  as  the 
working  of  miracles. 

6.  But  although  the  remarks  here  ipade  are 
true,  they  by  no  means  justify  those  interpreters 
who  endeavour  to  explain  by  natural  principles 
events  expressly  said  in  the  scriptures  to  be 
miraculous,  performed  for  the  attainment  of  im- 
portant moral  ends  not  otherwise  attainable. 
For  such  an  interpretation  is  inconsistent  with 
the  authority  of  the  Bible,  and  indeed,  is  a  di- 
recv  impeachment  of  its  truth,  and  goes  to  prove 
that  the  sacred  writers,  or  those  who  performed 
the  pretended  n  iracles,  were  either  impostors, 


or  themselves  deluded  fanatics.  The  doctr'oo 
of  Christ  and  the  apostles  is  only  so  far  esta- 
blished, as  they  appeal  to  miracles.  For  they 
gave  themselves  out  as  exlranrdhwry  and  iinme- 
diaie  aitibassadurs  of  God,  But  this  claim  could 
not  be  proved  merely  by  the  internal  excellenc»» 
of  the  doctrines  which  they  taught,  and  they 
could  expect  to  be  credited  only  when  their  ex- 
traordinary claims  were  supported  by  extraordi- 
nary facts.  And  it  is  on  account  of  ttiis  intimate 
connexion  between  the  truth  of  their  miracles 
and  their  character  as  extraordinary  teachers, 
that  many  who  are  unwilling  to  concede  the 
latter  are  disposed  to  dispute  the  former.  If 
the  proof  from  miracles  be  once  allowed,  it 
follows  directly  that  those  who  performed  them 
were  extraordinary  and  immediate  messengers 
from  God.  Vide  s.  7,  and  Introduction,  s,  7,  8. 
7.  The  question  is  asked.  Whether  miracles 
occur  at  the  present  time,  and  whether  we,  in 
accordance  with  the  promises  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, may  expect  to  perform  miraculous  cures, 
and  hope  to  possess  the  gifts  of  inspiration,  di- 
vination, &c.  ■?  This  has  been  believc'd  by  pre- 
tended thaumaturgists,  prophets,  and  enthusiasts 
of  every  kind,  ancient  and  modern.  And  many 
also,  who  cannot  be  accused  of  enthusiasm,  have 
assented  to  this  opinion.  Grotius,  for  example, 
believed  that  Christian  missionaries  miohthope 
to  perform  miracles,  and  Lavater  supncsed,  that 
any  Christian  who  could  firmly  believe  that  God 
would  work  miracles  through  him,  would  be 
able  to  do  what  he  believed.  But  if  history  and 
experience  are  consulted,  we  shall  soon  know 
what  to  think  of  the  pretended  wonder-workers 
since  the  times  of  the  apostles,  and  be  able  to 
put  them  down  either  as  impostors  or  as  deluded 
fanatics.  But  does  not  the  New  Testament 
afford  reason  to  hope  that  miraculous  powers 
may  be  continued  in  the  Christian  church  ]  No! 
For  (a)  these  miraculous  gifts  were  by  no  means 
promised  by  Christ  to  all  his  followers,  at  all 
times,  but  only  to  the  apostles  and  first  teachers 
of  Christianity,  to  be  used  by  them  in  proclaim- 
ing Christian  truth,  and  in  establishing  the 
Christian  church,  Mark,  xvi.  17,  18,  coll.  ver. 
15,  IG,  20;  John,  xiv.  12,  coll.  ver.  11,  13,  14. 
(i)  In  Eph.  iv.  13,  seq,,  Paul  teaches  what  is 
well  worthy  of  notice,  that  these  gifts  were  in- 
tended only  for  the  first  age  of  the  church,  and 
would  cease  when  the  church  had  become  tho- 
roughly established,  when  more  clear  knowledge 
of  the  truth  had  been  dilTused,  and  the  contro- 
versies between  Jewish  and  heathen  Christians 
were  ended.  The  same  truth  is  tau<jht  in  1 
Cor.  xiii.  8 ;  the  gift  of  tongues,  &c.,  it  is  there 
said,  will  hereafter  cease,  (with  some  reference 
to  the  present  world,  though  principally  to  the 
world  to  come,  where  these  gifts  will  be  wholly 
useless,)  but  faith,  hope,  and  charity  will  abide 
(and  that  in  the  present  world  as  well  as  in  the 


056 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


future)  33  long  as  the  churcli  shall  continue. 
(_c)  Add  to  these  the  consideration,  that  it  can- 
not be  proved  that  the  power  of  conferring  these 
gifts  was  granted  to  any  besides  the  apostles, 
(cf.  Acts,  viii.  11 — 17,)  and  that  after  the  death 
of  the  apostles  and  their  immediate  successors 
in  the  Cliristian  c-hurch,  these  gifts  would  there- 
fore cease,  as  a  matter  of  course. 

On  this  subject,  cf.  Toellner,  Vermishchte 
Aufsatzp,  th.  ii.  Abhandl.  2,  Warum  Gott  nicht 
ubenjatiirlich  thut,  was  natiirlich  geschehen 
kann.  Ammon,  De  notione  miracnli;  Gottingee, 
1795,  4to.  Also  tiie  work  entitled,  Betracht- 
ungen  iiher  den  Endzweck  der  Wunderwerke, 
•und  die  Kraft  des  Wunderglaubens  in  unsern 
Tagen  ;  Uerlin,  1777,  8vo;  and  the  works  occa- 
sioned by  the  opinion  of  Lavater  and  others ; 
Middleton's  Essay  on  Miraculous  Gifts  after 
the  Death  of  the  Apostles;  F.  T.  Ruhl,  Werth 
der  Behauptungen  Jesu,  und  seiner  Apostel ; 
Leipzig,  1791,  8vo;  Kiippen,  Die  Bibel  ein 
Werk  der  gottlichen  VVeisheit.  One  of  the  latest 
works  in  opposition  to  miracles  is  entitled,  De 
miraculis  enchiridion,  a  pbilosopho  Theologis 
exhibitum;  Zwickau,  1605,  8vo, — a  prejudiced 
and  partial  work.  Vide  the  Review  in  the  Jen. 
Lit.  Zeit,  for  180G,  No.  1G8. 

Note. — In  respect  to  its  practical  influence, 
the  doctrine  of  the  providence  of  God  is  one  of 
the  first  importance.  In  addition  to  the  parti- 
culars enumerated  s.  67,  I.,  Nnle  2.  the  religious 
teacher,  in  his  practical  instructions,  should  in- 
sist upon  the  following  points,  which  are  made 
prominent  in  the  holy  scriptures,  where  we  may 
see  an  example  of  the  proper  mode  of  exhibit- 
ing them. 

(«)  He  should  shew,  that  we  ought  never  to 
stop  with  the  second  causes  through  which  our 
blessings  come  to  us,  or  by  which  the  efTects 
which  we  witness  are  accomplished,  but  should 
always  go  back  to  God  as  the  first  cause,  and 
sincerely  love  and  honour  him,  as  the  aulhor  of 
every  goid  gift.  Vide  James,  i.  17;  iv.  1.3,  15. 
Instead  of  dwelling  upon  the  second  causes  by 
which  events  are  brought  about,  and  wholly 
overlooking  the  agency  of  God,  (the  common 
method  of  modern  historians,)  the  sacred  his- 
torians refer  everything  to  God,  and  hence  they 
so  frequently  clash  with  the  views  and  feelings 
of  those  who  look  upon  the  world  from  a  dif- 
ferent and  lower  point  of  view.  Vide  s.  70, 
11.2. 

^6)  If  we  would  enjoy  the  blessings,  whether 
temporal  or  spiritual,  which  are  designed  for  us, 
and  promised  to  us  by  God,  we  must,  on  our 
part,  fulfil  the  conditions  to  the  performance  of 
which  he  has  annexed  ibis  enjoyment.  Cf.  s. 
71,  II.     MoruR,  p.  8.3,  s.  8. 

(c)  Natural  evils  and  calamities  are  under  the 


control  of  an  all-wise  and  ocnevolent  Being,  and 
are  intended  to  lead  us  to  repent  of  our  sins,  and 
lead  holy  lives,  or  to  confirm  and  strengthen  us 
in  holiness,  and  in  every  way  to  contribute  tc 
our  advantage.     Cf.  s.  71,  II.  2. 

(f/)  We  should  feel  especially  indebted  tc 
God  for  any  holiness  or  moral  rectitude  which 
we  may  perceive  in  ourselves.  T3y  .,h(  rishing 
the  feeling  that  whatever  is  good  in  us  s  the 
gift  of  God,  we  shall  be  kept  from  that  selfiBti 
blindness  and  pride  which  would  spring  from 
the  thought  that  we  ourselves  were  the  authors 
of  it.  God  gave  us  our  moral  nature,  and  to 
him  we  owe  all  the  powers  which  we  possess, 
and  all  the  means,  in  the  use  of  which  we  attain 
to  holiness.  Our  faults  and  crimes,  on  the  con- 
trary, we  must  charge  wholly  to  ourselves,  and 
never  to  God.  Cf.  James,  i.  13 — 15;  1  Cor 
iv.  7;  2  Cor.  ix.  11;  Phil.  ii.  13. 

(e)  God  employs  all  his  creatures  as  instru- 
ments for  the  promotion  of  his  own  purposes, 
and  hence  they  are  called  (e.  g.,  Ps.  ciii.)  his 
servants,  his  messengers,  who  do  his  will.  But 
to  none  of  the  creatures  who  inhabit  his  foot- 
stool, has  God  assigned  so  large  a  sphere  of 
action,  and  none  does  he  so  much  employ  in  the 
accomplishment  of  his  most  important  purposes 
as  man,  and  man  is  what  he  is  through  the 
moral  nature  which  God  has  given  him,  and 
which  he  constantly  preserves  in  exercise.  In 
this  his  moral  nature  man  resembles  (iod,  and 
can  continually  become  more  and  more  like  him, 
yea,  in  this  he  is  related  to  Www,  ■a\v\  pnrhikei 
nf  the  divine  naltire.  Every  man,  in  every  sta- 
tion and  calling  in  life,  is  employed  by  (iod  as 
an  instrument  for  the  attainment  of  important 
ends.  The  more  faithfully  a  man  performs  all 
the  duties  of  his  station,  however  inferior  it  may 
be,  and  especially  the  more  he  labours  after  true 
holiness,  the  more  will  his  life  be  conformed  to 
the  divine  will,  and  answer  the  ends  fur  which 
he  is  employed.  And  one  who  fails  to  dis- 
charge these  duties,  and  is  unprofitable  in  the 
service  of  God,  proves  that  he  mistakes  bis  own 
true  worth  and  dignity.  It  is  therefore  our 
highest  duty  to  exert  ourselves,  to  the  utmost 
of  our  powers,  to  do  good  in  all  the  relations  in 
which  we  stand  under  the  government  of  God, 
and  especially  to  promote  holiness  in  ourselves 
and  others.  Cf.  s.  (J9,  ad  finem,  and  s.  70,  II. 
2.     Morns,  p.  78,  s.  4. 

As  Christians,  however,  we  should  exercise 
these  feelings,  and  yield  this  obedience,  not  ti. 
(^od  only,  but  also  to  Jesus  Christ,  tlie  Son  of 
God.  He  counsels  and  guides  all  who  believe 
in  him  ;  they  ought  therefore  to  imitate  and  fol- 
low him.  It  is  the  peculiarity  of  tlie  (Christian 
systi'in  to  require  of  us  that  we  should  do  every 
thing  IV  ui'uuari  Xpiarou. 


i 


BOOK    II. 


DOCTRINE     OF     MAN. 


ss 


y3 


(857) 


ON  THE  PLAN,  ORDER,  AND  SUCCESSION  OF  TOPICS 
IN  THE  SECOND  BOOK. 


This  Book  is  properly  denominated,  theological  Anthropology,  because  it  contains  the 
doctrine  respecting  man,  and  his  relation  to  God.  In  respect  to  the  order  and  succession 
in  whic  the  various  topics  belonging  to  this  doctrine  are  treated,  there  is  a  great 
diversit}  c  the  systems  of  theology,  both  ancient  and  modern.  The  particular  order  in 
which  doctrines  are  treated  is,  indeed,  of  no  great  importance,  provided  only  that  those 
doctrines  are  placed  first  which  constitute  the  basis  of  those  which  foUow,  or  which 
contribute  essentially  to  the  illustration  of  them.  To  place  the  doctrine  res|)pciing 
Christ— e.  g.  respecting  his  person,  the  redemption  effected  through  him,  ic. — at  the 
very  introduction  of  the  system,  (as  some  have  done,)  is  certainly  very  preposterous, 
since  a  great  deal  in  these  doctrines  cannot  be  placed  in  the  proper  light  until  the 
scriptural  doctrines  ^f  the  depravity  of  man,  of  sin,  and  the  punishment  of  sin.  have 
been  previously  illustrated.  The  plan  adopted  by  IMorus,  of  placing  the  latter  doctrines 
first,  has  therefore  greatly  the  advantage  over  the  other.  Still,  on  any  method  which 
may  be  adopted,  there  will  always  be  found  difficulties  and  imperfections.  S((mc  have 
made  a  merit  of  deviating  from  the  method  generally  pursued  in  systems  of  theology, 
of  inventing  a  method  wholly  new,  and  especially  of  giving  new  titles  to  the  various 
divisions  of  the  subject.  But  nc  new  land  is  won  for  the  science  itself  by  means  of 
these  innovations;  and,  on  the  contrary,  the  study  of  it  is  rendered  very  perplexed  to 
beginners,  and  they  are  compelled,  whenever  they  take  a  new  system  in  hand,  to  begin 
as  it  were  anew,  and  to  learn  a  new  language. 

We  adopt  the  following  order — viz.,  («)  Man  may  be  considered  in  his /(;r/ner  or 
original  CQwWlion — the  sttile  of  innocence,  ant!  of  this  an  account  has  already  been  given 
in  Book  I.  s.  53 — 57.  Further,  man  may  be  considered  (i)  in  his  present  state — that 
in  which  he  is,  since  the  state  of  innocence  has  ceased.  In  this  connexion  belong  the 
doctrines  respecting  sin,  its  origin,  the  various  kinds  of  sin,  and  its  consequences  ;  Art. 
ix.  s.  73 — 87,  inclusive.  Finally,  man  may  be  considered  (c)  in  that  better  state  to 
which  he  is  restored.  Here  the  whole  doctrine  respecting  the  redemption  of  the  human 
race  belongs.  (1)  De  gratia  Dei  salufari, — the  gracious  institutes  which  (Jod  has 
established  to  promote  the  holiness  and  happiness  of  men, — especially  those  established 
in  and  through  Christ, — the  dilferent  states  of  Christ, — his  person,  his  work,  and  the 
salutary  consequences  of  it  to  the  human  race;  Art.  x.  s.  88 — 120,  inclusive.  (2)  On 
the  conditions  (repentance  and  faith)  on  which  we  can  obtain  the  blessedness  promised 
to  Christians  by  God;  Art.  xi.  s.  lil  — 1*28,  inclusive.  (3)  On  the  manner  in  which 
God  aids  those  who  believe  in  Christ,  and  enables  them  to  fulfil  the  prescribed  condi- 
tions, or,  respecting  divine  influences  and  the  means  of  grace;  Art.  xii  s.  129 — 133, 
inclusive.     (4)   On  the  Christian  community,  or  the  church;  Art.  xiii.  s.  131 — 136. 

(5)  On   Baptism  and  the  Lord's    Supper,   or  the  sacraments ;  Art.  xiv.  s.  137 — 116. 

(6)  On  the  passage  of  man  to  another  world,  and  *^\o  state  in  it, — of  death,  the  immor* 
tality  of  the  soul,  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  t\  day  of  judgment,  tho  end  of  tha 
world,  and  future  happiness  and  misery;  Art.  xv.  s.  147 — 160. 


csoe) 


BOOK  II 


DOCTRINE    OF    MAN 


PART  I.-STATE  INTO   WHICH  MAN   IS  BROUGHT 
BY  THE  FALL. 


ARTICLE  IX. 


OF  SIN,  AND  THE  PUNISHMEN  '   OF  SIN. 


SECTION  LXXTIl 

WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  SIN;  THE  DIFFERENT  WORDS 
USED  IN  THF.  BIBLE  TO  DENOTE  SIN,  AND  THE 
MEANING  OF  THEM. 

I.  Definition  of  Sin. 

^.-N_r .  -'""_:'-   IN,   understood    objectively, 
!      and  taken  in  its  wider  sense, 
ri.-v-;,  \s,  any  deviation  from  the  law 


^S3^  ii_  '  '■  ^'  "f  fjf'd-i  or,  ichat  is  not  right, 
I  /• ..;.  '  according  to  the  divine  law; 
u'/iat  is  opposed  to  the  law. 
In  the  lantruage  of  jurists,  a 
deviation  from  the  law  is  called  a 
crime.,  (Germ.  P\rbrechen,  crimen ;") 
in  theolocry,  and  when  the  concerns 
/aft*  of  religion  are  made  the  topics  of  dis- 
^^  course — that  is,  when  men  are  consi- 
dered in  their  relation  to  God,  it  is 
called  sin;  and  it  is  an  advantage  which  the 
German  language  [and  also  the  English]  pos- 
sesses, that  it  is  able  to  designate  tliis  particu- 
lar form  nf  transgression  by  an  appropriate 
word.  Sin,  therefore,  properly  speaking,  is  a 
deviation  from  the  divine  law,  or,  according  to 
the  scripture  phraseology,  what  is  not  xara  to 
^fArutt  rov  0fov.  This  wor''  is  alw-ays  used 
with  reference  to  God,  as  Lesrislator ;  and  be- 
cause the  Bible,  in  entire  conformity  with  ex- 
perience, regards  all  men  in  their  present  condi- 
tion as  transgressors  of  the  divine  law,  it  calls 
them  sinners,  Rom.  iii.  9,  23,  24. 

But  would  we  define  subjectiveli/  that  act  by 
whicli  one  becomes  a  sinner,  or  punishable,  we 
might,  say,  sin  is  a  free  act,  bhic/i  is  opposed  to 


the  divine  law,  or  which  deviates  from  it.  Here 
it  must  be  remarked, 

(<?)  That  in  order  for  an  action  to  be  imputed 
to  any  one  as  sinful,  it  must  be  a  free  action; 
for  whenever  a  man  acts  by  compulsion,  and  it 
does  not  depend  upon  himself  either  to  perform 
I  or  omit  the  action,  it  cannot  be  imputed  to  him 
as  sin ;  the  consideration  of  which  will  be  re- 
sumed in  s.  81. 

(i)  Properly  speaking,  it  is  the  law  which 
makes  sin  what  it  is.  All  morality  proceeds 
from  the  law;  and  where  there  is  no  divine 
law,  there  is  no  sin.  This  is  taught  by  Paul, 
Rom.  iv.  15,  01'  ovx  i'^Tt  lOfioj,  uibi  rta^]a3uaif 
(tnii).  Were  there  no  law  given,  the  actions 
now  denominated  sins  (e.  g.,  licentiousness, 
theft,  murder,)  while  they  must  still  be  regarded 
as  foolish  and  injurious,  and  be  called  evils, 
(GeriTi.  UthcW)  could  no  longer  be  denominated 
sins.  Wild  beasts  often  despoil  and  destroy 
other  beasts  and  human  beings.  This  is  an 
evil,  and  has  injurious  consequences,  even  for 
the  beasts  themselves;  they  are  ensnared,  and 
hunted  down.  But  what  they  do  is  not  sin, 
because  they  have  no  law  given  them;  and  no 
reasonable  man  would  call  such  things  in  brutes 
sins,  or  seriously  afiirm  that  a  beast  had  sinned. 
Nor  is  even  the  word  crime  applied  to  their  out- 
rages, because  they  are  exempt  alike  from  hu- 
man and  divine  laws. 

By  law  is  meant,  the  precept  of  a  ruler,  accom- 
panied with  comminntions ;  and  by  a  ruler  is 
meant  one  who  has  the  right  to  prescribe  rules 
of  acting  to  others,  and  to  connect  these  rules 
with  threatenings.  Commands  and  laws  are  two 
different  things.  In  every  law  there  is  a  com- 
mand, but  every  command  is  not  a  law.  A 
command  must  be  rigliful'xn  order  to  he  a  law; 
the  preceptor  must  be  entitled  to  give  commands, 
and  those  to  whom  they  are  given  must  be 
hound  to  obey  ;  and  on  these  conditions  only 

C259) 


160 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


does  a  command  become  a  law.  Hence  the  de- 
mand of  the  robber  to  give  him  our  propert}', 
with  the  threat  which  he  annexes,  that  he  will 
rnurder  us  if  we  refuse,  is  no  law.  The  laws 
of  God  are  made  known  to  us  partly  throug'h 
nature,  and  partly  by  immediate  revelation 
throucrh  the  holy  scriptures.  The  latter  are  de- 
signed to  renew,  impress,  confirm,  illustrate, 
and  enlarge  or  complete  the  law  of  nature.  God 
has  thus,  both  by  the  works  of  nature  and  by 
the  doctrines  contained  in  the  holy  scriptures, 
given  us  information  respecting  his  designs,  as 
his  will  respecting  men  and  a  rule  for  them,  to 
which  they  should  continually  have  regard,  and 
according  to  which  they  should  regulate  their 
conduct.     Morus,  p.  106,  n.  3,  4. 

n.  Scriptural  Terms  for  Sin. 

1.  The  most  common  word  for  sin  is  the  He- 
brew ns-jn,  generally  rendered  by  the  Grecian 
Jews  d^uopr/a.  Both  of  these  words  are  used 
in  various  senses. 

(a)  The  Hebrew  i«n  signifies  literally  to  de- 
viate from  one^s  way,  to  slip  aside — a  meaning 
which  it  has  among  the  Arabians.  Hence  to 
fail  of  one's  end,  to  see  his  design  frustrated,  Job, 
V.  21 ;  Proverbs,  x.  2.  In  the  same  way  are 
the  words  auaprdviiv  and  duaprta  employed  by 
the  Greeks  in  reference  to  those  whose  expecta- 
tion is  disappointed,  who  lose,  or  are  deprived 
of  something,  who  miss  their  aim,  and  come 
short.  Thus,  e.  g.,  Xenophon  speaks  of  those 
afia^irurovTii  rr^i  /SovXjjTfuij,  whose  counsel  was 
frustrated  ;  and  even  in  Homer  we  find  the 
phrase  d.uapr^'jaT^ai  rr^  ortwrtrj,  to  be  deprived 
of  sight.  In  the  Iliad  (xxiv.  G8)  h^  says,  with 
regard  to  Hector,  that  he  never  sulTered  the  gods 
to  want  for  offerings  worthy  of  their  accept- 
ance— 

Hence  (6)  these  words  are  used  figuratively, 
and  are  transferred  to  the  soul,  and  denote  the 
faults  and  defects  of  the  understanding  and  of 
the  will,  and  also  of  the  actions;  of  the  latter 
more  frecpiently,  though  sometimes  of  the  for- 
mer— e.  p.,  John,  viii.  4G,  i>.iyxnv  rtfpt  auoj)- 
tCoi,  erroris  convincere,  and  John,  xvi.  R,  D,  where 
afiaptia  signifies,  delusion,  blindness  (f  the  under- 
ttandini^.  More  commonly,  however,  it  is  used 
with  reference  to  the  will  and  the  actions,  and 
denotes  every  deviation  from  the  divine  law  in 
willing  and  acting.  'H  auopr/a,  therefore,  often 
signifies,  sometimes  every  transgression  of  a 
grave  character,  and  sometimes,  in  general,  im- 
picly,  jirofunitas,  irreliginn.  Thus  tlie  heathen 
were  denominated  by  the  Jews,  aua,)ru>Xo(.', 
CKTi,  in  opposition  to  themselves,  the  gens 
tancla.  In  Heb,  x.  26,  aua^iruYnv  signifies  to 
apnsfatixe  from  the  Christian  faith.  In  liomans, 
vii.  9.  Paul  uses  aua^>ria  to  denote  the  propen- 


sity to  sin  (Germ.  Hang  zur  Siinde)  \vhich  ia 
everywhere  observed  in  man,  and  whlcli  is  na- 
tural to  him.  [Cf.  L'steri,  Entwickelung  des 
Paulinischen  Lehrbegriffs,  Zweiter  und  Dritter 
Theil.— Tr.] 

(c)  Tills,  and  all  the  words  which  signify 
sin,  are  often  used  by  the  Hebrews  and  Hellen- 
ists to  denote  the  punishment  of  sin — e.  cr., 
Isaiah,  liii. ;  2  Kings,  vii.  9,  seq. 

(r/)  They  also  signify  a  sin-iiffcring — e.  g., 
Ps.  xl.  7;  2  Cor.  v.  21,  ^•'jia  rtfpi  a|ua,iT<(u-. 

2.  Besides  this  word,  there  are  many  others 
by  which  the  idea  of  sin  is  expressed  by  the 
Hebrews  and  Greeks.     Among  these  are, 

(a)  In  Hebrew,  p?,  guilt  (reattis),  sin,  Psalre 
lix.  5;  frequently  rendered  in  the  Scpt;iagin 
aJbixr^fta.,  or  aiixia..  r^^,  Strictly,  apostasy  frfon 
the  true  God,  or  rebellion  against  him.  [The 
word  n-^p,  from  -\\s,  has  the  same  signification. — 
Tr.]  Forsaking  the  worship  of  Jehovah  for 
that  of  idols,  and  every  deliberate  transgression 
of  the  divine  law,  were  justly  regarded  as  rebel- 
lion against  God,  and  so  called  by  this  name, 
2  Kings,  viii.  10;  Jer.  iii.  13.  j-ut'  is  therefore 
a  stronger  word  than  nxm.  j-u'i  is  used  to  de- 
note the  injustice  of  judges,  when  they  lose  si<;lit 
of  what  is  just  (p-x)»  ^"'^  decide  unjustly  and 
partially.  Job,  ix.  21;  Ezek.  vii.  11;  hence  ap- 
plied to  any  misdeed  or  wickedness,  by  which 
the  desert  of  punishment  is  incurred,  Psa.  v.  .5. 
Hence  yrn  signifies,  one  guilty,  (^reus,  damna- 
tu.s,)  sensuforensi.  7"n  is  rendered  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  by  the  words  a^txt'a,  d'ji.ofia,  x.  r.  x. 
a"'.-*,  guilt,  guiltiness,  njju',  or  ns«jr,  error,  mij- 
tul>e,  transgression,  Psa.  xix.  13.  Sept.  ,-ta- 
pdrtfioua.     Classical  Greek,  n'/.dir^. 

(Ii)  In  the  New  Testament,  the  words  which 
denote  sin  are  mostly  taken  from  the  Septua- 
gint,  where  they  are  used  interch-.ingeably  the 
one  for  the  other.  Among  these  are  ^a^axor, 
Hebrews,  ii.  2; — rtotid^aiij,  Romans,  iv.  15; — 
dScxia  and  d6(x>;jua,  (like  dixapria  and  d/tdjirruo,) 
Romans,  i.  18;  vi.  13; — o(})fiX>;,ua,  Matt.  vi.  12. 
('I'he  Hebrews  often  represent  sins  under  the 
image  of  c/tt/«,  which  must  either  be  remitted  or 
paid.)  nopdrtriv^a.  Matt.  vi.  14,  also  used  to 
signify  apostasy  from  religion,  Rom.  xi.  12; 
dyio>j^a,  a  sin  committed  through  igtwranee,  er- 
ratum,  Heb.  ix.  7.  (So  Aquila  renders  py,  Lev. 
xxvi.  39,  by  dyi'Oia*  so  also  n%xiyr;.  'Arouta, 
illegality,  transgressiini  nf  the  law,  or  >/«,  Matt, 
vii.  23.  It  is  also  sometimes  used  in  the  sense 
of  irreligion,  heathenism,  sinci'  lo^oj  often  sig- 
nifies the  religion  revealed  by  God.  Hence  the 
heathen  are  called  dio/toi,  Rom.  ii.  12;  vi.  19. 
Cf.  d5('3fta,  dof/lrf.  In  the  text,  1  John,  iii.  4, 
t;  auoftna  iiTiv  r  di-o/nKi,  it  in  not  the  intentii'n 
of  the  writer  to  give  a  logical  definition  of*/'i,  hut 
rather  to  oppose  those  deceivers  who  in:iiiit:iini'd 
that  a  sinful  lift-  was  allowable.  Tlie  uKiWiing 
of  the  u?xi  is  as  follows:  "Whoever  leads  a 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


2G1 


iinful  life,  acts  in  opposition  to  the  precepts  of 
the  divine  law;  for  every  sin  is  against  the  di- 
vine law,  (which  commands  us  to  live  holy  and 
without  sin.     Vide  ver.  3.)" 

In  tiie  discussion  here  following  of  the  doc- 
trine respecting  sin,  this  order  will  be  observed 
— viz.,  (1)  The  origin  of  sin  among  men,  or  ihe 
sill  fif  our  first  parents,  and  the  moral  corruption 
of  human  nature,  derived,  according  to  the 
scriptures,  from  them,  will  be  first  considered, 
6.  74 — 80.  (2)  The  origin  and  nature  of  the 
particular  sinful  actions  of  men,  which  have 
their  ground  in  that  moral  depravity,  together 
with  the  different  kinds  and  divisions  of  these 
actions,  s.  81 — 85.  (3)  The  punishment  of  sin, 
as  learned  from  reason  and  revelation,  s.  86,  87. 

SECTION  LXXIV. 

WHAT  DOES  REASON,  WITHOUT  THE  USE  OF  THE 
BlBLi:,  TEACH  US  RESPECTING  THE  SINFIL 
STATE  OF  MAN,  AND  THE  ORIGIN  OF  ItI  AND 
HOW  FAR  CO  THE  RESULTS  OF  REASON  ON  THIS 
SUBJECT  AGREE  WITH  THE  BIBLE? 

I.  Opinions  of  Heathen  Philosophers. 

The  fact  that  human  nature  is  imperfect,  and 
has  a  morally  defective  constitution,  shewing 
itself  in  the  earliest  youth,  was  observed  and 
conceded  by  most  of  the  ancient  heathen  philo- 
sophers;  and  the  fact  is  so  obvious,  and  so  con- 
formed to  experience,  that  it  could  hardly  have 
oeen  otherwise.  It  was  formerly  observed,  as 
it  is  now,  that  man  has  more  inclination  to  im- 
morality and  sin  than  to  innocence,  holiness, 
and  moral  purity.  A  perpetual  conflict  was 
seen  to  exist  in  man,  from  his  youth  up,  between 
reason  and  sense — a  contest  in  whicli  man 
oftener  sided  with  the  latter  than  with  the 
former,  and  thus  made  himself  unhappy.  It 
was  seen  that  man,  even  when  enjoying  the  best 
moral  instruction,  and  when  possessed  of  a  full 
conviction  of  the  justice  of  the  requisitions  of 
the  moral  law,  still  often  acted  immorally;  and 
this,  even  when  perfectly  convinced  that  in  so 
<Joing  he  did  wrong;  and  that  he  was  thus  in  a 
stiite  extremely  wretched.  Vide  Morus,  p.  109, 
s.  3.  Now,  if  it  was  with  man  as  it  should  be, 
he  would  suffer  his  will  to  be  at  once  determined 
by  what  his  understanding  perceived  to  be  true 
and  good,  and  would  regulate  his  conduct  ac- 
cordingly. That  this  is  not  so,  experience  suf- 
ficiently teaches.  It  is  false,  therefore,  to  assert 
that  everything  depends  upon  instruction,  and 
that  if  the  mind  were  only  enlightened  with  re- 
gard to  duty,  the  will  would  sotn  follow.  So 
it  should  be,  but  so  it  is  not;  and  it  is  the  great- 
est of  all  moral  problems,  how  to  render  the  will 
obedient  t..  the  dictates  of  the  understanding. 

These  things  having  been  observed  in  ancient 
timeti,  the  writings  of  the  pagan  philobuphe.iij,-'; 


full  of  complaints  over  the  moral  corruption  of 
man.  Socrates  is  said  by  Plato  (De  Repub.)  to 
have  complained  that  all  nations,  even  the  most 
cultivated,  and  those  advanced  farthest  in  inte* 
ligence  and  knowledge,  were  yet  so  depraved 
that  no  human  discovery  or  art  sufliced  to  remove 
the  disorder.  The  writings  of  Plato,  Aristotle, 
and  Cicero,  are  full  of  expressions  of  tiie  same 
kind.  Aristotle  called  this  evil  ovyyfiii,  Ethic, 
ad  Nicom.  iii.  15.  Plato  says  in  his  Mevo,  that 
children  by  nature  (^vca)  are  not  good;  for  in 
that  case,  says  he,  ironically,  it  would  only  be 
necessary  to  shut  them  up,  in  order  to  keep  them 
good.  He  saw  that  it  was  a  mistake  to  suppose 
that  man  is  made  wicked  merely  by  education, 
or  that  he  becomes  so  merely  by  the  imitation 
of  bad  examples.  Cicero  says,  in  his  Tusculan 
Questions  (iii.  1),  Simtilac  cditi  in  lucem  et  sus' 
ccpli  sumiis,  in  omni  continuo  pravitate,  et  in 
summa  opinionum  perversitate,  versamut:  ut 
pane  cum  lucte  nutricis  errorern  suxisse  vide' 
amur.  De  Ainicit.  (c.  24,)  Multis  sigtiis  nalura 
declarat  quid  velit:  obsurdescimus  tamen  nescio 
quomodo  ;  ncc  ca  quas  ab  ea  moncmur,  audimus— 
our  will  does  not  follow  what  our  understanding 
approves  as  right  and  good.  In  this  connexion 
we  rnay  cite  the  common  declaration,  Kitimur 
in  vctitum  semper,  etipimusque  negata ;  and  that 
of  Ovid,  (Metam.  vii.  18,  seq.) 

Si  posscm,  sanior  essem. 
Sed  trahit  invitum  nova  vis ;  aliudijue  cupido, 
Mens  aiiud  suadet.     Video  meliora  proboque, 
Deteriora  sequor. 

[Very  remarkable  are  the  words  of  Seneca,  in 
his  work  De  Vkmentiu,  1.  i.  c.  6: — "  Quotus 
(juisque  ex  qua?storibus  est,  qui  non  ea  ipsa  lege 
leneatur,  qua  quffirit?  Quotus  quisque  aceusa- 
tor,vacat  culpa]  Et  nescio,  an  nemo  ad  dandam 
veniam  difficilior  sit,  quam  qui  illaui  pttcre  sse- 
pius  meruit.  Peccavimus  omnes,  alii  gravia, 
alii  leviora;  alii  ex  deslinato,  alii  frte  impulsi, 
aul  aliena  nequitia  ablati;  alii  in  bonis  consiliis 
parum  fortiter  stetimus,  et  innocentiam  invite  ac 
renitentes  perdidimus.  Nee  deliuquimus  tan- 
tum,  sed  usque  ad  extrennini  a>vi  delinquemus." 
Compare  with  this  what  he  says  in  his  Treatise 
De  Ira,  (ii.  8,)  »» O.'nnia  sceleribus  ac  viiiis  plena 
sunt.  Plus  committiiur  quam  quod  possii  coer- 
citione  sanari.  Certalur  ingenti  quodam  nequi- 
tiae  certaniine.  Major  quotidie  peccandi  cupi- 
ditas,  minor. verecundia  est.  Nee  iV.rtiva  j;im 
scelera  sunt;  ])r«eter  oculos  eunt;  adeoque  in 
publicum  missa  nequitia  est,  et  in  omnium  pec- 
toribus  evaluit.  ut  innocentia  non  rara,  sed  nulla 
sit."  Cf.  also  the  declaration  of  Sopater, 
ovyu^vrov  (i^'^pa,no^J  To  afiapravfiv.  tor  numer- 
ous other  passiiges  of  similar  import,  the  student 
may  consult  Tholuck,  Lehre  von  dor  Sunde,  b. 
48.  49;  72,  73;  and  the  works  commended  by 
Hahn,  Lehrbuch,  s.  359.     For  the  opinions  of 


%69 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


the  1  iter  Jews,  vide  Eisenmpnirer,  Entdecktes 
Judenthum,  tlieil.  ii.  s.  60,  .f.— Tr.] 

All  this  is  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  de- 
clarations of  the  sacred  writers,  and  especially 
with  that  of  Paul,  Rom.  vii.  15,  "  For  that  which 
I  do,  I  allow  not;  for  what  I  would,  that  I  do 
not;  but  what  I  hate,  that  do  I."  It  is  also  in 
accordance  with  the  experience  of  every  indivi- 
dual. And  yet  there  have  been  philosophers, 
especially  in  modern  times,  who  have  denied 
the  truth  of  such  representations,  and  have  ^- 
tempted  to  demonstrate  the  contrary,  and  who 
have  sought  to  found  new  systems  of  education 
upon  their  peculiar  views  respectinor  the  charac- 
ter of  man. 

As  to  the  real  causes  of  this  depravity,  which 
was  so  universally  seen  and  acknowledged,  the 
opinions  were  very  various. 

(1)  Men  in  the  earliest  times,  and  among  the 
rude  heathen  nations,  being  left  to  themselves, 
either  neglected  all  reflection  upon  this  subject, 
or  invented  various  philosophemes  or  narrations, 
in  order  to  facilitate  to  themselves  the  under- 
standing of  the  origin  and  diffusion  of  this  evil. 
In  all  of  them,  however,  it  was  assumed  that  the 
human  race  was  originally  better  than  after- 
wards, and  that  either  by  slow  degrees,  or  sud- 
denly and  at  once,  it  became  corrupt.  As  soon 
as  men  begin  to  reflect  upon  God  and  them- 
selves, they  exhibit  almost  universally  the  feel- 
ing, that  it  is  necessary  to  suppose  that  mankind 
was  originally  in  a  better  condition  ;  nor  can  this 
feeling  be  obliterated  by  any  subtle  reasoninf. 
Cf.  s.  r,G. 

(2)  The  ancient  Grecian  philosophers  adopted 
in  part  the  fables  and  narratives  which  they 
found  already  existing;  but  they  also  undertook 
to  investigate  the  first  origin  of  evil  more  parti- 
cularly. In  doing  this,  they  soon  came  to  the 
result,  (which  indeed  had  been  already  observed 
by  the  authors  of  those  narratives,)  that  the  de- 
fective constitution  of  man  consisted  in  the  un- 
due power  of  sense  (^Sinnlicli/idl^,  and  that  this 
had  its  seat  in  the  body.  Paul  distinguishes  in 
man  the  ro/xof  tv  foii  fiixiaiv  (i.  e.,  f  r  aopzi,  ver. 
18),  and  the  vbfxo^  rov  fooj.  The  former,  he 
says,  avriTrpaTf  ufrai  t/oju^  vooj,  xai  aixixaXuiTi^ii 
fit  ra  j'0^9  fr^  auapftaj,  Rom.  vii.  23.  We 
have  thus  a  didnmen  seumium,  and  a  diclnmen 
ralionis.  iSo  Araspas  in  Xenophon  distinguishes 
in  every  man  an  oyo^^  and  a  Ttovr^^a.  4v;t^'  Cy  rop. 
vi.  21  ;  and  Plato  makes  mention  of  the  Jioynrt- 
xhv  r^5  ifvxr^i  and  of  the  aXoyirj-fixov  or  jrtibvuj;- 
rixov.  These  Grecian  philosophers  proceeded 
on  the  supposition,  that  there  are  two  equally 
eternal  and  original  principles,  ^I'orf  and  vmltrr. 
The  former  they  supposed  to  be  the  rntional, 
thinking  principle,  and  the  ori<Mn  of  all  good, 
physical  and  moral ;  the  latter,  the  irraiinnal 
principle,  and  the  cause  of  all  evil.  Vide  s.  40, 
n.    To  the  former  principle  they  supposed  the 


rational  soul  of  man  belongs,  and  his  body  to 
the  second  ;  and  as  his  body  consists  of  matter, 
so  his  soul  is  a  part  of  the  divine  nature,  and  a 
pure  effluence  from  the  same. 

They  were  too  prone,  under  the  influence  of 
these  views,  to  overlook  the  advantages  which 
the  human  soul  derives  from  its  connexion  with 
the  body — advantages  which  could  not  otherwise 
exist,  and  to  regard  the  body  too  much  as  a  pri- 
son, in  which  the  soul  is  impaled.  So  taught 
the  Persians,  and  most  of  the  oriental  philoso- 
phers, [vide  Neander's  account  of  the  Gnosiic 
Systems;]  so  Pythagoras  and  Plato,  especially 
in  Tiiuaeus;  so  Aristotle,  the  stoics,  and  theii 
followers.  In  conformity  with  these  views, 
Socrates  and  Plato  always  gave  the  advice, 
X^S'i'^nv  ti^  ^idxir^ra.  drto  tov  o>ljixa.roi  xr^v  -i^vxrv. 
They  believed,  however,  that  after  death  the 
soul  would  be  reunited  with  God,  after  having 
undergone  various  degrees  of  cleansing  and  pu- 
rification from  the  matter  cleaving  to  it;  re- 
specting which,  vide  s.  150,  II.  [This  purifi- 
cation was  the  intent  of  the  transmigration  of 
souls  (metempsychosis) — a  doctrine  held  in  all 
the  religions  of  the  East,  and  in  that  also  of  an- 
cient Egypt.  The  soul,  it  was  supposed,  would 
be  purified  by  the  sufferings  endured  in  wander- 
ing through  uncongenial  matter,  and  be  at  length 
pre|)ared  to  merge  into  the  pure  fountain  from 
which  it  originally  emanated.  For  some  valu- 
able remarks  on  this,  and  other  religious  ideas 
and  observances  in  the  East,  vide  Schlegel, 
Philosophie  der  Geschichte. — Tr.] 

(3)  The  account  which  the  holy  scriptures 
give  of  the  origin  of  sin  is  as  follows  : — "  God 
made  man,  not  only  as  to  his  soul,  but  his  body 
also;  and  both  pure  and  without  sin;  by  a 
daring  transgression,  however,  the  nature  of 
man  is  changed,  and  from  being  pure  and  im- 
mortal, has  become  defective  and  mortal.  This, 
however,  is  overruled  by  God,  for  our  good,  by 
means  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Restorer  of  the 
human  race." 

[^Xotc. — The  traditions  of  many  of  the  Ori- 
ental nations  correspond  remarkably  with  the 
narrative  in  Genesis,  and  confirm  its  truth. 
This  is  the  case,  especially,  with  the  doctrine 
of  Zoroaster,  which  so  strikingly  agrees  with 
that  of  Moses  as  to  indicate  a  common  source 
in  the  historic  fact  of  an  original  temptation  and 
fall.  According  to  Zoroaster,  the  first  human 
pair  were  ofllered  heaven  on  condition  of  virtue, 
and  of  refraining  from  homage  to  the  Drws — the 
demons  of  the  Persian  mythology.  For  some 
time  they  complied  with  these  conilitions;  but 
at  length  Ahriman  (Satan)  caused  the  thought 
to  be  infused  into  their  minds  by  a  Dhw,  that  ho 
was  the  creator  of  the  world.  They  believed 
this  lie,  and  so  became,  like  Ahriman,  evil  and 
unhappy.  On  one  occasion  they  went  out  upon 
a  hunting  excursion,  and  found  a  wild  goat,  and 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


363 


tasted  its  milk,  which  was  sweet  to  their  taste, 
and  revivintr,  but  injurious  to  their  body.  The 
Dew  then  offered  them  fruit,  which  they  ate, 
and  in  consequence  were  siill  more  injured,  and 
stripped  uf  thoir  remaining  blessings.  Vide 
Kleuker,  Zend-Avesta,  3  thl.  s.  81,  ff.  Cf. 
Schlegel,  Philos.  der  Geschichte,  b.  i. — Tk.] 

II.  Remits  of  iy^dependent  Reason  and  Observation. 

If,  in  investigating  the  origin  and  causes  of 
this  evil,  we  disregard  all  authority,  even  that 
of  the  holy  scriptures,  and  proceed  solely  from 
those  considerations  to  which  experience  con- 
ducts us,  we  arrive  at  the  following  results, 
which  are  not  indeed  entirely  satisfactory,  but 
which  yet  somewhat  illustrate  this  subject,  and 
therefore  may  be  useful  to  those  to  whom  the 
instruction  of  the  young  is  committed. 

It  may  be  remarked  in  general,  that  the  phi- 
losopher, as  such,  can  assign  no  other  ground 
than  that  man  is  a  limited  being,  and  conse- 
quently can  err.  The  nature  of  this  limitation 
and  liability  to  sin  is  now  to  be  more  closely 
examined.  Man  has  a  twofold  nature,  one  part 
of  which  is  rational  and  moral,  (>wj,)  by  means 
of  which  he  can  act  with  reference  to  ends,  and 
possesses  understanding  and  free-will ;  the  other 
part  of  which  is  sensuous,  (sj'nn/jc^,)  and  con- 
sists of  desires  and  appetites,  (-^vxr,-)  By  the 
former,  he  belongs  to  the  world  of  spirit ;  by  the 
latter,  to  that  of  sense.  He  is  therefore  to  be 
regarded  as  a  being  compounded  of  reason  and 
sense,  (Germ,  verntinfti g-sinnliches  M'esen.)  In 
this  way,  man  is  distinguished  from  the  brute, 
which  has  indeed  sense,  but  no  rational  or  moral 
nature.  This  in  man  should  be  the  ruling  power, 
the  other  subject  to  this  ;  and  then  only  is  man 
free  when  he  acts  independently  of  the  impulses 
of  his  lower  nature,  and  obeys  the  voice  of  the 
moral  law,  uttered  so  imperatively  within  him. 
But  in  man  in  his  present  state  we  notice  a  con- 
tinual conflict  between  these  two  natures — a 
conflict  which  cannot  be  explained  away  by  any 
subtleties.  This  conflict  rests  upon  the  dis- 
tinction between  these  two  dissimilar  natures 
in  man,  and  is  the  immediate  result  of  their 
connexion  in  human  beings,  according  to  their 
present  constitution. 

Beyond  this,  the  essential  nature  of  man,  the 
mere  philosopher  cannot  go,  in  his  inquiries 
after  the  causes  of  sin ;  and  the  fact  of  a  parti- 
cular corruption  of  our  nature,  or  of  the  invisible 
agency  of  evil  spirits,  cannot  be  resorted  to  by 
him  to  account  for  the  existing  evil.  In  short, 
the  mere  philosopher  who  is  unacquainted  with 
what  the  scriptures  have  taught  on  this  subject, 
or  who  will  make  no  use  of  their  instructions, 
cannot  proceed  from  facts,  because  these. are 
either  unknown  to  him,  or  doubtful  and  uncer- 
•iin.  Hence  the  truth  of  what  many  of  the  old 
theologiiins  have  said,  that  \ite  fact  of  a  better 


state  of  human  nature  depends  for  its  proof  upon 
the  holy  scriptures;  and  that  neither  that  state, 
nor  the  fall  which  succeeded  it,  can  be  demon- 
strated from  mere  reason.  But  we  are  now  ex- 
hibiting those  results  only  to  which  unassisted 
reason  would  arrive. 

In  noticing  the  defects  and  imperfections 
which  result  from  the  connexion  ol  these  two 
natures  in  man,  the  many  advant;i<res  which 
also  spring  from  it  ought  not  to  be  overlooked. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  man  could  never 
have  been  what  he  is,  if  this  constitution  were 
different.  Many  possesses  various  faculties, 
which  have  their  ground  in  this  cfiustitution, 
which  may  indeed,  arid  actually  (!",  mislead 
him  into  many  faults  and  errors,  hut  which  are 
in  themselves  good,  and,  when  rightly  culti- 
vated and  employed,  bring  him  great  advantage. 
Such  are  self-love,  so  deeply  implanted  in  the 
human  breast,  (hence  the  instinct  lor  self-pre- 
servation and  for  personal  improviMi.ent,)  the 
luve  if  honour,  the  tendency  to  imilntc,  and  others, 
which  are  in  themselves  good,  and  only  need  to 
be  kept  under  the  control  of  reason,  and  pro- 
perly directed  to  the  ends  for  whicli  they  were 
given. 

After  these  remarks,  we  come  now  to  inquire 
after  the  more  immediate  causes,  from  which 
the  prevailing  power  of  sense,  and  tlie  inability 
of  reason  to  control  it,  are  to  be  explained.  We 
design  in  this  place  to  give  only  tlie  result  of 
human  observation  and  experience,  which  will 
be  very  inadequate  to  the  full  exi)lai\;iiion  of  this 
subject.  We  shall  afterwards  exliihit  the  doc- 
trine of  the  scriptures,  and  inquire  how  far  it 
agrees  with  these  results.  Tiiese  onuses  are  to 
be  found  partly  in  the  strength  of  the  feelings 
belonging  to  human  nature,  partly  in  tlie  man- 
ner in  which  the  powers  of  the  hunr.in  soul  de- 
velop themselves,  and  partly  in  the  extrrnal  cir- 
cumstances in  w'hich  thisdevelopnir-nt  proceeds. 

(I)  The  feelings  of  man  are  much  stronger 
than  those  ideas  of  his  mind  which  have  their 
foundation  in  his  reason;  and  the  irere  philo- 
sopher, who  receives  no  light  from  revelation, 
cannot  tell  that  this  has  not  alwiiys  been  the 
fact  with  man.  For  he  cannot  conclude  with 
any  certainty,  from  his  mere  reason,  that  human 
nature  was  originally  in  a  better  state  than  that 
in  which  he  now  finds  it;  he  must  take  man  as 
he  finds  him,  and  on  the  suppositu  n.  which  he 
has  no  means  of  refuting,  that  he  was  always 
the  same.  In  general,  the  end  of  this  constitu- 
tion of  our  nature  would  seem  to  be,  to  girard 
against  insensibility  and  inactivity.  For  the 
mere  motives  of  reason  would  act  far  too  feebly 
and  slowly;  and  except  for  this  influence  of  the 
feelings,  many  actions  which  are  useful  and  ne- 
cessary for  our  own  good  and  that  of  others 
would  remain  undone.  And  so  it  is  found,  that 
men  of  a  cold  and  phlegmatic  temperament. 


i6i 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


who  have  I A  little  feeling  and  excitability, 
ihoii^  they  may  have  good  heads  and  benevo- 
lent hearts,  are  generally  indolent,  irresolute, 
and  inactive,  and  accomplish  very  little.  It  is 
often  the  case,  indeed,  that  a  man  suffers  him- 
self to  be  carried  away  by  his  feelings,  and  re- 
solves and  acts  without  regard  to  consequences. 
The  advantages  of  this  constitution  must,  how- 
ever, be  greater  than  the  disadvantages,  because 
it  is  so  established  by  God.  But  on  this  sub- 
ject much  may  be  said,  without  leading  to  any 
satisfactory  conclusion.  This  visible  iiwrdi- 
nateness  of  one  portion  of  our  nature  can  hardly 
be  made  to  harmonize  with  our  conceptions  of 
the  divine  attributes.  But  beyond  this  the  phi- 
losopher as  such  cannot  go. 

(•2)  In  the  earlier  years  of  our  life,  before  wne 
can  riflrhtly  use  our  reason,  we  have  no  other 
rule  for  desiring  or  avoiding  anything  than  our 
feelings.  And  on  tliis  account,  that  they  have 
no  maturity  of  reason,  children  and  minors  can- 
not be  left  to  themselves,  but  need  to  be  guided 
and  governed  by  others.  We  thus  become  ac- 
customed from  our  youth  up  to  desire  those 
things  which  excite  agreeable  sensations  in  us, 
and  to  shun  those  things  which  have  an  oppo- 
site effect.  Now  the  kind  of  agreeable  sensa- 
tions with  which  man  is  earliest  acquainted  is 
that  which  arises  from  the  gratification  of  his 
animal  desires.  For  in  the  earliest  years  of  his 
life,  man,  having  not  yet  attained  the  full  use 
of  his  rational  faculties,  has  no  taste  for  the 
more  pure  and  spiritual  joys,  which  are  above 
sense,  and  which  are  attendant  only  on  the 
knowledge  of  the  truth,  and  holiness  of  heart 
and  life.  When  now,  after  a  long  time,  and  by 
slow  degrees,  man  has  attained  to  the  Cull  use 
and  the  maturity  of  his  rational  faculties,  he  has 
for  a  long  lime  been  habituated,  even  from  his 
youth,  to  will  and  act  according  to  his  feelings 
and  the  impulses  of  sense,  without  duly  consult- 
ing reason,  and  carefully  wpiijliing  everything 
by  his  understanding.  This  long  practice  has 
produced  in  him  a  habit,  and  it  is  now  hard  for 
him  to  break  this  habit,  and  to  acquire,  in  place 
of  it,  the  habit  of  rational  consideration  before 
action.  Quo  semcl  est  imbuta  rce".ns  servabit 
odorcm  testa  diu.  Very  true,  therefore,  is  the 
remark  of  Tacitus  (Vita  Agricol.  c.  iii.),  "that 
human  weakness  is  of  such  a  nature,  that  the 
remedies  do  not  act  as  efficiently  as  the  dis- 
ease." 

From  these  remarks  we  draw  tlu;  following 
imfiortant  inferent-e:  that  we  should  endeavour, 
as  early  as  possible,  to  awaken,  cherish,  and 
devejop  the  moral  sense  in  the  youthful  heart. 
And  there  is  no  way  for  us  to  do  this  so  suc- 
cessfully as  by  means  o( re.li irinn.  Vide  Intro- 
duction, s.  2.  It  is  therefore  one  of  the  most 
perverse  and  injurious  maxims  to  say  that  young 
children  s'lnuld  not  have  religion  taught  them. 


The  evil  effects  resulting  from  this  maxim  have 
been  deeply  felt  in  our  age. 

(3)  The  first  knowledge  of  man  is  derived 
from  his  senses;  at  first,  he  can  acquire  infor 
mation  in  no  other  way  than  from  sensible  ob 
jects.  The  senses  must,  in  all  cases,  serve  as 
the  vehicle  of  knowledge ;  and  they  are  often 
misemployed.  Since  now,  from  the  nature  of 
the  case,  man  must,  from  his  earliest  youth,  be 
so  familiar  with  visible  and  sensible  objects,  it 
is  not  strange  that  he  should  be  too  little  affected 
by  the  instructions  given  him  respecting  objects 
not  cognizable  by  the  senses,  and  especially  re- 
specting God,  the  Invisible;  and  that  he  should 
be  so  indifferent  to  the  motives  to  love  him,  and 
from  love  to  obey  him.  The  remark,  I  John, 
iv.  20,  "  he  that  loveth  not  his  brother,  whom 
he  hath  seen,  how  can  he  love  God,  whom  he 
hath  not  seen,"  is  therefore  psychologically 
true.  If  we  see  a  man  who  has  no  true  love 
to  his  neighbour  whom  he  hath  seen,  we  may 
safely  conclude  that  he  has  no  love  for  the 
invisible  God.  Hence  we  may  explain  the 
natural  coldness  of  the  carnal  mind  to  God, 
and  everything  which  belongs  to  the  moral 
and  spiritual  world ;  and  hence  too  we  may  de- 
rive the  duty  of  opposing  this  at  the  very  ear- 
liest periods  of  life  ;  for  the  longer  a  man  lives, 
the  more  fixed  and  habitual  does  it  become,  and 
the  harder  to  be  removed. 

(4)  Man  brings  with  him  into  the  world  va 
rious  powers  and  faculties ;  but,  according  to  the 
plan  of  God,  these  can  be  developed  and  broughl 
to  a  good  end  only  by  instruction  and  a  wise 
education.  Man  does  not  come  into  the  world 
with  any  inborn  habits  of  action,  or  with  any 
thing  which  answers  to  the  instincts  of  brutes, 
the  place  of  which  must  be  supplied  by  instruc- 
tion. But  this  instruction  in  religion,  morality, 
and  other  useful  things,  which  is  so  necessary 
to  the  proper  development  of  our  powers,  is  en- 
joyed by  very  few,  and  some  are  wholly  desti- 
tute of  it.  And  the  instruction  given  on  these 
subjects  is  often  defective,  and  calculated  to 
mislead.  It  allows  nien  to  be  satisfied  with  a 
merely  formal  worship,  in  which  the  heart  re- 
mains cold  and  unimproved ;  it  is  generally 
above  the  capacities  of  the  young,  and  by  taxing 
the  memory  more  than  affecting  the  heart,  it 
often  produces  aversion  and  disgust.  The 
whole  moral  education,  especially  in  the  so 
called  higher  circles  of  life,  is  often  extremely 
deficient;  so  that  frequently  the  rude  children 
of  nature,  left  to  grow  up  by  themselves,  are  in 
a  better  condition  than  those  who  have  been 
reared  in  the  midst  of  refinement  and  cultiva- 
tion. At  least,  they  are  not  so  perverted  and 
corrupted,  although  they  may  be  wanting  in 
some  of  the  artificial  accomplishments  which 
the  latter  possess. 

Evil  example,  too,  has  an  indescribable  effect 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


265 


upon  cliildren  and  youth,  and  brings  them  to  an 
earlier  acquaintance  with  vice  than  with  virtue. 
It  should  be  remarked  that  the  outbreakings  of 
many  perverse  inclinations  and  dispositions 
which  are  perceived  in  children  are  the  signs 
and  the  consequences  of  some  endowments  of 
human  nature  in  themselves  good.  The  exhi- 
bitions of  these  dispositions  are  important  hints 
to  the  te.icher  and  guardian  of  the  young;  and 
if  he  is  wise  and  skilful,  may  receive  such  a 
direction  from  him  as  will  turn  them  to  good 
account  in  the  ultimate  character  of  those  en- 
trusted to  his  charge.  For  example,  selfwill 
and  obstinacy  indicate  firmness  of  character; 
forwardness  and  inquisitiveness  indicate  a  cu- 
rious and  active  mind. 

(5)  The  social  life  of  man,  the  gradual  in- 
crease of  cultivation,  refinement,  and  luxury, 
and  the  propensity  to  seek  for  the  pleasures  of 
sense,  while  they  are  in  some  respects  advan- 
tageous, are  the  cause  of  great  evil  and  injury. 
Cf.  Rousseau,  Sur  rinegalite  dcs  hommcs.  The 
wants  of  men  are  greatly  multiplied,  their  sen- 
sual appetites  are  greatly  excited  by  the  con- 
stant presentation  of  new  objects,  and  their  true 
peace  and  contentment  (avTOjix/a)  are  prevent- 
ed. They  thus  become  continually  more  pas- 
sionate and  insatiable,  and  more  withdrawn 
from  invisible  and  spiritual  objects. 

Civilized  man  has,  indeed,  more  means  in  his 
power  to  resist  the  evils  arising  from  the  social 
slate;  but  these  means  are  too  little  regarded 
and  employed.  Luxury  makes  men  selfish, 
proud,  and  hard-hearted,  and  paves  the  way  to 
other  vices;  and  when  sr^,  which  is  so  pam- 
pered by  luxury,  once  gets  firm  possession  of 
the  heart,  morality  and  virtue  are  for  ever  ban- 
ished. The  observation  of  the  evils  which 
arise  from  the  connexion  of  men  in  social  life, 
and  from  the  progress  of  cultivation,  suggested 
to  many  even  of  the  ancient  heathen  world  the 
thought  that  men  were  formerly  in  a  better  con- 
dition than  at  a  later  period.  Vide  s.  56.  But 
Philosopliy,  uninstructed  by  Revelation,  can 
never  prove,  h  priori,  that  a  change  has  taken 
place  in  human  nature,  and  that  it  is  now  dilTer- 
ent  from  what  it  was.  At  least,  the  philoso- 
pher can  never  attain  to  perfect  certainty  on  this 
subject,  and  will  find  many  things  enigmatical 
Snd  inexplicable. 

Cf.  on  this  subject  the  works  from  the  differ- 
ent schools.  Jerusalem,  Betrachtungen  uber 
die  Wahrheiten  der  Religion,  h.  ii.  th.  ii.  s.  731, 
f . ;  Junge,  Philosophische  und  'I'heologische 
Aufsatze,  th.  ii.  s.  297,  367;  Steinhart,  System 
der  Gliickseligkeitslehre,  cap.  iii.  s.  46,  f . ; 
Eberhard,  Apologie  des  Socrates ;  Tollner, 
Theologische  Untersucbungen,  b.  i.  st.  2,  s. 
112,  f.  As,  however,  in  some  of  these  works, 
especially  in  Steinhart,  the  depravity  of  man  is 
very  inadeqatcly  represented,  and  the  present 
34 


state  of  man  is  placed  in  far  too  advantageone 
and  favourable  a  light,  in  contradiction  both  to 
the  Bible  and  to  experience,  we  refer  with  plea- 
sure to  the  views  of  Michat'lis  on  this  subject, 
expressed  in  his  book,  "  Von  der  Svinde,"  s. 
48 — 54,  and  in  his  "Moral,"  th.  i.  s.  105 — 130; 
also  to  Kant,  "  Leber  das  radicale  Uebel,"  first 
essay  in  his  "Religion  innerhalb  der  Granzen 
der  blossen  Vernunfi;"  and  to  Mnrus,  »>Theol. 
Moral,"  and  Reinhard's  "  Dogmatik"  and  "  Mo- 
ral." 

[Cf.  on  thissubject.Bretschneider,  Dogmatik, 
b.  ii.  s.  17,  s.  120,  Ursprung  der  Siinde;  also 
Tholuck,  Lehre  von  der  Siinde.  Coleridge, 
Aids  to  Reflection,  p.  154 — 178,  especially  158; 
Neander,  Allg.  Kirchengeschichte,  b.  i.,  Abth. 
ii.  s.  640;  Hahn,  s.  342,  s.  77.— Tr.] 

III.  Could  God  have  prevented  Sin  ? 

The  question  here  arises.  How  can  God  he 
jttstijied  as  the  author  of  thin  constitution  ?  Could 
he  not  have  guarded  against  moral  evil  in  the 
world  ■?  Might  he  not  have  constituted  human 
nature  less  weak,  and  less  inclined  to  err  and 
sin]  It  is  not  strange,  considering  how  imper- 
fect is  our  knowledge  of  the  eternal  plan  and  of 
the  universal  government  of  God,  that  reflecting 
minds  should  have  always  been  disturbed  by 
doubts  on  this  subject,  and  that  they  should  have 
devised  various  means  of  relieving  their  doubts, 
and  of  vindicating  God,  and  that,  after  all,  they 
should  have  been  unable,  by  mere  philosophy, 
to  attain  to  satisfaction.  A  great  portion  of  the 
ancient  philosophers  endeavoured  to  relieve 
themselves  of  this  difllculty  by  supposing  two 
eternal  principles.     Vide  No.  I. 

In  philosophizing  on  this  subject  we  make 
the  following  general  remarks: — '■ 

(1)  It  is  an  established  point  that  to  God  all 
evil,  both  physical  and  moral,  as  such,  must  be 
displeasing;  and  that  he  seeks  to  prevent  it, 
wherever  it  may  he  done.  But  since  there  is 
much  imperfection,  evil,  and  sin,  actually  exist- 
ing in  the  world,  we  must  conclude  that  God  has 
efl'ected  and  will  eflTect  more  good  by  the  per- 
mission of  sin  than  could  he  effected  if  he  had 
not  permitted  it.  He  must  have  seen  that  he 
would  have  prevented  the  good,  if  he  had  not 
permitted  the  evil.  Vide  s.  48,  ad  finem;  and 
s.  71,  I.  To  shew  this  was  the  object  of  Leib- 
nitz in  his  "Theodicee." 

(2)  We  must  proceed  on  the  same  principles 
in  judging  of  moral  evil  and  corruption,  espe- 
cially among  men.  Hateful  to  God  as  this  moral 
evil  must  have  been,  and  punishable  as  it  is  in 
itself,  God  yet  must  have  seen  that  by  means  of 
this  constitution  of  human  nature  a  greater 
amount  of  good  would  be  accomplished  for  the 
human  race  as  a  whole,  and  for  the  world,  than 
if  he  had  made  man  more  perfect,  had  secured 
him  against  every  opportunity  to  sin,  or  had 


QGG 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


hindered  his  tramgri'ssion  by  the  immediate  ex- 
ercise ijf  hin  puwev.  The  latlor  could  not  take 
place,  as  God  had  given  to  man  a  moral  nature, 
which  is  placed  under  the  law  af freedom  alone, 
and  to  which  compulsion  and  necessity,  which 
prevail  in  the  material  world,  where  everything 
proceeds  by  mechanical  laws,  cannot  be  applied. 
But  as  in  every  other  case,  so  in  this,  God 
knows  how  to  overrule  evil  in  such  a  way  that 
higlier  good  shall  result  from  it.  Throughout 
the  world  there  is  a  constant  successive  develop- 
ment, and  a  struggle  after  an  advancement  and 
improvement  of  condition  ;  and  so  it  is  with  man. 
Vide  Rom.  viii.  20 — 23.  Sin  itself  may  serve 
for  the  promotion  of  good,  and  may  contribute 
to  the  perfection  of  man.  Through  his  liability 
to  err,  he  may  indeed  pursue  a  retrograde  course 
with  regard  to  virtue  and  moral  perfection  ;  but 
without  this  liability  he  could  not  make  ad- 
vancement; and  his  virtue  would  cease  to  have 
any  worth,  and  would  no  longer  deserve  the 
name  if  there  were  no  possibility  of  wrong. 
Neither  morality  nor  happiness  can  be  con- 
ceived to  exist  without  freedom.  So  much 
may  be  said  on  this  subject  in  the  way  of  phi- 
losophy ;  it  is,  however,  far  from  being  satis- 
factory. 

SECTION  LXXV. 

MOSAIC  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  SIN  OF  OUR  FIRST 
PARENTS. 

The  moral  depravity  of  the  human  race  is 
derived  everywhere  in  the  New  Testament 
from  the  disobedience  of  our  first  parents.  This 
universal  corruption  is  denominated  by  theolo- 
gians,/)ecc«/uw  oriirinalum,  or  orii^itiule,  or  ori- 
ginis  i  the  first  transgression,  juccatum  origi- 
naiis.  More  frequently,  however,  is  this  trans- 
gression denominated  lapsus,  fall,  according  to 
the  Hebrew  usage,  where  the  verba  eadendi 
signify  to  err,  to  sin,  also  .to  become  unhajypy ; 
as  Prov.  xxiv.  16,  17;  Rev.  ii.  5,  ixniftrnv. 
In  the  same  way  is  labi  used  in  Latin  instead 
of  peccare,  errare ;  and  cadere,  exeidere,  to  be 
miseridjle,  to  lose  a  thing.  Moses  in  his  narrative 
first  gives  an  account  of  the  divine  precept, 
that  Ati.im  and  Eve  should  not  eat  of  the  tree 
(f  knawUdge,  &c.,  Genesis,  ii.  15 — 17;  (vide 
8.  52,  II.  2;)  and  then  follows  the  account  of 
the  transgression  itself,  (ien.  iii.  1,  seq.  Wo 
must  therefore  refer  back  to  what  has  been 
already  remarked,  in  general,  respecting  the 
creation  of  the  world  and  of  man;  s.  19,  I.; 
and  8.  52,  II.  We  now  proceed  to  explain  this 
account. 

V  Different  ways  in  which  this  passage  has  been 
explained. 
The  interpreters  of  this  passage  were  formerly 
divided  into  two  general  claeses.    Some  have 


reg-.irded  it  as  an  alk:'n:Tj,  and  interpreted  it 
metaphorically,  admitiing  no  real  serpent,  tree. 
&c.  Others  consider  it  as  a  literal  narrative  of 
events  which  actually  occurred  in  the  mann«. 
here  recorded.  To  these  two  classes  a  third 
has  been  added  in  modern  times,  who  hold  thai 
it  is  merely  a  didactic  fable.  With  respect  to 
the  history  of  these  various  interpretations,  cf. 
Pfaff  and  Buddeus,  in  their  systems  of  theo- 
logy; also  Ode,  De  Angelis,  p.  493;  .M.  J.  O. 
Thiess,  Variarum  de  cap.  iii.  Geneseos  recte 
explicando  specimen  1.;  Lubecte,  1788,  8yo. 
[Cf.  Hahn,  Lehrbuch,  s.  345,  f.  s.  7S.  Bret- 
schneider,  Dogmatik,  b.  ii.  s.  58,  s.  125 — Tr.] 

(1)  The  Allegorical  interpretatiunK.  Thest 
are  very  various,  and  prove  by  their  variety  hat 
no  certain  results  can  be  attained  by  alleg'  ical 
interpretation.  All  the  explanations  of  this 
kind  are  forced  and  artificial.  To  suppose  an 
allegory  in  this  passage,  which  is  preceded  and 
followed  by  plain  and  simple  history,  is  alto- 
gether unnatural,  and  foreign  to  the  spirit  of 
these  ancient  monuments.  Nor  is  any  hint  or 
key  to  such  an  interpretation  given  us  by  the 
writer.  This  mode  of  interpreting  this  passage 
was  resorted  to  merely  for  the  sake  of  avoiding 
certain  difficulties,  some  of  which  soem  to 
arise  from  the  great  simplicity  of  this  narrative, 
(for  to  the  learned  interpreter  tiiis  simplicity 
constitutes  an  objection,)  and  others,  from  the 
great  dissimilarity  in  the  manner  of  thought 
and  expression  of  tliis  narrative  from  that  which 
is  found  in  this  cultivated  and  refined  age. 
The  inter|)reters  of  this  passage  thought  it 
necessary,  therefore,  to  make  the  writer  say 
something  of  higher  import,  and  more  philoso- 
phical, than  is  contained  in  the  simple  words; 
and  proceeded  with  regard  to  Moses  very  much 
as  the  later  Grecian  interpreters  did  with  regard 
to  Homer. 

The  first  attempts  at  allegorical  intprpretation 
are  found  among  the  Grecian-Jews,  and  princi- 
pally in  Philo,  De  Opificio  Mundi,  p.  104,  seq. 
ed.  Pfeif.  He  was  followed  by  Orig<-n  in  this 
general  principle  of  interpretation,  tho\igh  the 
latter  gave  a  different  turn  to  the  narrative;  and 
Origen  was  again  followed  by  Ambrose,  in  his 
book,  "  De  Paradise,"  I.  Some  of  their  fol- 
lowers tinderstand  all  the  circumstances  here 
mentioned  allegorically  ;  others,  only  some  of 
thom — e.  g.,  the  serpent,  and  allow  the  rest  to 
stand  as  history.  It  is  said  by  some,  that  the 
whole  is  intended  to  teach,  by  allegory,  howr 
unhappy  man  becomes  by  the  indulgence  of 
violent  passions,  and  the  evil  consequences 
resulting  from  the  prevalence  of  sense  over  rea- 
son. To  this  view  of  the  subject  Morus  is  in- 
clined, p.  99,  n.  2.  He  supposes  that  by  the 
serpent  are  intended,  in  general,  the  external 
inducements  to  nvil  by  which  we  are  surprised 
and  overborne;  but  that  the  very  things  wiiich 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  1:S  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALU 


26; 


constituteJ  the  original  temptation  are  unknown 
10  us. 

(2)  Littral  t'ntcrprctciitons.  A  large  pro])ortion 
of  the  church  fathers,  (e.  g.,  Justin  the  Martyr, 
Irenaeus,  Theophilus  of  Antioch,  Tertullian, 
Augustine,  and  Theodoret,)  and  also  most  of 
the  older  theologians  even  in  the  protestant 
church,  were  united  in  the  opinion  that  this 
passage  should  not  be  explained  as  an  allegory, 
although  they  differed  among  themselves  in  the 
interpretation  of  particular  expressions.  They 
agreed,  however,  for  the  most  part,  in  consider- 
ing the  serptnt  as  something  else  than  a  mere 
uatural  serpent,  as  it  was  regarded  by  Josephus 
and  other  Jewish  interpreters.  Some  affirmed 
that  the  serpent  was  simply  the  devil — an  opi- 
nion justly  controverted  by  Vitringa,  on  account 
of  the  great  difficulties  by  which  it  is  encom- 
passed. Others,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
older  Jewish  and  Christian  interpreters,  s\ip- 
posed  that  the  serpent  here  spoken  of  was  the 
instrument  which  was  employed  by  the  evil 
spirit  to  seduce  mankind.  So  it  is  explained 
toy  Augustine,  who  was  followed  in  this  by 
Luther  and  Calvin ;  and  this,  from  their  time, 
was  the  prevailing  opinion  of  protestant  theolo- 
gians, until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. There  is,  indeed,  nothing  said  in  the  ori- 
grnal  text  respecting  an  evil  spirit;  but  as  the 
serpent  is  here  introduced  as  acting  and  speak- 
ing after  the  manner  of  an  intelligent,  though 
evil-disposed  being,  it  was  thought  fair  to  con- 
clude that  an  evil  being  actually  spoke  through 
the  serpent;  and  so  has  it  been  understood  even 
among  modern  critics — e.  g.,  by  Michaelis  and 
Yacharia,. 

This  exposition  respecting  the  serpent  is  in- 
deed ancient;  but  still  we  can  find  no  distinct 
traces  of  it  in  the  bonks  of  the  Old  Testament 
written  before  the  Babylonian  exile ;  and  we 
are  therefore  alike  unable  to  prove  or  disprove 
that  before  that  period  this  passage  was  so 
understood.  To  suppose  that  the  serpent  in 
this  passage  was  the  instrument  of  an  invisible 
being  is  certainly  entirely  in  the  spirit  of  the 
most  ancient  people,  who  imagined  that  evil  and 
good  spirits  were  everywhere  active  in  all  the 
evil  and  good  done  in  the  world.  After  the 
Babylonian  exile,  however,  we  find  it  expressly 
said  by  the  Jewish  teachers,  that  in  the  tempta- 
tion an  evil  being  was  invisibly  active"  through 
the  serpent.  This  point  may  therefore  be  one 
of  those  (of  which  we  find  many  relating  to  the 
doctrine  of  spirits)  which  belong  to  the  later 
disclosures  of  tie  prophets.  Vide  s.  58.  In 
the  Apocryphal  books  before  Christ  we  find  it 
said  that  the  devil  deceived  mankind,  and 
brought  sin  and  death  into  the  world — e.  g., 
Book  of  Wisdom,  i.  13,  14;  and  especially  ii. 
23,  24,  (t^oi'9  6ia36x(n),  x.  t.  X.)  This  is  con- 
ceded on  all  hands. 


It  is  asserted,  however,  by  many  learned  men, 
that  this  idea  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Testa* 
ment,  and  they  appeal  to  2  Cor.  xi.  3,  where  it 
is  said  that  the  serpent  deceived  Eve,  and  no 
mention  is  made  of  the  devil ;  and  also  to  Rom. 
V.  18,  where  Paul  makes  no  allusion  to  the 
devil,  although  he  is  treating  of  the  origin  of 
evil.  In  answer  to  this  it  may  be  said,  («)  that 
considering  how  prevalent  this  explanation  was 
at  the  time  of  Christ,  and  that  neither  he  nor  his 
apostles  contradicted  it,  nor  said  anything  in- 
consistent with  it,  the  probability  is,  that  they 
also  assented  to  it.  Morus  seems  to  admit  this, 
although  in  so  doing  he  cannot  be  altcgether 
consistent  with  himself.  But  (6)  it  deserves 
also  to  be  considered  that  there  are  many  aliu- 
sivms  and  references  in  the  New  Testament,  in 
which  this  interpretation  is  presupposed,  and 
from  which  it  appears  that  Christ  and  his  apos- 
tles assented  to  it,  and  authorized  it — e.  g., 
John,  viii.  44,  ai/^pwrtozroi/oj  art  d|);^r? ;  1  John, 
iii.  8,  drt'  o^X'^li  ^  biu^o'Ko^  auaprarft;  also  the 
titles  in  Revelation,  b^mx^v  ^tyaj,  o  o^ij  5 
d|i;^aioj,  Rev.  xii.  9,  seq.  From  these  texts  we 
can  see  how  the  text  2  Cor.  xi.  3  is  to  be  under- 
stood. The  New-Testament  writers  therefore 
assumed  it  as  a  fact,  that  in  some  way,  not  fur- 
ther determined,  the  devil  was  concerned  in  the 
temptation  of  man.  It  is  not,  however,  expressly 
said  in  any  one  passage  that  the  devil  spoke 
through  the  serpent. 

The  principal  advocates  of  the  interpretation 
formerly  adopted  by  theologians,  and  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  allegorists  and  to  the  class  of  inter- 
preters to  be  hereafter  mentioned,  were,  among 
the  more  ancient,  Aug.  PfeitTer,  Dubia  vexata, 
cap.  6;  among  the  more  modern,  Joh.  Balth. 
Liiderwald,  Die  allegorische  Erklarung  der  drey 
ersten  Capitel  Mosis,  u.  s.  w.  in  ihrem  Ungrund 
vorgestellt;  Helmstadt,  1781,  8vo ;  also  Karl 
Traugott  Eifert,  Untersuchung  der  Frage, 
Konnte  nirht  die  iVIosaische  Erzahlung  vom 
Fall  buchstjiblich  wahr,  und  durch  den  Fall  ein 
erbliches  Yerderben  auf  die  Menschen  gekom- 
men  seyn]  Halle,  1781;  especially  Storr,  De 
Protevangelio;  Tubingje,  1789,  (in  his  Opus- 
cula,  torn.  ii.  num.  7,)  and  Koppen,  Die  Bihel 
u.  s.  w.  th.  ii.  [To  this  class  the  great  body  of 
American  theologians  belongs.] 

(3)  To  the  third  class  belong  those  interpret- 
ers who  consider  this  narration  as  a  wi/fhus,  or 
a  truth  invested  in  a  poetic  form.  According  to 
this  idea,  this  passage  has  been  interpreted  in 
modern  times  by  Eichhorn,  in  his  "  Urgesch- 
ichte;"  in  such  a  way,  however,  that  he  al- 
lows some  things  in  the  account  to  be  histori' 
cal  and  others  allegorical.  Such,  in  some  re- 
spects, is  also  the  interpretation  of  Rosenmuller, 
(Repertor.  th.  i.  s.  160,)  who  supposes  that  the 
narrative  in  Genesis  was  taken  from  a  hiero- 
glyphic picture — i.  e.,  transferred  from  pictorial 


368 


CHRISTIAN  TilEOLOGY. 


representation  to  alphabetic  signs.  These  inter- 
preters have  endeavoured  to  unite  the  historii;al 
and  the  mythical  or  allegoriciil  interpretations. 
But  tiiis  i^  inadmissible.  If  the  mythical  inter- 
pretation is  ado|)ted,  the  whole  narrative,  in  all  its 
parts,  must  be  considered  as  a  ntytkus,  like  wiial 
other  nations  had,^n  order  to  represent  to  them- 
selves, each  in  its  own  way,  in  a  distinct  and 
vivid  manner,  the  first  sin  of  man,  and  its  con- 
sequences. So  Eichhorn,  Paulus,  Gal)ler,  and 
many  others.  One  of  two  things  must  be  ad- 
mitted ;  either  this  narmtive  throughout  must 
ae  considered  as  a  veritable  history  of  events 
which  took  place  just  as  here  related,  (and  this 
agrees  with  the  New  Testament,)  or  it  is  wholly 
a  didactic  or  moral  ficti(m.  In  both  cases  the 
interpreter  must  proceed  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  particular  portions  of  this  account  from  the 
same  principles.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  fact, 
that  Moses,  or  the  writer  from  whom  he  took 
this  account,  (vide  s.  49,)  understood  these  ex- 
)>res3ions  just  as  thoy  stand,  according  to  their 
literal  meaning ;  and  that  these  other  ideas  which 
are  attached  to  this  narrative  were  ascribed  to  it 
at  a  later  j)eriod,  in  order  to  adapt  it  more  to  the 
tastes  and  feelings  of  cultivated  and  speculative 
minds. 

In  confirmation  of  the  internal  truth  and  con- 
sistency of  this  narrative  let  the  following  things 
be  considered  ;  and  they  are  equally  deserving 
of  notice,  whether  this  passage  be  literally  or 
historically  understood.  Converaalion  with  ani- 
mals is  something,  which  to  man,  in  his  natural 
condition,  and  before  the  refinements  of  social 
life,  is  perfectly  common,  and  by  no  means 
strange  and  incredible.  How  often  is  it  the 
case  with  children,  (even  with  those,  too,  who 
are  somewhat  grown  up,)  that  they  address 
inanimate  things,  and  still  more  frequently 
living  creatures,  imagining  what  they  would 
answer,  and  then  replying  to  them  in  turn! 
They  will  often,  too,  relate  to  others  the  conver- 
sations they  have  had  with  the  animals  around 
themi  Hence  the  fables  of  ^^-isop  were  more 
aijreeable  and  impressive,  and  less  strange  and 
startling,  even  to  mature  minds,  in  the  ancient 
wurld  than  now.  Hence,  too,  the  supposition 
which  once  |)revailed  even  in  the  heathen  world, 
thai  in  the  golden  age  beasts  actually  spake. 
Again  ;  the  author  understood  the  sjua/.tm;  of 
Giiil,  here  mentioned,  as  real,  urtieulale  spefc/i, 
perhaps  with  a  voice  of  thunder.  For  the  idea 
was  very  prevalent  in  the  ancient  world  that  the 
Deity  was,  as  it  were,  personally  present,  and 
appeared  to  the  men  of  early  times  in  the  most 
nee  and  familiar  intercourse;  somewhat  as  the 
gods  were  supposed  by  the  Greeks  to  have  as- 
sociated with  men  in  the  heroic  ages.  Vide 
s.  54,  I. 

This  whole  representation,  however,  whether 
it  be  fact  or  moral  fiction,  is  entirely  conformed  , 


to  the  nature  of  the  human  soul/ and  describt* 
in  a  manner  perfectly  true,  the  history  of  the 
temptation  and  sin  of  man,  as  it  is  witnessed 
every  day,  through  the  impression  which  sensi- 
ble objects  make  upon  him.  Here  then,  by  the 
example  of  our  first  parents,  two  things  are 
shewn  :  tlie  way  in  which  sin  commonly  arises, 
and  the  way  in  which  it  actually  first  entered 
the  world.  In  this,  however,  there  is  a  dilTer- 
ence,  that  in  the  case  of  our  first  parents  they 
had  come  to  maturity  without  having  yet  sinned. 
The  first  sin  committed  upon  earth  was  one  of 
momentous  consequences  for  themselves  and 
their  posterity.  In  looking  at  this  transaction, 
we  are  again  impressed  with  the  idea  that  the 
slate  if  iiinocsnce  in  which  our  first  parents  were 
placed  was  a  state  of  immaturity,  of  childhood, 
and  infantine  simplicity;  and  that  they  then 
had  no  very  extended  knowledge  or  experience. 
They  were  deceived  in  nearly  the  same  way  as 
an  innocent  and  inexperienced  child  is  now  de- 
ceived. In  this  point  of  view  this  narrative  has 
been  very  justly  apprehended,  even  by  Morus, 
p.  99,  n.  I. 

[A'o/e. — There  is  an  interesting  essay  on  the 
.Mosaic  account  of  the  Fall  in  the  Ap|)endix  to 
Tholuck's  "  Lehre  von  der  Siinde."  \\  hile  he 
contends  for  the  historic  fact  of  the  fall,  he  at  the 
same  time  regards  the  representation  here  given 
of  this  fact  as  figurative,  and  finds  insuperable 
objections  in  the  way  of  the  literal,  and  very 
plausible  arguments  in  favour  of  the  moral  inter- 
pretation. He  gives  the  following  as  the  moral 
import  of  the  passage:  "Man,  who,  in  accord- 
ance with  his  destination,  enjoyed  a  holy  inno- 
cence, in  which  he  knew  no  other  will  than  thai 
of  God,  abandoned  this  state,  becanie  selfish 
(autonomic),  and  would  no  longer  acknowledge 
the  divine  law  of  life  as  the  highest;"  s.  2l>G, 
of  the  work  above  mentioned.  The  views  of  the 
German  theologians  on  this  subject  are  very  vari- 
ous; and  though  often  fanciful,  sometimes  deep- 
ly interesting  and  profound.  It  will  be  sulfi- 
cient  to  refer  to  some  of  the  more  important  of 
these,  which  the  ardent  student  of  theology, 
who  wishes  to  overstep  the  limit  of  merely  tra- 
ditionary ideas,  may  consult  at  his  leisure.  Cf. 
.Schleiermacher,  ("hrist.  Glaub.  b.  ii.  s.  59. 
Schlegel,  Philosophie  der  (ieschichte,  b.  i.  s. 
42,  43.  Herder,  Geist  der  Ebra.  Foesie,  b.  i 
s.  155.  To  these  we  may  add  the  speculations, 
ingenious  and  ex<iting,  even  when  unfounded 
and  fanciful,  of  Coleridge.  See  his  ••  Aids  to 
Hefiection,"  notes,  p.  324,  325;  also  p.  176, 
177.— Tr.] 

II.  Particular  Expressions  and  Represeitinfions. 

(1)  licspcclini;  the  divine  law,  the  transgres- 
sion if  ii,  uiul  the  teinptaliun.  Genesis,  ii.  17. 
coll.  ver.  9,  and  chap.  iii.  1 — 6  For  an  accounv 
of  the  name,  tree  of  t/ie  knowledge  of  ^ood  and 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


269 


tvtl,  vide  s.  52,  II.  The  question  is  here  asked, 
IVhat  design  had  God  in  view  in  giving  this 
precept?  According  to  the  opinion  of  many 
theologians,  this  command  was  given  by  God 
merely  for  the  sake  of  putting  the  virtue  of 
Adam  and  Eve  to  the  test,  there  being  no  inju- 
rious quality  in  the  tree  itself  which  should  lead 
him  to  forbid  it ;  and  so  they  suppose  that  the 
punishment  of  death  threatened  and  inflicted  by 
God  had  no  natural  connexion  with  the  eating 
of  the  forbidden  fruit,  but  depended  merely  upon 
the  divine  will.  This  is  supposed  by  Ernesti, 
Vindiciae  arbitrii  divini,  in  his  "  Opusc.  Theol." 
p.  231 ;  and  among  the  ancients,  by  Theophilus, 
Ad  Autolyc.  1.  ii.  c.  35.  But  against  this  sup- 
position there  are  many  reasons,  both  of  an  in- 
ternal and  external  nature,  which  have  been 
well  exhibited  by  Michaelis,  Von  der  Siinde,  s. 
559.  The  fact  that  this  forbidden  tree  is  set 
over  against  the  tree  of  life,  would  lead  us  to 
think  that  it  was  in  itself  a  poisonous  tree,  and 
in  its  own  nature  destructive  to  man.  And  to 
this  opinion  even  Morus  assents,  p.  102,  s.  16. 
The  writer  here  designs  to  shew  by  what  natu- 
ral means  the  life  of  man  was  to  have  been  pro- 
longed, according  to  the  divine  appointment, 
in  the  state  of  innocence;  and  this  means  is 
the  tree  of  life,  or  life-giving  tree;  and  after- 
wards, by  what  means  death  came  into  the 
world — namely,  by  a  poisonous  tree.  It  is 
against  the  latter,  which  bore  an  alluring,  beau- 
tiful fruit,  that  God  warns  inexperienced  man, 
as  a  father  cautions  his  child  not  to  taste  of  a 
pleasant  poison  which  may  lie  in  his  way. 
^ince  man  entered  his  new  abode  as  a  stranger, 
it  was  naturnal  that  he  should  receive  all  neces- 
sary instructions  and  cautions  from  the  being 
who  prepared  it  for  him,  and  introduced  him  to 
it.  Tasting  of  the  fruit  of  this  tree  introduced 
disorder  into  the  human  body,  which,  from  that 
time  forward,  was  subject  to  disease  and  death. 
In  this  way  is  God  justified,  as  every  one  can 
see,  from  the  charge  of  being  the  author  of  human 
misery  ;  just  as  a  father  is  acquitted  from  blame 
in  the  misfortune  of  his  children  if  he  had  before 
cautioned  them  against  the  poison.  In  this  way, 
too,  every  one  can  understand  why  God  should 
require  obedience  from  man.  The  father  requires 
obedience  of  his  children,  because  he  knows 
better  than  they  do  what  is  best  for  them.  For 
the  same  reason  should  we  unconditionally  obey 
God.  Nor  is  the  explanation  now  given,  by 
which  the  forbidden  fruit  is  considered  in  its 
own  nature  poisonous,  a  new  exjilanation ;  it 
is  mentioned  by  Chrysostom,  although  he  re- 
jects it. 

The  propriety  and  consistency  of  the  account 
of  the  temptation  by  means  of  the  serpent  may 
be  illustrated  by  the  following  remarks.  The 
serpent  was  used  by  almost  all  the  ancient  na- 
tions as  the  symbol  of  prudence,  adroitness,  and 


cunning.  Vide  Matt.  x.  16;  2  Cor.  xi.  3.  Eve 
sees  a  serpent  upon  this  forbidden  tree,  and  pro- 
bably eating  of  its  fruits,  which  to  a  serpent 
might  not  be  harmful.  And  it  is  very  natural 
that  this  should  be  first  observed  by  the  woman, 
that  her  interest  and  curiosity  should  have  be^n 
arrested  by  the  sight,  and  that,  with  her  greate» 
susceptibility  to  temptation,  her  desires  should 
have  been  first  kindled,  and  she  first  seduced 
from  obedience.  Paul  mentions  it  as  wortliy 
of  notice,  that  the  woman  first  sinned,  1  Tim. 
ii.  14,  coll.  Sir.  xxv.  32,  irto  ywaixb^  o^'^XV  a|"op- 
r/aj.  We  may  compare  with  this  part  of  the 
narrative  the  Grecian  mythus  of  Pandora.  As 
to  what  follows,  we  very  naturally  understand 
that  Eve  reflected  upon  what  she  had  seen,  and 
expressed  her  thoughts  in  u!'irtU  .• — "  The  ser- 
pent is  a  very  lively  and  knowing  animal,  and 
yet  it  eats  of  the  fruit  which  is  forbidden  us. 
This  fruit  cannot,  therefore,  be  so  hurtful,  and 
the  prohibition  may  not  have  been  meant  in 
earnest,"  &c. — the  same  fi.llacies  with  which 
men  still  deceive  themselves  when  the  objects 
of  sense  entice  and  draw  them  away.  The  fact 
which  she  observed,  that  the  serpent  ate  the 
fruit  of  the  forbidden  tree  without  harm,  excited 
the  thought  which  in  ver.  4,  5  are  represented 
as  the  words  of  the  serpent,  that  it  was  worth 
while  to  eat  of  this  fruit.  It  did  not  seem  to 
occasion  death  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  appeared 
rather  to  impart  health,  vigour,  and  intellisrence, 
as  was  proved  from  the  example  of  the  serpent, 
which  remained  after  eating  it  well  and  wise. 
"  Consider  me,"  the  serpent  might  have  seemed 
to  her  to  say,  "how  brisk,  sound,  and  cunning 
I  am,"  &c.  Now,  as  she  knows  of  no  being 
who  surpasses  man  in  wisdom,  excepting  God 
only,  she  supposes,  in  her  simplicity,  that  if  she 
became  wiser  than  she  then  was,  she  should 
be  like  God.  Meanwhile,  the  desire  after  that 
which  was  forbidden  became  continually  more 
irresistible.  She  took  of  the  fruit  and  ate.  The 
man,  who,  as  is  common,  was  weak  and  ])liable 
enough  to  yield  to  the  solicitation  of  his  wife, 
received  the  fruit  from  her  and  ate  with  her. 

All  this  may  have  been  as  now  stated,  even 
on  the  supposition,  so  conformed  to  the  spirit 
of  the  ancient  world,  and  fully  authorized  in 
the  New  Testament,  that  the  evil  spirit  had  an 
agency  in  this  transaction  This  supposition 
can  occasion  no  alteration  in  the  verbal  explana- 
tion of  this  record.  Satan  can  be  al'owed  to  be 
no  otherwise  concerned  in  this  aflairthan  as  in 
siigator  and  contriver;  somewhat  after  the  man- 
ner of  a  VHalicious  and  crafty  man,  who  might 
secretly  injure  another,  by  tempting  him,  either 
by  words  or  in  any  other  way,  to  taste  of  a  poi- 
sonous article.  Those  to  whom  the  real  speak- 
ing of  the  serpent  seems  strange  and  incredible, 
may  understand  it  as  above. 

Now  it  was  in  this  transgression  of  the  divine 
z2^ 


870 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


law,  which  made  strict  abstinence  from  the  for- 
bidden tret;  binding  upon  them,  that  their  si;»  is 
placed;  and  it  is  this  which  the  apostle  calls 
Ho^axor,  Horn.  v.  I'J.  The  rising  desires  which 
our  lirsl  parents  fell  to  eat  the  fruit  were  founded 
in  their  nature,  and  were  not  imputed  to  them 
as  «in.  Nor  is  the  springing  up  of  involuntary 
desire  in  the  heart  of  man  ever  considered  in 
pcripture  as  sin;  but  merely  tjje  entertaining, 
clii'rishing,  and  accomplishing  of  this  desire. 
Vide  James,  i.  11.  The  sin  of  our  first  parents, 
then,  properly  consisted  in  this — that  they  were 
not  implicitly  obedient  to(jod,as  Paul  remarks 
in  the  passage  just  cited,  'i'his  disobedience 
to  God  is  the  greatest  wrong,  and  draws  after 
itsf-lfinevitably  the  mostinjurious  consequences, 
whether  it  is  shewn  in  greater  or  smaller  in- 
stances. Cf.  1  Sam.  XV.  23.  They  did  what 
God  had  forbidden,  under  the  impression  which 
men  are  accustomed  to  have  in  such  cases,  that 
it  was  something  trifling,  and  of  little  import. 
Fpun  this  first  act,  there  now  arose  in  their 
minds  alienati(m  from  (Jod,  distrust  of  him,  the 
desire  of  independence  of  him,  &:c.  They  began 
to  say,  '•lliat  God  liad  not  allowed  them  to  be 
like  himsplf,"  &c. — thoughts  from  which  they 
should  have  shrunk  with  abhorrence,  and  ban- 
ished instantly  from  their  hearts. 

(2)  'I'he  comequerices  of  this  transgression  are 
narrated,  ver.  7,  seq.  The  author  does  not  give 
such  a  representation  as  would  lead  us  to  think 
that  all  piety,  virtue,  and  religion,  ceased  with 
man  immediately  upon  his  first  transgression. 
For  we  see  in  the  setjuel,  that  the  knowledge 
and  worship  of  God  were  perpetuated  in  the 
family  of  Adam.  We  perceive  too,  that  our 
first  parents  felt  repentance  and  shame  after  the 
fall,  and  these  feelings  are  sufficient  proof  that 
morality  and  rectitude  were  not  wholly  oblite- 
rated liy  the  fall.  Some  theologians  maintain 
that  by  the  fall  man  lost  the  inutile  of  God,  but 
this  is  denifd  hy  others.  And  holh  may  be  true, 
according  as  the  image  of  (iod  is  understood  in 
a  wider  or  more  narrow  sense.  The  whole  dis- 
pute is  more  respecting  words  than  things. 
Vide  8.  5S,  ad  finem,  and  s.  51.  The  author 
plac>»«  the  consequences  of  this  transgression 
in  the  folliiwing  particulars — viz., 

(/;)  In  the  disturbed  balance  of  the  powers  and 
inclinations  of  man,  and  in  the  prepondi-rance 
which  the  iiii|)ulseH  of  sense  now  obtained  over 
reason.  For  th;s  balance  and  harmony  of  powers 
was  that  wliich  constituted,  acconling  to  the  nc- 
count  of  Moses,  the  principal  advantage  of  the 
state  of  innocence.  That  this  was  tlie  conse- 
quence of  the  first  transgression  is  clearly  taughi 
by  Moses  in  the  expression,  "  and  tluy  hv.w  that 
thi-y  were  naked"  which  may  be  euphemistically 
expressed  as  follows:  "They  felt  the  motions 
of  sense  uncommoiilv  strong,  which  they  were 
no  longer  able  to  control  as  heretofore,  but  by 


which  they  were  now  foverned,  whence  th* 
feeling  of  shame  arose  in  their  ininds;"  as  is 
still  the  case  with  innocent  youth,  when  it  first 
begins  to  have  such  desires.  It  is  possible  that 
this  may  be  considered  as  also  the  effect  of  the 
harmful  fruit  which  had  been  eaten  by  them, 
!)y  which  their  nerves  were  strongly  excitetl  ; 
for  there  are  many  poisonous  plants  by  which 
violent  excitement  is  imparted  to  the  nerves, 
and  by  which  great  disorder  is  produced  both  in 
soul  and  bodv — spasmodic  atVections,  stupefac- 
tion, and  delirium;  such  are  belladonna,  opium, 
thorn-apple,  and  hemlock.  This  supposition 
will  at  least  serve  to  render  the  subject  more 
intelligible,  and  to  explain  how  this  elTect  may 
have  been  propagated  from  Adam  to  his  poste- 
rity, although  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  to 
understand  this  effect  as  a  physical  one;  and  at 
all  events  this  should  not  be  brought  into  popu- 
lar instruction,  as  it  is  merely  conjectural.* 


•  The  views  here  expressed  respecting  the  nature 

of  the  forbidden  fruit,  and  the  consequences  of  eat- 
inj^  it  upon  our  lirst  parents,  are  the  hasis  of  oui  au- 
thor's ideas  res[)ecliog  the  natural  character  of  man  ; 
they  ouKJit  ihcret'ore  to  be  carelully  examined  here, 
wiiero  tliey  are  first  introduced.  It  is  easy  to  see 
how  Dr.  Knapp's  love  of  pluinncss  and  sinipiicit)  of 
interpretation,  and  bis  aversion  to  the  metaphysical 
and  sfirculalive  spirit  of  tiis  times,  should  have  in- 
clined him  to  sentiments  like  those  which  be  has 
here  expressed  respectirni  the  narrative  in  Genecis. 
liuleeil,  they  may  be  said  to  result  ftirly  from  adopt- 
ins;  and  carrying  tlirou:;b  the  princii)le  of  literal  m- 
terprclation  in  application  to  this  passage.  To  the 
same  conclusion  substantially  were  .Michaclis  nmJ 
Keirihard  broui;hl  before  him,  by  reasoniiifj  on  the 
same  princijiles.  But  we  ouijbt  to  hesitate  liefore 
adoptini;  principles  which  strip  this  opening  page  of 
iiuinan  liislnry  of  its  chief  moral  and  reiigioos  inter- 
est, and  sul)>tilute  transaction:^  so  unimportant  and 
even  trivial.  To  teach  that  the  forbidden  tree  was 
one  of  physical  poi.son  ;  that  on  this  account  mainly, 
and  not  for  the  purpose  of  trslini;  their  ol>edtence, 
our  first  parents  were  warned  acainst  it ;  that  by 
seeing  a  ser|N>iit  (cvA  on  it  with  impunity,  they 
fidsely  concluded  ihey  ndglit  do  st) ;  th.il  having  iluis 
by  mistake  l>een  led  to  ta>le  of  it,  llicir  nerves  were 
excited,  their  passions  inflamed,  and  ri'ason  weakeii- 
ril ;  and,  lastly,  that  the  piopaijation  of  this  physical 
disorder  is  the  cause  of  the  universal  pre<loiinnance 
of  st'iise  over  n-ason,  in  shoil,  of  hum  in  depravity; 
these  are  pro|M)sitions  so  stninge  that  we  must  won- 
der  bow  llicy  could  have  iu'en  soU'rly  propounded 
by  writers  of'  such  eiiiiiience. 

To  inindK  of  a  particular  cast,  which  had  been  dis- 
eiisted  with  the  assumptions  of  pliiiivfsopby,  and 
wearied  with  trHvelliiic  throU'^ih  its  thorny  mazf«.  ro 
Hiinple  and  easy  a  s<ilutioii  of  the  mysteries  of  our 
present  condition  mikilit  nnlurally  furnish  repoHc. 
But  a  just  and  un|H'rverteil  criticjil  taste  must  Ih*  of- 
fended with  an  inlcr|iretalion  ho  flatly  and  frigidly 
ad  lilrriim  as  that  which  is  here  snuifrsted. 

If  this  narrative  is  to  r«'lain  the  least  doctrinal  in» 
teri»«l.  It  must  l>r  regarded  as  exhilatinft  lite  trial  ;tj 
man  a.\  in  uhrdienre  ta  t/ie  divine  will,  and  the  un- 
ha|>py  issue  of  this  trial.  .\nd  if  this  meaiiiiii;  b« 
eiiructed  from  this  history,  it  is  not  of  so  much  con* 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


271 


(b)  The  consequences  of  the  first  transgres- 
sion are  seen  in  still  other  evils.  Physical  evils 
are  usually  regarded  as  the  consequences  of  an- 
tecedent moral  faults,  and  experience  shews 
this  to  be  correct,  though  mistakes  are  easily 
made  in  applying  this  principle  to  particular 
cases.  When  man  was  more  perfect,  and  lived 
in  a  state  of  innocence,  he  bore  none  of  those 
loads  which  he  is  now  called  to  sustain ;  he 
was  undpr  no  necessity  of  tilling  the  ground 
with  weariness ;  he  lived  free  from  care,  needed 
no  clothing,  &c.  Vide  s.  56.  All  this  now 
ceased  ;  and  the  evils  which  began  to  appear 
were  regarded  as  the  consequences  of  the  fall, 
and  as  punishments  inflicted  by  the  Deity. 
Hence  it  is  related,  ver.  8,  that  God  sat  in  so- 
lemn judgment  upon  our  first  parents,  and  pro- 
nounced their  sentence.  And  this  was  done  in 
a  thunder  storm,  which  took  place  zm  nn^ — i.  e., 
at  eventide,  when  the  cool  evening  wind  began 
to  blow  at  sunset,  as  it  does  in  the  east.  This 
term  is  used  in  opposition  to  ai>n  cii,  mcridica. 
Gen.  xviii.  1.  Man  hid  himself;  the  natural 
effect  of  the  consciousness  of  having  acted 
wrong;  and  then  comes  the  trial.  All  this  is 
perfectly  natural,  and  like  what  we  see  every 
day  in  the  case  of  crime  and  of  an  evil  con- 
science. Men,  as  here,  fear  the  presence  of 
God,  and  wish  to  conceal  themselves  from  him, 
although  they  well  know  that  this  is  impossi- 
ble. It  is  hard  for  them  to  acknowledge  their 
sins,  repent  of  them,  and  confess  them.  They 
seek  vain  excuses,  and  throw  off  the  guilt  from 
themselves  to  others;  Eve  upon  the  serpent, 
and  Adam  upon  Eve.  And  indeed,  in  these 
words — the  ivuman  which  thou  gavest  me, 
Adam  seems  to  throw  the  guilt  upon  God,  as 

Bequence  whether  it  be  by  an  allegorical  or  literal 
interpretation.  But  to  make  this  the  history  of  the 
imprudent  conduct  of  Adam  and  Eve  in  eating  of  a 
fruit  of  whose  fatal  qualities  they  had  been  fore- 
warned, and  thus  poisoning  themselves,  is  to  empty 
it  of  its  high  interest  as  the  account  of  the  birth  of 
sill,  and  to  reduce  it  to  a  common-place  story,  un- 
worthy of  its  place  at  the  head  of  the  history  of  man. 
It  was  well  said  by  Theophilus  of  Antioch,  long  ago, 
"  that  it  was  not  the  tree,  but  the  disobedience,  which 
had  death  in  itself,"  Contra  Autyl.  Luther,  too, 
who  in  general  followed  the  literal  interpretation, 
says,  with  regard  to  this  passage,  "  Adam  indeed 
stuck  his  teeth  i;ito  the  apple;  but  he  set  them,  too, 
I  upon  a  thorn,  which  was,  the  law  of  God  and  dis- 
obedience against  him ;  and  this  was  the  proper 
cause  of  his  misery."     Com.  on  Gen.  ii.  .5. 

Some  of  the  remoter  consequences  of  Knapp's 
view  of  the  transgression  of  our  first  parents  and  its 
influence  on  their  posterity  are  not  less  singular  than 
the  first  appearance  of  his  interpretation.  If  the  re- 
sult of  the  fall  to  Adam  was  a  physical  disorder  which 
we  inheiit  from  him,  then  it  would  seem  that,  in 
order  that  man  niiiiht  be  restored,  a  physical  cure 
ought  first  to  be  elfected,  and  the  first  step  towards 
bis  recovery  should  be  a  medical  prescription.  But 
of  this  more  hereafter. — Th.] 


much  as  to  say,  "hadst  not  thou  given  ner  to 
me,  this  evil  had  not  been  done." 

But  the  most  distinct  punishment  for  the 
transgression  of  the  divine  law  was  this — that 
they  must  die;  Gen.  ii.  17,  coll.  iii.  19.  In  the 
former  of  these  texts  the  phrase  is  rnn  nc  (best 
rendered  by  Symmachus,  ^tr^roi  tor) ;  in  the 
latter,  thou  shall  return  to  the  earth  from  whence 
thou  wast  taken.  In  the  latter  passage,  there- 
fore, it  can  be  only  mortality  which  is  spoker. 
of;  and  the  theological  distinction  of  spiritual, 
bodily,  and  eternal  Ae-aih.  has  no  connexion  with 
this  passage.  Some  theologians  assert  even 
that  it  does  not  relate  to  bodily  death  at  all,  but 
only  to  spiritual  and  eternal.  So  (Jalovius, 
Seb.  Schmidt,  Fecht,  &c.  This  mortality  now 
was  the  consequence  of  the  harmful  fruit  they 
had  eaten,  just  as  their  immortality  was  de- 
scribed as  what  would  be  the  consequence  of 
eating  of  the  tree  of  life.  And  as  men  were 
henceforward  to  be  deprived  of  immortality, 
they  were  no  more  permitted  to  eat  of  the  tree 
of  life,  and  were  therefore  removed  by  God  from 
the  garden,  ver.  22,  24.  In  the  same  way  that 
their  removal  from  the  garden  is  represented  as 
an  act  of  God,  are  we  to  understand  the  direc- 
tion that  they  should  be  clothed  ivilh  the  shins  of 
beasts,  ("God  made  thern  coats  of  skins,"  as  it 
is  said,  ver.  21) — viz.,  as  an  instruction  which 
they  received  directly  and  immediately  from 
God  ;  for  it  was  a  common  opinion  throughout 
the  ancient  world,  that  God  had  directly  com- 
municated to  men  the  knowledge  of  many  use- 
ful inventions. 

In  the  words,  ver.  22,  "  Adam  has  become 
like  one  of  us,  knowing  good  and  evil,"  there 
is  something  ironical,  and  they  refer  to  ver.  5, 
as  much  as  to  say,  "  we  see  now  how  it  is,  man 
wished  to  become  wise  and  like  to  God,  but  in 
breaking  the  commandment  of  God  he  acted 
like  a  fool."  Others  render  these  words,  "A« 
WAS  like  one  of  tis,  but  now  is  so  no  more." 

With  respect  to  the  curse  pronounced  upon 
the  serpent,  ver.  14,  many  difficulties  are  found. 
How  can  the  serpent,  which,  even  supposing  it 
the  instrument  of  the  devil,  was  an  innocent 
cause  of  the  temptation,  have  been  punished  1 
This  certainly  does  not  seem  to  agree  with  our 
present  ideas  of  punishment,  and  what  consti- 
tutes capacity  for  it.  But  if  we  notice  the  con- 
duct of  children,  and  of  rude  and  uncultivated 
men,  we  shall  find  a  solution.  God  deals  with 
men  more  humano,  and  condescends  in  his  con- 
duct to  their  limited  and  infantine  comprehen- 
sions. When  children  are  injured  by  an  animal, 
or  even  by  an  inanimate  thing,  they  often  pro- 
ceed in  the  same  way  as  they  would  with  one 
like  themselves.  The  sense  of  the  injury  which 
they  have  experienced,  and  the  displeasure 
which  they  naturally  feel,  leads  them  to  wish 
for  recompence;  and  they  feel  a  kind  of  sati»» 


272 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


faction  when  the  cause  of  the  injury  done  them, 
even  if  it  be  a  lifeless  object,  is  in  their  view 
repaid.  To  these  conceptions  does  God  here 
condescend,  and  designs  to  impress  upon  the 
minds  of  our  first  parents,  by  tliis  vivid  repre- 
sentation, the  idea  that  the  tempter  in  this 
transaction  would  not  go  unrewarded,  and  that 
every  tempter  must  expect  to  receive  from  him 
unavoidable  and  severe  punishment.  This  is 
the  doctrine  which  is  taught  them  in  this,  so  to 
speak,  sensible  manner.  The  punishment  in- 
flicted upon  the  invisible  agent  concerned  in 
this  temptation  could  not  be  made  obvious  to 
them  ;  it  must  therefore  be  made  to  fall  upon  the 
instrument.  Enough  for  them  that  they  could 
derive  from  the  punishment  of  the  serpent  tiiis 
doctrine,  which,  in  the  stale  in  which  they  then 
were,  could  have  been  in  no  other  way  made  so 
obvious  and  impressive.  Hence  the  fear  and 
dread  of  the  serpent  which  is  felt  by  man  and 
'  beast.  It  is  the  image  of  baseness,  and  cleaves 
to  the  ground.  To  eat  du»t,  is  a  figurative  ex- 
pression, denoting  lo  be  levelled  with  the  ground, 
laid  in  the  dust.  Is.  xlix.  23.  So,  to  eat  ashes, 
Ps.  cii.  10,  and  the  phrase  humum  ore  mcmordit, 
used  by  Virgil  with  respect  to  one  struck  dead 
to  the  earth.     Cf.  Horn.  Odyss.  xxii.  269. 

(3)  Ver.  \5, 1  will  put  enmity  between  thee  and 
the  woman,  and  between  thy  seed  and  her  seed ;  it 
shall  bruise  thy  head,  and  thou  shatt  bruise  his 
heel,  ft  in  the  first  case  denotes  the  paf/er///y 
of  the  serpent — the  serpent  race ;  in  the  second 
case,  either  collectively,  the  posterity  of  Kve, 
yriir^Toi  yvroixwv.  Matt.  xi.  11  ;  or  one  of  this 
posterity,  a  descendant  or  son  of  Eve;  for  in  this 
latter  sense  may  j-ir  in  the  singular  be  taken, 
according  to  the  Hebrew  idiom — e.  g..  Gen.  iv. 
25.  Taken  in  this  sense  it  is  referred  to  the 
Messiah,  the  second  Adam,  who  even  by  the 
later  Jews  was  denominated  ?">:,  the  descendant 
Bometimea  of  Adam  ^d  sometimes  of  Abniham. 
Vide  Gal.  v.  16,  and  VVctstein  ad.  h.  1.  These 
wcirds  admit  of  a  threefold  construction,  neitlier 
of  which  is  inconsistent  with,  or  entirely  ex- 
cludes the  others,  and  either  of  which  contains 
instruction  for  those  to  whom  these  words  were 
first  addressed,  and  to  their  posterity. 

(«)  If  these  words  are  referred  to  the  serpent 
hen-  visible,  tlie  sense  is,  "  It  is  my  w  ill  that  en- 
mity should  exist  between  thee  and  the  woman, 
between  thy  bre*'d  and  her  descendants — i.  e., 
there  shall  be  a  constant  hatred  between  the 
human  and  the  serpent  race.  Men  shall  aim  at 
thy  head,  and  ihou  at  their  heel — i.  e.,  they 
shall  seek  thy  life,  and  thou  sbalt  se»'k  to  injure 
them  by  thy  poisonous  bite  whenever  thou 
canst."  Cf.  Z.icharia,  IJibl.  Theol.,  th.  ii.  s. 
318,  and  Repert.  iv.  2')0,  f. 

(/;)  Everything  which  took  place  here  was 
desi^jned  to  give  moral  instruction  to  our  first 
parents      In  this  way  it  was  intended  to  teach 


them  respecting  the  external  otcasions  and  ex 
eitemenis  to  sin;  and  by  means  of  the  serpent, 
this  lesson  was  made  plain  and  obvious  to  their 
senses.  Hence  we  have  in  these  words  the  fol- 
lowing maxim  :  "Thou  and  thy  posterity  (i.  e., 
all  men)  will  have  from  henceforward  a  constant 
warfare  against  sin  to  maintain.  The  victory 
of  man  over  the  tempter  and  his  seductions  will 
be  difTicult  and  uncertain;  they  will  be  in  con- 
stant contention  with  each  other,  and  men  will 
n"t  come  off  uninjured,  nor  will  they  remain 
hereafter  unseduced,  and  must  always  feel  the 
injurious  consequences  of  transgression." 

(c)  If  jriT  in  the  second  case  denotes  a  single 
individual  among  the  descendants  of  Adam,  it 
refers  to  the  Messiah,  who  has  destroyed  the 
power  of  the  tempter  and  of  sin,  and  who  has 
also  made  it  possible  for  all  his  followers  to 
overcome  them.  Vide  1  John,  iii.  8.  Our  first 
parents  could  not  indeed  have  understoi  d  these 
words  as  a  distinct  prophecy  respecting  the  Mes- 
siah, for  they  were  not  able  at  that  time  to  com- 
prehend the  idea  of  a  Messiah  in  all  its  extent; 
nor  is  this  text  ever  cited  in  the  New  Testament 
as  a  prophecy  respecting  Christ.  From  these 
words,  however,  they  could  easily  deduce  the 
idea,  that  in  this  contest  the  human  race  might 
and  would  come  off  finally  victorious.  The 
head  of  the  serpent  would  be  bruised  for  its  en- 
tire destruction,  and  the  only  revenge  it  could 
take  would  be,  to  bite  the  hctl ;  it  could  injure 
less  than  it  would  itself  be  injured.  Hence  it 
was  here,  as  Paul  says  respecting  the  piiriarchs, 
Htb.  xi.  13,  they  received  the  promise  from 
God,  but  saw  that  which  was  promised  jto,7'W>'>  • 
Respecting  the  manner  in  which  this  |>romise 
should  be  fulfilled,  and  the  person  through  whom 
it  should  be  performed,  more  full  revelations 
were  gradually  given  at  a  later  period.  So  that 
even  although  our  first  parents  might  not  have 
been  able  to  refer  this  pi  to  one  particular  de- 
scendant of  Adam,  they  might  yet  find  in  these 
words  a  consoling  promise  of  God.  .\nd  for 
this  reason  we  may  justly  call  this  passage,  as 
it  has  been  called  by  some  of  the  church  fathers, 
prill crani^elium,  because  it  contains  the  first  joy- 
ful  promise  ever  given  to  our  race.  Aide  Stc\rr, 
I)e  Protevangelio;  Tubingff",  1781.  [H«>ngslen- 
berg,  Christolngie.  Smith,  Scripture  Testimony 
to  the  Messiah,  vol,  i, — Tr.] 

Note. — In  explaining  the  history  of  the  fall  to 
the  people,  the  teacher  should  dwell  mostly 
upon  the  internal  truth  and  the  practical  instri  c- 
tion  contained  in  it.  In  conformity  with  the 
remark  at  the  latter  pirt  of  No,  I.  of  this  section, 
he  must  shew,  from  the  example  of  the  proge- 
nitors of  our  race,  not  only  how  sin  first  entered 
into  the  world,  but  also  how  it  is  still  accus 
tomed  to  arise.  In  doinu  this  he  ran  appeal  t« 
James,  i.  1.^ — 15,  and  then  illustrate  the  truth 
by  examples,  such  as  daily  occur      In  this  way 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


ne  may  rescue  this  history  from  the  contempt 
sometimes  thrown  upon  it,  and  teach  those  en- 
trusted to  his  care  to  regard  it  not  as  a  fable, 
but  seriously  to  reflect  upon  it  in  such  a  manner 
as  may  be  profitable  to  them.  He  must  treat  it 
entirely  as  fact  or  hUtnry,  in  the  same  manner 
as  it  is  treated  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment. Let  him  by  no  means  initiate  his  hear- 
ers into  all  the  hypotheses  and  controversies  of 
the  learned  on  this  subject,  since  they  are  un- 
able to  form  a  judgment  respecting  them,  and 
will  be  rather  confounded  than  enlightened  by 
hearing  them  recited.  And  since  in  the  New 
Testament  the  devil  is  represented  as  having  an 
agency  in  this  transaction,  he  must  also  be  so 
represented  by  the  Christian  teacher,  who,  how- 
ever, must  not  attempt  to  determine  the  manner 
in  which  this  agency  was  exerted,  as  on  this 
point  the  scripture  says  nothing. 

[On  the  general  subject  of  this  section  cf.  the 
authors  before  referred  to,  Tholuck,  Lehre  von 
der  Siinde,  Appendix,  s.  264 ;  Schleirmacher, 
Glaubenslehre,  b.  ii.  s.  59 ;  Hahn,  Lehrbuch,  s. 
345,  s.  78;  Bretschneider,  Handbuch,  b.  ii.  s. 
58,  s.  125;  Herder,  Geist  der  Ebrai.  Poesie,  b. 
i.  s.  136,  ff— Tr.] 

SECTION  LXXVL 

OF  THE  IMPITATION  OF  THE  SIN  OF  OUR  FIRST 
PARENTS. 

It  is  taught  in  theology,  that  the  transgres- 
sion of  the  progenitors  of  mankind  had  a  two- 
fold influence  upon  their  posterity — viz.,  a  p%- 
sj'ca/ influence  in  the  propagation  of  sinful  desires 
and  m/)ral  imperfection,  and  also  a  moral  influ- 
ence, vhich  is  commonly  considered  as  properly 
imputaltunem  peccati  Mamiliei.  These  two  do 
not  necessarily  belong  together,  although  impu- 
tatto  and  peccatum  origiriale  have  been  often 
connected  together  by  theologians.  They  may, 
however,  be  distinguished  ;  and  one  may  easily 
afl^irm  moral  corruption  while  he  denies  imputa- 
tion, and  the  reverse.  We  shall  therefore  first 
treat  of  imputation,  and  then  show  how,  accord- 
ing to  the  scriptures,  the  two  are  united. 

Now,  whatever  diversity  there  may  exist  in 
the  opinions  of  theologians  respecting  imputa- 
tion when  thoy  come  to  express  their  own  views 
definitely,  they  will  yet,  for  the  most  part,  agree 
that  the  phrase,  Gnd  imputes  thr.  sin  'of  our  pro- 
f^enitors  to  their  posterity,  means,  that/or  the  sin 
committed  by  our  progenitors  God  punishes  their 
descendants.  The  term  to  impute  is  used  in  dif- 
ferent senses,  (n)  It  is  said  of  a  creditor,  who 
oharges  something  to  his  debtor  as  debt;  like 
;;rn,  and  Xoyt'Co^cu  and  EXXoyiu — e.  g.,  Philem. 
ver.  18.  (/y)  It  is  transferred  to  human  judg- 
ment, when  any  one  is  punished,  or  declared 
deserving  of  punishment.  Crime  is  regarded 
as  a  debt,  which  must  be  cancelled  partly  by 
35 


actual  restitution  and  partly  by  punishment, 
(c)  This  now  is  applied  to  God,  who  imputes 
sin  when  he  pronounces  men  guilty,  and  treats 
them  accordingly — i.  e.,  when  he  actually  pu- 
nishes the  sin  of  men,  (p?  arn,  7.oytff a^at  a/wof- 
Tiav,  Ps.  xxxii.  2.)  The  one  punished  is  called 
py  Kir-j,  in  opposition  to  one  to  v\hom  npix'?  3Cti, 
who  is  regarded,  Ps.  cvi.  31 ;  Rom.  iv.  3. 

In  order  to  learn  w  hat  is  taught  in  the  theo 
logical  schools  on  this  subject,  we  must  pursue 
the  historic  method,  or  we  shall  grope  in  the 
darK. 

1.  Opinions  of  the  Jews. 

The  imputation  of  Adam's  sin  is  not  called 
in  the  Mosaic  narrative,  or  anywhere  in  the  Old 
Testament,  by  the  name  of  impulotion,  although 
the  doctrine  of  imputation  is  contained  in  it,  as 
we  shall  soon  see.  But  in  the  writings  of  the 
Talmudists,  and  of  the  Rabbins,  and  still  earlier 
in  the  Chaldaic  paraphrases  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, we  find  it  asserted,  in  so  many  words, 
that  the  posterity  of  Adam  were  punished  with 
bodily  death  on  account  of  his  first  sin,  although 
they  themselves  had  never  sinned.  Cf.  the 
Chaldaic  paraphrase  on  Ruth,  iv.  22,  "  Because 
Eve  ate  of  the  forbidden  fruit,  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth  are  subject  to  death."  In  this  way 
they  accounted  to  themselves  for  the  death  of 
the  greatest  saints,  who,  as  they  su|>posed,  had 
never  themselves  sinned.  They  taught,  also, 
that  in  the  person  of  Adam  the  whole  multitude 
or  mass  of  his  posterity  had  sinned.  Vide  the 
Commentators  on  Rom.  v.,  especially  Wetstein 
and  Koppe.  As  early  as  the  time  of  the  apos- 
tles, this  doctrine  w^as  widely  prevalent  among 
the  Jews.  It  is  clearly  taught  by  Paul,  in  Rom. 
V,  12,  14,  and  is  there  plac»d  by  him  in  intimate 
connexion  with  the  more  peculiar  Christian  doc- 
trines. In  this  passage  he  has  employed  ex- 
actly the  same  expressions  which  we  find  among" 
the  Rabbins. 

How  was  this  doctrine  developed  and  brought 
to  such  clearjiess  among  the  Jews?  They  pro- 
ceeded from  the  scriptural  maxim,  that  man  was 
created  immortal,  and  that  the  death  of  Adam 
was  a  consequence  of  his  transgression.  And 
since  all  the  posterity  of  Adam  die,  although  all 
have  not  themselves  sinned  (e.  g.,  children), 
they  concluded  that  these  too  must  endure  this 
evil  on  account  of  Adam's  transgression.  Cf 
Book  of  Wisdom,  ii.  23,  24.  Sirach,  xxv.  32,. 
arto  yvvaixbi  iyixr]  auaprt'aj,  scot  6i  avrr^v  artO' 
Pvr^axofxtv  rtaiTfj.  Farther  than  this,  which  is 
evidently  founded  in  the  scriptures,  they  did  not 
go.  In  order  to  illustrate  this  doctrine  and  ren- 
der it  plain,  they  probably  resorted  to  some 
analogies;  such,  for  example,  as  the  fact,  that 
children  must  often  suff"(rfor  the  crimes  of  their 
partnts.  in  which  ibey  had  no  share;  and  that, 
according  to  the  law  of  Moses,  the  iniquity  of 


274 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


parents  was  visited  upon  the  children  of  the 
third  anil  fourth  weneraiion.  In  what  way  they 
probably  conceived  of  imputation,  and  formed 
their  conclusions  about  it,  may  be  seen  from  the 
remarkable  passage,  Heb.  vii.  9,  10.  The  pa- 
tri  ircli  Levi  (who,  accordinif  to  the  Mosaic  law, 
receives  the  tithes)  paid  tithes  to  Melchisedec  in 
the  person  of  Abraham — i.  e.,  it  is  to  be  consi- 
dered the  same  as  if  the  Leviies  paid  tithes  to 
Melchisedec  when  Abraham  paid  ihem,  for  lA:vi 
ioiu  in  the  luiiis  of  his  father  Jbrahain  when  he 
met  Melchisedec — i.  e.,  he  already  existed  in 
Aijraham,  ailhouorh  he  was  not  yet  born.  What 
Abraham  did  is  to  be  considered  as  if  it  had 
been  done  by  his  descendant;  forbad  he  lived 
at  that  time  he  would  have  done  the  same  that 
Abraham  then  did. 

II.  Opinions  of  the  New-Testament  Writers. 

This  doctrine  is  most  clearly  taught  in  Rom. 
V.  12 — 14,  a  passage  which  is  very  variously  ex- 
plained. It  is  also  briefly  exhibited  in  1  Cor.  xv. 
21,22.  Vide  Tollner,  Theol.  Untersuchungen, 
Theil  i.  st.  2,  s.  5G.  Modern  philosophers  and 
theologians  have  found  many  things  here  incon- 
sistent witii  their  philosophical  systems.  And 
some  of  them  have  laboured  so  hard  and  long 
upon  this  passage  that  they  have  at  length  ex- 
torted a  sense  from  it,  in  which  nothing  of  im- 
putation could  any  longer  be  discerned  ;  and  this 
is  the  case  with  Doderlein  in  his  "Uogmalik." 
They  did  not  consider,  however,  that  Paul  here 
makes  use  of  the  same  words  and  phrases  which 
were  then  common  among  the  Jews  on  the  sub- 
ject of  imputation,  and  that  he  could  not  there- 
fore have  bet:n  otherwise  understood  by  his  con- 
temporary readers;  and  that  Paul  has  also 
reasoned  in  the  same  way  on  another  subject, 
Heb.  vii.  9,  10.     Cf.  No.  I. 

Paul  shews,  in  substance,  that  all  men  are 
regarded  and  punished  by  God  as  sinners,  and 
that  the  ground  of  tliis  lies  in  the  act  of  one 
man;  as,  on  the  contrary,  deliverance  from  pu- 
nishment depends  also  upon  one  man,  Jesus 
Christ.  If  the  words  of  Paul  are  not  perverted, 
it  must  he  allowed,  that  in  Rom.  v.  12 — 14,  he 
thus  reasons:  "The  cause  of  the  universal  mor- 
tality of  the  human  race  lies  in  Adam's  trans- 
gression. He  sinned,  and  so  became  mortal. 
Other  men  are  regarded  and  treated  by  God  as 
punishable,  because  they  are  the  posterity  of 
Adam,  the  first  transgressor,  and  consequently 
they  too  are  mortil.  Should  it  now  be  objected, 
that  the  men  who  lived  from  Adam  to  Moses 
might  themselves  have  personally  siniwd,  and 
so  have  been  punished  with  death  on  their  own 
account,  it  might  be  answered,  that  those  who 
lived  before  the  time  of  Moses  had  no  express 
and  positive  law  which  threatened  the  punish- 
ment of  sin,  like  those  who  lived  after  Moses. 
The  posiuve  law  of  Moses  was  not  as  yet  given; 


they  could  not,  consequently,  be  pnni>hcd  01 
account  of  their  own  tr.nsgressions,  as  no  law 
was  as  yet  given  to  them;  ver.  14.  Still  they 
must  die,  like  Adam,  who  transgressed  a  posi- 
tive law.  Hence  tlieir  mortality  must  have  an- 
other cause,  and  this  is  to  be  sought  in  the  im- 
putation of  Adam's  transgression.  And  in  the 
same  way,  the  ground  of  the  jusiificatinn  of  man 
lies  not  in  himself,  but  in  Christ,  the  serond 
Adam." 

Such  is  the  argument  of  Paul  in  this  passage. 
But  respecting  eternal  death,  or  the  torments  of 
hell,  he  here  says  nothing,  and  is  far  from  im- 
|)lying  that  on  account  of  a  sin  committed  by 
another  man  long  before  their  birth,  (iod  pu- 
nishes men  with  eternal  hell  torments.  On  the 
contrary,  he  here  speaks  of  bodili/  dcci'.h  merely, 
as  the  consequence  of  the  sin  of  Atlnin.  And 
herein  the  learned  Jews  agreed  with  him.  And 
in  the  passage  1  Cor.  xv.  21,  seq.,  Paul  shews 
that  the  resurrection  to  a  blessed  immortality 
will  be  the  best  and  highest  proof  of  our  entire 
restoration  through  Jesus  Christ,  even  as  bodily 
death  is  the  first  and  most  striking  proof  of  our 
degeneracy  through  Adam.  [On  this  passage, 
cf.  Tholuck,  Comm.  lib.  Rom.  v.;  Csteri,  Ent- 
wickel.  d.  paulin.  LehrbegrilTs;  Edwards,  Ori- 
ginal Sin,  chap.  iv.  p.  352;  Stuart's  Comment- 
ary on  Rom.  v.  and  Excursus. — Tn.] 

III.  Hypotheses  of  Theologians. 

The  greatest  difficulties  with  respect  to  this 
doctrine  have  arisen  from  the  fact  that  many 
have  treated  what  is  said  by  Paul  in  tlie  fifth  of 
Romans — a  passage  wholly  popular,  and  any- 
thing but  formally  exact  and  didactic — in  a  learn 
ed  and  philosophical  manner,  and  have  defined 
terms  used  by  him  in  a  loose  and  popular  way, 
by  logical  ai'.d  scholastic  distinctioi.s.  We  do 
not  find  anywhere  among  the  aiu-ienis,  in  their 
popular  discourses,  an  exact  and  philisophically 
precise  use  of  terms  with  res])ect  Xv  the  cotuc 
qutnccs  and  the  punishment  of  sin.  They  fre- 
(juently  use  the  word  puniahmint  in  a  wider 
sense,  in  which  it  is  here  and  elsewliere  em- 
ployed iiy  Paul.  He  and  the  Jewish  teachers, 
with  whom  in  this  particular  he  agrees,  use  pu- 
nishment (jcaraxpi.ua,)  imputation  (f  nin^&ic,  in 
the  same  sense  in  which  it  is  said  respecting 
children,  for  example,  that  they  are  punished  on 
account  of  the  crimes  of  their  ancestors,  that  the 
crimes  of  their  ancestors  are  imputid  to  them* 
&c. ;  although  they,  in  their  own  persons,  had 
no  share  in  the  guilt,  and  could  not,  therefore, 
in  the  strictest  philosophical  and  juridical  sense, 
he  considered  as  the  snljjirts  of  impututii*n  and 
punishment.  The  family  of  a  trailer,  whose 
name  is  disgraced,  and  whose  goods  are  confis- 
cated, are  thus  said  to  be  punished  on  his  ac- 
count. Respecting  Louis  XVI.,  who  was  so 
unfortunate,  and  suflercd  so  much  in  constqueao* 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


2^5 


of  the  errcrs  of  his  predecessors  Louis  XIV.  and 
XV.,  it  would  be  commonly  said,  without  hesi- 
tation, that  he  endured  punishment  on  their  ac- 
count, and  had  to  atone  for  or  expiate  their 
crimes.  Here,  what  is  merely  the  consequence 
of  the  sin  of  another,  is  culled,  from  some  ana- 
lo(Tj'  between  them,  ihe  punishment  of  one  who 
has  no  personal  guilt  in  the  matter.  Just  such 
is  the  case  here.  Mortality  was  to  Adam  the 
punishment  of  his  sin,  strictly  speaking-.  His 
posterity  are  also  mortal,  since  a  mortal  cannot 
beget  those  who  are  immortal.  With  them, 
therefore,  mortality  is  the  natural  cunscc/ucnce 
of  Adam's  sin,  but  not  their pu7n'shii;eni,  in  the 
proper  juridico-philosophical  sense  of  the  word, 
because  they  themselves  had  no  share  in  the 
first  transgression.  Imputation,  therefore,  of 
the  sin  of  Adam,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word 
imputation,  does  not  exist  with  regard  to  us,  his 
posterity,  since  we. only  suffer  the  baleful  con- 
sequences of  the  sin  of  the  first  man.  of  which 
we  ourselves  were  not,  however,  guilty,  and  for 
which  we  cannot  therefore  be  punished.  Speak- 
ing, however,  in  a  loose  and  popular  way,  we 
may  call  what  we  eniuve,  punishment  and  im- 
p' it  at  ion. 

By  this  observation,  many  difficulties  in  other 
passncres  of  scripture  are  obviated.  So  when 
Moses  says,  "tiie  iniquity  of  the  father  shall  be 
visited  upon  his  posterity  from  generation  to 
generiition,"  (cf.  Ezek.  xviii.  4,  20,  coll.  Jer. 
xxxi.  2!),  30,)  he  is  to  be  understood  as  speak- 
ing in  a  popular  way  of  the  consequences  which 
should  befal  the  posterity  of  the  wicked  without 
any  fault  of  their  own.  When,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  said,  "the  son  shall  not  bear  the 
iniquity  of  the  father,"  it  is  to  be  understood  as 
a  maxim  of  justice,  and  to  be  taken  in  the  literal 
sense.  Paul  himself  says,  in  otiier  passages, 
that  man  will  be  punished  solely  on  his  own 
account.  Rom.  ii.  fi,  i.  18,  seq.;  Gal.  vi.  5; 
2  Cor.  V.  10.  In  these  he  speaks  sensu  propria 
etforensi.  He  also  teaches  expressly,  that  re- 
ward and  punishment  do  not  depend  upon  na- 
tural birth  and  derivation,  Rom.  ix.  11;  and 
Jes\]s  rejects  the  opinion  suggested  by  his  dis- 
ciples, that  the  misfortune  of  the  one  born  blind 
was  to  be  regarded  as  the  imputation  of  the 
giiilt  of  his  parents,  John,  ix.  2,  3. 

But  wh}'  is  language  used  in  such  a  manner 
with  regard  to  this  subject  in  the'  scriptures? 
The  principal  reason  why  the  word  punishment 
is  used  in  this  connexion  lies  in  the  fact  that 
there  is,  in  all  the  mortal  descendants  of  Adam, 
a  preponderance  of  carnal  appetites  and  pas- 
sions, and  that  they  are  invariably  seduced  by 
these  into  actual  sin,  and  so  become  punish- 
able.  There  is  not  one  upon  earth  who  re- 
mains uncorrupted,  and  consequently  all  are 
rendered  lirble  to  punishment.  Vide  Rom.  v. 
12;  Ephes  ii,  3.     God  would  not  treat  all  men 


as  sinners  did  they  not  in  this  respect  resemblo 
Adam. 

We  find,  accordingly,  that  the  passage  in 
Rom.  V.  was  never  understood  in  the  ancient 
Grecian  church,  down  to  the  fourth  century,  to 
teach  imputation,  in  a  strictly  philosophical  and 
judicial  sense;  certainly  Origen  and  the  writers 
imm-ediately  succeeding  him,  exhibit  nothing 
of  this  opinion.  They  regard  bodily  death  as  a 
consequence  of  the  sin  of  Adam,  and  not  as  a 
punishment,  in  the  strict  and  proper  sense  i  f 
this  term.  Thus  Chrysostoni  says,  upon  Ron 
v.  12,  'Ezfciov  rtf'goj'roj  {'Abdu),  xai  oi  fir  ^a 
yoi'Tf^  oiTO  rov  ^vTjov,  yfyoraaif  i?  cxfifov  ^fr^roi,. 
And  Cyril  (Adv.  Anthropom.  c.  8)  says,  oi  yf- 
yovorf  5  ^1  aitov  (  Abufx"),  w$  arto  ^^aprov,  9b>ttpT0'' 
yiyoiaun. 

The  Latin  church,  on  the  other  hand,  was  the 
proper  seat  of  the  strict  doctrine  of  imputntion. 
There  they  began  to  interpret  the  words  of  Paui, 
as  if  he  were  a  scholastic  and  logical  writer. 
One  cause  of  their  misapprehending  so  entirely 
the  spirit  of  this  passage  was,  that  the  word  rr/i- 
pufare  (a  word  in  common  use  among  civilians 
and  in  judicial  affairs)  had  been  employed  in  the 
Latin  versions  in  rendering  ver.  13  of  Rom.  v.; 
and  that  if  iL  (ver.  12)  had  been  translated  in 
quo,  and  could  refer,  as  they  supposed,  to  nobody 
but  Adam.  This  opinion  was  then  associated 
with  some  peculiar  philosophical  ideas  then  pre- 
valent in  the  West,  and  from  the  whole  a  doc- 
trine de  imputatione  was  formed,  in  a  sense 
wholly  unknown  to  the  Hebrews,  to  the  New 
Testament,  and  to  the  Grecian  church.  We  may 
hence  see  the  reu^on  of  the  fact,  that  the  Gre- 
cian teachers — e.  g.,  those  in  Palestine — took 
sides  with  Pelagius  against  the  teachers  of  the 
African  church. 

The  following  are  the  principal  theories  which 
have  been  adopted  in  the  Western  church,  to 
illustrate  the  mode  of  imputation,  and  to  vindi- 
cate ]\s  justice. 

(1)  The  oldest  hypothesis  is  that  which  af- 
firmed that  all  the  posterity  of  Adam  were,  in 
the  most  literal  sense,  already  in  him,  and  sin- 
ned in  him — in  his  person  ;  and  that  Adam's  sin 
is  therefore  justly  imputed  by  God  to  all  his  pos- 
terity. This  hypothesis  has  its  ground  in  the 
opinion  that  the  souls  of  children  have  existed, 
either  in  reality,  or  at  least  potentially,  in  their 
parents,  and  this  as  far  back  as  Adam  ;  and  that 
in  this  way  the  souls  of  all  his  posterity  partici- 
pated in  the  actions  done  in  his  person,  although 
they  themselves  were  never  after  conscious  of 
such  action.  Vide  s.  57,  II.  3.  This  was  the 
doctrine  of  the  Tradvciani,  which  Tertiillian  also 
professed.  And  it  was  upon  this  ground  prin- 
cipally that  the  strict  doctrine  of  imputation  was 
maintained  in  the  Latin  church;  even  Ambro- 
sius  placed  his  defence  of  it  upon  this  basis. 
But  this  doctrine  was  argued  with  the  greatest 


276 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


zeal  by  Augustine,  in  opposition  to  Pelatrius,  and 
after  his  time  was  Generally  recrivcd  in  the 
Western  church;  ailhongh  Aucrusiine  himself 
was  often  doubtful  in  respect  to  Tratiucianisin. 
^\  hat  Paul  had  Uiu^jht  in  a  loose,  popular  way, 
respectiuir  the  imputation  of  Adam's  sin,  was 
now  taken  by  Autrusline  and  his  followers  in  a 
strict,  philosophical,  and  legal  sense.  Ambro- 
eius  says,  Umncs  in  prima  homtne  (i^'  iL)  pecca- 
vimus,  d  culpa:  succesnio  ab  utw  in  oinncs  tratu- 
fusa  est.  Augustine  says.  In  Adaniu  oinnes pcc- 
carutit,  in  litmbis  .lilaini  trat  i^erius  huiiianum. 
Also,  Infant's  ab  ca  trakunl  peccati  real  tint,  mnr- 
tisijue  suppliciiiin.  For  a  full  collection  of  texts 
on  this  controversy,  vide  V'ossius,  liiitoria  Pe- 
.agiana.  [Vide  Hahn,  Lehrbuch,  s.  HO,  An- 
merk.  1,  2. —  Pr.]  In  form,  these  declarations 
have  an  ap|)arent  resemblance  to  the  doctrine  of 
Paul ;  but  the  resemblance  is  only  apparent, 
Augustine  understands  in  a  strictly  philosophical 
sense  what,  as  we  have  seen  above,  was  siid  by 
Paul  in  a  popular  manner. 

In  opposition  to  Augustine,  Pelagius  taught 
that  Adam  hurt  himself  alone,  and  not  his  pos- 
terity, by  his  transgression,  and  that  it  would  be 
unjust  for  God  to  impute  his  guilt  to  his  innocent 
descendants — a  doctrine  evidently  opposed  to 
that  of  Paul. 

As  the  theory  of  Augustine  rests  upon  a  base- 
less hypothesis,  it  does  not  need  a  formal  refuta- 
tion. It  was  the  prevailing  theory  among  the 
schoolmen,  and  even  throughout  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  until  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth, when  it  was  contested  by  the  Trench  re- 
formed theologians,  Joshua  Placseus,  and  Moses 
Amyraldus,  who,  however,  were  violently  op- 
posed. In  England,  too,  it  was  contested  by 
Thomas  Burnet.  The  advocates  of  this  theory 
endeavoured  to  defend  it  by  means  of  the  theory 
of  spermatic  animalculic,  which  arose  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  When,  by 
means  of  the  magrdfying  fflass,  these  spermatic 
aniinalculse  were  observed,  the  thought  occur- 
red that  they  were  the  cause  of  impregnation. 
And  some  then  alfirmed  that  »he  souls  of  all  men 
were  in  Adam,  had  their  seat  in  these  invisible 
ani  ualculae,  participated  in  everything  which  he 
dill,  and  consequently  sinned  with  him.  While, 
therefore,  the  Hiblical  theologians  of  the  protest- 
ant  church  have  justly  held  fast  the  doctrine  of 
imputation,  they  have  abandoned  the  theory  of 
Augustine,  because  this  does  not  accird  either 
with  reason  or  with  scripture,  and  because  it 
furnishes  no  adequate  vindication  for  God  in  this 
procedure.  In  place  of  this  theory,  our  theolo- 
gians have  substituted  others,  either  invented  by 
themselves  or  ad(jpted  from  ditfi-rent  authorities. 

(2)  Many  have  inferred  the  justice  of  imputa- 
tion from  tlie  supposition  that  Adam  was  not 
only  the  natural  or  stminal,  bnt  also  the  moral 
head  of  tnu  human  race,  or  even  its  representative 


and  federal  head.  They  suppose,  accordinglj, 
that  the  sin  of  Adam  is  imputed  to  us,  on  the 
same  principle  on  whicii  the  doings  of  the  head 
of  a  family,  or  of  the  plenipotentiary  of  k  state, 
are  imputed  to  his  family  or  state,  although  they 
had  no  personal  agency  in  his  doings.  In  the 
same  way,  they  suppose  Christ  took  the  place 
of  all  men,  and  that  what  he  did  is  imputed  to 
them.  .According  to  this  theory,  God  entered 
into  a  kafrue  or  covenant  with  Adam,  and  so 
Adam  represented  and  took  the  place  of  the 
whole  human  race.  This  theory  was  invented 
by  some  schoolmen,  and  has  been  -adopted  by 
many  in  the  Homish  and  protestani  church  since 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  was  defended  even  in 
the  eighteenth  century  by  some  Lutheran  theolo- 
gians, as  PfafTof 'I'ubingen,  some  of  the  follow- 
ers of  Wolf,  (e.  g.,  Carpzov,  in  his  "  Comm.  de 
Impiitationefactiproprii  el  alieni,''''')  and  IJaum- 
garlen,  in  his  Dogmatik,  and  disputation,  "d!e 
imputatione  peccati ihhimiticiy  Hut  it  was  more 
particularly  favoured  by  the  reformed  theolo- 
gians, especially  by  the  disciples  of  Cocceius,  at 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and  commencement 
of  the  eighteenth  century— e.  g.,  by  Wilsius,  in 
his  "G^conomia  fcederum."  They  appeal  to 
Ilosea,  vi.  7,  "They  transgressed  the  covenant, 
like  Adam" — i.  e.,  broke  the  divine  laws.  But 
where  is  it  said  that  Adam  was  their  federal  head, 
and  that  his  transgression  is  imputed  to  them? 
On  this  text  Morus  justly  observes,  "est  mera 
comparatio  Juda^orum  peconlium  oim  Adamo 
peccante."  Other  texts  are  also  cited  in  beh.ilf 
of  this  opinion. 

13ut,  for  various  reasons,  this  theory  cannot  be 
correct.  And,  («)  Tlie  d.^scendants  of  Adam 
never  empowered  him  to  be  their  representative, 
and  to  act  in  their  name.  (/;)  It  cannot  be  shewn 
from  the  Bible  that  Adam  was  informed  that  the 
fate  of  all  his  posterity  was  involved  in  his  own. 
(r)  If  the  transgression  of  Adam  is  imputed,  by 
right  of  covenant,  to  all  his  posterity,  then,  in 
justice,  all  their  transgressions  should  be  again 
imputed  to  him  as  the  guilty  cause  of  all  their 
ujisery  and  sin.  What  a  mass  of  guilt,  then, 
would  come  upon  Adam!  But  of  all  this,  n  >- 
thing  is  said  in  the  scriptures.  (J)  The  impu- 
tation of  the  righteousness  of  Christ  cannrit  be 
alleged  in  support  of  this  theory.  For  this  is 
imputed  to  men  only  by  their  own  will  and 
consent.  This  hypothesis  has  been  opposed, 
with  good  reason,  by  John  Taylor,  in  his  work 
on  original  sin,  which  will  be  hereafter  noticed. 

(3)  Others  endeavour  to  deduce  the  do."trina 
of  imputation  from  the  scientia  media  of  God,  or 
from  his  foreknowledge  of  what  is  conditionally 
possible.  The  sin  of  Adam,  they  say,  is  im- 
puted to  us,  because  God  foresaw  that  e.ich  ono 
of  us  would  have  committed  it  if  he  li.id  been 
in  Adam's  stead,  or  placed  in  his  cir  um- 
slaaces.     Even  Augustine  says,  that  the  sin  of 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


277 


AJam  18  '.iTifiuted  to  us  propter  coiucnsionem,  or 
eonsensiun  pncsuiuptum.  This  theory  has  been 
advanced,  in  modem  times,  bj'  Reusch,  in  his 
Inlroductio  in  Theolouiam  revelatam,"  and  in 
Brunquell's  work,  "Die  gate  Sache  Gottes, 
bey  ZurechnunjT  des  Falls;"  Jena,  1749.  But 
it  is  a  new  sort  of  justice,  which  would  allow 
us  to  be  punished  for  sins  which  we  never 
committed,  or  never  designed  to  commit,  but 
only  might  possibly  have  committed  under  cer- 
tain circumstances.  Think  a  moment,  how 
many  sins  we  all  should  have  committed  if  God 
had  suffered  us  to  come  into  circumstances  of 
severe  temptation.  An  innocent  man  might,  by 
this  rule,  be  punished  as  a  murderer,  because, 
had  he  lived  at  Paris  on  St.  Bartholomew's 
Night  in  1572,  he  might,  from  mistaken  zeal, 
have  killed  a  heretic. 

(1)  Since  none  of  these  hypotheses  satisfac- 
torily ex|)lain  the  matter,  the  greater  part  of  the 
moderate  and  Biblical  theologians  of  the  prc- 
testant  church  are  content  with  saying,  what  is 
manifestly  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible,  that  the 
imputation  of  Adam's  sin  consists  in  the  prevail- 
ing mortality  of  the  human  race,  and  that  this  is 
not  to  be  regarded  as  impufatiun  in  the  strict 
judicial  sense,  but  rather  as  the  consequence  of 
Adam's  transgression,  perhaps,  as  is  thought  by 
some,  the  physical  consequence  of  eating  the 
forbidden  fruit,  which  may  certainly  be  inferred 
rom  Gen.  iii.  The  strict  doctrine  of  immediate 
mputation  was  by  no  means  universal  among 
the  protestant  theologians  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and,  as  is  justly  remarked  by  PfafF,  Weis- 
mann,  Burnet,  and  others,  was  to  many  of  them 
unknown  even  in  name.  The  common  theory, 
de  capite  morali  sive  faderaU  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  symbols. 

For  the  purposes  of  popular  instruction  let 
therefore  the  following  Biblical  statement  suf- 
fice :  "Adam,  on  account  of  his  transgression 
of  the  divine  law,  was  punished  with  death,  and 
from  thenceforw,\rd  became  mortal ;  and  being 
hi-.nself  mortal,  he  could  bejet  only  mortal  de- 
scendants. Vide  1  Cor.  xv.  48 — 50,  coll.  Gen. 
V.  3,  Hence  we  and  all  men  are  mortal ;  and  the 
grounil  of  this  mortality  lies  in  our  progenitors, 
and  this  mortality  is  a  consequence  of  their 
transgression."  In  conformity  with  these  views, 
let  the  teacher  explain  the  passage  in  Rom.  v., 
and  abstain  from  all  subtleties  and  learned  hy- 
potheses. 

Note. — Works  on  Imputation  and  Original 
Sin.  (1)  In  opposition  to  imputation  nensu 
stricliori,  and  also  the  doctrine  concerning  ori- 
ginal sin.  Of  these  there  have  been  many 
among  the  English  theoloijians  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Vide  especially  Dan.  Whitby,  De 
impntatione  divina  peccati  Adamitici ;  Londini, 
1711;  translatpd  into  German,  with  notes,  by 
Sernler,  1775;   John  Taylor,  Scriptural    Doc- 


trine of  Original  Sin,  in  three  parts,  also  trans- 
lated into  German.  At  a  later  period  these  d-jc- 
trines  were  investigated  by  the  protestant  di- 
vines and  philosophers  of  Germany,  and  partly 
opposed — e.  g.,  by  Tollner,  Theol.  Untersuch- 
ungen,  st.  ii.  iib.  Rom.  v.;  Eberhard,  Apolouie 
des  Socrates,  th.  i.  and  ii.;  Steinbart,  System 
der  Gliickseligkeitslehre;  Jerusalem,  Betracht- 
ungen,  th.  ii. 

2.  In  defence  of  these  doctrines,  and  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  works  above  mentioned.  J(  h. 
Andr.  Cramer,  Exercitationes  de  peccato  origi- 
naliadversus  Jo. Taylor;  Kopenhagen,  17CC-07. 
Sixt,  Priifung  des  Systems,  u.  s.  w,  st.  k 
(in  opposition  to  Steinbart.)  The  work  enti- 
tled, "  Freymiilhige  Priifung  des  Steinban'shen 
Christenthuins"  (1792),  cui.;.,ii.s  also  many 
excellent  and  just  observations.  Seller,  Von 
der  Erbsiinde,  oder  dem  naturlichen  Verderben 
— a  work  directed  in  general  against  the  ancient 
and  modern  objections  to  this  doctrine,  especially 
those  of  Eberhard  and  Steinbart;  J.  D.  Michaelis, 
Gedanken  iiber  die  Lehre  der  Schrift  von  der 
Siinde  und  Genugthuung,  Gtjttingen  u.  Bremen, 
1779,  8vo,  one  of  the  most  important  works  in 
relation  to  this  subject.  He  lay  the  doctrine  of 
the  Bible  at  the  foundation,  and  then  endeavours 
to  shew  its  agreement  with  reason  and  experi- 
ence, and  to  vindicate  it  against  objections. 
This  work  contains  many  very  excellent  and 
ingenious  observations.  There  are  also  valu- 
able remarks  on  this  subject  in  Storr's  work, 
"  Zweck  des  Todes  J'esu,"  and  in  his  Comment- 
ary on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  Cf.  Kant, 
Vom  radikalen  Bosen.  In  illustration  of  the 
history  of  this  doctrine,  cf.  Walch,  Historia 
doctrinae  de  peccato  originis;  Jenae,  1738  ;  Sern- 
ler, Geschichte  der  Glaubenslehre,  prefixed  to 
Baumgarten's  "  Polemik." 

[The  work  of  President  Edwards  "On  Ori- 
ginal Sin"  deserves  mention  among  the  most 
celebrated  works  of  European  theologians  on 
this  subject.  Among  the  later  and  more  tho- 
rough German  writers  on  the  subject  of  in)pu- 
tation  are,  Schleiermacher,  Usteri,  Tholuck, 
Nitzch.  The  former  of  these  has  vindicated 
some  of  the  highest  points  of  Calvinism  by  the 
most  profound  reasoning.  The  others  follow 
more  or  less  the  general  system  which  he  has 
developed. — Tr.] 

SECTION  LXXVn. 

IN  WHAT  THE  NATIRAL  DEPRAVITV  OF  MAN  CON 
SISTS  ;  ITS  APPKLLATIONS  IN  THE  bible;  WHERK 
IT  HAS  ITS  PRINCIPAL  PEAT  IN  MAN;  AND  HOW 
ITS  EXISTENCE  MAY  BE  PROVED  FROM  THE  HOLT 
SCRIPTURES. 

I.  7/1  ivfiaf  Natural  Depravity  consiffs. 
The  descriptions  given  of  it  by  theoloaiang 
are  v(  ry   dilTerent  as   to  the  words  employed. 
2  A 


278 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Melancthon  describes  the  ptccalum  nriipiu'n  as 
an  inclination  or  disposition  to  nil  evil,  which, 
however,  does  not  always  manifest  itself  in  the 
same  way,  or  in  the  same  deirree,  and  which 
does  not  appear  at  once,  but  rrradually,  and  in 
all  men.  Others  describe  it  as  that  disposition 
ol  tiie  soul  by  which  evil  desires  have  an  exisl- 
eti'*-  in  it,  or  rather,  sprinc;  up  whenever  occa- 
eion  offers,  &c.  But  they  all  agree,  at  last,  that 
ih"  essence  of  natural  dejiravity  is  the  disturbed 
balance  of  the  powers  or  inclinations  of  man, 
or  ihe  preponderance  of  the  carnal  desires  over 
Tfa<on.  It  lies  in  the  fact,  that  the  lower  nature 
of  'nan,  made  by  God  to  obey,  is  not  submissive 
to  ilie  reason,  as  the  power  which  should  give 
law,  and'govern.  The  following  definition  may 
therefore  be  given  of  the  moral  depravity  of 
man,  in  conformity  both  with  experience  and 
with  scripture:  »7  is  that  feiukncy  In  m'nfiil pai- 
nidiLf  or  unlawful praprnsitics  which  is  peraiivd 
in  man  v:henei'er  nlijiels  nf  desire  are  placed  lufare 
him  and  hnus  are  laid  upon  him,  Rum.  vii.  This 
want  of  harmony  between  the  two  natures  being 
but  too  clearly  perceived,  and  being  justly  re- 
garded as  an  evil  fraught  with  ruinous  conse- 
quences to  man,  it  was  earlv  maintaint^d  among 
the  Hebrews  and  fitlier  nations,  that  it  could  not 
have  existed  in  the  original  state  of  man.  We 
see  everywhere  that  men  have  felt  it  necessary 
to  adopt  this  supposition.  It  is,  moreover,  in 
accordance  with  the  Bible.  Vide  s,  Tf),  II,  2. 
We  have  already  considered  (vide  s.  71)  how 
far  unaided  reason  can  go  in  clearing  up  this 
subject;  we  now  come  to  examine  what  we  are 
taught  res|)ecting  it  by  the  scriptures. 

Theologians  remark  here,  by  way  of  cau- 
tion, that  we  must  carefully  distinguish  between 
the  f.'i.^en/ift/ and  «cc/(/(r;i/«/ deficiencies  and  im- 
perfections of  our  nature.  Essential  imperfec- 
tions would  always  have  been  seen  in  man, 
owing  to  the  limitation  of  his  nature,  even  al- 
ih'iugh  he  had  not  fallen.  But  these  imperfec- 
tions would  have  implied  no  fault  and  no  de- 
pravity. Depravity  in  any  one  presupposes  a 
better  state,  from  which  he  has  deteriorated. 
Hence  our  M»fn///i/ imperfections  cannot  proper- 
ly t)e  considered  as  belonging  to  our  natural 
depravity— e.  g.,  man  cannot  be  accounted  de- 
praved  in  consei|uence  of  the  ign'irance  in  which 
he  is  born,  and  the  false  judgments  whieh  spring 
merely  from  that  ignorance,  nor  for  the  pleasure 
w  liieh  he  takes  in  objects  of  sense,  when  sim- 
J)Iy  considered  ;  but  only  for  the  other  class  of 
imperfections,  those  that  are  e«H/i «!,'<«/.  Among 
the»H  may  be  placed  the  violence  of  the  pas- 
sions, their  obvious  preponderance  over  reas<m, 
and  the  hindrances  wh  meet  with  from  this 
source  to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth,  and  to  our 
progress  in  holiness.  This  is  shewn  by  the 
example  of  Eve.    She  was,  even  before  her  fall. 


in  many  respects  ignorant  and  inexperienced; 
she  judged  incorrectly  respecting  God;  she  felt 
too  the  motions  of  sense;  but  as  yet  she  was 
uncorrupted.  But  after  she  fell  she  was  the 
subject  of  those  other  accidental  imperfections 
which  now  constitute  human  depravity. 

II.  H<nv  Depravity  is  named  in  the  Bible,  and  where 
it  is  located  in  Man. 

(1)  The  word  fboi.a  is  used  in  scripture  to 
designate  the  entire  corrupt  constitution  of  man 
in  a  moral  respect.  According  to  common  usage 
it  denotes  a  constitution  and  state  which  is  lutt 
a.1  it  should  be.  Vide  2  Pet.  ii.  If);  Ephes.  iv. 
22;  1  Tim.  vi.  5. 

(2)  This  depravity  (^^^pa)  of  man  exerts  a 
powerful  influence  upon  his  soul,  his  under- 
standing, and  will.  Vide  Rom.  vi.  14 — 23; 
Ephes.  ii.  3.  The  body  is,  however,  plainly  the 
principal  seat  of  the  carnal  appetites  and  desires, 
and  hence  the  origin  of  this  depravity  is  to  be 
sought  chiefly  in  the  body.  Vide  Rom.  vii.  5, 
23;  vi.  12,  seq.  And  all  the  ancient  heathen 
philosophers,  who  considered  the  preponderance 
of  this  lower  animal  nature  as  the  source  of 
liuman  depravity,  made  the  body  the  princi|)al 
seat  of  this  evil,  ami  in  doing  so  were  supported 
by  observations  famili.ir  to  all. 

(ff)  The  ancient  (*recian  philosophers,  Pytha- 
goras, Plato,  Arist'iile,  the  stoics,  (vide  s.  7 1, 
I.,)  considered  matter,  and  the  human  body  as 
consisting  of  matter,  to  be  the  seal  and  source 
of  evil.  With  these  writers,  the  Hellenistic 
Jews  agreed.  Vide  Book  of  Wisdom,  ix.  15, 
"The  decaying  body  burdens  the  soul,  and  the 
earthy  tabernacle  presses  down  the  thinking 
spirit."  Of  the  sam«  nund  were  most  of  the 
early  Christian  fathers — e.  g.,  .Fuslin  the  Mar- 
tyr, Origen,  (although  some  passages  in  his 
works  appt-ar  to  contradict  this,)  Hilarius,  and 
Augustine  himself.  This  doctrine  was  carried 
to  a  great  length  and  very  much  abused  by  some 
heretics  who  sprang  up  in  the  Christian  church, 
particularly  in  the  East.  They  regarded  matter 
as  in  itself  an  evil  existence,  not  deriving  its 
being  from  God.  nor  depending  upon  him.  So 
the  Gnostics  and  the  Manicheans. 

(J))  The  doctrine  that  the  body  of  man  is  the 
chief  seat  of  human  weaknesses  and  imperfec- 
tions, and  also  the  germ  of  moral  evil,  was 
widely  diffused  among  the  eastern  nations  in 
the  remotest  antiipiity,  and  was  adopted  by  the 
writers  of  the  Old  Testaiiumt,  as  may  be  clearly 
si-en  from  their  urie  of  the  wor<l  "^ira,  (nup?.) 
This  word  siirnifies  nri<:inally  the  human  hniiy, 
then,  nun  thi/nsiltes,  but  always  with  the  iin- 
jdied  idea  that  they  are  frai.,  imperfect,  and 
mortal,  or,  in  a  moral  respect,  that  they  are  ir. 
dined  to  err  and  sin.  Vide  Gen.  vi.  12;  viii 
22;  Isaiih,  xl.  iJ,  coll.  .Matt.  xxvi.  41;  J<>hn, 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


279 


iii.  6.  On  the  other  hand  the  word  nn  (^rtvsv/.ia) 
denotes  what  is  spiritual,  moral,  divine,  perfect, 
holy,  &e. 

(c)  This  doctrine,  the  first  traces  of  which 
we  find  in  the  earlier  Jewish  books,  was  gra- 
dually developed,  and  was  at  last  exhibited  in 
the  New  Testament  with  the  greatest  clearness. 
Paul  places  (jap|  in  opposition  to  lov;  or  jtisrua, 
and  depicts  the  controversy  between  the  two, 
and  the  hindrances  which  tlie  oa'pl  opposes  to 
the  rtvci'fia  in  the  knowledge  of  the  truth,  and 
holiness  of  walk.  Vide  Rom.  vii.  18,  23. 
With  him  ^poi'ftv  and  rcefiirtarnv  xata  aapxa 
mean  tc  indulge  sinful  desires,  Rom.  viii.  1,  5; 
and  ^«9.r^a,  ^^lonrfia,  roij  oapzdj,  signify,  the 
corrupt,  depraved  disposition  of  human  nature — 
the  propensity  to  sin.  Gal.  vi.  13;  Ephes.  ii.  3. 
Cf.  ixi'^vfiiat,  oapxixat,  bodily,  sensual  desires, 
1  Peter,  ii.  11 ;  also  o  aapxixoi  (ai'^pwTtoj.)  In 
Rom.  vi.  6,  16,  Paul  says  that  the  Christian 
should  deprive  the  auj^a  a^aprtaj  of  its  power, 
and  not  suffer  himself  to  be  subject  ini^vi^iaii 
eJjfxatos;  and  in  Rom.  vii.  18 — 'J5,  still  more 
plainly ;  he  knew,  he  says,  that  in  him  (or  rather 
in  his  body,  iv  oapzt)  the  seat  of  moral  good  was 
not  to  be  found,  (orx  oixii  iyahoii-)  He  was 
not,  indeed,  wanting  in  good  will  to  live  righte- 
ously, but  in  power  to  perform  his  will.  He 
often  could  not  accomplish  the  good  which  he 
heartily  approved  from  his  inmost  moral  feel- 
ings; and,  on  the  contrary,  he  often  did  the  evil 
which  he  disallowed.  And  thus  he  knew  that 
sin — i.  e.,  a  disposition  to  sin,  sinful  depravity — 
dwelt  in  him.  His  spirit  (vovj,  o  tsco  di'^pco/-toj) 
approved  the  divine  law,  and  acknowledged  it 
good  and  useful ;  but  in  his  members  (evucXfai, — 
i.  e.,  iv  ow/tiart)  there  was  another  law,  the  law 
of  sin,  (dictamen  sensiiuni,)  which  was  opposed 
to  the  law  of  God,  and  which  ruled  over  him. 
Hence  he  exclaims,  "  0  miserable  man  that  I 
am,  who  shall  deliver  me  from  this  mortal  body, 
(au);ua  fov  ^avdtof  rw-fov.)"  And  at  last  he 
thanks  God  that  through  Christ  he  has  granted 
him  this  deliverance,  and  that  he  was  no  more 
under  the  necessity  of  yielding  obedience  to  his 
depraved  appetites,  although  they  still  conti- 
nued, and  often  resumed  their  power. 

The  word  -^v^i-xoi,  ^vx^xoi  acv^puTio^  is  also 
often  used  in  the  scriptures,  denoting  that  one 
does  not  follow  his  reason,  but  is  wholly  under 
the  influence  of  his  bodily  appetites  and  desires, 
and  will  give  heed  only  to  what  he  learns 
through,  his  senses,  and  so  despises  the  instruc- 
tion wliich  God  has  given  respecting  spiritual 
things.  Thus  .Tude,  ver.  19  ;  for  rcj  and  ■^vxr; 
often  signify  the  impulses,  desires,  and  pro- 
pensities of  our  lower  nature;  and  1  Cor.  ii.  14, 
where  -^ixixoiav^pLortoi  is  one  who  scorns  divine 
instruction,  and  chooses  rather  sense,  darkness, 
and  delusion,  one  who  has  no  orjan  for  what 
a  above  sense,  and  no  taste  for  divine  instruc- 


tion,— the  same  with  aapxtxoj,  1  Cor.  iii.  1. 
'I'he  inordJnate  desires,  those  which  are  not  at 
they  should  be,  are  often  called  in  scripture,  by 
way  of  eminence,  fm^r/uia,  fTtiiH'^iat  napxos,  1 
John,  ii.  16, — commonly  rendered  in  the  Vul- 
gate concupiscentia  ;  hence  this  word  is  adopted 
in  ecclesiastical  Latinity.  Vide  Morus,  p.  107, 
n.  3,  4. 

(rf)  From  the  passages  now  cited,  and  from, 
the  known  sense  in  which  the  words  above  men- 
tioned were  anciently  used,  it  is  plain  that  those 
writers  who  make  the  soul  the  chief  seat  and 
original  source  of  corruption  very  much  mistake. 
Into  this  error  Buddeus  has  fallen,  as  appears 
from  his  dissertation,  "  De  aninia  sede  peccati 
originalis  principale;"  Jenas,  1725;  and  in  this 
error  he  is  followed  by  Seiler.  It  is  equally  cer- 
tain, however,  that  this  originally  bodily  disor- 
der has  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  soul,  on 
account  of  the  intimate  connexion  between  these 
two  essential  parts  of  man.  It  acts  (a)  upon  the 
undersfanding,  since  by  means  of  it  the  objects 
of  knowledge  are  placed  before  the  mind  in  an 
entirely  false  light,  so  that  the  und^rsttrnding 
holds  that  which  is  false  for  true,  what  is  evil 
for  good,  and  the  reverse.  (3)  Upon  the  vill 
and  the  actions,  so  that  what  has  been  thus  false- 
ly represented  by  the  senses  to  the  understand- 
ing as  good  and  right,  is  now  desired  and  ac- 
complished. The  evil  consequences  of  this  are, 
that  man  prefers  apparent  to  real  good,  that  he 
allows  himself  to  be  more  governed  by  his 
senses  than  by  his  understanding,  and  often 
does  that  which  he  himself  disapproves,  and  so 
chooses  and  acts  against  his  own  princijiles  and 
his  better  views.  Vide  Rom.  vii.  8,  10,  23  ;  Gal. 
V.  17,  "The  desire  of  the  flesh  is  often  opposed 
to  the  desire  of  the  spirit,  so  that  man  is  often 
unable  to  accomplish  his  good  purposes."  The 
soul,  as  Paul  teaches,  is  so  far  weak  as  the  ani- 
mal propensities  (na^riJ-ara  oapzo'j)  are  strong; 
and  so  feeble  that  it  is  the  slave  of  these  pro- 
pensities; and  although  it  may  have  a  better 
conviction,  is  not  able  to  carry  it  into  effect,  but 
is  so  carried  away  that  it  must  do  what  itself 
disapproves.  And  this  is  the  benefit  of  Christ 
(;^a'pt(T;ua),  that  he  saves  us  from  the  power  of 
sin,  as  well  as  from  its  punishment. 

JS'otc  1. — Care  must  be  taken  here  that  the 
doctrine  of  the  injury  which  we  sustain  from  the 
body  and  the  inordinate  appetites  of  which  it 
is  the  seal,  be  not  carried  too  far,  as  it  has  been 
by  Less,  and  other  modern  theologians.  This 
extreme  in  the  doctrine  very  naturally  leads  to 
dangerous  perversions;  and  we  might  expect 
that  it  would  lead  many  to  resort  to  suicide,  in 
order  to  free  themselves  from  the  burdensome 
prison  of  the  body.  And  indeed  suicide  was 
justified  on  this  ground  by  the  stoics,  and  other 
ancient  philosophers.  On  this  subject  it  is  im- 
portant to  bear  in  mind  the  great  advantages 


280 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


which,  as  we  are  taught  in  the  scriptures,  we 
possess  from  the  connexion  of  the  rational  soul 
with  the  body  in  our  present  slate.  Vide  s.  74. 
The  false  idea  of  the  ancient  Pythagoreans  and 
Platnnists  that  the  body  is  a  prison  where  the 
soul  is  incarcerate.d  for  its  punishment,  was  held 
also  by  many  of  the  mystics  and  Platonists 
among  the  old  Jews  and  Christians;  but  it  has 
no  foundation  in  the  scriptures.  The  sacred 
writers  never  require  us,  as  Grecian  philosophers 
and  Christian  mystics  often  do,  to  eradicate  our 
bodily  appetites  and  desires,  (which,  if  it  were 
possible,  would  destroy  the  very  nature  of  man,) 
but  only  to  control  them  and  subject  them  to 
reason.  Christian  morals  therefore  insists,  not 
that  man  should  leave  off  particular  sins,  or 
suppress  particular  outbreakings  of  unlawful 
desire,  but  that  a  new  turn  should  be  given  to 
all  the  natural  desires ;  and  this  is  the  proper 
tendency  of  Christian  morals.  It  designs  to 
oring  man  from  the  love  of  the  world  to  the  love 
«f  God  ;  from  an  improper  self-love  to  the  love 
of  others  ;  from  a  love  to  sensible  and  perishing 
things  to  a  love  of  spiritual  and  eternal  good. 
Such  are  the  instructions  which  Christ  every- 
where gives.  Vide  John,  iii.  3 — 21.  It  is  a  false 
assertion  that  the  inculcation  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  natural  propensity  to  evil  has  a  tendency 
to  discourage  men  from  the  pursuit  of  good ; 
when  properly  exhibited,  this  doctrine  has  ex- 
actly the  opposite  etfect,  and  excites  to  the  vi- 
gorous employment  of  our  powers.  The  great 
point  in  this  doctrine  is,  that  the  man  who 
tvould  fulfil  his  destination  must  depart  from 
evil,  and,  not  content  with  merely  cultivating 
dnd  developin'i  his  powers,  must  experience  a 
radical  reformation. 

\_Xote  2. — Doen  the  depravily  of  our  nature  cnn- 
itst  in  the  iiwrdiiinteiiess  of  our  bodily  desires? 

From  the  views  exhibited  in  this  section  it 
appears  that  our  author  adopts  the  affirmative 
of  this  question.  He  sees  in  man  a  conflict  be- 
tween reason  and  those  lower  principles  which 
have  their  seat  in  the  body,  and  thinks  of  no  ul- 
terior or  more  radical  evil.  To  such  a  concej)- 
tion  of  human  depravity  he  is  necessarily  brought 
by  his  theory  resjiecling  the  consequences  of  the 
fall,  makinij  them  to  consist  chiefly  in  the  dis- 
arranfjement  of  our  bodily  constitution.  In  he- 
half  of  these  views  he  appeals,  as  the  reader  has 
perceived,  to  the  universal  doctrine  of  pagan 
philosophy  on  this  subject,  to  the  familiar  ob- 
servation of  the  actual  inordinatei\ess  of  the 
bodily  appetites  and  their  preponderance  over 
reason,  but  principally  to  the  scriptural  phrase- 
ology employed  to  desiirnate  the  native  charac- 
ter of  man,  and  which,  taken  in  its  lirst  etymo- 
logical sense,  seems  to  in<licate  that  the  bodi/  is 
the  ultimate  cause  and  principal  seat  of  human 
depravity. 

This  part  of  our  author's  system  is  of  such 


radical  importance,  and  so  materially  affects  the 
views  we  must  entertain  of  the  other  doctrines 
of  Christianity,  and  especially  of  the  atonement, 
that  it  ought  not  to  pass  without  examination. 

As  to  the  first  argument  above  mentioned,  it 
will  be  readily  conceded  that  this  view  of  our 
natural  character  and  state  harmonizes  well  witb 
pagan  philosophy.  It  has  a  general  resemblance 
even  to  the  Indian  and  Persian  religious  sys- 
tems, as  exhibited  by  the  Schlegels  and  other 
modern  writers  on  the  East.  But  it  corresponds 
more  exactly  with  the  Platonic  system,  which 
fully  recognises  the  conflict  between  the  rational 
principle,  (the  xoyixov),  and  the  irrational,  ani- 
mal principle,  (the  a>a)yo»'.)  And  while  it  re- 
sembles these  systems,  it  must  be  said  also  that 
it  is  liable  to  the  same  objection  which  has  often 
been  urged  against  them — viz.,  that  in  some 
way,  by  supposing  either  an  eternal  intelligent 
principle  of  evil,  or  a  blind  destiny,  or  some  de- 
fective bodily  organization,  or  by  some  other 
external  necessity,  they  account  for  the  origin 
and  prevalence  of  evil,  instead  of  charging  it 
upon  the  perverted  use  of  the  moral  powers  of 
men.  But  to  all  such  conceptions  of  our  moral 
condition  Christianity  stands  opposed,  espe- 
cially in  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement,  which, 
by  is  protTer  of  forgiveness,  presupposes,  not 
misfortune  merely,  but  p;itill,  on  the  part  of  man, 
and  which,  in  its  whole  bearing,  aims  at  a  spi- 
ritual and  not  a  physical  evil.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  Christianity  furnishes  a  new  point  of  view 
for  observing  the  character  of  man,  ami  disclo^ics 
the  essential  nature  and  deeper  root  of  evil. 

The  fact  alleged  in  the  second  argument — 
viz.,  that  there  is  a  visible  preponderance  of 
sense  or  of  bodily  appetites  over  reason,  is  also 
readily  conceded;  but  can  we  conclude  from 
this  fact  that  this  disorder  is  to  he  attributed  to 
the  body,  and  the  afiections  having  their  seat  in 
it]  Would  not  the  just  balance  between  the 
higher  and  lower  principles  of  our  nature  be 
equally  disturbed  by  altering  the  weight  in 
either  scale  1  If  in  the  original  constitution  of 
our  nature,  the  lower  principles  of  the  animal 
life  on  one  side  were  balanced  on  the  other  by 
the  higher  principles  of  our  intellectual  life,  not 
by  thcinschrs,  but  in  coniifxion  ivith  a  enmnnini- 
eulcd  divine  life,  of  which  they  are  t!ie  organ, 
(as  we  shall  attempt  to  shew,)  then  the  mere 
loss  or  wiihdrawment  of  this  divine  life  would 
be  followed  of  course  by  a  loss  of  this  original 
erpiipoise.  and  the  undue  predominance  of  the 
lower  principles.  Thus  it  can  be  conceived  that 
the  inordinaieness  of  the  bodily  appetites,  in 
whieh  human  depravity  miglit  seem  at  first  view 
to  consist,  so  far  from  constituting  its  real  es- 
sence, may  be  only  the  necessary  result  of  an 
ulterior  cause,  the  defect  of  the  hi<fher  princi- 
ples. Indeiul,  considering  the  nature  of  these 
higher  principles,  and  their  rightful  supremacy 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


!^1 


how  can  their  being  drawn  away  and  enslaved 
6y  principles  so  inferior  and  subordinate  be  ac- 
counted for,  except  from  some  defect  in  the  spi- 
ritual part,  to  say  nothing  of  positively  evil  in- 
clinations seated  there? 

The  argument  derived  from  the  use  of  the 
scriptural  terms  t;."3  and  oa'pl,  and  their  syno- 
nymes,  is  very  plausible;  and  when  Paul  calls 
the  vofioi  ti^i  oapzdj  also  a  vofioi  iv  rotj  (.iiXisi, 
Ihe  question  might  seem  to  be  decided.  But  if 
this  is  dilTicult  on  one  side,  it  is  not  less  so  on 
the  other,  that  pride,  envy,  and  other  feelings, 
the  most  remote  from  the  influence  of  the  body, 
are  derived  by  Paul  from  (ja'pS,  as  its  immediate 
fruits.  Cf.  Gal.  v.  10—22;  Col.  ii.  18.  Other 
reasons  against  flie  meaning  assigned  by  our 
author  to  these  scriptural  terms  will  appear  in 
the  sequel  of  this  note. 

The  following  development  of  the  scriptural 
doctrine  respecting  the  natural  state  of  man  is 
offered  for  consideration,  in  the  belief  that  it  is 
Augustinian  and  Edwardsean  on  the  particular 
points  in  which  these  systems  differ  from  the 
Pelagian  and  Arminian  anthropologies. 

In  the  first  place;  that  principle,  state,  or  dis- 
position of  human  nature,  whatever  it  may  be, 
by  which  it  is  designated  as  corrupt  or  evil,  is 
more  usually  denominated  oap^,  one  who  is  in 
this  state,  oapztxoj;  the  living  and  acting  in  it 
are  described  by  the  formulas,  TtspinaTflv  iv  napxt, 
xata  oapxa  i^r^i',  <p(iovsiv,  x.  r.  X.  The  same  State 
is  also  described,  though  less  commonly,  by 
other  terms  nearly  synonymous  with  these. 

Secondly.  The  most  important  clue  to  the 
meaning  of  the  term  wp;,  upon  which  so  much 
depends,  and  which  is  so  difficult  of  interpreta- 
tion, is  the  fact  I  lint  it  is  placed  in  condant  and 
direct  contrast  to  ihe  term  rCvcv/^a, — so  much  so, 
that  it  seems  necessarily  to  imply  a  state  exactly 
opposite  to  that  denoted  by  the  latter  term.  The 
opposition  between  these  two  principles  is  point- 
ed out  in  the  following  passages — viz.,  Rom. 
vii.  25;  viii.  I,  seq. ;  1  Cor.  iii.  4;  Gal.  v.  19, 
seq.  Hence  it  is  obvious,  that  in  order  to  attain 
distinct  and  specific  conceptions  of  the  meaning 
of  TOpS,  we  must  fully  understand  the  import  of 
the  term  rtifv.ua,  with  which  it  is  contrasted. 
1( Tivcvua  denotes  merely  the  intelligent,  ration- 
al principle,  (the  %oyix6v,)  then  may  oa'p^  desig- 
nate merely  the  irrational,  bodily  appetites  and 
desires,  (the  a7.oyot'.)  But  ii"  Ttrevua  have  a 
higher  import,  then  to  suppose  cap?  to  be  still 
limited,  as  before,  to  the  designation  of  merely 
bodily  appetites,  would  be  to  lose  sight  of  the 
direct  and  invariable  opposition  in  which  these 
terms  are  |)laced. 

Thirdly.  It  would  be  a  very  superficial  view 
of  the  import  of  nvevf^a,  and  contrary  to  the 
whole  scri|)tural  usage,  to  understand  by  it  the 
me  e  in'ellii^cnce  or  reason  of  man  ;  on  the  con- 
trary it  denotes  this  reason,  considered  as  the  or- 
36 


gan  of  the  higher  divine  life  imparted  to  j>ian,  and 
which  is  itself  more  properly  the  nvivua,  and 
upon  which  the  spirit,  as  a  natural  faculty  with 
which  man  is  endowed,  depends  absolutely  for 
its  exercise.  This,  it  seems  to  us,  is  the  gene- 
ric idea  of  the  term  ftviv/xa,  although  sometimes 
it  denotes  more  prominently  the  faculty  of  the  ' 
mind,  and  at  others,  the  divine  life  itself  of 
which  the  mind  is  the  recipient;  just  as^'jaroj 
is  used  to  denote  either  the  natural  or  the  spiri 
tual  part  of  the  whole  penalty  of  the  law,  of 
which  it  is  the  generic  name,  according  as  the 
one  or  the  other  of  these  is  more  prominently  in 
the  mind  of  the  writer.  And  so  the  Ttifvfxanxoi 
is  one  who  not  merely  possesses  reason  and  go- 
verns his  animal  appetites  by  it,  but  one  who 
partakes  of  this  higher,  divine  life,  u  ho  stands 
in  living  communion  with  God,  receives  the  su- 
pernatural gifts  of  his  grace,  by  which  the  na- 
tural principles  of  reason  are  strengthened  and 
enabled  to  maintain  the  proper  mastery  over  the 
lower  principles  of  sense.  Accordingly,  oa'pf 
i  must  indicate  that  state  of  man  in  which  he  is 
destitute  of  this  higher  life,  either  having  lost 
it,  or  never  attained  to  the  possession  of  it, — in 
which  the  principles  of  humanity,  both  the  higher 
and  lower,  are  left  to  themselves;  in  short,  the 
state  in  which  man  is  without  the  Spirit  of  God 
— a  state  which,  from  this  its  privative  charac- 
rer,  might  be  appropriately  denominated  unrc- 
gencracy,  or  ungodliness.  And  tlie  capzixoj  is 
one  who  not  merely  has  inordinate  bodily  appe- 
tites, and  obeys  the  diclamen  scnsuum,  but  onb 
who  does  not  receive  and  enjoy  the  presence  of 
the  sSpirit  of  God.  And  so  Calvin,  in  his  Comm. 
on  John,  ii".  6,  explains  oapl  to  mean  the  whole 
natural  man,  considered  as  without  the  new 
birth,  or  the  divine  life;  and  well  remarks,  *'/«- 
stilsc  theologasiri  ad  partem  quum  vacant  seri' 
siialem  restringiuit.^^ 

Fourthly.  The  correctness  of  the  account 
here  given  of  the  import  of  aapl  is  strikingly 
confirmed  by  the  manner  in  which  its  syno- 
nymes  are  used  throughout  the  New  Testament. 
Thus  ■^vxi-xoi  is  used  (e.  g.,  1  Cor.  ii.  14  and 
Jude,  ver.  19)  to  designate  one  who  has  not  ihe 
Spirit,  and  receives  not  the  things  of  ihe  Spirit. 
And  in  Eph.  iv.  22,  the  rta^aio^  ai^ipunos,  corrupt 
according  to  the  deceitful  lusts,  is  opposed  to 
the  being  renewed.  And  so  everywhere  the 
destitution  of  the  supernatural  <_'race  of  God  and 
of  his  life-giving  Spirit  is  the  prominent  idea  in 
these  and  similar  terms. 

Fifthly.  But  thus  far  we  attain  only  a  nega- 
tive conception  on  this  subject.  \V  hat  positive 
idea,  then,  shall  we  form  of  the  state  of  man 
destitute  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  and  estranged 
from  God  1  An  answer  to  this  question  will 
bring  us  upon  the  highest  dividing  points  be- 
tween the  Augustinian  and  Pelaijian  anthropo- 
lotries;  for  it  was  not  in  the  doctrines  which 
2  a2 


2S2 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


came  most  into  discussion  during  the  Pelajrian 
controversies  that  the  first  and  essential  differ- 
ences between  these  sj'stems  lay ;  but  in  points 
further  back,  adopted  unconsciously  by  these 
diverging  tendencies,  according  to  their  differ- 
ent nature,  and  of  which  the  doctrines  in  discus- 
«!ion  were  only  the  more  remote  results. 

According  to  Pelagius,  man  was  originally, 
and  is  still,  endowed  by  God  with  all  the 
powers  and  faculties  requisite  to  the  ends  of  his 
being,  and  it  depends  only  upon  himself,  in  tiie 
exercise  of  his  free  will,  to  practise  all  good  and 
fulfil  his  destination.  In  his  system  there  is 
therefore  no  necessity  for  any  supernatural  in- 
fluences of  grace,  and  scarcely  any  place  for 
tiiem ;  certainly  a  destitution  of  them  does  not 
necessarily  imply  the  corruption  of  nature,  since 
without  them  man  is  adequate  to  holiness.  liul 
according  to  Augustine  it  is  far  otherwise;  and 
man  stands  in  an  absolute  and  constant  depend- 
ence upon  God,  as  the  only  source  of  truth  and 
good;  the  faculties  of  reason  and  will  with 
which  the  Creator  has  endowed  us  are  by  no 
means  complete  in  themselves  and  self-suffi- 
cient to  the  purposes  for  which  they  were 
given,  but  only  organs  to  receive  and  reveal  the 
higher  life  communicated  from  God,  to  whom 
they  are  related  as  the  eye  to  the  sun ;  and  this, 
not  merely  through  the  contingency  of  the  fall, 
but  originally  and  essentially;  so  that  the  loss 
of  this  imparled  divine  life  must  be  followed  by 
the  poweriessness  of  the  higher  principles  of  our 
nature,  the  predominance  of  the  lower,  and  so 
the  corruption  of  the  whole  man.  We  have 
thus  a  contrast  between  a  state  of  t^acc  and  of 
nature,  between  the  apiritunl  ?in<\  natural  in?in, — 
the  former  participating  in  divine  life  through 
fellowship  with  God,  and  consequently  superior 
to  the  baser  and  lower  principles;  the  latter, 
estranged  from  this  life,  and  so  fallen  into  en- 
tire disor<ler,  inability  to  good,  and  moral  cor- 
ruption. Such  is  the  positive  idea  of  wp?,  and 
this  is  the  beincf  in  iUeJlrsh,  or  being  carnal,  so 
often  spoken  of  in  the  New  Testament. 

The  views  of  Kd wards,  which  are  exhibited 
so  lucidly  and  even  beautifully  in  his  work  on 
*»Ori<rinal  Sin,"  (p.  330,  and  especially  p.  4J7. 
seq.  Worces.  ed.,)  correspond  entirely  with 
tiiose  of  Auirustine.  "The  case  with  man  was 
plainly  this: — When  God  made  man  at  first  he 
implanted  in  him  two  kinds  of  principles.  There 
was  an  inferior  kind,  which  may  be  called  hg/u- 
ral,  being  the  princi|)les  of  mere  human  nature; 
such  as  self-love,  with  those  natural  appetites 
anil  passi<mfi  which  belong  to  the  nature  of  man, 
in  which  his  love  to  his  own  liberty,  b()ni>ur, 
and  jdeasure  were  exercised  :  these,  when  ahme, 
and  l<!ft  to  themselves,  are  what  the  scriptures 
souietimes  call  /Ici/i.  Hesides  these,  there  were 
Kujurior  principles,  th  it  were  spiritual,  holy,  and 
divine,  isuinniarily  comprehended  in  divine  love. 


These  principles  may,  in  some  sense,  be  calica 
supernatural,  being  (however  concreated  or  con- 
nate, yet)  such  as  are  above  those  principles  that 
are  essentially  implied  in,  or  necessarily  result- 
ing from,  and  inseparrtbly  connected  with,  mere 
human  nature ;  and  being  such  as  immediately 
depend  on  man's  union  and  comriiunion  with 
God,  or  divine  communications  and  influences 
of  God's  Spirit.  These  superior  principles 
were  given  to  possess  the  throne,  and  maintain 
an  absolute  dominion  in  the  heart;  the  other,  to 
be  wholly  subordinate  and  subservient.  And 
while  things  continued  thus,  all  tilings  were  in 
excellent  order,  peace,  antl  beautiful  harmony, 
and  in  their  proper  and  perfect  state."  Again 
he  says:  "The  withholding  of  special  divine 
induence  to  impart  and  maintain  the  good  prin- 
ciples, leaving  the  common  natural  principles 
to  themselves,  without  the  government  of  supe- 
rior divine  principles,  will  certainly  be  followed 
with  the  corruption,  yea,  the  total  corruption  of 
the  heart.  As  light  ceases  in  a  room  when  the 
candle  is  withdrawn,  so  man  is  left  in  a  state 
of  darkness,  wofiil  corruption  and  ruin,  nothing 
but  flesh  without  spirit,  when  the  Holy  Ghost, 
that  heavenly  inhabitant,  forsakes  the  house. 
The  inferior  principles,  given  only  to  serve, 
being  alone,  and  left  to  themselves,  of  course 
become  reigning  principles  ;  the  immediate  con- 
sequence of  which  is,  a  turning  of  all  things 
upside  down.  It  were  easy  to  shew,  if  here 
were  room  for  it,  how  every  depraved  disposi- 
tion would  naturally  arise  from  this  privative 
original."     (Abridged.) 

Hut  we  may  attain  to  still  more  delinite  con- 
ce|)tions  respecting  the  positive  n.iliire  of  the 
Jh:-h,  by  considering  it  in  ojiposiiion  to  the 
highest  principle  and  spring  of  the  spiritual 
state.  This  latter  is  ascertained  by  all  just  rea- 
soning about  the  nature  of  hcdiiiess,  and  by  the 
first  precept  of  the  divine  law,  to  be  supreme 
liive  In  God.  Hence  nlfm/inn'S  is  to  be  regarded 
as  constituting  the  central  point  of  the  natural 
unregenerate  life. 

It  will  now  be  obvious  how,  in  the  catalogue 
of  the  works  of  ihejles/t,  there  should  stand  such 
feelings  as  have  no  conceivable  connexion  with 
the  body,  and  cannot  possibly  be  derived  from 
its  influence. 

IJut  it  may  be  asked,  why,  then,  if  it  is  not 
intended  to  exhibit  the  influence  of  the  body, 
should  the  term  odp^  and  its  synonymes  be  em- 
ployed to  designate  the  natural  unrenewed  slate 
of  mani  To  tliis  question  various  answers 
might  be  given.  One  reason  is  offered  by  Ed- 
wards, p..  3'Jl  of  the  work  cited  above.  Hut 
the  reason  suggested  by  Tholuck  corresponds 
best  with  the  view  which  has  been  given  of  the 
privative  nature  of  the  flesh.  As  the  body  is 
dead  without  the  enlivening  sduI,  so  the  spijit 
of  man   is   powerless    and   dead   without   the 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


higher  life  derived  from  the  Spirit  of  God.  And 
thus  the  niorlal  part  of  our  animal  nature  is 
taken  for  the  designation  of  our  intellectual  and 
moral  being-,  as  far  as  it  is  dead,  powerless,  and 
corrupt,  from  its  being  destitute  of  its  higher 
spiritual  life  in  God. 

This  view  of  human  depravity,  in  opposition 
to  that  which  makes  it  consist  in  the  inordinate- 
ness  of  bodily  appetites,  derives  its  principal  in- 
terest and  importance  from  its  bearing  on  ilie 
other  doctrines  of  religion,  and  especially  on  the 
doctrine  of  atonement.  As  was  hinted  in  a  pre- 
vious note,  if  the  depravity  of  man  results  from 
any  physical  disarrangement,  then  the  remedy, 
in  order  to  meet  the  exact  point  of  the  disease, 
and  to  reach  its  real  source,  ought  to  be  applied 
to  the  physical,  instead  of  the  moral,  nature  of 
man.  It  is  only  on  the  supposition  that  selfisii- 
ness  is  the  root  of  evil,  and  the  central  principle 
of  our  natural  life,  and  that  man  is  dependent 
for  holiness  and  happiness  upon  an  imparted 
life,  higher  than  that  of  reason,  that  the  pro- 
visions of  the  atonement  have  any  signifi- 
cance.— Tr.] 

III.  How  Native  Depraiity  may  be  proved  from 
the  Bible. 

(1)  In  doing  this,  we  should  not  employ, 
without  selection,  all  those  texts  which  speak 
of  the  moral  dej)ravity  of  man  in  general,  or  of 
that  of  particular  men  or  nations;  for  in  many 
of  these  passages  the  sins  and  vices  actually 
committed  by  men  are  the  subjects  of  discourse, 
and  not  the  disposition  to  sin  inherent  in  man- 
kind. It  was  the  intention  of  the  sacred  writers, 
in  some  of  the  examples  which  they  have  given 
us  of  heinous  transgressors,  to  shew  to  what  sin 
leads,  by  what  terrible  consequences  it  is  fol- 
lowed, in  order  to  deter  men  from  committing 
it,  and  not  to  teacii  that  all  men  are  the  same, 
or  have  actually  sunk  to  the  same  depth  of  vile- 
ness,  although  by  reason  of  their  inherent  de- 
pravity they  might  all  sink  to  the  same  depth. 
Among  texts  of  this  nature  we  may  mention 
Psalm  xiv.  3,  seq.,  where  the  declaration,  there 
is  none  thai  doelh  good,  &;c.,  relates  to  the  god- 
less persons  mentioned  ver.  1.  And  so  Paul, 
Rom.iii.  10,  proves  from  this  passage  that  there 
were  formerly  among  the  Israelites  very  wicked 
men.  And  Job  (chap.  xiv.  4)  alludes  princi- 
pally to  those  actual  transgressions  by  which 
men  are  brought  into  that  state  in  which  none 
can  be  guiltless  in  the  sight  of  God.  In  Rom. 
iii.  9,  seq.,  tiie  apostle  shews  that  the  Jewish 
nation  bad  no  advantage  over  others  in  point  of 
holiness  or  moral  purity,  and  that  there  had  al- 
ways been  in  it  corrupt  and  vicioii-s  men.  Nor 
can  the  text,  Ps.  li.  7,  be  cited  in  iiehalf  of  this 
doctrine.  The  mention  of  natural  li.-pravity  does 
not  haruionize  with  tiie  context,  vuid  the  phrase 
tj  be  liorn  in  or  with  ain  (i.  e.,  to  bring  sin  into 


the  world  with  one)  relates,  as  is  evident  from 
John,  ix.  34,  not  to  native  depravity,  which  all 
have,  but  to  tlie  fact  that  he  had  not  sinned  for 
the  first  lime  in  the  particular  crime  of  wiiich  he 
had  then  been  guilty,  but  from  his  youth  up  had 
been  a  great  sinner;  for  such  is  fre'juently  the 
meaning  of  the  term  jcn::.  Cf.  Job,  xxxi.  18; 
Ps.  Iviii.  4.  It  may  also  be  said  here  that  David 
does  not  make  an  w/n'wrsa/ affirmation,  but  only 
Sj)eaks  of  himself,  designing  to  describe  himself 
as  a  great  sinner. 

{2)  The  proof  that  the  doctrine  of  natural  de- 
pravity and  its  propagation  is  founded  in  the 
holy  scriptures,  is  rather  to  be  made  out  from 
the  comparison  of  many  texts  taken  together,  or 
viewed  in  their  connexion.  The  doctrine  itself 
is  undoubtedly  scriptural,  although  the  Biblical 
writers  did  not  always  express  themselves  re- 
specting it  with  equal  clearness  and  distinct- 
ness, and  did  not  adopt  all  the  consequences 
which  have  been  since  drawn  from  it  by  many 
from  its  connexion  with  other  doctrines.  The 
Bible  speaks,  as  Musaeus  and  Morus  justly  ob- 
serve, fiu  more  frequently  in  the  concrete  than  in 
the  abstract,  respecting  the  sinful  corruption  of 
man;  and  in  this  respect  it  should  be  imitated 
by  preachers  in  their  popular  inslructioR.  Men 
will  readily  concede  the  general  |)roposition, 
ease  perditam  naturam  humanam  ,•  but  they  are 
unwilling  that  this  proposition  should  be  ap- 
plied to  themselves;  while  yet  the  efiect  of  the 
personal  self-application  of  this  doctrine  is  most 
salutary  to  every  individual.  The  scriptures 
teach  us  how  to  bring  this  doctrine  hoiTie  to 
every  heart. 

The  course  of  thought  on  this  subject  which 
the  Hebrews  followed,  and  which  was  gradually 
developed  and  transmitted  to  Christians,  is  as 
i'ollows: — God  created  everything,  and  conse- 
quently the  material  from  which  the  sensible 
world  has  originated,  and  from  which  he  formed 
the  human  body.  All  this  was  good  and  per- 
fect in  its  kind — i.  e.,  adapted  to  the  altainmenl 
of  its  end  or  destination  ;  Gen.  i.  The  body  of 
man  was  sustained  by  the  tree  of  life,  and  happy 
and  peaceful  was  his  condition  in  the  state  of 
innocence.  This  Jdosaic  narrative  is  at  the 
foundation  ofthe  whole.  Men  ate  of  the  for- 
bidden tree  of  poison  ;  its  taste  brought  sickness 
and  death  upon  them,  weakened  their  body,  and 
destroyed  its  harmony.  Violent  passions  now 
arose  within  them,  and  the  just  balance  of  the 
human  powers  and  inclinations  was  destroyed, 
and  sense  oblaii\ed  predominance  over  reason. 
Vide  s.  75.  All  this  is  indeed  spoken  in  Gen. 
ii.  and  iii.  only  respecting  Adam  and  Eve,  and 
nothing  is  there  expressly  said  of  the  propaga- 
tion of  ibis  evil.  But  their  posterity  died  after 
the  same  maimer,  and  experienced  the  same 
predominance  of  sense  and  inclination  to  sin, 
from  their  youth  up.     Respecting  the  race  of 


t84 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


man  sprung  from  Adam  before  the  flood,  the 
scripture  s.iith,  Gen.  vi.  5,  TIteir  wickrdness 
was  ^rcfit,  and  cv.ry  iinaf^iualion  if  the  thoutj^hh 
of  their  heart  (^3'7  narrrj  -^v-a,  all  the  thong^hts, 
desires,  resolves,  arising  within  them,  and  car- 
ried out  into  action; — ■»%",  nature,  coiutilufion, 
Ps.  ciii.  n,  [rather,/rflwf,  tvhatever  is  made  by 
an  artificer,  and  so  here  the  whole  doing  or  ope- 
ration of  the  heart,])  was  daily  nothins;  but  evil. 
Nor  did  any  change  take  place  in  those  who 
lived  after  the  flood ;  but  men  were  found  to  be 
the  same  as  before,  and  so  God  repeated  the 
same  deci.iration  respecting  them.  Gen.  viii.  22. 
And  the  constant  experience  of  later  times  con- 
firmed the  same  truth.  It  was  therefore  justly 
concluded  that  this  evil  is  transntitted  from  ge- 
neration to  generation,  and  is  the  common  here- 
ditary disease  of  the  human  race;  especially  as 
this  evil  was  seen  to  exist  very  early  in  all  men, 
even  from  their  youth  (;_-3r),  and  so  could  not 
have  arisen  merely  from  defect  in  education  or 
the  inlluence  of  bad  example.  All  the  imper- 
fections, therefore,  which  were  understood  by 
the  Jews  under  the  terms  -ir3  and  ad^>^  (viz., 
mortality,  the  predominance  of  sense,  the  bias 
to  sin,  tec.)  were  universally  regarded  by  them 
as  the  melancholy  consequences  of  the  fall  of 
the  first  man.  Vide  No.  I.  3.  In  this,  there- 
fore, lay  the  germ  of  all  the  evil  and  moral  cor- 
ruption among  men.  It  is  obviously  to  these 
fundamental  ideas  that  all  the  prophets  refer 
back,  when  they  speak  of  the  sin  and  corruption 
60  prevalent  aiuonsT  men.  And  it  is  the  same 
with  the  later  .Jewish  writers  after  the  Babylo- 
nian exile  until  the  time  of  Christ — e.  g.,  the 
writers  of  the  Apocrypha.  And  so  we  find 
many  traces  of  this  in  the  old  Jewish  transla- 
tions of  the  Hebrew  scriptures;  in  the  Chaldaic 
Paraphrases,  and  in  the  Septuagint  Version — e. 
p.,  in  Job,  xiv.  4,  where  it  is  said,  none  is  pure, 
the  Septuagint  adds,  even  although  he  should  lice 
but  for  a  single  day  upon  the  earth. 

On  the  same  general  views  do  Christ  and  the 
apostles  proceed;  and  Paul  especially  teaches 
this  doctrine  plainly  and  expressly,  and  im- 
proves it  in  order  to  set  r)rth  more  consjiicu- 
oufily  the  \\\fz\\  worth  of  Chrisiianily,  as  that 
system  in  which  more  efllicacious  and  sure  re- 
medies against  this  evil  wore  provided  than  the 
Jewish  or  any  other  religion  ever  possessed.  In 
this  way  <loes  he  humble  the  pride  of  man,  and 
descrii)e  the  disorder  of  the  soul  in  that  cele- 
brated passage  before  cited,  Rom.  vii.  14,  seq. 
He  calls  this  innate  evil,  ver.  17,  17  otxov-ja  iv 
ifioi  auaprta,  ver.  2.3,  trfpof  vouof  iv  roij  /ic'Xfii 
fxnv,  ver.  25,  roMoj  aua,iTiaj. 

In  the  ti-tt  Kph,  ii.  3,  the  term  ^vt(j  is  vari- 
ously explained.  The  explanation  of  Morns. 
thAt  it  denotes  the  state  of  one  who  follows  his 
sensual  desires,  as  all  men  are  naturally  prone 
to  do,  is  just,  on  account  of  the  antithesis  in  ver.  , 


5,  10.  4^inii  properly  signifies  (a)  origtn.hir'h^ 
from  fixj,  nascor ;  so  in  Gal.  ii.  15,  ^vcn  'lotr 
ittioj.  Jews  by  birth,  native  Jews;  and  so  too  in 
the  classics,  (i)  It  is  also  used  both  by  the 
Jews  and  classics  to  denote  the  original,  inborn, 
and  peculiar  properties,  attributes,  nature  of  a 
thing  or  person,  the  naturalis  indoles  or  ajjietiof 
as  Rom.  xi.  21,  21,  where  the  sense  is,  "^veo 
we  who  are  born  Jews,  are,  as  to  our  nature— 
i.  e.,  that  natural  disposition  whioh  we  have 
exhibited  from  our  youth  up — equally  deserving 
of  punishment  with  other  men, — i.  e.,  native 
heathen;  for  all,  Jews  and  Gentiles  alike,  are 
born  with  a  dangerous  predominance  of  sense, 
and  deserving  of  the  punishment  of  all  the  sons 
of  Adam — viz.,  death.'''' 

After  these  texts,  the  passage,  John,  iii.  fi,  is 
easily  explained  :  what  is  born  if  the  jlesh  19 
flesh — i.  e.,  from  men  who  are  weak,  erring, 
and  sinful,  men  of  the  same  character  are  born. 
No  one  attains,  therefore,  by  his  mere  birth, 
(e.  g,  as  a  Jew,)  to  any  [)eculiar  privileges  from 
God;  these  he  attains  only  by  bciugbtirn  ai^ain, 
by  hecomin(r?i regenerate  man,  morally  changed. 
On  principles  like  these  do  the  sacred  writers 
always  proceed  when  they  teach  that  all  men, 
without  exception,  are  sinners;  John,  iii.  ti; 
Rom.  iii.  9,  19. 

SECTION  LXXVIII. 

OF  THE  NATURB  AND  ATTRIBUTES  OF  THIS  COR- 
RTPTION  ;  ITS  PROPAOATIO.V;  ITS  PI  NISHABl.E- 
NESS;  ALSO  OF  THE  ORIGIN  OF  SINFUL  DESIRES 
AMONG  MEN,  AND  THEIR  PL'NISHABLENESS. 

I.  Nature  of  Human  Depravity. 

(1)  It  is  universal.  This  implies,  (//)  ihat 
no  man  is  wholly  exempt  from  it,  however  dif- 
ferent may  he  the  degrees  and  moHificati'ms  in 
which  it  may  exist.  The  universality  of  human 
de|)ravity  is  proved,  partly  from  the  experience 
of  all  men  and  ages  (vide  s.  74),  partly  from 
the  testimony  of  the  holy  scriptures.  Many 
texts,  indeed,  treat  of  the  sinful  actions  and 
moral  corruption  of  men  of  mature  life;  but  we 
are  "tau(;ht  by  the  Hil)le  to  look  for  the  first 
ground  even  of  these  in  that  human  depravity 
or  bias  to  sin  without  which  sin  itself  would 
never  have  prevailed  so  universally  ;  s.  77,  HI. 
ad  finem. 

The  texts  commonly  referred  to  on  this  sub- 
ject are,  Job,  xiv.  4,  (who  can  find  a  pure  man? 
none  is  unspotted.)  Rom.  iii.  23,  where  Paul 
says,  in  order  to  humble  the  pride  of  the  Jews, 
that  they  were  no  better  than  the  heathen,  and 
were,  as  ^ell  as  they,  v-rrrpovvrfj  rrj  AoS>;{  &iov' 
also  Rom.  v.  12—21  ;  Rph.  ii.  3;  John,  iii.  t>. 
No  sooner  does  man  begin  to  exercise  bis  rea- 
son, and  to  distintruish  hr'tween  ijood  and  evil, 
than  this  bias  to  sin  shews  itself  in  him.    While 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


285 


h*  m  St  acknowledge  the  law  as  good  and  obli- 
gatory, he  feols  within  himself  a  resistance  to 
it — an  inclination  to  do  that  which  is  opposed 
to  it,  and  forbidden  by  it.  Indeed,  he  is  borne 
away  with  such  power  by  his  lower  appetites 
and  passions,  that  he  often  does  that  which  he 
himself  knows  to  be  injurious,  and  neglects  that 
which  he  knows  to  be  salutary.  Rom.  vii.  8; 
E|)h.  ii.  3;  Gal.  v.  17.  Thus  it  is  with  all 
Tien;  and  each  individual  must  confess  that  the 
Bible  truly  describes  his  own  history  and  ex- 
perience.    Hence  this  evil  is  universal. 

The  universality  of  this  corruption  implies, 
(b)  that  it  can  never  be  entirely  eradicated,  even 
with  the  most  sincere  endeavours  of  the  pious; 
that  although,  through  divine  assistance,  an  end 
nvay  be  put  to  the  dominion  of  sin,  and  its  out- 
breakings  may  be  prevented,  yet  the  root  and 
germ  of  evil  will  remain,  and  cease  only  with 
death,  or  the  laying  aside  of  the  body,  in  which 
tliis  sinful  corruption  has  its  principal  seat. 
Vide  Rom.  vi.  12;  vii.  17,  24;  Gal.  v.  Hi,  17; 
1  John,  i.  8.  Every  one,  therefore,  who  has 
been  freed  from  the  dominion  of  sin,  has  still  to 
contend  against  this  propensity  to  sin,  lest  he 
should  again  fall  under  its  dominion.  Rom. 
viii.  13;  vi.  12,  seq.  These  remnants  of  de- 
pravity which  are  found  even  in  the  best  men, 
make  their  holiness  and  virtue  very  imperfect; 
and  the  feeling  that  they  are  sinners  continually 
humbles  them  before  God.  The  truly  pious 
man  will  never  therefore  glory  in  his  holiness, 
or  be  proud  of  his  virtue,  because  he  well  knows 
that  it  is  imj)erfect.  This  is  evident  from  every 
page  of  the  scriptures. 

(2)  It  is  wiliiral  and  innate,  (naturalis  et 
congenita  sive  insita  vitiositas  sive  depravatio.) 
The  term  natural  is  taken  from  Eph.  ii.  3,  ^vuft 
rixva.  opyTj;.  Vide  s.  77,  HI.  1.  Tertullian 
see  US  to  be  the  first  among  the  church  fathers 
who  used  the  term  naturalis.  Vide  s.  79,  No. 
4.  The  use  of  this  term,  if  it  be  rightly  ex- 
plained, is  unobjectionable.  If  natural  be  un- 
dt'rstood  in  the  sense  of  essential,  it  conveys  a 
false  idea,  and  is  the  same  as  to  say,  that  this 
depravity  is  an  essential  part  of  man,  that  man 
could  not  exist  as  man  without  it.  Malt.  Fhi- 
cius  of  Jena,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  contended, 
in  liis  controversies  with  Victor  Strigelius  ;1h  ut 
Synergism,  that  peccatum  originale  esse  non  acci- 
dens,  sed  ipsam  substantiam  huminis.  But  he 
asserted  this  merely  from  ignorance  of  scholas- 
tic phraseology.  He  meant  only  to  maintain 
the  entire  corruption  of  man,  and  his  incapacity 
to  all  good.  And  although  the  authors  of  the 
Formula  of  Concord  (Art.  I.)  nominally  oppose 
Flaoianism,  they  maintain  the  same  doctrine  in 
other  words:  peccatum  ori ginale  cum  natura  et 
tvhitantia  hominis  intime  eutijunctum  esse  et  cum- 
niixfuvu 

The  verm  natural  is  rather  used  in  this  doc- 


trine in  opposition  to  what  is  acquired,  or  first 
produced  and  occasioned  by  external  circum- 
stances and  causes.  It  denotes  that  for  which 
there  is  a  foundation  in  man  himself,  although 
it  may  be  an  accident,  and  may  not  belong  es- 
sentially to  his  nature.  In  the  same  sense  we 
say,  for  example,  that  such  a  man  possesses  na- 
tural sagacity,  that  a  disease  is  natural  to  an- 
other, that  he  is  by  nature  a  poet,  &c.,  because 
the  qualities  here  spoken  of  are  not  the  result  of 
diligence,  practice,  or  any  external  circum- 
stances. In  the  same  way  this  depravity  is 
called  natural,  because  it  has  its  ground  in  man, 
and  is  not  in  the  first  place  acquired;  or,  still 
more  plainly,  because  it  does  not  first  come  to 
man  from  without,  through  instruction  or  the 
mere  imitation  of  bad  examples. 

As  the  term  natural,  however,  is  ambiguous, 
and  liable  to  misconception,  some  prefer  the 
designation  innate,  {congenitum  or  insitum) — a 
term  which,  as  well  as  the  other,  is  scriptural 
The  word  congenitus  is  used  by  the  elder  Plinj 
in  the  sense  of  innate,  and  as  opposed  acquisito 
sive  aliunde  illain,  and  is  in  substance  the  same 
as  natural.  So  Cicero  (Orat.  pro  domo,  c.  5,) 
places  nativum  malum  in  opposition  to  that 
which  is  aliunde  allato.  And  it  is  with  justice 
that  a  quality,  wliich  has  its  origin  at  the  same 
time  with  man,  which  is  found  in  him  from  his 
earliest  youth,  and  can  be  wholly  eradicated  by 
no  effort,  is  denominated  natural,  ("i:?::,  applied 
to  the  good.  Job,  xxxi.  18;  to  the  wicked,  Ps. 
Iviii.  4,  denoting  anything  which  is  deep-rooted, 
and  shews  itself  earlt/  in  men.)  In  this  sense 
we  speak  at  the  present  day  of  innate  or  heredi- 
tary faults,  virtues,  excellences,  both  in  men 
and  beasts — e.  g.,  of  cunning,  pride,  magnani- 
mity, &c.  So  Kant  speaks  of  radikai.e  Buse ; 
and  Sosipater,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
Stobseus,  wrote  in  one  of  his  letters,  iivoil  6t, 
wf  nvufvrov  TO  afiapraviiv  ai'^pcortotj. 

(3)  It  is  hereditary.  That  this  evil  is  trans- 
mitted from  parents  to  children  follows  partly 
from  its  universality,  and  partly  from  its  entire 
sameness  in  all  men.  As  it  was  in  the  parents, 
so  it  is  in  the  children,  although  it  shews  itself 
in  diflerenl  degrees,  according  to  the  difference 
in  the  organization,  the  temperament,  and  the 
external  circumstances  and  relations  in  which 
they  live.  In  the  same  way  we  judge  that  cer- 
tain faults,  talents,  and  virtues,  are  inherited  by 
children,  when  we  see  a  resemblance  between 
them  and  their  parents  in  these  respects.  The 
doctrine  that  this  depravity  is  propagated  among 
men  from  parents  to  children,  and  on  this  very 
account  is  universal,  is  clearly  taught  in  the 
holy  scriptures,  as  Rom.  v.  12,  s<q.;  John,  iii. 
6,  and  other  texts.     Vide  s.  77,  III.  2. 

i\'o/e. — Human  depravity  dfies  not,  however, 
consist  in  definite  inclinations  directed  to  parti- 
cular  objects,  b\it  rather  in  a  general  disposition 


286 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


to  inordinate  and  violent  passions,  which  shews 
itself  now  with  regard  to  one  object,  and  ajrain 
with  roijard  to  another,  accordinjr  to  the  differ- 
ence of  organization,  of  temperament,  and  of 
external  circumstances;  but  in  all  cases,  what- 
ever may  be  the  object  of  the  passion,  in  such  a 
way  that  reason  and  conscience  avail  but  little 
against  passion,  or  far  less  than  they  should. 

II.  The  manner  in  which  Natural  Depravity  is 
propagated. 

(I)  From  what  has  been  already  said,  it  is 
plain  tliat  a /)//y.v/cff/ propagation  of  human  de- 
pravity is  affirined  in  the  scriptures,  and  it  is  in 
this  that  what  theologians  call  original  sin 
(Krbsilndp)  principally  consists.  This  may  be 
proved  from  the  following  principles,  which  are 
undeniably  taught  in  the  Hible:  («)  that  human 
nature  was  unquestionably  more  perfect  and 
better  formerly  than  it  is  at  present;  (/<)  that 
our  progenitors  were  corrupted,  and  as  it  were 
poisoned,  by  the  fall;  (c)  that  the  principal  seat 
of  this  depravity  is  to  be  found  in  the  body,  s. 
77,  II.  Children  derive  their  bodies  from  their 
parents,  and  so  back  to  the  first  human  pair. 
The  attributes  which  belonged  to  the  bodies  of 
our  first  parents  after  the  fall,  their  excellences 
as  well  as  imperfections,  belong  also  to  their 
posterity,  and  so  are  inherited  by  children  from 
their  parents.  Parents  could  not  beget  children 
better  or  more  perfect  than  they  themselves 
were.  Vide  I  Cor.  xv.  49,  19.  After  the  fall 
they  had  rapza,  or  (jJJuo  auaptia^  and  ^avdrov, 
and  consequently  their  posterity,  begotten  and 
born  after  the  fall,  possessed  the  same.  John, 
lii.  (),   ro  yfyfi'ir^vivov  ix   'japxoj  aap'  (TOiJXixoj) 

This  is  illustrated  from  the  analogy  of  certain 
diseases  of  mind  and  body,  which  are  often  pro- 
pagitfd  tlirouijh  whole  generations.  It  is  a 
matter  of  experience,  that  some  qualities,  intel- 
lectual and  corporeal,  are  proparrated  from  pa- 
rents to  their  o'lfspring,  although  it  is  not  the 
case  with  all.  The  propagation  of  moral  de- 
pravity is  not,  therefore,  contrary  to  what  is 
known  fnm  experience,  but  rather  in  perfect 
consisteney  with  it,  and  this  is  enouirh. 

Closely  connected  with  this  is  the  New-Tes- 
tament doctrine,  that  the  man  Jesua  Christ  was 
not  produced  in  the  common  course  of  nature, 
like  other  men,  but  in  an  extraordinary  manner, 
by  the  immediate  agency  of  God.  Luke,  i.  .34  ; 
Matt.  i.  IG — 20,  25.  It  was  necessary  for  him 
to  be  without  sin  or  depravity,  (Heb.  iv.  15.) 
vitidfiiffitis  crpers,  and  like  the  first  man  in  his 
state  of  innocence,  in  order  to  restore  the  happi- 
ness which  was  squandered  by  him ;  hence  he 
is  called  ('  ^fvfjpoj  ov!|>ptj;toj,  o  ti^o-'fof  'Afieiu,  1 
Cor.  XV.  45,  47;  also,  u  Tioj  rov  di'^pwrtov,  the 
great  Son  of  Adam,  or  of  man. 

It  was  on  this  acviuunt  that,  in  the  twelfth 


century,  some  teachers  in  France,  and  Ansel' 
mus  of  Canterbury,  in  Kngland,  maintained  the 
unspotted coTveplinn  of  the  mother  of  Jesus.  To 
this  opinion  Scoius  acceded,  and  after  him  his 
adherents,  the  entire  body  of  the  Franciscans, 
and,  at  a  later  period,  the  Jesuits.  But  they 
were  opposed  by  'I'honias  Aquinas  and  his  fol- 
lowers, and  by  all  the  Dominicans.  (Jn  this 
|ioint  there  was  a  violent  dispute  in  the  Koniisb 
church  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, and  the  popes  decided  nothing  respecting 
it.  This  doctrine  is  wholly  unsupported  by  the 
holy  scriptures. 

When  all  which  has  now  been  said  is  taken 
in  coimexion,  it  plainly  appears  that  the  doctrine 
of  the  physical  propagation  of  depravity  fully 
agrees  with  the  other  scriptural  ideas.  Any  one, 
therefore,  who  receives  these  re|)rcsentations  re- 
specting the  original  and  more  perfect  state  of 
man,  respecting  the  sin  and  fall  of  Adam,  &c., 
as  true,  and  founded  in  the  scriptures,  proceeds 
inconsistently  when  he  denies  the  consequences 
which  flow  from  them,  as  many  modern  theolo- 
gians do. 

In  the  times  of  the  church  fathers,  during  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries,  this  doctrine  of  the 
physical  propagation  of  human  corruption  was 
often  vindicated  and  illustrated  by  the  doctrine 
respecting  the  prf)pagation  of  the  soul  per  trn- 
ducetn;  (vide  s.  57,  IL,  and  s.  79,  No.  -3  ;)  but  of 
this  there  is  nothing  said  in  the  Bible.  The 
manner  in  which  this  disposition  is  propagated 
can  be  explained  neMher psj/rhnlogicallt/  nor  ana' 
tnmicalhf.  The  psychologist  does  not  know  the 
soul  as  it  is  in  itself,  but  only  a  part  of  its  exer- 
cises. In  like  manner  the  interior  of  our  corpo- 
real structure  is  a  mystery  impenetrable  by  our 
senses.  Into  the  inmost  secrets  of  nature,  whe- 
ther corporeal  or  sjiiritual,  no  created  spirit  can 
pry.  We  cannot  therefore  either  understand  or 
describe  this  disposition,  which  is  so  injurious  to 
morality,  or  its  propagation,  as  they  are  in  them- 
selves, but  only  according  to  the  appearances 
and  effects  which  they  exhibit  in  the  gradual 
development  of  man. 

Note. — The  universality  of  depravity  (aMop- 
n'a)  and  of  death  (Iw'raToj)  depenils,  according 
to  the  Bible,  upon  the  derivation  of  all  men  from 
one  progenitor  or  father.  Hence  sin  and  death 
are  always  derived  from  .Idam,  Rom.  v.  14;  1 
Cor.  XV. '2-2;  and  not  from  AV^.  althouirh  she, 
according  to  Paul  himself,  (1  Tim.  ii.  14,)  first 
sinned.  If  Eve  only  had  sinned,  she  would  have 
removed  her  depravity  from  the  wr.rld  when  she 
died  ;  and  sin  would  not  throuixh  her  have  come 
into  the  world  in  such  a  way  that  sin,  and  death 
through  sin,  should  pass  upon  all  men.  Hence 
Jesus,  when  it  was  necessary  that  he,  as  a  man, 
should  he  without  sin,  was  born  of  a  human  »•'>• 
Ihrr,  but  not  begotten  by  a  huuiaii/(///ur.  Vide 
Num.  I. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


287 


(8)  There  is  also  a  moral  propagation  of  this 
depravity.     In  this  are  included, 

((z)  Tke  iriiputdtion  of  the  sin  of  Adam,  of 
which  we  have  treated,  both  doctrinally  and  his- 
torically, ill  s.  7G.  By  this  is  understood  the 
universal  mortality  of  man  as  a  consequence  ol 
the  sin  of  our  progenitors. 

(b)  The  pro])agation  of  depravity  through  the 
imitaiion  of  bad  examples.  The  bias  to  evil 
which  lies  in  the  human  heart  is  in  no  way  more 
excited  and  strengthened  than  by  bad  examples, 
which  very  soon  obtain  approbation  and  are  imi- 
tated, whether  the  individual  may  have  seen 
them  himself,  or  have  heard  of  them  from  others, 
or  have  read  respecting  them  in  books.  The 
influence  exerted  by  this  cause  upon  man  in  the 
formation  of  his  character  is  so  indescribably 
great,  that  many  ancient  writers  regarded  it  as 
the  only  cause  of  the  propagation  of  human  de- 
pravity, and  either  wholly  denied  or,  at  least  in 
a  great  measure,  doubted  the  doctrine  of  its  phy- 
sical propagation.  They  hence  supposed  that 
this  evil  could  be  either  wholly  removed,  or  at 
least  much  diminished,  by  means  of  a  good  edu- 
cation, and  that  the  propensity  to  imitation  could 
receive  such  a  direction  that  the  good  only  should 
be  imitated,  while  the  evil  should  be  shunned. 
So  thought  Pelagius,  (vide  s.  79,  No.  3,)  and  at 
alater  period  theSociniansand  many  Arminians. 
This  opinion  has  found  advocates  also  among 
some  modern  protestant  theologians — e.  g., 
Steinbart,  System,  s.  105,  f . ;  Eberhard,  Apolo- 
gie,  ii.  339,  f. ;  Jerusalem,  Betrachtungen,  th.  ii. 
b.  ii.  s.  683,  f. 

That  example  and  education  contribute  much 
to  the  moral  'mprovement  or  corruption  of  man 
cannot  be  doubted;  but  it  is  equally  true,  and 
conformed  to  experience,  that  example  and  edu- 
cation are  far  from  being  the  only  and  suflicient 
cause  of  the  prevailing  wickedness,  and  that 
with  the  best  education  man  becomes  bad  much 
easier  than  good,  with  all  the  pains  taken  to 
make  him  so.  Of  this  the  cause  lies  in  the 
undue  predominance  of  the  animal  appetites. 
This  accounts  for  it,  that  the  bias  to  evil  is  so 
much  stronger  and  more  active  than  the  bias  to 
good.  Were  it  otherwise,  it  would  be  unneces- 
sary to  contend  so  strenuously  against  evil,  and 
to  employ  so  many  means  to  incite  man  to  good- 
ness and  to  secure  him  against  vice.  And  among 
all  the  thousands  who  have  lived  upon  the  earth, 
there  would  have  been  found  some  examples  of 
persons  who  had  passed  through  their  whole  life 
free  from  sin. 

As  man,  therefore,  has  within  himself  a  natural 
adaptation  to  much  which  is  good,  he  has  also  a 
natural  disposition  and  bias  to  much  which  is 
evil,  {malum  radicalc,)  which  soon  strikes  root, 
spreads  round,  and  chokes  the  good.  It  is  abso- 
lutely inexplicable  how  the  preponderance  of 
sense  over  reason,  so  visible  in  all  men.  could  be 


derived  from  mere  imitation.  Were  this  the 
case,  this  preponderance  ought  to  cease  as  soon 
as  man,  in  the  full  exercise  of  his  understanding, 
were  taught  better.  The  will,  we  should  expect, 
would  then  obey  the  dictates  of  reason.  It  is  not 
found,  however,  to  be  so  in  fact.  The  dominion 
of  sense  still  continues,  as  the  experience  of 
every  one  proves.  The  ground  of  this  must  there- 
fore lie  deeper;  and  both  experience  and  reason 
confirm  the  account  which  scripture  gives  of  it. 
Vide  s.  77. 

III.  The  Imputation  or  Punishabkjiess  of  Natural 
Depravity. 
This  is  the  reatas  or  culpa  vitio^itatis,  and  was 
asserted  by  Augustine  and  his  followers.  Vide 
Morus,  p.  120,  s.  7,  coll.  s.  79,  No.  2.  They 
contended  that  all  n..en,  even  before'  they  had 
committed  any  sinful  actions,  and  barely  on  ac- 
count of  this  native  depravity,  were  deserving  of 
temporal  and  eternal  death,  or  of  damnation. 
Others  have  endeavoured  in  various  ways  to 
mitigate  the  severity  of  this  opinion.  Some  mo- 
dern theologians  have  taught,  in  imitation  of 
Augustine,  the  doctrine  that  ptccatum  ori^inale 
per  se  esse  damnabile ;  but  that,  for  Christ's  sake, 
punishment  was  not  actually  inflicted. 

But  the  assertion,  that  this  corruption  in  and 
of  itself  involves  condemnation,  cannot  be 
proved.  For  (a)  it  is  irreconcilable  with  the 
justice  and  goodness  of  God  that  he  should 
punish  (in  the  proper  sense  of  this  term)  an  in- 
nocent person  for  the  sins  of  another.  Sin 
cannot  exist,  certainly  cannot  be  punished,  urv- 
less  the  action  is  free ;  otherwise  it  ceases  to  be 
sin.  Vide  s.  76,  III.  (i)  In  those  texts  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  which  are  com- 
monly cited  in  behalf  of  this  opinion,  the  death 
spoken  of  is  not  e/(rnn/ death,  or  condemnation; 
but  temporal  death.  Gen.  i.  2,  17;  Kcm.  v.  12 
1  Cor.  XV.  22.  Vide  s.  75,  II.  2.  (c)  Evec 
bodily  death  is  represented  in  the  scriptures  aS; 
indeed,  the  consequence  of  Adam's  sin,  but  not  as 
a  punishment,  strictly  speaking,  for  any  beside 
himself;  for  none  but  himself  were  guilty  of  his 
sin. 

In  conformity  with  this  view,  Rom.  v.  12,  14, 
is  to  be  explained ;  also  Rom.  vi.  23,  ^dratoi 
o^iovia  ajtiaprt'as,  or  ver.  21,  rb.oi  (xopno?)  ajwap- 
riaj-  so  called  because  h  follourd  upon  Adam's 
sin,  and,  as  far  as  he  was  concerned,  was  -d  pu- 
nishment for  it.  Vide  s.  76,  III.  The  doctrine 
of  the  Bible  on  this  subject  is  the  following: 
"The  bias  of  man  to  evil,  and  to  do  that  whicli 
is  forbidden,  is  in  itself /»arf,  {GfTm.ffhkrhafles, 
esse  in  ritio,  vitiosum,)  Rom.  vii.  5 :  xiii.  18 ;  but 
it  cannot  be  imputed  to  man,  or  he  be  regarded 
as  punishable  on  account  of  it,  unless  he  yields 
himself  to  it,  and  indulges  it.  Vide  Rom.  vi. 
12;  Gen.  iv.  7,  coll.  James,  i.  15.  This,  how- 
ever, is  the  case  with   all  men;   no  one  ban 


288 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


lived  upon  the  earth  who  has  not  been  led  by 
this  propensity  into  actual  transgression,  and 
so  has  become  deserving  of  punishment." 
Truly,  therefore,  does  the  scripture  affirm  that 
we  are  all  subject  to  punishment,  {rtxva  opy»;5» 
Ephes.  ii.  3;)  not,  however,  because  we  are 
born  with  this  disposition,  (for  tliis  is  not  any 
fault  of  ours,)  but  because  we  indulge  it,  give 
an  ear  to  our  unlawful  desires,  and  so  suffer  our- 
selves to  be  led  on  to  the  commission  of  sin. 

IV.  Tlie  Source,  and  Origin  of  Sinful  Inclinations, 
and  their  Funishableness. 
From  the  preponderance  of  sense  now  ex- 
plained, piirlicu/(ir  sinful  dispositions  and  pas- 
sions take  their  origin,  and  so  are  the  result 
and  the  proof  of  the  sinful  depravity  of  man. 
But  in  order  that  we  may  rightly  estimate  the 
sinfulness  and  punishableness  of  these  desires, 
we  must  attend  to  the  following  considera- 
tions : — 

(1)  The  desires  of  man  are  not  in  themselves, 
and  abstractedly  considered,  «»7i/'i(/,-  for  they  are 
deep  laid  in  the  constitution  which  God  him- 
self has  given  to  human  nature;  ihey  arise  in 
man  involuntarily,  and  so  far  cannot  certainly 
bo  imputed  to  him.  The  essential  constitution 
of  man  makes  it  necessary  that  everything 
which  makes  an  airreeable  impression  on  the 
senses  should  inevitably  awaken  corr  spondent 
desires.  The  poor  man,  who  sees  himself  sur- 
rounded with  the  treasures  of  anothtr,  feels  a 
natural  and  involuntary  desire  to  posr^ess  them. 
The  mere  rising  of  this  desire  is  no  wore  pu- 
nishable in  him  than  it  was  in  Eve,  when  she 
saw  the  tree,  and  fell  an  impulse  to  eat  its  beau- 
tiful fruit,  which  is  never  represented  in  the 
I5ible  as  her  sin. 

(2)  The  desires  of  man  become  sinful  and 
deserving  of  punisliiiient  then  only  when  («) 
man,  feeling  desires  after  forbidden  ihiniis,  seeks 
and  finds  pleasure  in  them,  and  deliglils  himsell 
ill  them,  and  so  (i)  carefully  cherishes  and  nou- 
rishes them  in  his  heart,  (r)  Whin  he  seeks 
oceasionR  to  awaken  the  desires  after  forbidden 
things,  and  to  entertain  himself  with  them. 
((/)  When  he  gives  audience  and  approbation  to 
tliese  desires,  and  justifies,  seeks,  and  performs 
the  sins  to  which  he  is  inclined.  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  twofold  injury,  that  he  not  only 
sins  foT  this  once,  but  that  he  gives  his  appetites 
and  passions  \\w  power  of  soliciting  him  a  se- 
cond time  more  importunately,  of  becoming  more 
vi^hement  and  irresistible,  so  that  he  liecomes 
continually  more  disposed  to  sin,  acquiri-sa  fixed 
habit  of  sinninjr,  and  at  last  becomes  the  shut 
of  sin.  Vide  Michaelis,  Ueber  die  Sfinde,  s. 
.IGS,  f.  But  if  a  man  repels  and  supprehses  ihe 
involuntary  liesire  arising  within  him  bera^jse  it 
is  evil,  he  cannot  certainly  be  pnnished  n  er«  ly 
because,  without  any  fault  of  his  own.hefi  It  this 


desire.  It  were  unjust  to  punish  any  one  for  be* 
ing  assailed  by  an  enemy,  without  any  provoca 
tion  on  his  part. 

(3)  With  this  doctrine  the  holy  scripture  is 
perfectly  accordant.  Even  in  his  stale  of  inno- 
cence man  felt  the  rising  of  desire ;  nor  was  this 
in  him  accounted  sin;  Gen.  iii.  G.  Hence  wa 
are  never  required,  either  in  the  Old  Testament 
or  the  New,  to  eradicate  these  desires,  (which, 
indeed,  is  a  thing  impossible,  and  would  cause 
a  destruction  of  human  nature  itself.)  but  only 
to  keep  them  undtr  control,  and  to  suppress 
those  which  fix  upon  forbidden  things.  Vide  s. 
77.  In  Kom.  vi.  12,  we  are  directed  not  to  let 
our  sinful  apfietiies  rule,  and  not  to  obey  the  body 
in  the  lusts  thereof  ^  here,  therefore,  it  is  presup- 
posed that  these  templing  lusts  remain.  Again, 
in  Gal.  v.  21,  we  are  charged  to  crucify  the  flesh, 
with  its  affections  and  lusts.  It  is  to  those  who 
contend  against  their  wicked  passions  that  re- 
wards are  promised,  and  not  to  those  who  have 
never  had  these  solicitations  and  allurements 
to  evil.  The  pretended  virtue  of  such  men 
scarcely  deserves  the  name,  and  is  not  capable 
of  reward. 

Some  texts  are  indeed  cited  in  which  the  pas- 
sions, in  themselves  considered,  are  forbidden, 
as  Rom.  vii.  7,  ovx  iiti^v^kr^nn^-  Ex.  xx.  17, 
"Thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbour's  house," 
&c.  Some  also  in  which  they  are  said  to  bo 
deserving  of  punishment  from  God,  as  Matt.  ▼. 
28.  But  in  these  texts,  such  desires  are  not 
spoken  of  as  arise  involuntarily  wiihin  us,  and 
for  which  we  arc  not  therefore  culpable,  but 
such  as  man  himself  nourishes  and  entertains, 
or  by  his  own  agency  awakens  within  himself, 
and  which  he  aims  to  execute.  And  so  in 
Malt.  V.  Christ  speaks  of  the  actual  intention 
and  design  of  man  to  commit  adultery,  if  he 
could;  and  not  of  the  passion  arising  in  his 
heart,  which  he  himself  disapjiroves,  and  imme- 
diately suppresses,  because  it  is  contrary  to  the 
divine  law. 

(I)  Tlie  manner  in  which  man  is  borne  away 
by  his  passions  to  the  commission  of  sin  is  de- 
scribed by  Jviniea  (i.  14,  l.*))  in  a  way  that  cor^ 
responds  with  the  experience  of  every  one;  and 
this  text  confirms  all  the  preceding  remarks. 
When  desires  arise  w  iihin  us,  we  are  in  daniztr 
of  sinning.  Some  present  enjoyment  of  sense 
tempts  us.  Enticements  to  sin  spring  up.  These 
James  calls  lenijitalions,  (elsewhere  called  ixdv 
^aXa,  M»tt.  xviii.  7,  fi,  ^i^zn,  Ezek.  xvii.  19.) 
For  we  look  upon  that  which  is  represented  to 
us  by  our  senses  as  charmiiiij  and  desirable,  to 
be  a  great  good,  the  possession  of  which  would 
make  us  happy.  This  is  expressed  by  »5»>xo- 
,nf  io{  and  3f>.aCo,"»">J.  'Ihe  image  is  here  taken 
from  animals,  w  hich  are  ensnared  by  bnita  (Ai- 
I  Xfo^i)  laid  before  them,  in  order  to  take  them.  To 
I  ihese  alluremenis  all  men  are  exposed,  allhongk 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


W9 


not  in  the  same  degree.  Thus  far  there  is  no 
Bin — i.  e,,  the  man  is  not  yet  caught  in  the  snare 
under  which  the  bait  lies.  But  here  he  must 
fltop,  and  instead  of  indulging  must  suppress 
these  desires — must  fly  from  the  bait.  Other- 
wise, lust  conceives,  {tni^vy-ia.  avVKa^oima.,)  i.  e., 
these  desires  and  passions  are  approved  in  the 
heart,  and  the  man  begins  to  think  he  can  satisfy 
them.  This  is  wrong  and  sinful.  For  this  is 
no  longer  involuntary,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the 
result  of  man's  own  will,  and  he  is  now  deserv- 
ing of  punishment.  This  is  what  is  called  pcc- 
catum  actuale  internum.  But  finally,  desire 
bringsfurlh  sin,  the  evil  intent  passes  into  ac- 
tion, and  is  accomplished.  This  is  pcccatum 
actuale  externum.  Hence  flows  ^aiaroj,  misery, 
unhappiness  of  every  sort,  as  the  consequence 
and  punishment  of  sin. 

SECTION  LXXIX. 

OF  THE  REPRESENTATIONS  OF  THE  ANCIENT 
CHURCH-FATHERS  RESPECTING  HCMAN  DEPRA- 
VITY; AND  THE  MANNER  IN  WHICH  THE  EC- 
CLESIASTICAL PHRASEOLOGY  ON  THIS  SUBJECT 
AND  THE  VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  DOCTRINE  WERE 
GRADUALLY   DEVELOPED. 

(1)  The  oldestChrislian  teachers  were  mostly 
agreed  in  considering  death  as  a  consequence 
of  Adam's  sin.  Vide  s.  76.  [It  should  be  ob- 
served, however,  that  in  these  early  writers  the 
term  ^^pa  stands  not  only  for  morlalily,  but 
also  for  dcpranity.  Vide  Neander,  b.  i.  ALth. 
iii.  s.  1045. — ^Tr.]  But  we  sliall  look  in  vain 
through  the  writings  of  most  of  the  Greek  teach- 
ers to  find  the  full  scriptural  idea  of  an  innate 
depravity  ,•  or,  at  least,  it  cannot  be  found  exhi- 
bited with  sufficient  distinctness  or  clearness. 
As  there  had  been  as  yet  no  controversy  on  this 
subject,  nothing  respecting  it  was  determined 
and  settled  on  ecclesiastical  autliority.  Still 
they  agree,  for  the  most  part,  that  the  dispro- 
portion between  sense  and  reason,  or  the  corrup- 
tion of  human  nature,  began  after  the  fall  of 
Adam,  and  has  been  difl"used  as  a  universal  dis- 
ease through  the  whole  human  race.  That  this 
evil,  however,  in  itself  considered,  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  actual  sin,  and  as  such  is  punislied 
by  God,  they  do  not  teach  ;  but  rather  the  con- 
trary. So  Justin  iSlartyr,  Ap.  i.  51,  seq.;  Ire- 
naeus.  Adv.  Haeres.  iv.  37,  seq.;  Athenagoras, 
Legat.  c.  22 ;  Clemens  Alex.  Slrom.  iii.  (contra 
Encratitas.)  "No  one,"  says  the  writer  last 
mentioned,  "is  wholly  free  from  sin;  but  the 
child,  who  has  never  personally  trespassed, 
cannot  be  subjected  to  the  curse  of  Adam,  (the 
punishment  of  his  sin.)  Yet  all  who  have  the 
use  of  their  reason  are  led  by  this  their  moral 
depravity  to  commit  actual  sin,  and  so  become 
liable  to  punishment."  The  same  writer  says, 
ill  his  Psedjg.  iii.  12,  fioroj  dj'a/iaprijroj  o  Xayoj" 
37 


TO  yci)j  £5a,uapra»'fii'  natJtv  t^iivtov  xcu  xoivov. 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  in  his  Commentary  on 
Isaiah,  says,  ^unjixoi"  iv  ai'^punoij  o-ix  thai,  xaxov  ■ 
and  in  his  work  "  Contra  Aniliripoinorph."'  c. 
8,  he  says,  "  Adam's  posterity  are  not  punished 
as  those  who  with  him  had  broken  ihe  law  of 
God."  So  also  Origen,  Praf.  ad  libros  Ttfpi 
dp^wj',  and  his  followers,  Basilius,  and  Theo- 
dorus  of  Mopsevestia,  who,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  Photius,  wrote  a  book  against  those 
who  taught  that  man  sinned  (fvau  zai  ov  y^u-^>^. 
There  were  some,  too,  of  the  Grei:k  f.ithers  who 
traced  the  origin  of  the  evil  passions  and  cf  the 
actual  sins  arising  from  them  to  tlie  mortulHy 
of  the  body — e.g.,  Chrysostoni  and  Tlicudort't. 
This  hypothesis  has  been  revived  in  later  limes 
by  Whitby,  who  has  attempted  to  carry  it 
through.     Vide  s.  76,  note. 

(2)  The  same  representation  is  found  in  many 
of  the  fathers  of  the  ancient  Latin  church,  even 
in  Africa.  They  taught  \.\\d\.  death  (depravity  1) 
is  a  consequence  of  Adam's  sin,  and  yet  that  it 
is  not,  in  itself,  to  be  regarded  as  sin,  and  pu- 
nished accordingly.  Cyprian  (Epist.  Synod. 
Cone.  Carthag.  iii.)  says,  "A  new-born  child 
has  not  itself  sinned,  nisi  quod  secundum  .^am 
carnaliter  natus,  contagium  mortis  cuntraxit.^^ 
In  baptism,  the  sins  of  the  child  (which  v.ere 
still  not  propria  but  alicna)  were  supposed  to 
be  washed  away,  Ambrosius  says,  on  Ps. 
xlviii.,  "There  is  a  bias  to  sin  in  all,  but 
this  is  not  actual  sin,  and  liability  to  punish 
ment;  God  punishes  us  only  for  nostra  ptccaia^ 
and  not  for  alieme  (jldanii)  iieqnitiwjlagitia.^^ 
Even  according  loTortullian,  (detestiin.  animae, 
c.  3,)  it  is  only  to  temporal  death  that  we  are 
condemned  in  consequence  of  the  sin  of  Adam. 
To  this  opinion,  Hilarius  and  others  acceded. 
The  African  fathers  before  the  time  of  Augus- 
tine, and  even  Tertullian,  seem,  however,  to 
have  had  less  distinct  and  settled  views  on  thia 
subject  than  even  the  Greeks,  which  aruse  from 
their  misunderstanding  the  seemingly  obscure 
phraseology  of  the  New  Testament,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  Latin  version  of  it. 

[Tlie  germs  of  the  controversy  which  after- 
wards broke  out  between  Augustine  and  Pela- 
gius  can  be  discerned  in  this  earlier  period. 
The  Alexandrine  teachers,  and  among  these 
principally  Clement  and  Origen,  took  the  side 
of  the  human  will,  and  its  ability  tc  good.  They, 
however,  by  no  means  carried  this  so  far  as  wa» 
afterwards  done  by  Pelagius,  and  often  express- 
ed themselves  strongly  respecting  the  entire  de- 
pravity of  man,  and  his  dependence  on  the  reno- 
vating influence  of  divine  grace.  Vide  Clement, 
Quis  dives  sal  v.  c.  21.  The  Eastern  teachers 
were  led  to  vindicate  thus  strongly  the  powers 
of  the  human  will  by  their  opposition  to  New 
Platonism,  and  the  Manichean  iheoscphy,  by 
which  sin  was  attributed  either  to  an  eternal 
2B 


Hi 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


principle  of  evil,  to  a  blind  and  resistlesB  des- 
tiny, or  to  some  necessity  of  nature,  rather  than 
to  the  perversion  of  our  own  moral  powers. 

The  teachers  of  the  Western  church,  on  the 
other  hand,  and  especially  those  of  Africa,  having 
no  such  philosophy  to  op|)osf;,  recotjnised  more 
fully  the  peculiar  Christian  truths  of  the  corrup- 
tion and  inability  of  human  nature,  and  the  ne- 
cessity of  divine  grace;  but  they  also  were  far 
from  rppresenting  the  grace  of  (xod  as  compul- 
sory and  irresistible,  as  it  was  afterwards  done 
in  the  Pelagian  controversies.  This  tendency 
in  the  Western  church  is  represented  byTertul- 
lian,  Cyprian,  Hilary,  and  Ambrosius. 

As  yet,  however,  these  opposing  tendencies 
had  not  come  into  open  conflict,  but  awaited  the 
causes  which  brought  them  into  direct  collision 
in  the  following  period. — Tr.] 

But  Augustine  carried  the  matter  much  fur- 
ther. He  afiirrned  the  doctrine  de  tmputafione 
pcceati  .Idami  in  the  strictest  juridical  sense, 
teaching  at  the  same  time  the  entire  depravity 
of  man,  and  his  total  inability  to  all  good,  in 
such  a  sense  as  it  is  nowhere  taught  in  the  Bible. 
He  may  have  been  led  to  this  by  having  for- 
merly belonged  to  the  sect  of  iManicheans,  who 
hold  very  strict  sentiments  on  this  point;  hence 
his  doctrine  dejicccaio  on'irinali  was  called  by 
Pelagius  and  Julian  a  Manichean  doctrine.* 
He  maintained  that  the  consequence  of  Adam's 
sin  was  not  merely  bodily  death,  but  eternal, 
(^mors  secunda,  cujus  non  tsf  Jim's ,)  and  that  to 
this  all  men,  even  children,  who  had  not  them- 
selves thought  or  done  either  good  or  evil,  were 
subjected  ;  though  yet  the  unmerited  grace  of 
God  delivered  some  from  this  punishment,  (de- 
tretum  ahuohtlum.)  He  exhibits  these  doctrines 
in  his  work,  De  civitate  Dei,  xiv.  1,  and  else- 

•  [We  subjoin  the  followinor  remarks  of  Neflnde* 
with  respect  to  the  charge  here,  and  often  elsewhere, 
brought  agaiuHt  the  system  of  Augustine.  "The 
anthropolotjy  of  Augustine,"  be  says,  "  is  unjustly 
8up[)ose(l  to  l>e  derived  from  the  iiitluence  of  Mani- 
cheism.  His  doctrine  respectine  the  inoriil  depravity 
of  man  was  a  very  liifterent  thing  from  the  dualism 
of  Mani,  which  was  derived  from  the  philosophy  of 
nature.  The  system  of  Augustine  did  nut,  like  that 
of  Mani,  [iroceed  from  his  confounding  in  his  con- 
ceptions the  nutiiral  and  the  iiionil,  but  from  a  pure 
fact  of  moral  consciousness.  On  the  contrary,  it 
may  be  said,  that  while  the  hope  of  finding  out,  by 
means  of  speculation,  an  explanation  of  the  irrecon- 
cilable o|)position  between  good  and  evil,  of  which 
he  had  U'conie  early  conscious  in  the  depth  of  his 
soul,  led  him  to  Manicheism  ;  he  whs  led  from  it 
again  by  coining  to  apprehend  this  opposition  more 
and  more  in  a  moral  light.  Again ;  it  was  in  direct 
opposition  to  .Manicheism  that  he  adopted  the  theory, 
the  first  germ*  of  which  he  took  from  Platonism,  that 
evil  is  only  a  subjective  deviation  of  created  being 
from  the  law  of  the  supreme  and  only  true  Beitig, 
and  not,  as  taught  by  Mani.  an  independent,  self-suLv 
listing  existence."  Allg.  Kirchcngesch,  b.  ii.  Ablh. 
iii.  1.  1206.— Tu.j 


where.  Fulgentius  Ru<!;i.  (De  Fide,  a.  29) 
asserts  that  children  who  had  lived  merely  m 
their  mother's  womb,  and  yet  died  without  bap* 
tism,  must  suffer  eternal  punishment  in  helj. 
And  so  taught  many  of  the  schoolmen,  according 
to  I'eter  of  Lombardy,  1.  ii.  Even  Augustirq 
attributed  a  certain  kind  of  physical  influence 
to  baptism,  &nd  confined  the  grace  of  (Jo^l  to 
those  to  whom  this  ordinance  was  administered. 
He  held  this  doctrine,  however,  in  common  with 
many  of  the  Latin  fathers  before  liis  time— e.  g., 
Cyprian.  The  adherents  of  Augustine  were  ac- 
customed to  vindicate  their  views  by  the  doc- 
trine of  the  propagation  of  the  son\ per  traduce m, 
though  this  is  not  true  of  all  of  them.  On  the 
contrary,  the  adherents  of  Pelagius,  fir  the  most 
part,  denied  this  doctrine,  and  were  creationists. 
Vide  s.  57,  II. 

(3)  This  severe  doctrine  of  Augustine  was 
controverted  by  Pelagius,  and  many  others  who 
followed  him.  But  Pelagius,  in  his  turn,  went 
too  far  on  the  other  side,  and  maintained  various 
principles  which  obviously  are  unscriptural. 
Here  were,  therefore,  two  extremes,  between 
which  scriptural  truth  lay  in  the  midst,  having 
both  reason  and  experience  on  its  side.  In  the 
system  of  Augustine,  on  the  one  hand,  there 
is  much  opposed  to  reason  and  scripture ;  and 
in  that  of  Pelagius,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is 
much  opposed  to  scripture  and  experience.  Pela- 
gius not  only  denied  the  imputation  of  Adam's 
sin,  but  also  the //Ai/.s/ca/ propagation  of  human 
depravity.  He  taught  that  the  morvil  nature  of 
man  is  unaltered,  and  that  man  is  now  entirely 
in  the  same  state  in  which  Adam  was  created. 
Weakness,  imperfection,  and  death,  were,  in 
his  view,  essential  to  man  from  the  first,  and  he 
is  punished  only  for  sinful  actions.  The  pro- 
pagtition  of  human  depravity  is  not  physically 
and  by  birth,  but  morally  only,  from  the  imitation 
of  bad  examples.  The  declaration  that  inJdnm 
all  have  sinned,  does  not  relate,  according  to  his 
scheme,  to  any  percatum  nascendi ori ai ne  eonirae- 
tutn;  but  to  that  acquired  propter  imitnlioneni  ex- 
empli. Vide  in  Libro  de  IVatura,  ap.  .\ngust.  ad 
Rom.  v.  And  Julian  said,  (ap.  Autrust.  contra 
Jul.  ii.  51,)  pccentum  primum  moribis.  non  se- 
MiNiitrs  ad p(>steri)sfuisse  dcvecluin.  Adam  set 
a  bad  example  before  his  children,  and  they 
ag;iin  before  theirs,  and  so  on.  In  this  sense 
only  did  Pelagius  allow  of  a  proj>agation  of  sin 
from  Adam.  Vide  s.  7S,  II.  2.  The  views  of 
Pelagius  are  very  clearly  exhibited  in  the  work 
De  libcro  arbitriu  (ap.  August,  de  pecc.  orig.  c. 
1.3)  :  Oinne  honurn  nut  malum,  quo  vcl  Inudihiles 
vel  vituperabiks  sumus,  non  tuihiseum  twseitttr, 
scd  as;ilur  a  nobis ,-  eapaecs  utrius<pie  rci,  non 
pleni  nascimur,  el  ut  sine  VIRTUTE,  sic  sine  vitio 
proercainur. 

These  views  were  totally  diverse  from  those 
of  Augustine  and  other  African  teachers,  and  in 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


391 


many  points  also  from  the  plain  doctrine  of  the 
Bible.  This  deviation  from  the  scriptures  Au- 
gustine perceived  and  opposed.  Through  the 
resistance  of  Pelagius  he  became  more  zealous 
and  heated,  and  in  his  polemical  zeal  advanced 
continually  greater  lengths  in  his  positions.* 
The  theory  of  Augustine,  or  the  African  theory, 
was,  however,  by  no  means  universal  in  the 
fourth  century.  In  the  East,  and  in  Palestine 
especially,  Pelagius  was  received  into  favour 
and  protection  with  many  who  had  agreed  in 
many  points  with  Origen,  and  who  therefore 
saw  littie  reprehensible  in  Pelagius.  Much, 
indeed,  in  his  theory  differed  from  that  then  pre- 
vailing through  the  Eastern  church.  But  from 
the  indifference  of  so  many  Grecian  bishops  on 
this  subject,  it  is  obvious  that  nothing  can  have 
been  at  that  time  ecclesiastical!)'  determined  re- 
specting it,  and  that  the  im|)ortance  of  the  ques- 
tion by  no  means  appeared  to  them  at  first. 
And  even  in  the  Western  church  out  of  Africa, 
there  were  many  who  looked  upon  the  Pelagian 
theory  not  unfavourably,  and  on  this  account  it 
was  at  first  acquitted  of  the  charges  brought 
against  it  even  by  Zosimus,  the  Roman  bishop. 
Through  the  efforts  of  the  Africans,  however, 
and  their  connexion  with  the  Anti-Origenistic 
party,  it  was  finally  brought  about  that  the  doc- 
trines of  Pelagius  were  formerly  condemned  as 
heretical  at  the  church  councils,  and  that  the 
theory  of  Augustine,  after  the  year  418,  became 
predominant,  at  least  in  the  Occidental  church. 
Various  attempts  were  made  to  unite  the  two 
parties,  and  many  took  a  middle  course  between 
them,  from  whence  originated,  at  a  later  period, 
the  so-called  Semi-Pelagian  party.  Scotus,  and 
his  followers  among  the  schoolmen,  very  much 
extenuated  the  natural  depravity  of  man ;  in 
which  they  have  been  followed  by  many  of  the 
theologians  of  the  Romish  church — e.  g.,  the 

*  [This  remark  respecting  the  theory  of  Augus- 
tine, though  often  made,  may  be  shewn  demonstra- 
bly to  be  incorrect.  Augustine  had  developed  his 
fulJ  system  concerning  the  inability  of  man  and  the 
doctrine  of  predestination  resulting  from  it,  as  early 
as  the  year  397,  in  a  work  directed  to  Simplician, 
bishop  at  Mailand,  some  time  before  Pelagius  ap- 
peared at  Rome,  and  at  least  ten  years  belbre  his 
doctrines  had  excited  attention  and  controversy. 
Neauder  says, — "Opposition  to  Pelagianism  could 
hdie  bad  no  influence  ui)on  Augustine  in  forming 
his  system.  It  may  rather  be  said,  withinore  truth, 
that  Pelagius  was  excited  and  induced  to  develop  his 
own  views,  by  opposition  to  the  principles  of  .Augus- 
tine respecting  the  natural  depravity  of  man,  and 
grace  and  predestination  not  conditioned  by  the  free 
will,"  b.  ii.  .\bth.  iii.  s.  1215.  We  ought  not  readily 
to  attribute  the  opinions  of  such  minds  as  Augus- 
tine's to  external  causes.  Their  own  internal  im- 
pulse, and  their  effort  after  perfect  consistency,  often 
carry  them  to  eitremes,  to  which  others  could  be 
driven  only  by  the  pressure  of  controversy.  Cf.  the 
Note  to  the  History  of  Decrees,  vol.  i.  s.  32,  p.  252, 
Fourthly. — Tn.] 


Jesuits,  who  have  been  on  this  account  often 
accused  of  Pelagianism  or  Semi-Pelagiaiiism. 
Atnong  the  followers  of  Augustine,  many  ad- 
hered to  his  opinion,  that  even  mere  original 
sin,  in  itself  considered,  is  punished  with  eter- 
nal death,  even  in  the  case  of  children  who  die 
before  baptism,  though  they  themselves  have 
never  done  any  evil — e.  g.,  Gregor.  M.  1.  ix. 
Moral,  c.  16.  Others,  to  whom  this  doctrine 
seemed  too  severe,  held  only,  that  in  conse- 
quence of  original  sin  man  is  excluded  from  the 
full  joys  of  the  blessed  in  heaven,  hut  not  mere- 
ly on  that  account  cast  into  the  pains  of  hell ;  in 
short,  that  he  is  placed  in  a  middle  state,  in 
which  he  is  neither  damned  nor  yet  perfectly 
happy.  So  Damasus :  Pcvna  originalis  ptccati 
est  crirentia  visiom's  Dei.  The  same  representa- 
tion respecting  children  who  die  before  baptism 
is  found  also  among  sonre  Greek  writers — e.  g., 
in  Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  who  says  respecting 
them,  (Orat.  40,)  y.r;fi  6o|ag^>jv'ttt,  /iJjtf  xoXaij- 
^Tfo^ai,  X.  r.  X. 

(4)  Some  addi'tional  historical  illustrations  oj 
the  .^ugiistinian  and  African  theory  ref^pecting 
natural  depravity  and  respecting  the  term,  pecca- 

TUM  ORIGINIS  sive  ORIGINALE. 

The  depravity  of  human  nature  being,  accord- 
ing to  the  Bible,  propagated  from  Adam,  and 
communicated  in  the  way  of  ordinary  generation 
to  children,  it  was  very  natural  to  denominate  it 
original i  and  since,  moreover,  it  is  common  to 
all  men,  and,  though  not  essential  to  human  na- 
ture, yet  properly  belonging  to  it  in  its  present 
state,  it  is  called  nattiraU  especially  as  the  term 
^vmi  is  used  in  Ephes.  ii.  3.  Vide  s.  78,  I.  2 
Both  of  these  terms  are  found  in  the  same  pas 
sage  in  Tertullian,  (De  Anima,  c.  41,)  where 
he  calls  depravity  malum  animrn  ex  originin 
vitio  and  naturale  quodammodo.  Upon  this  pas- 
sage it  is  im])ortant  to  observe,  that  he  does  not 
use  the  term  peccatum,  but  malum  and  viiium; 
and  again,  that  this  is  the  first  passage  in  the 
Latin  Fathers  in  which  the  term  naturale  is  ap- 
plied to  this  subject.  But  because  the  Latin 
word  naturale  is  ambiguous,  and  might  be  un- 
derstood in  the  sense  of  essentiale,  (a  sense  in 
which  Tertullian  would  not  use  it,  and  in  which 
even  Cyril  of  Alexandria  rejected  the  expres- 
sion ^v^Lxbv  xaxov,  vide  No.  I.,)  Tertullian  adds 
quodammodo.  The  term  naturale,  as  used  by 
him,  properly  means  nothing  more  than  pro- 
prium,  adhscrens,  non  aliunde  contractum.  Vide 
s.  78, 1.  2.  Ambrosius,  too,  says,  (Apol.  David, 
C.  11,)  .Intequam  imscimur,  maculamur  coNTA- 
010,  et  ante  usuram  lucis  originis  ipsius  exeipi- 
mus  injuriam.  Thus  none  of  these  fathers  use 
the  term  peccatum,  or  pretend  that  natural  de- 
pravity in  the  abstract,  or  in  itself,  is  imputed  to 
man  as  sin,  or  punished.  Augustine  is  the  verj 
first  who  uses  the  term  peccatum  o-i^'nalt 
quia  TTtginaliter  traditur,  as  indeed  he  hitnsell 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


says  in  "Opus  imperf.  contra  Julianum,"  ii. 
After  this  lime,  this  term,  wliich  perhaps  ni;»y 
have  been  used  by  some  Africans  before  Augus- 
tine, was  repeated  by  some  Latin  teachers — e.  jj., 
by  Hieronymus,  on  Psalm  L,  and  was  finally 
authorized  by  councils,  and  adopted  into  the 
terminology  of  the  Western  church.  It  was 
first  publicly  employed  in  the  Acts  (c.  2)  of  the 
Milevitanic  council,  in  the  year  41G;  and  those 
who  deny  the  doctrine  de  peccalo  oriij;inali,  and 
its  punishment,  which  is  removed  by  baptism, 
were  tiiere  denounced  with  an  anathtina. 

But  how  came  it  to  pass  that  the  word  pccca- 
tum  should  be  employed  to  designate  natural 
depravity,  since  this  depravity,  in  ahslracto,  and 
by  itself,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  disease  or  a  sickly 
moral  disorder  of  man,  and  not  as  action;  and 
since  man  had  no  guilty  agency  in  bringing  it 
upon  himself?  It  cam*  in  this  way:  in  Horn, 
vii.  9,  and  elsewhere,  Paul  uses  tlie  term  d;ua,j- 
ritt  in  reference  to  the  bias  to  sin  found  in  all 
men,  or  the  disposition  to  do  what  is  forbidden 
by  the  divine  law;  and  this  is  perfectly  con- 
formed to  the  usus  loquendi.  For  the  Greek 
o/*oprw»  is  employed  not  only  with  regard  to 
sinful  actions,  but  zny  fault  or  dcftclive  stale  or 
nature  of  a  thing;  like  the  Latin /)ecca/«nj  and 
peecare.  Vide  s.  73,  II.  In  this  sense,  then, 
they  might  justly  say  pcccatum  originis,  instead 
of  vilium,  meaning  simply  defect,  fault,  evil. 
Terlullian,  however,  did  not  use  the  word  pccca- 
tum, probably  on  account  of  this  ambiguity. 
But  when  Augustine  fiund  the  term  pcccatum 
used  in  the  Latin  Bible  in  reference  to  this 
natural  bias  to  sin,  he  supposed  that  he  might, 
and  indeed  ought,  to  employ  the  same.  But  not 
distinguishing  sulTiciently  between  the  dilferent 
meanings  of  this  word,  he  contended,  that  all 
that  must  be  true  respecting  this  stale,  in  itself 
considered,  which  is  true  respecting  sinful  ac- 
tions, on  the  ground  that  the  same  word  is  used 
respecting  both  in  tlie  Bible.  lie  then  argued 
in  this  way;  "  All  sin  is  punished,  or  it  brings 
men  into  a  state  of  condemnation  before  God, 
and  consequently  this  natural  depravity  itself 
benause  it  is  included  under  afiaprta,  and  is 
called  pecealum.^^  Thus  arose  the  scheme  of 
A'igustine  described  in  No.  2,  although  in  this 
hi-  was  not  throughout  consistent  with  himself. 
Instead  of  employing  this  phraseology,  it  would 
have  been  belter  for  him  to  have  said.  The  ten- 
dency to  sin  is  indeed  an  evil,  a  moral  disorder — 
i.  e.,  a  wrong  and  defective  constitution  of  our 
nature  in  a  moral  respect,  from  which  particular 
•etual  sins  result;  it  cannot,  therefore,  be  other- 
wise than  displeasing  to  a  perfectly  holy  (Jod; 
nor  can  he,  as  the  scriptures  expressly  leach, 
be  its  author;  but  neither  would  God  punish 
men  for  this,  in  and  of  itself.  V or  punishment 
is  first  indicted  when  man  sulTers  himself  to  be 
enti(>«d  to  aclual  sin,  or  transgression  of  the 


law;  and  because  none  remain  unperverteJ,  M 
all  are  siimers,  and  condemned  in  ihe  sight  of 
God,  although  the  degree  of  their  guilt,  and 
conseijuenlly  the  degree  of  their  punishment, 
may  be  diflerent. 

After  liie  time  of  Augustine,  various  attempts 
were  made  to  obviate  the  innumerable  mistake^ 
which  attended  tliis  doctrine  dcptccato  orii^inali; 
and  among  others,  a  distinction  was  made  be- 
tween peccalum  originate  and  pcccata  aclwtlia — 
a  distinction  which  is  first  found  in  Joh.  Cassi- 
anus  in  the  fifth  century.  Vide  Coll.  P.  P. 
Sceticor.  xiii.  7.  There  were  always,  however, 
among  the  catholics,  even  those  of  ancient 
times,  not  a  few  who  disapproved  of  the  appli- 
cation of  the  term  pcccatum  to  the  corrupt,  moral 
condition  of  man,  and  wished  it  to  be  abolished. 
And  it  happened  to  many,  merely  because  they 
rejected  this  word,  to  be  counted  among  the  Pe- 
lagians or  Semi- Pelagians.  ^lany  of  the  school- 
men, too,  preferred  not  to  use  this  term  ;  though 
it  is  true,  indeed,  that  among  them  there  were, 
many  actually  inclined  to  Pelagianism.  \  ids 
No.  3.  The  schoolmen  rather  chose  to  use  the 
term  employed  by  TertuUian — viz.,  vitiuni  ori- 
giiutle  or  naturale ;  or  vitiosiloH,  or  dtpravatio 
congenita,  or  naturalis. 

As  to  the  German  word  in  use  on  this  sub- 
ject, Erb-siinde,  (hereditary  sin,)  it  is  still  more 
inconvenient  than  the  Latin  pcccatum  origi' 
nalc;  for  the  latter  admits,  according  to  com- 
mon usage,  of  a  correct  interpretation,  and  so, 
if  it  is  properly  explained,  may  be  still  retained. 
But  the  German  word  Siinde  (sin)  is  elsewhere 
always  used  to  denote  an  action,  so  far  as  it  is 
contrary  to  the  divine  law;  but  never  a  state. 
Instead  of  this  word,  it  would  be  belttr  to  use 
the  word  Erb-fhlcr,  (hereditary  defect,)  or  still 
better,  Erb-iibel,  (hereditary  evil,)  or  more  defi- 
nitely, das  sittliche  Erb-iibel,  (ihe  moral  heredi- 
tary evil.)  Many  of  our  protestanl  theologians 
have  therefore  for  a  long  time  |)referred  to  use 
the  term  natural  depravity.  Vide  s.  87,  I.  ~.  3. 
Dr.  Teller  proposed  to  use  the  word  Temprra- 
mcnls-siimle,  (sin  of  the  constitution  or  tem|ier. 
ament;)  this,  however,  is  inap|)ropriate.  since 
it  bears  another  sense — viz.,  some  kind  of  pre- 
vailim:  sin,  to  which  a  man  is  especially  inclined 
from  his  peculiar  organization,  or  his  individual 
nalurrl.      Cf,  8.  75. 

3'i;/e; — The  term  p  centum  nriginale,  as  used 
in  the  symbolic  books  of  ihe  Lutheran  chiircli, 
comprises  the  following  things: — (I)  The  defi- 
ciency in  true  holiness  and  piety  which  is  found 
in  all  men  without  exception,  accompanied  with 
a  deficiency  in  powers  for  attaining  holiness  by 
their  own  exertions.  'I'his  is  just  and  scrip- 
tural ;  for  in  order  to  be  morally  good  awi  pioits, 
it  is  necessary  for  us  tn  breome  so;  we  are  n«»t 
born  with  this  character;  we  do  not  possess  in 
ourselves  the  powers  requisite  to  this  end,  and 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


t93 


arfl  dependent  on  divine  assistance.  (2)  The 
inordinate  passions  and  appetites  wiiich  are 
found  in  all  men;  the  bias  within  us  to  do  what 
is  forbidden,  and  to  leave  undone  what  is  re- 
quired ;  of  the  truth  of  which  every  one's  own 
experience  may  convince  him,  and  which  is  con- 
stantly insisted  upon  in  the  scriptures.  Thus, 
by  peccatuin  orii^t'nak,  the  symbolic  books  un- 
derstand a  STATE  of  man  which,  morally  consi- 
dered, is  not,  from  the  earliest  period,  what  it 
should  be,  or  what  it  oriorinally  was;  and  this 
is  certainly  just  and  true,  both  according  to 
scripture  and  experience. 

These  two  things  taken  together  are  what 
the  theologians  of  the  Lutheran  and  reformed 
churches  mean  when  they  say,  ma?i  is  born  ullk 
sin,  or  in  sin — an  expression  which  is  taken 
from  Ps.  li.  7.  And  although  this  expression 
is  liable  to  be  misunderstood,  and  indeed  in  that 
passage  is  used  in  a  different  sense,  yet  tlie  thin? 
which  they  intend  by  the  use  of  it  is  true  and 
conformed  to  the  Bible.  Vide  Morus,  p.  117, 
118. 

It  is  a  common,  but  very  unworthy  art  of 
many  of  the  opponents  of  the  doctrine  of  natu- 
ral depravity,  to  make  the  German  word  denot- 
ing this  doctrine,  Erb-silnde,  {hereditary  sin,) 
which  is  acknowledged  on  all  hands  to  be  in- 
convenient, the  object  of  ridicule,  as  if  the 
doctrine  of  the  protestant  church  agreed  with 
the  untenable  positions  in  Augustine's  theory. 
While  they  confute  this  theory  only,  they  as- 
sume the  air  of  having  overthrown  the  doctrine 
of  native  depravity  itself.  The  scriptural  texts 
which  stand  in  their  way  are  brought  into 
agreement  with  the  most  different  modern  phi- 
losophical schools,  by  the  aid  of  that  artificial 
exegesis  which  makes  anything  from  every- 
thing; so  that  the  scriptures  must  say  just  that, 
and  that  only,  which  the  authors  of  these  philo- 
sophical systems  require.  Vide  Teller's  Wor- 
terbuch,  art.  Sihule,  and  other  attempts  of  the 
theologians  of  the  Kantian  school. 

SECTION  LXXX. 

RESl'LTS  OF  THE  FOREGOING  DlSCfSSION  RFSPECT- 
ING  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  NATURAL  DEPRAVITY, 
AND  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  MODE  OF  TEACHING 
THIS  DOCTRINE. 

I.  Results  of  the  foregoing  Discussion. 

(1)  The  doctrine  of  the  holy  scriptures,  that 
the  native  depravity  which  discloses  itself  in  the 
preponderance  of  sense  over  reason  is  to  be  found 
in  all  men  without  exception,  is  confirmed  by 
the  undeniable  experience  of  all  men  of  all 
times;  and  every  individual  may  be  convinced 
.•)f  its  truth  by  his  own  daily  experience,  and  by 
observation  of  those  around  him.  Any  one  who 
k  in  the  habit  of  self-inspection  will  be  compel- 


led to  acknowledge  that  the  confession  of  Paul. 
Worn.  vii.  18,  seq.,  "  'I"o  will  is  present  with  me, 
but  how  to  perform  that  which  is  good  I  find 
not,"  is  drawn,  as  it  were,  from  his  own  soul 
Even  the  heatlien  nations,  and  those  of  their 
chief  philosophers,  who  did  not  employ  them- 
selves with  empty  speculations,  but  who  built 
their  views  upon  the  observation  of  man  and  of 
themselves,  recognised  the  existence  of  this  evil. 
Vide  s.  74. 

(2)  But  although  philosophy  must  recognise 
the  actual  existence  of  this  evil,  it  can  give  no 
satisfactory  answe'  with  regard  to  the  origin  of 
it.  Vide  Kant,  Vom  radikalen  Bosen.  All  the 
philosophemes  upon  this  subject,  from  Aristotle 
down  to  Leibnitz,  Kant,  Fichte,  and  iSch<  lling, 
are  full  of  gaps;  and  in  surv'  yiug  llieu!  we  meet 
with  one  unanswerable  question  after  another. 
Vide  s.  74.  Cf.  Michaelis,  Moral,  th.  i.  s.  127, 
seq.  But  there  appears  in  almost  all  nations  a 
pressing  necessity  to  believe  that  God  made  the 
human  race  in  a  more  perfect  state  than  that  in 
which  it  now  exists.  But  they  were  still  unable 
to  solve  the  riddle.  Now  this  riddle  is  solved  in 
the  holy  scriptures  more  satisfactorily  than  by 
all  the  philosophers.  Vide  s.  50,  ad  fin.  s.  74, 
75,  &c.  And  any  one  who  understands  the  scrip- 
tural account  of  the  fall  of  man  as  a  mere  fable, 
or  as  anything  beside  a  narrative  of  what  actu- 
ally took  place,  and  who  is  incautious  enough 
to  teach  these  views  to  the  common  people  and 
the  young,  takes  away  that  for  which  he  can 
give  nothing  in  return;  although  he  may  not 
design  it,  he  lowers  the  authority  of  the  Bible 
in  the  view  of  his  hearers,  and  does  an  injury 
which  he  will  not  be  able  easily  to  repair. 

There  were  two  theories  which  were  more 
prominent  among  the  Christian  teachers  of  for- 
mer times,  and  which  even  now  have  their  advo- 
cates— viz.,  the  .African,  or  .^u^usliniati,  and  the 
Pelagian.  Vide  s.  79.  The  latter,  which  nearly 
accords  with  the  views  of  the  stoics,  plainly  dis- 
agrees with  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible,  and,  more- 
over, has  experience  against  it.  Vide  s.  79,  No. 
.3.  But  since  it  wears,  on  the  first  view,  a  more 
rational  aspect,  and  since  especially  it  is  more 
agreeable  to  the  wishes  of  men,  who  had  rather 
view  themselves  in  a  favourable  than  an  unfa- 
vourable light,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that, 
in  spite  of  experience,  it  should  have  o'ftained, 
and  still  possess,  considerable  currenc).  But 
in  Augustine's  theory  there  are  also  ini'irroct 
and  untenable  positions,  and  he  deducts  n.-'ny 
false  conclusions  from  texts  of  scripture  w.-ongly 
understood.  These  misinterpretations  were  in 
part  occasioned,  and  in  part  promoted,  by  the 
Latin  established  version,  which  August'ne  fol- 
lowed, and  to  which  he  and  his  fellow  teachers 
were  accustomed  from  their  youth.  Besides, 
Ausrustine's  views  on  the  subject  of  interpreta- 
tion were  deficient.  The  middle  course  between 
2b  2 


994 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


these  extremes  is  accordant  with  the  Bil)le,  with 
experience,  and  the  sysleni  of  the  protesiant 
church.     Vide  s.  77,  78. 

The  ohjeclion,  that  l/ie  scriptural  doctrine  of 
native  ihprufily  is  irrccmcilable  with  the  jimlice 
and goodncnaif  God,  does  not  lie  so  much  against 
the  scriptural  doctrine  itself  as  against  certain 
false  and  unscriptural  notions  which  are  some- 
times connected  with  it — e.  g.,  against  the  Au- 
gu.stinian  theory.  Let  the  following  things  be 
considered — viz., 

(rt)  It  is  incorrect  to  assert,  as  some  do,  that 
if  Adam  himself  had  maintained  his  original 
innocence,  no  one  of  his  posterity  either  would 
or  could  iiave  sinned.  This  is  nowhere  taught 
in  the  Bible.  The  possibility  of  erring  and 
sinning  would  have  conlinned,  both  with  Adam 
himself  and  with  his  posterity,  even  if  he  had 
not  at  that  time  fallen.  And  had  it  been  iiiipos- 
sibk  for  the  posterity  of  Adam,  supposing  him 
to  have  persevered  in  holiness,  to  be  otherwise 
than  holy,  their  goodness  would  have  had  no 
value,  and  would  not  be  entitled  to  reward. 
Man  would  have  been  a  machine,  having  no 
power  to  move  except  in  one  pre-established 
and  appointed  way.  It  does  not,  therefore,  fol- 
low that  there  would  have  been  no  error  and  no 
sin,  and  consequently  no  punishment  of  sin, 
among  men,  if  our  progenitor  had  not  fallen. 
It  is  indeed  true,  that  both  particular  individuals, 
and  the  race  of  man  at  large,  would  have  been 
by  degrees  more  and  more  cunfrnied  in  good- 
ness, if  the  state  of  innocence  (or  the  slate  of 
the  even  balance  of  the  human  powers)  had 
continued,  as  is  actually  the  case  with  good 
angels;  but  this  confirmation  cannot  be  under- 
stood in  reference  to  men  more  than  to  angels 
as  removing  iUe  possibilily  of  ninnini^. 

(i)  When  now  God  foresaw  that  sin  could 
not  be  hindered  among  men,  since  they  are 
beings  endowed  indeed  with  a  moral  nature,  but 
at  the  same  time  possessing  appi  tiles  and  pas- 
sions limiting  the  exercise  of  reason,  he  provided 
that  the  irnilt  and  ilj-desert  of  sin  should  be  di- 
minished ill  Adam's  posterity  by  allowing  Adam 
to  fall,  and  so  a  general  weakness  and  (lej)ravity 
to  per:ade  the  whole  race.  A  stronger  and  more 
incorrupt  rice  would,  if  it  sinned,  sin  far  more 
deeply  and  unpardonably  than  a  weaker. 
Hence  we  see  tlial  tlie  sin  of  iUe.  ftilhn  angch 
is  always  described  in  the  Bible  as  far  more  de- 
serving of  punishment  and  more  impardonable 
than  the  sin  of  the  first  parents  of  our  race;  and 
their  whole  moral  apostasy  is  described  as  far 
greater  than  that  of  man.  Those  among  Adam's 
weaker  posterity  who  n-sist  the  inducements  to 
sin,  and  are  diligent  in  the  |iursuit  of  ludiness, 
do,  as  it  were,  overcome  themselves;  and  their 
virtue  can  therefore  have  so  much  more  intcnuil 
worth,  and  he  so  much  the  more  deserving  of  re- 
ward.   Those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  yield  to 


these  teniptati.ns,  and  sin,  altliough  they  zt% 
by  no  means  free  t'rom  the  desert  of  punisiunent, 
(since  Ciod  has  made  known  the  means  by 
which  sin  may  be  guarded  against,)  may  yet, 
on  account  of  their  weakness  and  inability,  hope 
for  l)ity,  forbearance,  and  a  mitigation  of  punish- 
ment. Vide  on  this  subject,  Michaelis,  Von 
der  Sunde,  s.  5G3.  Perhaps  God  designed  by 
permitting  the  fall  to  promote  many  other  and 
unknown  ends.  Perhaps  the  example  of  the 
fall  of  man  may  be  instructive  to  the  higher 
orders  of  spiritual  beings,  who  are  always  dc 
scribed  in  the  Bible  as  standing  in  intimate  con- 
nexion with  man  and  having  knowledge  respect- 
ing him. 

(c)  Death  was  to  Adam  the  proper />u7iiyi/«c;i/ 
of  his  sin;  to  his  posterity  it  is  not,  projierly 
S|)eaking,  puuiahnunt,  but  the  inevitable  conse- 
(juence  of  the  sin  of  Adam.  For  no  mortal  can 
beget  an  immortal,  \'ide  s.  78,  III.  Since  now 
deatli  frees  us  from  this  mortal  body,  the  princi- 
pal seal  of  our  sinful  depravity,  and  since  the 
Christian  doctrine  gives  us  the  comforting  as- 
surance that  in  the  future  life  we  shall  possess 
a  more  perfect  body,  (1  Cor.  xv,  6:c.,)  death 
can  no  longer  be  reirarded  as  a  punishment,  but 
must  rather  be  considered  as  a  blessing,  by  all 
those  who  fall  in  wiih  the  order  appointed  by 
God,  and  fulfil  the  conditions  on  which  he  has 
promised  happiness  after  this  life.  Now  it  is 
a  doctrine  which  we  are  everywhere  expressly 
taught  in  the  New  Testament,  that  we  are  in- 
del)led  for  this  good,  for  til  is  blessed  immortality, 
to  Jesus  Christ;  and  the  o!)servalion  of  Paul  is 
therefore  well  founded,*thatlhrough  the  institutes 
which  God  has  established  for  the  recovery  of 
t!ie  human  race  through  Christ,  through  the  di- 
vine  |)lan  of  mercy,  we  have  gained  far  more 
than  we  lost  through  the  sin  of  Adam  and  its 
consequences;  Rom.  v.  15,  seq. 

yutc. — The  disposition  to  transgress  the 
moral  law,  from  w  bich  no  man  is  free,  cannot 
be  derived  from  any  deficiency  of  reason,  from 
error,  or  want  of  knowledge.  There  may  be 
from  hence  a  possibility  of  sinning  either  from 
ignorance  or  desijjn,  but  a  mere  jwstibi.'itt/  of 
sinning,  and  an  inclination  to  sin,  are  very  dif- 
ferent things.  And  we  feel  this  disposilior» 
even  where  there  is  no  error  or  defect  of  know- 
ledge, yea,  evtn  in  those  cases  in  which  we  see 
most  clearly  that  obedience  to  the  moral  law 
will  conduce  to  our  best  advantai;e,  and  that  by 
disobedience  we  shall  render  oursolves  misera- 
ble. Norcan  it  hea  mere  fault  of  eiiucatioii.  For 
then  there  would  be,  among  all  the  mulliplieii 
and  often  opposite  modes  of  education,  some  one 
which  would  furnish  us  with  men  who  would 
be  free  from  this  disposition.  .Nor  is  it,  as  has 
been  before  observed,  the  elTect  merely  of  the 
bad  examples  which  we  witness  in  others.  This 
depravity  is  not  exhibited  in  all  men  in  the  same 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


295 


way.  One  man  is  either  little,  or  not  at  all  in- 
clined to  those  things  for  which  another  has  a 
great  propensity.  All,  however,  are  inclined 
to  perform  many  actions  which  they  themselves 
acknowledge  to  be  sinful  and  injurious.  Tiiere 
is  in  men  a  general  anomaly,  or  a  general  dispo- 
sition to  transgress  the  moral  law,  which  does 
not  determine  to  any  one  particular  vice,  but 
which  is  differently  modified  in  different  per- 
sons. Since  this  disposition  seeks  out  so 
many  and  so  ditferent  deviations,  it  has  a  differ- 
ent aspect  m  different  individuals;  but  in  all 
alike,  it  appears  as  a  strong  disinclination  to 
certain  duties,  and  a  vehement  propensity  to 
certain  actions  which  are  morally  bad.  What 
is  common  to  this  depravity,  as  it  appears  in  all 
men,  is  the  preponderance  of  that  which  is  re- 
presented to  us  as  good  or  evil  by  our  lower  ap- 
petites, over  that  which  we  perceive  in  the  use 
of  reason  to  be  good.  From  this  depravity  no 
age  is  free,  nor  can  it  in  this  life  be  ever  wholly 
eradicated.  The  faults  of  youth,  such  as  levity 
and  prodigality,  do,  indeed,  often  disappear  in 
later  periods  of  life,  but  their  place  is  supplied 
by  others,  such  as  ambition  and  jealousy;  and 
many  of  the  excellences  which  belong  to  the  pe- 
riod of  youth — e.  g.,  innocence,  openness,  and  vi- 
vacity, ot'ten  gradually  decay  in  the  years  of  man- 
hood ;  and  although  a  more  advanced  age  seems 
to  have  the  advantage  in  point  of  experience  and 
exercise,  yet  still  it  cannot  be  affirmed  as  a  ge- 
neral fact,  that  this  higher  age  is  on  the  whole 
morally  better  than  youth.  It  is  therefore  a 
well-known  proverb,  founded  in  experience,  to 
say  respecting  old  men  who  only  seem  exter- 
nally to  have  reformed,  that  they  have  not  for- 
saken sin,  but  sin  has  forsaken  them. 

II.  On  Teaching  this  Doctrine. 

The  questions  relating  to  this  subject  are. 
Whether  the  doctrine  of  nian''s  native  ihpravity 
ought  to  be  exhibited  in  popular  instruction?  and 
if  so,  in  what  roay  ?  On  this  general  subject, 
cf.  Knapp's  Essay  in  Ewald's  Christlicher  Mo- 
natsschrift;  .Tahrg.  2,  lSO-2;  bd.  2,  st.  l,s.  3,  f. 

(I)  The  doctrir.Q  of  native  depravity,  as  we 
are  taught  it  both  by  scripture  and  experience, 
is  very  disturbing,  depressing,  and  humbling 
in  its  tendency.  The  light  in  which  man  is 
here  taught  to  regard  himsell."  is  not  at  all  favour- 
able or  pleasant,  and  is  calculated  -to  lead  hiin 
to  tremble  for  himself.  But  feelings  of  this 
kind,  although  higlily  salutary,  are  yet  unplea- 
sant to  t!ie  natural  man  (lo^izixij,  ^I'Sr"'^)'  '^nd 
for  the  very  reason  that  he  is  of  such  a  character, 
he  is  opposed  to  evervthing  which  awakens  feel- 
ings of  this  kind  :  he  prefers  to  keep  tiiis  subject 
out  of  sight,,and  is  unwilling  to  hear  anything 
respecting  it.  It  is  with  him  as  with  a  sick 
man,  who  is  unwilling  to  acknowledge,  either 
to  himself  or  others,  that  he  is  sick,  partly  be- 


cause he  is  ashamed  of  his  sickness,  and  partly 
because  he  is  reluctant  to  adopt  the  severe  re- 
medies necessary  to  his  cure.  Thus  it  is  with 
the  carnal  man  who  refuses  to  undertake  the 
radical  cure  of  the  disorders  of  his  soul,  because 
he  would  feign  conceal  his  sickness  from  hi» 
own  view,  and  dreads  to  make  the  bitter  sacri- 
fices which  his  moral  recovery  and  holiness  re- 
quire. He  would  rather,  therefore,  persuade 
himself  and  others  that  he  is  good,  or  at  least 
that  his  case  is  not  so  bad  as  might  seem.  Now 
if  any  one  does  not  believe  that  he  is  sick,  nei- 
ther does  he  believe  that  he  is  in  any  need  of  a 
remedy  or  of  a  physician;  or  if  he  thinks  he  is 
only  slightly  sick,  he  hopes  he  shall  be  able  to 
help  himself,  or  to  recover  without  the  aid  of 
medicine.  And  so  any  one  who  thinks  in  the 
same  way  with  regard  to  his  moral  state  will 
infallibly  be  cold  and  indifferent  in  the  use  of 
all  the  means  which  the  Christian  doctrine  pre- 
scribes for  the  sanctification  of  the  heart;  he 
will  even  scorn  them  as  idle  and  supertluous, 
because  he  sees  no  necessity  for  them  ;  yea,  he 
will  even  feel  aversion  and  hatred  towards  liiem, 
as  a  sick  man  is  accustomed  to  do  towards  a 
bitter  and  disagreeable  medicine.  It  is  there- 
fore very  intelligible,  and  may  be  psychologi- 
cally explained,  why  the  opinion,  that  man  is 
not  so  depraved  as  is  sometimes  represented, 
and  the  delusion  that  the  Christian  means  of 
cure  are  inapjjropriate,  superlluous,  ami  may  ho 
easily  dispensed  with,  should  gain  currency  in 
an  age  and  among  men  distinguished  above 
others  in  egotism,  self-sufficiency,  and  the  love 
of  worldly  enjoyment. 

(2)  We  may  hence  explain  the  fact  why  the 
doctrine  of  human  depravity  is  repugnant  to  so 
many  in  our  age,  and  why  it  is  almost  whollj 
set  aside  in  the  instruction  of  the  common  people 
and  of  the  young.  The  pretext  by  which  the 
omission  of  this  doctrine  is  commonly  justified 
is,  that  it  inspires  men  with  aversion  to  God, 
that  it  makes  them  irresolute  and  spiritless  in 
the  pursuit  of  virtue,  and  that  it  leads  to  an  un- 
worthy depreciation  of  oneself,  and  even  to  de- 
spair, which  prevents  all  improvement.  These 
effects,  however,  can  never  be  feand  when  this 
doctrine  is  taught  as  it  is  in  the  holy  scriptures. 
Who  can  bring  an  example  to  shew  that  the 
scriptural  doctrine  ever  produced  such  an  effect] 
On  the  contrary,  experience  shews  that  this  doc 
trine,  rightly  exhibited,  produces  just  the  oppo 
sit  effects,  and  animates  man  in  the  pursuit  of 
holiness,  and  leads  him  to  the  hiirh est  exertions 
of  all  his  powers  for  the  attainment  of  it.  Vide 
s.  77,  II.,  ad  finem. 

The  true  ground  why  so  many  forbear  to 
preach  this  doctrine  is,  that,  for  the  reasons  just 
now  suggested,  it  is  displeasing  to  many  of  their 
hearers,  whose  favour  they  wouln  gladly  conci- 
liate.    It  is  with  them  as  with  those  respecting 


296 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


whom  John  speaks,  ch.  xii.  43.  Others  have 
never  clearly  considered  the  reasons  why  they 
forbear  t  j  preach  this  doctrine,  but  follow  blindly 
the  example  set  tiiem  by  some  of  the  eminent 
and  lauded  preaciiers  of  theday.  For  the  great 
majority  of  men,  and  even  of  teachers,  never 
think  for  themselves,  but  depend  upon  authorit)'. 
Ag-ain:  there  are,  alas !  many  religious  teach- 
ers who  are  themselves  unrenewed  men,  who 
even  while  at  home  were  sunk  deep  in  moral 
corruption,  who  become  still  more  de|iraved  at 
the  schools  and  universities,  and  who,  when 
they  assume  the  sacerdotal  robe,  alter  only  their 
outward  deportment,  without  experiencing  a 
radical  cir.inge  of  heart.  Such  are  blind  leaders 
of  the  blind, 

(3)  The  teachers  who  adopt  the  principles 
just  mentioned  are  accustomed  to  descant  large- 
ly upon  the  vort/i,  the  nobleness,  and  the  dh^nity 
of  man,  since  discnurse  like  this  is  heard  with 
pleasure,  and  it  is  far  more  agreeable  to  be 
praised  than  blamed.  In  this  strain,  therefore, 
preachers  of  such  a  character  often  indulge,  and 
even  in  their  instruction  of  the  young  dwell  on 
nothing  but  the  dignity  of  man.  In  this  way 
many  of  them  suppose  they  shall  elevate  man, 
inspire  him  witli  a  zeal  for  virtue,  and  by  means 
of  this  feeling  ofhonourraise  him  to  nobleness  of 
character.  And  it  is,  indeed,  right  to  point  man 
to  the  noble  faculties  which  he  possesses,  &c. 
This  is  often  done  in  the  Bible.  This,  how- 
ever, we  should  do,  and  not  leave  the  other  un- 
done. In  the  Pihle  this  is  always  done  in  con- 
nexion with  the  doctrine  of  the  moral  apostasy 
of  man.  If  this  doctrine  be  nf)t  brought  into 
connexion  with  it,  the  doctrine  of  the  dignity  of 
man  is  injurious;  it  nourishes  pride  and  self- 
ritrhteousness,  and  prevents  that  self-knowledge 
which  is  so  essential,  and  thus  leads  aside  from 
l)ie  way  of  true  reformation,  such  as  (lod  will 
accept.  It  leads  men  to  think  that  they  are  per- 
fect, and  have  no  need  of  reformation;  that  tiiey 
are  in  no  danijer,  and  at  most  need  onlv  to  be 
ennobled  and  perfected,  and  not  to  be  radically 
renewed.  What  must  be  the  effect  of  a  doc- 
trine like  this  in  an  age  in  which  self-confidence 
and  selfish  blindness  are  the  prevailing  fault, 
jind  have  so  deeply  imbued  the  minds  even  of 
children  and  youth,  that  at  the  age  when  they 
are  just  beginning  to  learn,  they  think  them- 
selves wiser  than  their  teachers,  and  from  the 
height  to  which  they  suppose  theniselves  to 
have  attained,  seem  to  look  down  with  compas- 
sion upon  the  aged. 

(1)  From  these  observations  it  follows,  thai 
ft  is  the  duty  of  a  Christian  teacher  to  exhibit 
the  doctrine  of  moral  depravity  without  regard 
to  the  fear  or  the  favour  of  man,  after  the  exam- 
ple wiiich  the  inspired  teachers  have  set  him— 
the  ancient  prophets,  .Tesus,  and  the  apostles. 
The  timta  have  chanjred  nothinj  belonsring:  to 


this  doctrine,  nor  can  they.  Human  nature  is 
the  same  now  that  it  has  been  in  every  preced- 
ing  age;  and  the  inculcation  of  this  doctrine  is 
not  less  important  in  an  enlightened  than  in  an 
unenlightened  period.  It  is  by  this  doctrine 
alone  that  the  necessity  of  an  entire  moral  re- 
novation of  the  human  heart-can  be  placed  in  a 
strong  light;  here  man  learns  to  understand 
himself  aright,  and  to  think  humbly  with  regard 
to  himself;  here  he  learns  to  see  clearly  the 
difficulties  and  mighty  hindrances  which  lie  in 
the  way  of  conversion,  and  attains  to  the  con- 
viction that  he  needs  help,  and  that  without  di- 
vine assistance  he  can  do  nothing.  Truly  and 
beautifully  has  Seneca  said,  Iitilixtm  tat  mltttis, 
notilia  peccati.  Nam  qui  peecare  se  ntscH,  crnr- 
rii(i  non  viilt.  Dcprehendas  tt  ojxfrlet  antcquam 
riiiettdcs,  Ep.  28.  This  is  the  great  principle 
upon  which  the  inspired  teachers  proceeded  in 
all  their  instructions.  Christ,  for  example,  took 
this  course  in  his  conversation  with  Nicodemus, 
however  strange  the  doctrine  might  have  ap- 
peared to  the  latter.  And  there  is  no  better  way, 
none  which  is  more  capable  of  vindication  on 
psychological  grounds. 

(5)  But  in  order  that  the  teaching  of  this 
doctrine  may  attain  its  end,  it  is  not  enough  to 
set  forth  the  mere  dogma,  and  to  prove  it  con- 
nectedly from  the  holy  scriptures,  and  then  to 
speak  of  it  in  the  abstract ;  for  in  that  case  the 
wholesome  and  necessary  applicatiun  is  easily 
neglected  by  the  hearer.  On  the  contrary,  it 
ought  rather  to  be  spoken  of  in  the  concrete; 
at  least,  the  abstract  statement  should  always 
he  ap|)lied  to  particular  concrete  cases,  and  es- 
pecially to  (lurnelvcs.  This  is  the  wise  mode  of 
teaching  exhibited  in  the  Bible.  Vide  s.  77, 
III.  2.  In  the  popular  exhibition  of  this  doc- 
trine, therefore,  the  teacher  should  begin  with 
making  his  hearer  observant  of  himself,  and  en- 
deavour to  convince  him  of  his  own  depravity, 
or  of  tlie  preponderance  of  appetite  over  reason 
in  himself,  as  learned  from  his  own  experience. 
'I'his  is  the  easiest  way  to  bring  the  contemner 
of  tliis  doctrine  to  silence.  For  examjile,  let  the 
teacher  in  his  instructions  go  over  all  the  points 
which  Paul  has  cited  Rom.  vii.  7 — 23,  as  proof 
of  the  moral  corruption  of  man,  without  at  first 
remarking  that  this  is  taught  in  the  Bible.  The 
hearer  nmst  confess  that  he  finds  it  in  himself 
exactly  as  described — that  he  is  not  what  he 
ouijht  to  be,  and  what  his  own  moral  feeling 
teaches  him  that  he  must  be,  in  order  to  please 
God,  When  he  is  brou>/ht  to  this  conviction, 
then  let  him  be  shewn  that  the  doctrine  of  scrip- 
ture corresponds  with  his  own  experience.  In 
this  way  he  will  acf|uire  rejard  for  the  Bible,  as 
he  will  see  that  it  tjires  no  ideal  description  of 
man,  but  rejiresents  him  as  he  actually  is.  Then 
he  will  be  constrained  to  acknowledge:  "Yes! 
I  loo  am  actually  so;  it  is  as  if  I  myself  were 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


397 


here  described."  Has  any  one  come  to  this 
point,  there  is  hope  that  he  may  be  inclined  to 
employ  the  means  of  recovery  prescribed  in  the 
scriptures,  and  especially  in  the  Christian  doc- 
trine; particularly  if  he  is  shewn  how  and 
wherefore  they  have  so  beneficial  an  effect;  and 
if  is  made  to  consider,  that  our  own  good  in- 
tentions and  all  the  means  by  which  we  attempt 
to  help  ourselves  are  inefficacious.  In  this  way 
is  the  feelinij  of  the  need  of  help  and  of  a  Re- 
deemer to  be  excited  in  man;  and  thus  does  the 
knowledge  of  our  moral  depravity  and  inability 
lead  to  Christ,  as  to  him  through  whom  alone  it 
can  be  removed.  But  all  this  instruction  will 
be  in  danger  of  failing  of  its  effect,  unless  the 
hearer  perceives  that  the  teacher  himself  has  a 
personal  interest  in  the  matter,  that  he  speaks 
from  his  own  internal  conviction,  and  that  he 
has  experienced  on  his  own  heart  the  efficacy  of 
the  means  prescribed,  and  shews  their  effect  in 
his  life  and  walk. 

(6)  None  of  the  profound  and  learned  inves- 
tigations of  philosophers  and  theologians,  re- 
specting the  nature  of  human  depravity,  the 
mode  of  its  propagation,  &c.,  should  have  any 
place  in  the  practical  and  popular  exhibition  of 
this  doctrine.  It  is  enough  for  the  teacher  to 
stop  with  the  simple  doctrine  of  the  Bible,  and 
merely  teach,  (a)  that  all  men  have  been  ac- 
tually so,  ever  since  our  first  parents  transgress- 
ed the  divine  command  ;  and  (6)  that,  according 
to  the  Bible,  the  ground  why  all  their  posterity 
are  such  lies  in  our  first  parents;  but  that  (c) 
we  owe  the  improvement  of  our  condition,  and 
the  restoration  of  our  lost  holiness  and  happi- 
ness to  Jesus  Christ,  since  he  redeems  or  frees 
us  from  sin  and  its  evil  consequences,  and  turns 
this  evil  to  our  good  ;  Rom.  vii.  25.  For  more 
on  this  point,  vide  the  article  on  Christ. 

SECTION  LXXXI. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  IDEA  WHICH  IS  COMMONLY 
CONNECTED  IN  THEOLOGY  WITH  THE  EXPRES- 
SION "  ACTUAL  SINS  ;"  AND  OF  THE  DIFFER- 
ENT  DEGREES  OF  SIN. 

We  have  thus  far  treated  of  the  moral  corrup- 
tion of  human  nature,  and  its  causes;  we  have 
also  given  a  history  of  this  doctrine;  s.  71 — 80. 
We  now  proceed  to  consider  particular  st»ful 
actions,  whose  source  is  found  in  this  same  mo- 
ral depravity.  Vide  s.  73,  ad  finem.  We  shall 
treat  this  subject  under  the  two  following  divi- 
sions— viz.,  (1)  The  nature  of  particular  sinful 
actions,  and  their  different  kinds  and  divisions, 
6.  81 — S4;  (2)  The  ditTerent  stale  which  arises 
in  man  on  the  commission  of  sin,  s.  85 — 87. 

I.  Additional  Explanation  of  the  idea  of  Sin. 
We  have  before  shewn,  under  s.  73,  I.,  what 
U  meant  by  tne  terms  sin  and  law  ,•  and  this  will 
38 


be  presupposed  in  the  remarks  which  follow. 
Since  now  we  must  regard  this  natural  depravity 
as  a  sinful  slate,  and  since  we  must  regard  par- 
ticular sinful  actions  as  the  coiisequence  and  rC' 
suit  of  this  state,  theologians,  since  the  time  of 
Cassianus,  have  adopted  the  division  of  sin  into 
peccatum  originale  and  pcccatum  actuate.  Vido 
s.  79,  No.  4,  ad  finem,  and  Morus,  p.  1 18,  supra. 
Morus  has,  indeed,  omitted  the  special  consi- 
deration of  the  doctrine  de  ptccaio  actuali  in  his 
Dogmatik,  and  assigned  the  discussion  of  it 
wholly  to  the  department  of  Morals.  But  the 
general  theory  of  actual  sins  belongs  to  the  pro- 
vince oi  Dogmatical  theology,  and  is  commonly 
introduced  by  theologians  into  this  department. 
Jlctual  sins  are,  moreover,  commonly  denomi- 
nated peccata  sensu  strictiuri.  By  actions,  how- 
ever, theologians  do  not  mean,  in  treating  of  this 
subject,  those  merely  which  are  external — i.  e., 
which  are  committed  by  means  of  the  body  and 
its  organs;  but  also  those  which  are  internal — 
i.  e.,  those  which  take  place  merely  in  the  soul, 
and  are  performed  in  thoughts,  desires,  &c. 
Hence  it  has  been  common  to  subdivide  actual 
sins  into  external nn6  internal,  of  which  we  shall 
say  more  hereafter.  Jlctualis  is  a  term  which 
belongs  to  the  later  Latin,  and  was  first  used  by 
Macrobius;  it  answers  to  the  older  term  actu- 
osus,  active,  corisisting  in  action ;  or  to  activus, 
which  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  same  sense. 
Hence  Cicero  says,  vita  acluosa,  virtus  actuosa, 
Nat.  Deor.  i.  40;  instead  of  which  Macrobius 
writes,  virtutes  actuates.  Seneca  has,  activa 
philosnphia,  Ep.  il5,  and  Quinctilian  opposes 
aclivum  (the  practical)  io  speculutivuin,  (the  the- 
oretical.) But  sinful  actions  are  denominated 
peccata  actualia  in  opposition  to  native  depravity, 
because  they  involve  an  actus  transilorius,  such 
as  exists  in  all  human  actions;  they  have  a  be- 
ginning and  an  end.  But  original  sin  has  in 
this  life  no  end,  but  continues  as  long  as  man 
remains  upon  the  earth.  It  is  not  an  act,  but  a 
state.  The  application  of  the  term  sin  to  tliis 
state  is  indeed  inconvenient,  because,  according 
to  the  definition  given  of  sin,  native  depravity 
cannot  be  literally  so  called  ;  a  more  appropriate 
name  would  be,  hereditary  evil.  But  since  the 
former  term  is  now  common  among  theologians, 
and  the  thing  denoted  by  it  is  accordant  both 
with  reason  and  scripture,  it  must  be  understood, 
and  its  ground  must  be  known. 

In  explanation  of  the  subjective  definition  of 
sin  given  s.  73,  I. — viz.,  a  free  action  ivhich  is 
iiot  cniformed  to  the  law  of  God,  or  tchich  devi- 
ates from  this  /ffu^  let  the  following  additional 
remarks  be  considered.  When  we  would  judge 
respecting  any  action,  internal  or  external,  whe- 
ther it  is  sinful  or  not,  our  decision  must  depend 
upon  the  three  following  conditions — viz., 

(1)  That  the  man  who  commits  the  action 
had  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  law,  {notitia 


»8 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


legii.)  And  this  presupposes  (u)  tlidt  the  law 
was  actually  given  to  man;  (b)  that  it  was 
htown  by  this  individual,  or  at  least,  that  it 
Mould  have  been  known  by  him,  and  that  so  it 
is  his  own  fault  if  he  remained  unacquainted 
with  it;  and  (c)  that  he  understood  the  sense  of 
tlie  law,  or  niiijht  have  understood  it.  Is  any  one 
of  these  conditions  wanting,  the  act  contravening 
the  law  is,  indeed,  an  evil,  (foolish,  hurtful  in 
its  tendency,  &;c.,)  but  not «';».  Vide  s.  73,  I. 
Cf.  Rooi.  iv.  15;  v.  13,  a/topna  oix  iXKoytixoA 

(•2)  Til  at  the  action  does  not,  in  fact,  agree 
with  the  law.  The  determination  of  this  matter 
has  often  in  particular  cases  more  difficulty  tiian 
one  Would  think.  The  over-anxious  and  scru- 
pulous ur.m  often  regards  certain  actions,  both 
internal  and  external,  as  sinful,  while  they  are 
not  forbidden  in  the  divine  law  ;  and  in  tiiis  way 
he  needlessly  disquiets  himself.  Another  man 
mistakes  on  this  suliject  through  indilTerence 
and  carelessness.  But  a  far  more  common  fault 
is,  to  allow  self-love  to  pronounce  too  light  and 
partial  a  sentence  upon  our  own  actions,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  judge  the  actions  of  others 
too  severely.  Vide  Matt.  vii.  3 — 5.  Nor  is  the 
obligation  of  the  law  the  same  fgr  all.  Some 
iiws  are  not  universilly  obligatory,  but  binding 
only  on  certain  individuals,  and  in  particular 
cases.  The  same  action  may  be  sin  in  one  man, 
and  not  in  another.  One  does  it  with  a  convic- 
tion that  it  is  not  wrong,  and  so  sins  not;  the 
other  is  doubtful,  or  convinced  in  his  heart 
that  it  is  wrong,  and  yet  does  it,  and  sins. 
This  may  be  applied  to  the  so-called  udia'(}>opa, 
indifferent  thinijrn,  fastings,  amusements,  card- 
playing,  dancing,  &c.  Vide  I  Cor.  viii.  and  ix., 
and  iioui.  xiv. -23.  The  further  discussion  of  the 
6ubject  of  sin  ex  eotmeientia  erriinte  sive  erruned 
belongs  to ^ie  department  of  tlieological  Morals. 

(3)  That  in  the  commission  of  the  action, 
man  had  the  use  of  Wi^  free-will,  (to  airi^ovftov, 
or  fXn^f'ptt  rt|)oaJpf9£j.)  An  action  which  we 
have  been  compelled  to  do  against  our  will,  or 
whioli  we  have  done  without  consciousness, 
canii'l  be  reginled  as  our  own  action.  'I'his  is 
true  n!)t  only  of  evil,  but  of  good  actions.  In 
order,  now.  that  the  action  of  a  man  may  be  free 
and  so  iinpnt^ible,  he  must  in  doing  it  ('/)  be  in 
a  stale  in  whic'n  he  can  exercise  his  understand- 
ing, and  (letfTmine  his  will  according  to  that 
which  his  understanding  apjjroves ;  for  t!iis  is 
essential  to  freedom.  Therefore  no  inf.mt,  no 
idiot,  no  insane  person,  no  sleeper  or  tire.nimr, 
oan  commit  sin,  because  he  has  not  the  ust;  of 
his  understaniling.  The  shanjeful  words  and 
deeds,  the  hla8|)hemy,  fir,.,  which  we  often  see 
and  hear  in  delirious  persons,  are  not  niun,  be- 
cnuse  they  arc  not  free  actions  ;  and  if  they  are 
rf'erwards  disposed  to  trouble  tiietnselves  on  ac- 
count of  wiiat  tiicy  may  have  said  or  -'''ue  in 


such  a  stale,  they  ought  to  be  set  at  rest.  In 
order  tliat  a  man's  action  may  be  free,  (b)  his 
power  to  act  must  not  be  hindered  by  externa 
circumstances.  If,  therefore,  in  any  case  a 
man  is  compelled  by  some  external  necessity 
to  act  wholly  against  his  will,  or  if  he  is  barely 
restrained  in  acting,  so  that  he  cannot  proceed 
wholly  according  to  his  own  will  and  intent* 
then  his  action  is  not  free,  or  at  least  not  per- 
fectly free,  and  80  is  not  imputable,  or  is  not 
wholly  so.  Everything  depends  here  upon  thfl 
iidenlion.  A  man  designs  to  do  an  evil  deed, 
but  is  prevented  from  accomplishing  his  pur- 
pose by  external  circumstances,  and  so  does 
not  sin  indeed  externally,  bul  lie  does  in  his 
heart,  and  in  the  judgment  of  God  and  of  his 
own  conscience  is  deserving  of  punishment. 
The  case  is  the  same  as  to  the  iinputaiion  of  a 
good  act,  the  execution  of  which  lias  been  pre- 
vented by  external  circumstances.  Vide  Matt. 
V.  28,  coll.  s.  82. 

II.  The  different  degrees  of  S!n. 

In  common  life  sins  are  distinguished  into 
irross  and  irreat  sins,  and  lifi/it  and  Irijlini;  sins, 
and  the  latter  are  judged  deserving  of  less  pu- 
nishment than  the  former.  This  dillerence  is 
founded  in  the  nature  of  the  thinir  itself.  For 
whoever  sins,  acts  against  the  obligation  which 
rests  upon  him  to  full'il  certain  duties;  but  this 
obligation  has  different  degrees,  according  to 
the  dilTerence  of  the  powers  of  the  acting  sub- 
ject, and  of  his  motives  to  action.  Hence  it 
follows  that  one  commits  great«>r  sins  who  has 
more  power  and  stronger  motives  for  doing 
right  than  one  with  whom  these  powers  and 
motives  were  weaker.  Again:  the  less  the 
motives  and  inducements  to  sin,  and  the  more 
the  reasons  which  were  calculated  to  deter  froia 
the  commission  of  it,  so  much  the  worse  is  the 
sin,  and  so  much  the  more  deserving  of  punish- 
ment. The  motives  tending  to  withhidd  from 
sin  are  to  be  judged  of  from  the  peculiar  situa- 
tion, the  circumstances,  the  mode  of  thinking, 
and  the  knowledge  of  each  individual;  also, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  person  or  thiny 
with  respect  to  which  the  sin  is  committed,  (e 
g.,  sins  against  parents,  to  whom  we  are  under 
greaU'r  obligations  than  to  others;)  and  alsc 
according  to  the  consequences  which  flow  from 
the  sin.  The  consideration  of  this  matter,  how- 
ever, properly  falls  into  the  deparlinent  of  theo- 
logical morals. 

In  entire  conformity  with  tlie-se  principles 
dops  the  holy  scripture  ilecide  respecting  the 
different  degrees  of  sin,  and  their  desert  of  pu- 
nishment. Vide  Matt.  v.  22;  .lohn,  xix.  U, 
un'suv  auapTi'a;  Iiiike,  xii.  17,  H ;  Matthew, 
\i.  22—24;  1  Tim.  i.  15;  2  Peier,  ii.  20.21. 
Hut  since  this  dilTerenie  of  degn-e  in  sin  d<v 
pends   upon    so    many   lliin;;s,   which   are    not 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


299 


always  obvious,  and  cannot  be  duly  estimated 
by  otlu^rs ;  upon  the  dispositions  and  intentions 
concealed  in  the  heart  of  him  who  acts;  upon 
his  knovvledire,  his  temptaiions,  his  powers  and 
capacities;  it  is  often  impossible  for  us  in  par- 
ticular cases  to  form  a  correct  judgment.  God 
only,  who  knows  the  heart  of  man,  and  the  cir- 
cuHistancesi  in  which  he  acts,  can  judge  truly  and 
decisively  respecting  his  actions.  To  him,  there- 
fore, should  this  decision  be  left.  Vide  Rom. 
xiv.  4,  ail  T(j  «t  6  xptVuii'  dxxorpioi'  oixiry;v;  James, 
iv.  12;  Matt.  vii.  1,  seq.  On  tiiis  account,  it  is 
our  wisdom,  as  well  as  our  duty,  although  con- 
trary to  tiie  common  disposition  of  men,  to  judge 
ourselves  with  all  possible  strictness,  but  the 
faults  of  olliers  with  forbearance  and  toleration. 
This,  too,  is  according  to  the  direction  of  Christ, 
Matt.  vii.  1 — 5,  coll.  Luke,  xiii.  2 — 5.  Baum- 
garien  has  discussed  this  subject  minutely  in  his 
"  Diss,  de  gradibus  peccatorum  ;"  HalK,  1744. 
JVu/e  1. — The  philosophers  both  of  ancient 
and  modern  times  have  been  almost  entirely 
agreed  tiiat  there  is  a  ditTerence  of  degree  in 
sins  :  with  the  exception  only  of  the  stoics,  who 
maintained  the  paradoxical  opinion,  that  all  sin^ 
are  alike.  Vide  Cicero,  Parad.  iii. ;  Seneca, 
Ep.  60;  Cicero,  De  finibus  honor,  et  malor.  iv. 
27,  secj.  They  assumed  that  ail  virtues  were 
equal ;  and  hence  it  followed,  by  w'ay  of  contrast, 
that  all  vices  were  equal ;  and  hence,  that  all  the 
virtuous  and  all  the  vicious  were,  in  their  view, 
on  the  same  level — e.  g.,  one  who  killed  a  slave 
without  a  cause  committed,  in  their  view,  an 
equal  sin  with  one  who  abused  his  father.  In 
this  doctrine  Uuy  were  opposed  chielly  by  the 
jieripatetirs.  But  although  they  maintained 
this  equality  of  virtues  and  of  vices,  they  yet 
ascribed  to  them  a  different  extent  and  limita- 
tion, so  that  some  were  capable  of  palliation, 
others  unpardonable;  because  some  deviated 
more  than  others  from  the  law ;  and  so  with  re- 
gard to  the  virtues,  which  were  judged  of  by 
them  according  to  their  diiTerent  utility.  Hence 
we  see  that  in  substance  they  agreed  with  otliers, 
and  only  diiTered  from  tliem  by  this  striking 
proposition,  which  they  selected  on  account  of 
its  strangrness.  All  which  they  mean  to  affirm 
is,  tliat  one  transgression  is  as  much  a  trans- 
gression as  another;  and  all,  in  respect  to  their 
internal  nature,  are  alike,  because  they  are  all 
violations  of  the  rule,  and  so  are  opposite  to  the 
virtues.  And  the  same  is  taught  l)y  the  text, 
J;imps,  ii.  10,  11.  But  this  tuttmal  nature  of 
virtue's  and  vices  cannot  be  made  tlie  standard 
by  which  their  greatness  is  determined,  but  the 
consequences  which  result  from  tht^m,  the  pur- 
pose and  intention  of  the  soul  from  which  tiiey 
flow,  and  sometimes  even  the  mere  "so  it 
seems  good"  of  tiie  lawgiver,  ^'ill••  Tiedemann, 
System  der  Stoischen  Piiilosopi.ie,  th.  iii.  s. 
151— 15G. 


Kote  2. — Some  theologians  have  maintained 
that  sin,  or  rather  the  guilt  of  sin,  is  infinite  in 
the  philosophical  sense,  {culpam  sive  reatum 
peccatorum  esse  infinitum^)  They  resort  to  this 
statement  in  order  to  explain  more  easily  the 
infiniteness  of  the  satisfaction  made  by  Christ, 
and  also  the  eternity  of  tlie  punishments  of  hell. 
Whoever,  they  say,  breaks  the  laws  of  the 
Infinite  Being,  brings  upon  liimself  infinite 
guilt.  But  tins  statement,  taken  in  the  strict 
philosophic  sense,  is  incorrect.  For  (a)  it 
would  follow  from  this  that  there  was  no  diiTer- 
ence  of  objects ;  for  the  infinite  is  always  like  to 
itself,  and  cannot  be  increased  or  diminished, 
(i)  An  action  which  is  directed  against  a  parti- 
cular object,  does  not,  of  necessity,  partake  of 
the  nature  of  this  object.  Whether  the  object 
is  finite  or  infinite  is  a  matter  of  indifference 
with  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  action,  and 
makes  no  alteration  in  its  character.  A  finite 
action  cannot  become  infinite,  or  involve  infinite 
guilt,  merely  because  it  relates  to  an  infinite  ob- 
ject. If  it  could,  then  every  good  action  agree- 
ing with  the  divine  law  must  be  infinite,  and 
have  an  infinite  worthiness;  and  so  the  know- 
ledge which  man  has  of  God  must  be  infinite 
because  it  relates  to  an  infinite  being,  (e)  This 
whole  opinion  rests  upon  a  comparison  of  divine 
and  human  things  carried  too  far,  so  as  to  give 
rise,  as  in  innumerable  other  cases,  to  mistake. 
We  look  upon  the  crimes  committed  against 
rulers  and  magislrates  as  greater  than  tliose^ 
committed  against  otliers,  and  we  punish  them 
more  severely;  and  this  with  justice.  But  the 
reason  of  this  lies  not  so  much  in  the  personal 
character  or  worth  of  the  injured  object,  as  in 
care  for  the  public  welfare  or  security,  which  is 
more  endangered  by  any  indignity  done  to  the 
magistracy  than  to  a  private  person.  Hence 
this  crime,  in  order  to  deter  others  from  com- 
mitting it,  must  be  punished  more  severely 
than  others.  But  this  principle  cannot  be  ap- 
plied in  its  whole  extent  to  God  ;  al.hough  such 
human  representations  are  often  apjtlied  to  him. 
For,  properly  speaking,  God  cannot  be  in- 
jured by  men;  they  cannot  frustrate  any  of  his 
))lans,  nor  set  aside,  disturb,  or  throw  effectual 
hindrances  in  the  way  of  any  of  his  counsels. 
Vide  Eberhard,  Apologie  des  Sokrates,  th.  i.  s. 
374,  f. 

SECTION  LXXXIL 

niVISIONS  OF  SIN  IN  RESPECT  TO  THE  LAW,  TO 
THE  KNOWLEnRE  AND  PCUPOSE  OF  HIM  WHO 
COMMITS  IT,  AND  TO  THE  ACTION  ITSELF. 

I.  In  respect  to  the  Law. 

As  the  law  contains  both  precepts  and  prohibi- 
linns,  it  follows  that  actions  deviating  from  it 
may  be  >f  two  kinds — viz.,  («)  actions  forbid- 
den by  the  law,  sins  of  commission,  [ptccain 


100 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


eommissioiiin ;)  (6)  declininq;'  or  refiisinjr  to  per- 
form actions  required  by  the  law,  sins  of  omis- 
sion, (^peceata  nmisgionis.)  'I'he  latter  kind,  as 
well  as  the  former,  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
and  declared  to  be  erjiially  sins,  James,  iv.  17, 
"To  him  that  knoweth  to  do  rrood,  (i.  e.,  who 
has  power  and  opportunity  to  perform  it,)  and 
doeth  it  not,  it  is  sin;"  or,  every  omission  of 
pood,  to  perform  which  we  are  obli<jed  by  the 
divine  law,  is  sin.  Cf.  Luke,  xii.  47  ;  Matt.  vii. 
19.  A  man,  therefore,  who  guards  merely 
a^rainst  sins  of  commission,  so  that  he  cannot  be 
charijed  with  any  open  violation  of  the  divine 
will,  does  not  deserve  the  name  of  an  observer 
of  the  divine  law.  To  this  character  he  can  lay 
claim  only  when  he  has  not  to  condemn  himself 
for  oiiiitiin"'  the  good  which  the  law  required 
him  to  perform.  Thus,  not  only  does  he  sin 
who  does  what  is  forbidden  by  God,  but  he  too 
who  omits  to  do  whit  God  requires.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  common  error  of  men  to  regrard  sins  of 
omission  less  than  those  of  commission,  because 
they  are  less  externally  visible.  Some  theolo- 
gians, too,  have  maiiitiined  that  sins  of  omission 
were  less  heinous  and  punishable  than  those  of 
commission.  But  this,  as  a  general  proposition, 
and  applied  to  all  cases,  is  false.  To  neglect  to 
use  the  powers  and  faculties  given  us  is  often  as 
injurious,  sometimes  more  so,  than  the  abuse  of 
them  in  sins  of  commission.  But  because  the 
evil  done  in  sins  of  commission  is  often  more 
immediate  and  obvious  than  in  sins  of  omission, 
where  the  effect  is  more  slow  and  is  often  lost 
in  obscurity,  we  are  easily  led  to  regard  the  lat- 
ter as  less  than  the  former.  In  the  ej'es  of  God, 
the  thief  and  the  murderer  may  be  less  vile  than 
the  hardhearted  rich  man,  who  refuses  to  relieve 
his  dying  neiirhbour,  and  suffers  him  to  perish 
of  hunger;  allhoutrh  the  former  is  severely  ])u- 
nished  by  men,  while  the  latter  remains  unpu- 
nishe<l,  and  even  may  enjoy  the  hi<jhest  repute 
and  iionour  in  the  view  of  men.  Christ  teaches 
this.  Matt.  XXV.  11 — If),  where  those  who  have 
not  fed  the  hungry  and  clothed  the  naked  are 
consirrned  by  the  Judje  of  the  world  to  the 
])lace  of  torment,  as  well  as  other  offenders. 
He  applies  the  term  xaxnrtotfiv  to  the  omission 
of  a  good  action,  Mark,  iii.  4  ;  Luke,  vi,  9. 

II.  Jn  respccl  to  llie  Knowledge  and  the  U7//  of  him 
who  sins. 

(1)  fn  rrxpect  to  kvoiolrd^r.  In  case  of  an 
tUeiral  actifm,  one  either  knows  the  law  or  he 
does  not;  hence  arises  the  division  of  sins  into 
those  of  ignorance  and  those  of  knowledtre, 
(^precntn  ii^norantinr,  and  precatn  cum  icimlin 
rrefi  eornnii.Hsn.)  Sin,  or  transgression  nf  the 
divine  law,  always  presupposes  a  knowledge  of 
this  law;  f<>r  without  the  knowledtre  of  the  law 
there  can  be  no  sin.  Vide  s.  81,  I.  The  s't 
?f  ignorance  is  not  found,  therefore,  in  the  ftase 


of  one  who  is  wholly  ignorant  of  the  dirinelaw, 
or  who  has  had  no  opportunity  of  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  it;  in  short,  when  his  ignorance 
is  without  any  fault  on  his  part.  Hence  Christ 
says,  John,  xv.  22,  24,  "Had  I  not  told  it  unto 
you,  (that  I  was  a  divine  teacher.)  ye  would 
not  have  sinned,  (in  rejecting  me;)  and  hud  I 
not  done  such  great  miracles,  (b\»  which  '(hey 
are  furnished  with  the  means  of  judging  cor 
rectly  respecting  me,)  they  had  not  had  sin.** 
An  ignorance  of  this  kind,  which  is  wholly 
without  criminality,  is  called  hy  the  schoolmen, 
iiinnrantin  tnriiicihilis;  and,  however  various  are 
the  explanations  which  they  give  of  it,  th*»y  are 
agreed  in  saying,  that  it  must  he  excused,  and 
cannot  be  imputed.  In  particular  cases,  how* 
ever,  it  is  very  difficult  to  judge  respecting 
others,  whether  the  ignorance  of  any  one  is.  or 
is  not,  without  any  fault  on  his  part;  for  what 
seems  to  one  easy  to  he  known,  so  that  he  can 
hardly  conceive  how  it  should  appear  dark  or 
difRcult,  is  attended  in  the  view  of  another  with 
insuperable  didiculties  and  hindrances.  Hence 
we  ought  to  be  very  cautious  in  judfTJng.  God 
only  can  determine  infillibly  whetlier,  and  how 
far,  ignorance  is  attended  with  criminality.  As 
soon,  however,  as  any  one  neglects  the  means 
within  his  reach  of  acquiring  knowledge  of  the 
law,  his  ignorance  is  no  longer  innocent;  he 
commits  actual  sin,  and  is  liable  to  punishment. 
In  order  to  a  st'n  nf  fi^nnrauce,  it  may  therefore 
be  considered  as  essential  that  the  person  should 
have  been  able  to  know  the  law,  and  t'.at  his 
own  ne<T|i(rence  and  forbearing  to  inquire  is  the 
only  cause  of  his  ignorance. 

Nearly  related  to  these  are  sins  committed 
lhr()u>xh  error,  (per  errorem  commissa;^  hence 
they  are  often  classed  with  sins  of  ignoranc**. 
Sins  of  error  are  those  which  are  committed 
(ff)  when  one  erroneouslj'  supposes  that  a  law 
exists,  when  in  fact  there  is  none — e.  g..  wher 
one  supposes  it  is  his  duty  to  persecute  heretics 
and  errorists ;  (/;)  when  one  misunderstands  the 
law,  or  (r)  when,  through  error,  he  fails  in  the 
application  of  the  law  to  particular  cases;  or 
(f/)  when  he  judges  erroneously  respecting  the 
obligation  under  wliich  he  is  laid  by  the  law. 
The  only  question  now  is,  whether  such  an  error 
is  without  fault,  or  not;  whether  it  was  in  our 
power  to  avoid  it.  These  different  kinds  of  sin 
are  distingtiished  in  the  scriptures,  and  are  al- 
ways there  judged  of,  according  to  the  principles 
here  laid  down — e.  g.,  Luke,  xxiii.  .'M,  Father, 
fitn^irr  them,  (there  was,  therefore,  sin  in  this 
case;  for  thev  hail  had  opportunity  to  become 
better  instructed ;  and  yet  there  were  many 
things  whic  diminished  their  guilt;  and  so 
C'brist  adds,)yf»r  thr>f  know  not  what  ihr>f  Hn, 
Ac*a  jii,  17.  xarh.  ayi-oeai-  »V,)a'|.'r»*  and  Paul 
-lays,  respecting  himself,  1  Tim.  i.  13,  God  had 
forgiven  him  lor  persecuting  Christians,  or* 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


301 


ifyvoZv  irtoir/oa  iv  UTiiatia.  Sins  in  general  are 
sometimes  called  u/yvor,fiata,  Heb.  ix.  7.  Heb. 
njjr,  Lev.  iv.  2,  13,  wliere  sins  of  ignorance  ol" 
every  kind  are  spoken  of  at  length.  The  fur- 
tlier  discussion  of  this  subject  belongs  to  theo- 
logical morals. 

(•2)  III  respect  to  the  will.  Here,  again,  it  must 
be  presupposed,  that  without  the  free  determina- 
tion of  the  will  no  sin  can  exist.  Such  an  act 
does  not  depend  upon  me,  and  is  not  to  be  re- 
garded ae  mine.  Vide  s.  81,  I.  ad  finem.  In 
order  to  estimate  correctly  the  sinfulness  of  hu- 
man actions,  and  their  liability  of  punishment, 
regard  iiiUst  be  had  to  the  motives  and  induce- 
ments wiiicli  act  on  tiie  human  will,  and  the  re- 
lations of  men  with  regard  to  them,  and  the 
situdtio.i  in  which  the  ofl'ender  is  placed.  Ac- 
cording to  these  circumstances  must  the  degree 
of  llie  sinfulness  of  actions  be  judged  and  esti- 
mated. Sins  may  be  divided,  in  respect  to  the 
inieniion  with  which  they  are  committed,  into 
the  following  classes — viz., 

A.  LwoLUNTAKY  SINS,  when  one  transgresses 
the  law  of  God,  without  having  formed  a  proper 
resolution  or  purpose  of  so  doing,  {si  abiit  cun- 
siliuin  pcccandi.)     Among  these  are : — , 

(a)  Hins  of  precipitancy,  "  jua',"  as  Cicero 
says,  (Olliciis,  I.  8,)  ^^repentina  aliquo  molu 
aniiui  accidunt,''''  in  opposition  to  deliberate  sins, 
prepeiue  and  afurethuuir/it.  Sins  of  this  kind  are 
committed  when  persons  act  so  prec'i)>itately  that 
they  do  not  once  think  of  the  law  forbidding  the 
action  which  they  perforn),  or  do  not  duly  con- 
sider the  reasons  which  lie  against  it.  They 
ought  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  sins 
wliich  are  committed  through  levity.  In  order 
tiiat  a  trespass  committed  by  me  should  be 
thruugh  mere  pi-ecipilancy,  I  must  not  have 
sought  the  opportunity  to  sin;  the  time  between 
the  resolution  and  the  action  must  have  been 
vt,ry  short,  and  the  feeling  which  has  carried 
me  away  must  have  been  very  strong.  The 
sin,  too,  must  be  followed  by  deep  repentance, 
and  a  firm  resolve  to  avoid  the  same  in  future. 
Such  sins  of  precipitancy  ought  not,  however, 
to  be  lightly  regarded,  because  they  often  plunge 
us  into  great  calamity,  and,  if  often  repeated, 
cease  to  be  sins  of  precipitancy.  Sins  of  this 
uaiure  are  mentioned  in  Gal.  vi.  1,  where  Cliris- 
tians  are  exhorted  to  be  on  their  guard  against 
them,  and  to  endeavour,  in  the  spirjt  of  meek-* 
ness,  to  restore  those  who  have  committed  them. 
Vide  also  Psalm  Ixxiii.  2,  coll.  ver.  23,  seq. 

(6)  Sin.s  nj  weakness,  ^pceeala  injlrmiialis.) 
These,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term,  can 
lake  place  only  when  one  knows  that  w  hat  he 
does  is  against  the  law,  but  yet  is  nol  physically 
ftbie  to  forbear  doing  it.  Tliey  are  seen  in  per- 
sons who  are  nol  sufficiently  confirmed  in  good- 
ness, who  have  not  a  settled  habit  of  doing 
right,   and   whose   passions   are   very   violent. 


Sins,  however,  cannot  be  said  to  be  committed 
from  mere  weakness,  unless  he  who  commits 
them  has  used  on  his  part  a  proper  watchful- 
ness, and  has  resisted  his  evil  desires,  and 
found,  after  all,  that  it  was  impossible  for  him 
wholly  to  exclude  them  from  his  mind,  or  to 
fulfil  his  duties  and  his  good  intentions.  This 
is  the  case  of  which  Christ  speaks,  Matt.  xxvi. 
41,  "The  spirit  is  willing  (n^jo>v/*ov)  ;  but  the 
Jiesh  (i.  e.,  the  body,  by  which  the  soul  is  so 
much  influenced)  is  weak  (uo^svjjj) ;"  i.  e.,  a& 
weak  men,  whose  spirit  dwell  in  a  disordered 
body,  they  were  not  able  to  execute  the  good 
purposes  for  which  tliey  had  a  willingness. 
The  general  maxim  contained  in  tiiis  passage  is 
the  following:  men  are  often  hindered  by  sense 
and  passion  from  the  execution  of  their  best 
purposes,  and  yield  to  the  inducements  to  sin. 
The  scriptures,  therefore,  always  presuppose 
in  these  sins  a  certain  goodness  of  heart,  and 
the  serious  purpose  of  avoiding  sin,  and  deep 
repentance  on  account  of  it  when  it  has  been 
committed.  Men,  therefore,  wlio  are  totally 
corrupt,  and  in  whom  all  moral  sense  is  sup- 
pressed, cannot  commit  sins  of  weakness; 
though,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  entirely 
true,  according  to  the  conmion  allirination  of 
some  theologians,  that  the  pious  only  and  the 
truly  regenerate  can  commit  sins  of  weakness 
and  precipitancy,  and  that,  as  some  will  say, 
all  the  sins  of  the  unrenewed  are  to  be  regarded 
as  sins  of  design,  (Germ.  BoshiitssUtuien.) 
For,  as  even  the  pious  man  is  frequently  borne 
away  by  the  violence  of  passio.n  to  tJie  inconsi- 
derate commission  of  deeds  which  are  against 
his  own  will  and  purpose;  this  must  certainly 
be  much  oftener  the  case  with  unrenewed  men; 
and  unless  they  are  in  a  high  degree  corrupt  and 
vicio\is,  it  cannot  be  affirmed  with  certainty  re- 
specting them,  that  they  always  sin  from  sheer 
wickedness,  and  that  tliey  never  fight  against 
sin  and  endeavour  to  resist  it.  For  a  man  who 
is  addicted  to  a  particular  vice,  and  who  often 
commits  one  sin,  may  yet  have  in  him  much 
which  is  good,  and  strive  with  earnestness  and 
zeal  against  other  sins  to  which  he  is  tempted. 
Now,  little  as  sin  can  in  any  case  be  approved 
or  exculpated,  it  is  yet  true  that  many  very 
gross  outbreakings  of  sin  in  particular  cases 
and  persons  are  to  be  considered  as  sins  of 
weakness  and  precipitancy,  and  that  the  Om- 
nitcient  Being  often  passes  a  diil'erenl  judg- 
ment, with  regard  to  the  morality  of  such  ac- 
tions, from  that  which  men  commonly  form,  or 
are  able  to  form.  This  is  the  case,  for  exam- 
ple, with  theft,  suicide,  homicide,  infanticide, 
and  other  similar  crimes,  which,  on  account  of 
their  consequences,  need  to  be  severely  punish- 
ed by  human  courts. 

B.  Voia;ntarv   sins,  precala   voluntaria,   or 
pruwrelica,    (t'rom    npoavpsotj,   proposiium,   eon^ 
2  C 


30-3 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


si'lium.)  These  are  committel  with  a  determi- 
nation of  brpakin<T  the  law  of  God. 

(«)  When  any  one  knows  the  law,  and,  be- 
fore he  sins,  distinctly  recollects  it,  or  mi<>ht 
easily  recollect  it,  and  yet  proceeds  to  sin,  then 
his  sin  is  vnlunfnrt/ ;  so  also,  when  he  delights 
himself  in  the  sin  which  he  has  committed,  ap- 
proves of  it,  and  wishes  for  an  opportunity  to 
repeat  it,  notwithstandin<T  he  is  convinced,  or 
mitjht  he,  that  the  act  is  opposed  to  the  divine 
law. 

(^f))  A  sin  does  not  cease  to  he  vohintrtry  and 
dr/ibrrate,  because  he  who  commits  it  may  have 
been  urjred  on  by  the  command,  the  threat,  the 
solicitation,  or  the  contempt,  of  men.  For  in 
this  case  it  is  in  my  power  to  leave  the  sin  un- 
done; and  if  I  commit  it,  I  form  the  resolution 
of  bn^aking  the  law  of  God  in  order  to  escape 
an  evil  threatened  me  by  man.  Vide  Matt.  x. 
2^.  An  exception  is  of  course  made  with  re- 
gard to  proper /)//^.«/m/ compulsion — e.  rr.,  if  one 
strikes  anotlier  with  my  hand,  atjainst  my  own 
will,  the  action  in  such  a  case  is  no  more  mine. 

(c)  It  is  not  necessary  that  every  vnhinUiry 
sin  should  be  a  gross  one;  even  the  smallest 
violation  of  the  law  which  takes  place  with  de- 
liberation is  a  voluntary  sin ;  and  it  may  even 
be  that  an  action  which  is  not  in  itself  sinful, 
and  which  is  only  regarded  as  such  from  an 
uneiili'jlitoned  conscience  may  become  a  volun- 
tary sin  by  being  deliberately  performed  ;  for 
the  jierson  in  such  a  case  forms  a  resolution  to 
break  the  law  of  God^-e.  g.,  when  one  regards 
card-playing  as  forbidden,  and  yet  plays.  Vide 
s.  81,  1.2. 

(f/)  The  highest  degree  of  voluntary  sin  is 
that  in  which  one  sins  with  wiUin'^uesii,frnm 
mere  wichcdness,  and  for  the  sake  of  the  sin  it- 
self, (peccattim  frivolum,  or  ixov<;iov.')  Every 
such  sin  is  indeed  voluntary;  but  every  volun- 
tary sin  does  not  spring  from  pure  malice  or 
evil.  Such  a  sin  exists  only  when  one  violates 
the  law  without  being  tempted  to  it  by  external 
solicitations  or  opportunities.  There  are,  there- 
fore, many  vo/untarj/  sins  which  do  not  result 
from  this  pure  evil,  and  which  are  not  commit- 
ted with  this  perfect  cordiality;  but  which  may 
be  even  reluctantly  performed,  through  fear  of 
persecution,  cont<Mnpt,  or  some  other  cause.  In 
such  a  case,  we  have  the  sin  of  purpose,  not  of 
mere  evil.  Should  one  in  opposition  to  his  own 
convictions  renounce  religion  at  a  time  of  per- 
secution, or  when  irrelii^ious  opinions  were  pre- 
valent, he  would  sin  voluntarily  ;  but  for  him  tn 
do  this  without  the  influence  of  persecution,  of 
dans-er,  or  of  any  solicitation  from  without, 
woulil  be  to  sin  cordially  and  from  enti'e  wick- 
edness. Paul  names  this  Rinnin<;  ixoviii^f,  Heb. 
2.  iCi,  where  he  speaks  of  just  such  a  denial  of 
the  faith,  and  justly  declares  it  to  be  one  of  the 
most  heinoua  and  i*npardonable  of  crimes. 


(f)  When  from  the  frequent  repetition  of  a 
sin.  a  h.ihit  is  formed,  this  sin  thus  4nade  habi- 
tual is  denominated  a  vice,-  e.  g.,  the  vice  of 
drunkenness.  Arc.  The  term  vice  is  used  in  two 
senses — viz.,  sometimes  to  denote  the  habit  it- 
self of  acting  against  the  divine  law  ;  sometimes 
to  denote  the  particular  actions  which  ori'^inate 
in  such  a  habit.  'I'hus  when  it  is  said,  a  man 
is  guilty  of  a  n-reat  ricf,  the  meaning  is,  that  he 
has  committed  a  sinful  action  which  with  bim 
is  habitual.  Hence  every  vicious  man  is  a  sin- 
ner— i.  e.,  a  transgressoi  of  the  divine  law;  but 
every  sinner  is  not  of  necessity  vicious.  Oft 
Michaelis,  Von  der  Sunde,  s.  337,  seq.  and 
Toellner,  Theologische  Untersuchungen,  th.  i. 
b.  2,  Num.  7. 

Nute. — As  the  sacred  writers  always  proceed 
on  the  principle  that  God,  as  ruler,  has  a  right 
to  prescribe  laws  to  men,  and  that  men.  as  his 
subjects,  are  always  bound  to  obey;  they  de- 
scribe those  who  knowingly  and  wilfully  trans- 
gress his  authority,  as  enemies,  rebels,  and  m- 
sxtrrrents,  and  their  crimes,  as  rebellion,  enmity, 
&c. ;  so  Psalm  viii.  3;  Hom.  viii.  7;  James,  iv. 
4.  On  the  contrary,  the  virtuous  man  is  de- 
scribed in  the  Hible  as  obedient  and  stibmisiiiv^ 
(2^i:r),  who  willingly  and  cheerfully  bows  to 
the  authority  of  God.  Humility  often  Stands 
hr  piety,  and  pride  for  wic/i-edmas, — intentional 
and  deliberate  sins;  and  the  proud  are  those 
who  commit  them.  Vide  Ps.  cxix.  21,  51  ; 
XXV.  9.  Why  are  the  virtuous  called  humble 
Tind  obedient  ?  All  virtue  should  proceed  from 
religious  motives,  from  thankful  love,  and  a 
spirit  of  obedience  towards  (iod. 

(3)  In  respect  to  the  actions  themselves,  or 
the  acting  subjict,  sins  are  divided  into  internal 
and  extriuil.  We  act  either  with  our  souls 
simply,  or  with  them  in  connexion  with  the 
body,  of  which  the  soul  makes  use  as  its  organ. 
This  division  is  found  in  the  New  Testament, 
Matt.  is.  4;  Rom.  iii.  13,  seq.;  2  Cor.  vii.  1, 
(uo?.vtudj  rrapxoj  xai  rfrfvuaro^.)  I'leenta  nc/o- 
iilia  int  rnn,  are  those  which  are  committed 
merely  in  heart,  or  in  thought.  They  are  also 
called  nrtinnrs  (prrttvn')  animi,  and  are  compre- 
hended by  Paul  under  the  term  t^iyo.  Gal.  v.  19, 
seq.  coll.  Rom.  i.  2S — 31.  Among  these,  how- 
ever, we  are  not  to  include  those  evil  desires 
that  rise  involuntarily  and  without  pnilt  in  the 
tiearts  of  men  ;  which  are  rub(>r  the  disease  of 
the  soul  than  its  rruilt.  They  are  committed 
only  when  the  desires  after  forbidden  things 
rising  in  the  heart  are  cherished,  entertained, 
delighted  in,  and  executed;  in  short,  when,  as 
James  says,  (ch.  i.  IT),)  sin  is  conceired  in  the 
heart.     C(.  «.  78,  IV. 

Peccntn  nctuali/i  extkrna,  are  those  nnlawfal 
actions  which  one  commits  with  the  body  and 
its  members.  They  are  divided,  according  td 
the  diflferent  manner  in  which  the  disposition  of 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


301 


the  sonl  is  made  known  through  the  body,  into 
peccata  oris  or  lingtuc,  (Matt.  v.  22  ;  Rom.  iii. 
14;  James,  iii.  2,)  gestuutn  and  operis.  Tlie 
external  or  bodily  actions  of  men  are,  however, 
only  so  tar  siiiful  and  liable  to  punishment,  as 
they  depend  on  the  soul  or  the  will,  Matt.  xv. 
18 — 20;  otherwise,  they  cannot  be  denominated 
sins.  Vide  No.  II.  2,  of  this  section.  Hence 
Christ  calls  the  heart  of  man  the  treasury 
(^jjaavpoj)  of  good  and  evil,  where  good  and 
evil  actions  lie  concealed,  and  are  prepared,  be- 
fore they  are  externally  exhibited ;  Matthew, 
xii.  34,  35,  coll.  Mark,  vii.  21.  The  body  is 
merely  the  instrument  or  subject,  which  obeys 
the  commands  of  the  soul.  Hence  it  is  plain 
that  it  is  false  to  consider  tn/erna/ sins  as  less 
heinous  and  deserving  of  punishment  than  ex- 
ternal sins,  as  is  commonly  done.  This  mistake 
results  from  the  Aict  that  internal  sins  are  con- 
cealed from  the  view  of  men,  and  cannot  there- 
fore be  punished  by  them.  We  deceive  our- 
sdves  here  also,  by  conceiving  of  the  relation 
between  men  and  God  as  about  the  same  as  that 
which  subsists  between  man  and  his  fellow 
man,  especially  like  that  between  subjects  and 
a  human  ruler,  where  thoughts  are  not  liable  to 
punishment,  so  long  as  they  remain  mere 
thoughts,  and  are  unknown  to  other  men.  But 
to  God  the  mere  thoughts  of  men  are  as  much 
known  as  their  outward  actions.  Vide  1  Cor. 
iv.  5,  and  s.  22;  and  he  can  therefore  bring 
them  into  judgment  for  the  one  as  well  as  for 
the  other.  Hence,  in  the  Bible,  the  very  signi- 
ficant epithet,  xa^hMyvi^^tri  (aS  -\^r\)  is  applied 
to  God.  It  is  also  obvious  that  in  very  many 
cases  internal  sins  are,  in  the  sight  of  God, 
more  heinous  and  ill-deserving  than  external. 
For  example:  one  man  occupies  his  fancy  with 
shameless  and  unchaste  images.  He  commits 
internal  sin,  although  no  other  man  can  reproach 
him  for  it,  or  punish  him,  because  it  is  done 
merely  in  heart.  Another  man,  ordinarily 
chaste,  is  borne  away  by  passion  at  one  time 
actually  to  commit  fornication  or  adultery,  and 
thus  brings  upon  himself  shame  or  punishment 
from  man,  while  the  other  goes  free.  Both 
have  sinned.  But  which  of  the  two  sins  is,  in 
the  sight  of  God,  of  the  darkest  character  and 
the  most  deserving  of  punishment,  the  internal 
^r  the  external?  The  decision  in  this  case  is 
aot  difficult;  and  if  we,  like  the  omniscient  God, 
(tnew  the  heart,  we  should  all  decide  in  the 
same  manner  with  regard  to  offences  of  this  na- 
ture. Hence  Christ  says,  Matt.  v.  28,  whoever 
looks  upon  a  woman  to  lust  after  her  hath  com- 
mitted adultery  with  her  alrea''y  in  his  heart. 
Cato  pronounced  justly  a  similar  judgment: 
Furtum  sine  iilla  quoqtie  attreclalione  fieri  posse, 
tola  MENTE  atque  animo,  ut  furium  fiat,  kMiii- 
''sntk;  Gellius,  xi.  18,  ad  finem. 


SECTION  LXXXIH. 

OF  SOME  OTHER  DIVISIONS  OK  SIN    AND  SINS  01^ 
PARTICIPATION. 

I.  Some  minor  divisions  of  sins. 

Besides  the  divisions  of  sin  already  mention- 
ed, s.  82,  there  are  also  many  others  which  are 
either  wanting  in  exactness  and  philosophic  cor- 
rectness, or  are  of  less  consequence,  as  they 
cast  but  little  light  upon  the  doctrine  itself,  and 
only  furnish  some  contingent  characteristics  of 
particular  kinds  of  sin.  ISome  of  them  are  also 
liable  to  great  abuse.  Still,  as  they  are  fre- 
quently found  in  the  writings  of  the  schoolmen 
and  of  modern  theologians,  it  is  necessary  to 
understand  them  as  matters  of  history. 

(1)  The  division  of  sins  in  respect  to  the 
object  of  the  law  against  which  the  sin  is  com- 
mitted into  those  which  are  committed  against 
God,  against  one's  neighbour,  and  against  one- 
self, is  a  very  common  division,  but  far  from  be- 
ing accurate  and  just.  For  the  object  of  every 
sin,  if  the  formale  of  it  is  considered,  is  God. 
The  obligation  to  obey  the  law  issues  from  him 
as  the  supreme  Ruler  and  Lawgiver.  Again; 
every  one  who  commits  a  sin,  of  whatever  kind 
it  may  be,  sins  in  each  case  against  himself. 
For  in  the  commission  of  it  he  most  injures 
himself. 

JVofe. — We  may  here  notice  the  division  of 
sins  which  is  found  among  the  schoolmen,  into 
peccata  philosaphica  (those  committed  Rofainst 
the  laws  of  nature),  and  peccata  t/ieologica, 
(those  committed  against  the  revealed  will  of 
God.)  But  no  characteristics  can  be  given  by 
which  these  two  kinds  of  sinning  can  be  distin- 
guished from  each  other;  and  the  guilt  and  ill 
desert  of  both  must  be  necessarily  equal,  since 
God  is  no  less  the  author  of  the  laws  of  nature 
than  of  those  of  Revelation.  We  may  learn 
something  of  the  great  abuse  of  this  division, 
of  which  some  of  the  .Tesuits  since  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century  have  been  chargeable, 
from  church  history  and  theological  ethics. 

(2)  Sins  have  been  divided,  in  respect  to 
their  greater  or  less  guilt  and  desert  of  punish- 
ment, into  mortalia  or  non-vcnalia ;  (unpardoO' 
able),  and  venalia  (pardonable) ; — gins  unto 
death,  and  venial  sins.  The  phrase  sin  unto 
death  is  taken  from  1  John,  v.  16,  where,  how- 
ever it  has  an  entirely  difTerent  meaning  from 
that  which  is  given  to  it  in  this  connexion — viz., 
punishment  with  death  at  a  human  tribunal,  a 
crime  worthy  nf  death,  a  capital  crime.  But  this 
phrase,  as  used  by  theologians,  is  taken  in  the 
Hebrew  sense,  and  denotes  sins  which  draw 
after  them  death — i.  e.,  divine  punishment — e. 
g.,  John,  viii.  21,  24,  drfo^avfi'v^t  fv  tfj  auopr/qi 
vfiCiv.     The  term  peceatum  veniale  is  found  even 


Hk 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


in  Auorustino.  Very  difTerent  opinions,  however, 
are  entertained  by  theologians  as  to  the  mean- 
ing of  this  division;  and  there  has  been  much 
controversy  about  it,  especially  between  the  the- 
ologians of  ihe  Uomanand  the  pratestant church. 
In  order  t!iat  this  term  may  be  understood  in  a 
sense  conformed  to  the  Bible,  it  must  be  ex- 
plained in  the  following  way ;  every  sin,  as  such, 
deserves  punishment,  (^varov  aTtoxvn,  James, 
i.  15,)  nor  do  the  least  remain  unpunished. 
The  pious  man,  therefore,  either  does  not  sin  at 
all,  or  if  he  sins,  deserves  punishment,  (death.) 
But  if  any  one  has  sinned  through  ignorance, 
heedlessness,  human  weakness,  or  precipit.incy, 
he  may  hope  for  tlie  pardon  {veniam)  of  iiis  sin, 
since  he  did  not  commit  it  with  deliberate  pur- 
pose. Vide  s.  8"3.  Heinous  sins  remain  al- 
ways deserving  of  punishment;  but  those  who 
repent  of  their  sins  and  with  all  their  hearts 
turn  from  them,  rectnve,  according  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  scriptures,  pardon  from  God,  tlirough 
faith  in  Jesus  Christ;  and  the  Christian  knows, 
that  ihrouirh  his  faith  his  sins  are  truly  forgiven 
him.  Vide  Rom.  viii.  1,  ovbtv  xarcixpt^a.  1 
John,  i.  9,  coll.  ii.  1  ;  Ps.  ciii.  8— IS. 

(3)  As  the  phrase  to  cry  to  Heaven  is  used  in 
the  Bible  with  reference  to  particular  sins,  some 
have  thence  taken  occasion  to  introduce  the  di- 
vision of  sins  into  clamanlia  and  non-clumanlia. 
The  texts  are.  Gen.  iv.  10;  xviii.  20;  Ex.  iii.  7; 
James,  v.  4,  coll.  Is.  xxii.  14.  The  sins  men- 
tioned in  these  passages  have  been  comprised  in 
tiie  following  distich  : — 

«'  Clamitat  ad  cerium  vox  sane^inis  et  Sodomorum, 
Vox  oppressorum,  nicrces  detenta  laborum." 

But  this  cryinir  to  Heaven  is  not  given  in  the 
Bible  as  the  df?finite  mark  of  any  particular  sins, 
and  it  may  be  spoken  of  many  others  besides 
those  to  which  it  is  actually  applied.  It  depends 
merely  upon  the  circumstances,  li'isprosapo- 
pijuiu,  and  is  used  to  denote  great  and  aggravated 
offences,  which  have  terrible  consequences,  but 
which  are  nut  punished  in  this  world,  either  be- 
cause they  remain  undiscovered,  or  because,  on 
account  of  gr.-at  public  corruption,  they  are  not 
regarded  as  sins.  Respecting  such  sins,  the  He- 
brew says,  l/ii'i/  eri/  to  God,  or,  they  call  to  God 
for  revenge — i.  e.,  they  are  punished  by  God 
with  peculiar  severity,  altiiough  overlooked  by 
men.  Among  sins  of  tliis  nature,  e.  g.,  ]»  p(r- 
juri/,  respecting  whi('h  it  is  expressly  said,  Kx. 
XX.  7,  that  God  will  not  forbear  to  punish  it, 
althougli  the  phrase  crying  to  Hfavcn  is  never 
used  with  respect  to  it  in  the  Bible.  On  the 
contrary,  it  is  said,  respecting  the  blood  of 
Christ,  ileb.  xii.  21,  that  it  tpcaks  better  thlnf^s 
than  the  lilood  of  Jlbsl ;  it  calls  upon  God  for 
favour  and  tlie  forgiveness  of  sins,  or  it  results 
in  this,  thai  God  does  pardon;  while  Alx-l's 
"ilood  Cdlied  on  God  to  punish,  or  was  followed 


by  this  consequence,  that  God  punished  the 
murderer.  In  connexion  with  these  texts,  vide 
Sir.  XXXV.  18,  "The  tears  of  the  widow  cry 
over  themselves  (to  Heaven)  against  him  who 
extorts  them." 

II.  Parlicipntion  in  ihe  sins  of  others. 

In  1  Tim.  v.  22,  Paul  makes  use  of  the  lan- 
guage xoiviliviiv  u/xa^T'icu;  uXJ^rpiatj.  A  sin  oj 
participation  is  committed  by  any  one,  when  the 
unlawful  action,  though  not  performed  imme- 
diately by  him,  is  yet  done  medialtly  through 
him,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing.  Is  occasioned, 
aided,  and  abetted  by  him.  Everything,  there- 
fore, by  which  I  give  to  my  fellow  man  oppor- 
nily,  inducement,  or  occasion  to  sin,  is  a  sin  of 
participation.  The  guilt  which  rests  upon  me 
is  greater  or  less,  in  proportion  as  I  could  have 
foreseen,  or  did  actually  foresee  and  approve, 
the  sins  which  my  fellow  man  has  committed 
in  consequence  of  these  opportunities  and  in- 
ducements which  I  placed  in  his  way.  In  a 
great  variety  of  ways  can  one  give  to  another 
occasion  to  sin; — by  command,  by  bad  advice 
and  counsel  (John,  xviii.  14;  2  Sam.  xvi.  21), 
by  praising  wicked  deeds,  by  concealment,  by 
omitting  to  place  all  possible  resistance  in  the* 
way  of  the  sin,  or  by  failing  to  give  needful  admo-' 
niiion,  warning,  or  correction,  (I  Sam.  iii.  13.) 
The  mere  participator,  however,  has  not  always 
equal  guilt  with  the  one  who  himself  directly 
commits  the  sin.  The  guilt  of  the  one  may  be 
greater  or  less  than  that  of  the  olhor,  or  that  of 
both  may  be  equal ;  and  this  will  be  according 
to  the  circumstances  in  each  particular  case. 
The  more  full  discussion  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject belongs  properly  to  the  department  of 
morals. 

There  is  one  class  of  sins  of  participation 
which  deserves  more  particular  notice  here,  al- 
though the  consideration  of  it  at  large  belongs 
to  theological  morals — viz.,  scandals,  so  called. 
We  sul)join  only  a  few  remarks.  'l.xdvha.'KDv 
(rpi-)  is,  literally,  anything  by  which  one  is' 
made  to  full;  it  then  signifies  anything  by' 
which  one  is  injured — c.  g.,  snares,  plots; 
finally,  in  a  moral  sense,  it  denotes  not  only 
every  deliberate  and  designed  solicitation  of  an- 
other to  evil,  hut  also  everything  by  which  one 
gives  to  another  occasion  to  sin,  even  in  a  more 
indirect  way,  and  if  he  had  no  intention  of  so 
doing — e.  g.,  the  bad  example  which  one  sets 
before  another.  This  term  is  sometimes  used" 
in  the  discourses  of  Jesus  to  signify  temptation 
to  apostasy  from  Christianity — e.  ^A  Matt. 
xviii.  G;  John,  xvi.  1  ;  but  it  is  also  used  by 
Christ  in  a  wider  sense — e.  g.,  Matt.  xvii.  ?7, 
where  it  denotes  the  inducement  to  disobey  ma- 
gistrates, which  one  olTcrs  to  another  by  his 
conduct;  and  in  general  oxafhaxi^n*  is  with 
him  to  give  oecasiun  to  sin,  to  tcuijit,  Matt.  T. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


306 


29,  30.  Such  an  offence  or  scandal  may  be 
oommitted  either  in  word  or  in  external  deed. 
Actions  and  words  may  in  themselves  be  right 
and  innocent ;  but  if  one  can  foresee  that  by  them 
another  may  be  led  into  sin,  it  is  his  duty  to  re- 
frain from  them.  On  these  principles,  Paul 
judges  respecting  the  eating  of  meats  regarded 
as  unlawful,  and  of  flesh  offered  to  idols,  in  pre- 
sence of  persons  who  had  conscientious  scruples 
respecting  it,  Rom.  xiv.  20 — 25;  1  Cor.  viii. 
10 — 13.  The  maxims  which  Paul  lays  down 
in  these  places  are  very  important  and  worthy 
of  being  laid  to  heart,  because  they  are  applica- 
ble to  all  similar  cases.  The  accountability 
and  ill-desert  of  a  person  guilty  of  such  an  of- 
fence is  ditTerent,  in  proportion  to  the  deed  it- 
self and  its  consequences.  The  easier  it  is  to 
avoid  the  seductive  action,  the  more  important 
the  office  and  station  of  the  one  who  does  it; 
the  more  unlawful  the  action  is  in  itself,  and 
the  greater  the  evil  done  by  it,  so  much  the 
greater  and  more  deserving  of  punishment  is 
the  offence. 

Scandals  or  offences  are  sometimes  divided, 
in  respect  to  the  subject,  into  those  given  and 
those  received — a  division,  however,  which  is  in 
many  respects  inconvenient;  it  is  further  treated 
of  in  theological  morals.  Scandals  given  are 
those  actions  of  an  injurious  tendency,  to  the 
©mission  of  which  one  is  obligated,  either  tVom 
the  nature  of  the  actions  themselves,  or  from  the 
particular  circumstances  of  the  case.  To  com- 
mit an  action  in  such  a  case  is  axavbaXicidv  tiva. 
(active).  Matt,  xviii.  6.  Scandals  received  arc 
such  actions  as  may  prove  temptations  to  some 
one,  but  which  are  either  in  themselves  good 
and  according  to  duty,  or  at  least  indifferent  in 
their  moral  character.  In  the  first  case,  one 
may  give  offence  or  occasion  sin  witliout  being 
accessory  to  it,  and  so  without  sin  on  his  part. 
In  the  second  case,  it  is  a  duty  to  abstain  from 
the  action,  according  to  the  advice  of  Paul,  as 
we  have  seen  above.  This  scandalum  acceptum 
is  nxavhaXir^^r^xaLivtivi,  Matt.  xi.  6 ;  xiii.  57  (the 
first  case)  ;  Rom.  xiv.  21,  (the  second  case.) 

In  judging  of  sins  of  participation  and  of 
scandals,  moralists  often  mistake  by  carrying 
the  matter  too  far  in  theory,  and  thus  weaken- 
ing the  effect  of  their  rule;  as,  on  the  other 
hand,  men  in  common  life  are  apt  to  judge  too 
lightly  and  indulgently  respecting  such  sins.  In 
order  to  guard  against  this  latter  fault,  which  is 
often  very  injurious,  it  is  well  to  reverse  the 
case,  and  see  how  we  should  judge  respecting 
participation  in  good,  virtuous,  and  noble  ac- 
tions, and  how  careful  we  should  be  to  make 
out  our  title  to  reward  in  consequence  of  this 
participation.  In  this  way  many  incautious 
decisions  respecting  these  sins  would  be  pre- 
sented. 

39 


SECTION  LXXXIV. 

OF  THE    BLASPHEMV  AGAINST   THE    HOLY    GHOST, 
OR  THE  SIN  AC.AINST  THE   HOLV  GHOST. 

The  latter  phrase  (the  sin  against  the  Holy 
Ghost),  which  is  introduced  into  theology,  is 
both  unscriptural  and  very  inconvenient,  on  ac- 
count of  its  indefinileness  and  vagueness.  For 
there  are  many  sin*  against  the  Holy  Ghost 
which  are  not  yet  blasphemy  against  him.  Vide 
Acts,  vii.  51;  1  Thess.  iv.  8.  The  blasphemy 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  (/3xac(i})>j|Uia,  or  ?.oyoj  sij  nvtv- 
fia  ayiov)  is  the  sin  which  is  intended  in  this 
discussion;  and  this,  too,  is  the  scriptur;;l  mode 
of  expressing  it.  The  proof-texts  properly  re- 
lating to  this  subject  are.  Matt.  xii.  31,  32; 
Mark,  iii,  28 — 30;  Luke,  xii.  10:  with  which 
many  compare  the  texts  Heb.  vi.  4 — G ;  x.  29  ; 
1  Pet.  iv.  14  ;  John,  xv.  22—24,  &c.,  although 
their  reference  to  this  subject  is  disputed  by 
others. 

I.  Historical  Observations. 

Even  among  the  ancients  the  explanations 
given  of  this  subject  were  very  diverse,  and 
often  very  indefinite  and  unsettled.  Athanasinii 
wrote  a  whole  dissertation  on  this  subject;  Ep, 
4,  ad  Serapion.  In  this  he  states,  among  other 
things,  the  opinion  of  Origen,  that  "  all  the  sins 
committed  after  baptism  were  sins  against  the 
Holy  Ghost."  But  in  the  writings  of  Origen 
now  extant,  he  places  the  sin  against  the  Holy 
Ghost  in  the  denial  of  the  divinity  of  Jesus 
Christ,  by  means  of  which  he  performed  mira- 
cles (works  of  tiie  Holy  Spirit.)  So  Theognoa- 
tus  of  Alexandria,  Hilarius,  and  Ambrosius, 
although  the  latter  in  one  place  explains  him- 
self differently.  In  the  Pastor  of  Hennas  this 
sin  is  explained  to  be  blasphemy  in  general. 

Since  the  fourth  century,  two  explanations 
have,  however,  found  the  most  approbation;  and 
although  they  are  both  very  differently  modified, 
yet  the  most  diverse  representations  can  be  ar- 
ranged under  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  gene- 
ral classes.  (1)  The  explanation  of  Chrysos 
tom  (Hom.  42,  in  Matt.),  to  which  Hieronymus 
also  assents,  (Comm.  in  .Matt.  12.)  According 
to  them,  one  commits  the  sin  against  the  Holy 
Ghost  who  asserts  that  the  miracles  performed 
by  Christ  through  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
were  done  by  the  agency  of  an  evil  spirit.  (2) 
The  other  is  the  opinion  of  Augustine.  He 
is  not  indeed  always  consistent  with  himself  in 
his  views  respecting  the  kind  of  sin  which 
should  be  regarded  as  the  sin  against  the  Holy 
Ghost.  But  he  makes  the  principal  character 
of  this  sin  to  be  the  obstinate  impenitence  of  the 
sinner  till  the  close  of  his  life,  and  from  this 
circumstance  he  explains  it  hat  this  sin  is  not 
forgiven. 

ac2 


306 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


To  one  or  the  other  of  these  explanations  most 
of  the  theologians  of  the  Western  church  have 
attached  themselves,  at  least  in  general.  The 
reformers  of  the  sixteentli  century  came  out  of 
the  school  of  Augustine,  and  generally  adopted 
his  views  on  tliis  subject.  Hence  the  ftdlowing 
description  of  this  sin  was  the  most  common 
among  the  Lutheran  theologians  of  the  sixteenth, 
seventeenth,  and  a  part  of  the  eighteenth  centu- 
ries— viz.,  it  is  comcnitted  when  any  one  recog- 
nises the  Christian  doctrine  as  divine,  and  in- 
wardly approves  it,  but  yet  denies  it  against 
his  own  convictions,  opposes  and  blasphemes 
it,  and  perseveres  in  this  deliberate  contempt  of 
all  the  means  of  grace,  through  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  acts  upon  his  heart,  even  till  the  close  of 
life. 

Against  this  view,  however,  many  difliculties 
have  been  urged.  («)  It  is  said  that  in  the  texts 
of  scripture  above  cited  the  ordinary  operations 
of  the  Spirit  of  God  are  not  intended,  but  the 
extraordinary,  (h)  That  every  sin,  persevered 
in  until  death,  is  followed  by  condemnation  ;  and 
that  this  cannot  theref)re  be  a  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost. 
For  these  reasons  other  theologians  prefer  the 
opinion  of  Chrysostom  and  Hieronymus — e.  g., 
most  of  the  Arminian  theologians,  and,  after 
them,  Staclvhouse,  Tillotson,  and  other  Knglish 
divines.  These  again  were  followed  by  most 
of  the  German  Lutheran  theologians  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  after  PfalT,  Schubert,  Baum- 
garten,  and  others,  had  assented  to  this  view. 
For  the  opinions  of  the  theologians  of  the  Rom- 
ish church  on  this  point,  vide  Mart.  Gerbert, 
De  peccato  in  Sp.  S.,  .S.  Hlasii,  ITtJO;  and  Hirt, 
De  logomachiia  circa  Doctrinam  de  Spiritu 
Sancto  obviis.  where  the  opinions  of  the  Lu- 
theran theologians  are  carefully  collected.  Vide 
Ncesselt's  "  Hiicherkenntniss"  for  an  account 
of  an  almost  innumerable  multitude  of  other 
works  on  this  subject — e.  g.,  those  of  Feuerborn, 
Museeus,  Schubert,  Zellner,  Haiiber,  Flatt  (a 
prize  essay,  1770),  Buchwitz,  Semler  (1768), 
&c. 

II.  Scriptural  Rrpre.sfntatinn. 

The  Pharisees  and  Scribes  attributed  the 
miracles  which  Jesus  wrought  to  confirm  and 
establish  his  divine  mission,  to  the  devil,  with 
the  malicious  purpose  of  rendering  .lesus  sus- 
pected in  the  view  of  the  people,  upon  whom 
his  miracles  had  produced  a  great  impression, 
as  being  a  magician,  standing  in  alliance  with 
the  devil.  It  was  this  wicked  calumny  which 
led  Jesus  to  make  tL-  declaration  respecting  the 
unpardonabloness  of  the  blasphemy  against  the 
Holy  Ghost,  according  to  the  express  informa- 
tion of  Mark,  c.  iii.  30.  The  following  remarks 
may  serve  to  explain  this  declaration  of  Jesus:  — 

(a)  Bxoafjj^ia  13   any   slander   or  calumny 


which  aims  to  disgrace  or  dishonour  any  oiw 
whether  it  be  God  or  cr.ated  beings,  an<;cls  anV 
men,  2  Pet.  ii.  10,  11 ;  .Mark,  vii.  22,  In  ihif 
passage  it  is  used  in  the  widest  sense,  and  »« 
includes  both.  (It  is  inaccurately  rendered  by 
Luther,  in  Mark,  iii.  28,  blmplumy  a'^ainst 
God.)  Therefore  Christ  says,  "All  other  sins, 
and  even  blasphemies  (against  God  and  men), 
may  be  forgiven  to  men  (if  they  seek  forgive- 
ness in  the  appointed  way);  but  for  that  sin 
alone,  which  is  committed  by  blasphemy  against 
the  Holy  Ghost,  is  no  forgiveness  to  be  expecW 
ed.     It  is  the  most  heinous  of  all  sins. 

(i)  Tlie  phrase  .SV/7»  nf  man  is  soiiK.'times  ap- 
plied to  the  Messiah,  considered  in  his  whole 
character  (ijfai^jjuirtoj) ;  it  is  however  borrowed 
from  his  inferior  nature,  and  relates  chiefly  to 
his  hutnanity.  The  contf^mporaries  of  Jesus 
were  especially  offended  by  the  humiliation  of 
the  Son  of  man,  which  was  so  contradictory  to 
their  expectations  respecting  the  Messiah,  MaiU 
xi.  6;  1  Cor.  i.  23.  Blasphemy  directed  against 
the  Messiah  was  indeed,  in  all  cases,  a  great 
offence;  but  in  the  ignorant  and  misguided 
multitude  it  was  by  no  means  so  great  a  sin  as 
in  those  who  led  them  astray;,  and  hence  in 
their  case  there  was  hope  of  pardon.  They 
were  among  those  who  knew  not  what  they  did, 
Luke,  xxiii.  3L 

(c)  The  case  was  very  different  with  the 
Pharisees;  they  blasphemed  againsr  the  Holy 
Ghost,  since  they  knew  that  tlie  II. ly  Ghost 
acted  through  Christ,  but  yet  denied  it,  and  cast 
contempt  upon  his  agency.  The  support  and 
guidance  of  the  Son  of  man  is  constantly  as- 
cribed by  Christ  and  the  apostles  to  the  Holy 
Spirit.  Vide  Matt.  iii.  16;  John,  iii.  31;  Acts, 
X.  38.  It  is  not,  however,  the  pcrsitnal  dignity 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  God,  which  is  here 
spoken  of,  nor  does  Christ  design  to  say  that  a 
sin  against  one  divine  person  is  gi>ater  than 
against  another, — for  whitrh  no  rea-on  can  be 
supposed  ;  nor  would  he  intimate  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  superior  to  himself  and  the  Father; 
for,  according  to  his  instructions,  they  are  equal 
in  dignity;  but  he  speaks  only  nf  the  nperatimu 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  of  his  matuffslntton, 
which  was  so  plainly  exhibited  in  Christ.  For 
the  work  of  God  and  Ihc  work  if  the  devil  are 
here  opjjosed  to  each  other,  and  in  ISlark,  iii.  29, 
30,  ftvfvua.  ayiov  and  nvivfia  dxa^^roi"  and  in- 
stead of  the  phrase,  to  en^l  out  diwil.i  hy  the  spi- 
rit of  God,  which  is  found,  Matt.  xii.  2B,  we 
find  the  phrase,  by  the  finder  of  GikI,  used  in 
Luke,  xi.  20.  The  sin  hero  described  is  iherw- 
fore  called  blasphemy  ni^ninst  the  Holy  Ghost, 
because  it  is  committed  against  those  divine 
operations  which  are  especially  ascribed  to  the 
Holy  (Jhost  as  his  o'conoinic  work.  But  it 
does  not  follow  that  the  personal  dignity  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  greater  than  that  of  the  Father 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


307 


or  the  Son.  The  Pharisees,  therefore,  committed 
the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost  not  only  by  ob- 
stinately fleiiying,  against  iheir  own  convictions, 
the  miracles  which  Jesus  performed  in  proof  of 
his  divine  mission,  and  which  they  knew  in 
their  hearts  to  be  performed  through  divine 
agency,  but  by  giving  them  out  as  imposture 
and  the  efTect  of  an  evil  spirit,  with  whom  Jesus 
stood  in  alliance,  in  order  thus  to  render  his 
doctrine  suspicious.  This,  considering  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  the  Pharisees  were,  shew- 
ed a  high  degree  of  wickedness,  and  was  actual 
blasphemy  against  God — a  designed  and  deli- 
berate blasphemy,  too,  which  they  were  by  no 
means  disposed  to  repent  of  or  to  retract.  Here 
two  questions  arise — viz., 

(1 )  Can  the  siii  against  the  Holy  Ghost  be  still 
coinmitled  at  the  present  time  ?     Those  who  adopt 
the  opinion  of  Augustine  commonly  affirm  that 
it  can.     But  among  those  theologians  who  have 
explained  these  texts  after  the  manner  of  Chry- 
sostoni  and  Hieronymus,  the  opinions  on  this 
subject  vary.     («)  .Some  of  them  maintain  the 
ifRrinative.     They  think   that  whoever  denies 
the  miracles   of  Christ,  casts   contempt    upon 
them,  or  gives  them  out  as  deception,  impos- 
ture, or  magic,  still  commits  this  sin,  although 
(as  they  sometimes  cautiously  add)  no  one  can 
undertake  to  decide  whether  it  has  been  commit- 
ted by  another.   (J))  But  the  other  side  was  taken 
long  ago  by  some  Arminian  theologians,  (e.  g., 
by  Limborch.)   They  maintained  that  only  eye- 
witnesscs  of  Christ's  miracles,  as  the  Pharisees 
were,  could  be  guilty  of  this  sin,  because  no 
others  had  equal  advantages  for  attaining  to  a 
full  and  undoubting  conviction  of  their  certainty. 
Those   in  our   times  who  pursue   the  general 
course  of  the  Pharisees,  deny  and  ridicule  events 
respecting  the  historic  truth  and  credibility  of 
which  they  are  in  doubt,  or  which  they  suppose 
never  to  have  taken  place.     Hence  it  is  con- 
cluded that  this  sin  can  no  more  be  committed, 
because  miracles  are  no  longer  performed.     So 
Pfaff"  reasoned,  and  after  him  many  protestant 
theologians,     (c)  There  is  still,  however,  one 
case  in  which  the  same  sin  which  was  commit- 
ted by  the  Pharisees  may  be  still  committed — 
viz.,  where  one  is  fully  convinced  of  the  historic 
truth  of  the  miracles  of  Jesus,  and  that  they  were 
done  through  the  divine  power,  and  yet,  in  total 
opposition  to  his  own  convictions,  and  with  the 
same   malicious  purpose  which  the  Pharisees 
had,  pronounces  them  to  be  imposture  and  de- 
ception, the  effect  of  magic  or  other  wicked  arts. 
This  would  in  reality  be  the  same  case  with 
that  of  the  Pharisees.     For  the  circumstance  of 
havtng  seen  the  miracles  oneself  is  of  no  special 
consequence,  and  it  is  enough  if  one  be  con- 
vinced of  their  truth.     When  the  conviction  of 
the  truth  of  the  miracles  is  equally  strong  in 
one  who  has  not  seen  them  and  in  one  who  has, 


the  same  degree  of  guilt  would  seem  to  be  ne- 
cessarily involved  in  denying  them.  Such  a 
case  indeed  will  seldom  occur,  but  the  possibi- 
lity of  it  must  be  admitted, 

(2)  Why  does  Christ  ajjirm,  that  this  sin  cannot 
be  forgiven?  and  what  docs  he  mean  by  this  declu' 
ration?  The  theologians  who  adopt  Augustine's 
hypothesis,  understand  here  a  real  impossibility, 
in  the  proper  and  philosophical  sense,  and  derive 
it  from  the  nature  of  the  sin  itself,  as  being  con- 
tinued to  the  end  of  life;  respecting  which  vide 
supra.  Those  who  follow  the  other  hypothesis 
have  different  opinions  on  this  subject.  Some 
understand  a  real  impossibility,  but  do  not  enter 
upon  the  question,  xvhy  it  is  impossible.  Others 
take  the  ground,  that  this  language  means  only 
that  this  sin  is  forgiven  with  great  difficulty. 
So  most  of  the  theologians  of  the  Romish  church 
who  adopt  this  hypothesis;  also  many  of  the 
Arminian  theologians  and  commentators;  like- 
wise Heumann,  Pfaff",  and  other  protestants. 
These  again  are  divided  in  their  opinions,  since 
some  suppose  that  Christ  spoke  conditionally, 
meaning  that  this  sin  could  not  be  forgiven  if  it 
were  not  repented  of;  and  others,  that  Christ  here 
uses  the  language  of  feeling,  which  is  accord- 
ingly to  be  understood  hyperbolically,  and  not 
literally  Vide  Koppe,  Quo  sensu  peccato  in 
Spiritum  Sanctum  venia  a  Christo  negata  fue- 
rit;  Gott.  1781. 

On  this  question  we  will  give  our  own  judg- 
ment. The  words  of  Jesus  are,  ovx  a^^r'^frtu 
fij  rbv  atuiva — ovti  iv  rovT'9  t(^  aiCjvi,,  ovtf  sr 
fa  fxiXXoi'tt.  (i.  e.,  according  to  the  usiis  loqttendi 
of  the  Jews,  neither  here  nor  hereafter) ;  hoxoi 
eativ  atwu'ov)  xptotcoj,  or,  according  to  another 
reading,  d^uapnoj,  (he  incurs  the  guilt  of  a  sin 
never  to  be  pardoned,  and  for  which  he  must 
endure  the  pains  of  hell.)  The  meaning  cannot 
be,  that  God  cannot  forgive  such  a  sin.  For 
one  who  has  sinned  in  a  manner  ever  so  aggra- 
vated, may  yet  repent  and  reform,  and  then  he 
surely  receives  forgiveness;  and  this  is  truly 
said  respecting  blasphemy  against  God  of  any 
other  kind.  It  is  obvious  that  Christ  here  speaks 
with  feeling  and  righteous  indignation;  this  is 
proved  by  all  his  words;  and  on  this  account  it 
is  unwarrantable  in  us  to  give  these  terms  an 
universal  sense,  and  to  apply  them  to  every 
similar  case.  This  Koppe  has  well  shewn  in 
the  Essay  before  mentioned.  But  although 
Christ  spoke  with  feeling,  it  does  not  follow 
that  he  went  too  far,  or  affirmed  anything  which 
is  not  in  strict  accordance  with  truth.  For  the 
feeling  which  Christ  exhibits  is  never  accom- 
panied either  by  error  or  sin.  The  case  properly 
stands  thus  :  (a)  all  experience  shews  that  a 
man  who  has  arrived  at  such  a  point  of  wicked- 
ness seldom  comes  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truth 
or  to  repentance;  hence  Paul  says,  with  regard 
to  such  sinners,  aivvatov  yop,  x.  r.  X.;  Heb.  vi. 


108 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


4—- iJ.  Vide  other  texts  cited  at  the  beginninor 
ot"  this  section,  (i)  But  Christ,  as  one  who 
knows  the  heart,  was  most  firmly  convinced 
that  those  whom  he  addressed  would  never  re- 
pent of  that  deliberate  blasphemy,  but  would 
persevere  in  it  to  the  end.  The  reason  why  he 
spoke  so  decidedly  was,  that  he  knew  what  wan 
in  man,  and  did  not  need  that  any  one  should 
teach  him;  John,  ii.  2o;  xvi.  30.  In  this  way, 
the  theories  of  Ausjustine  and  of  Chrysostom 
somewhat  a^rree  on  this  point;  and  we  have  also 
a  plnin  reason  why  Christ  speaks  so  decidedly 
in  this  case,  while  yet  we  cannot  do  so  in  simi- 
lar cases. 

SECTION  LXXXV. 

OF  THE  STATE  INTO  WHICH  MEN  ARE  BROUGHT  BV 
THE  COMMISSION  OK  SIN,  AND  THE  DIFFERENT 
KINDS  AND  NAMES  OF  IT. 

I.   The  state  of  sinners  in  respect  to  their  conduct 
and  disjjositiun, 

Thosf  in  whose  hearts  evil  desires  no  more 
prevail,  but  rather  virtuous  feelini^s  and  a  dis- 
position inclined  to  moral  good,  are  called  tip- 
rishl,  virtuous,  (^proho.i,  honest os ;)  but  those 
tvho  are  thus,  out  of  retjard  to  (iod — i.  e.,  from 
obedience  to  the  known  will  and  command  of 
God,  and  from  thankful  love  to  him — are  called 
pious  (pios),reliirious;  althoucrh  this  distinction 
is  not  always  observed  in  common  discourse. 
The  latter  is  the  state  which  we  are  required 
to  possess  by  the  precepts  of  Cliristianity.  A 
short  summary  of  Christian  doctrine  on  this 
point  is  contained  in  the  first  epistle  of  John. 
The  Hible  recntrnises  no  other  virtue  or  holi- 
ness than  that  which  springs  from  relinrious 
motives;  religious  virtue,  we  are  there  taught, 
is  the  only  virtue  which  has  true  worth  in 
tht'  sight  of  (lod  ;  and  this  we  are  taught  even 
in  the  Old  Testament.  Those  who  possess 
this  religious  virtue  are  there  called  bv'ix,  dJj', 

©fov,  X,  t.  x.\  one  of  the  opposite  character  is 
Called  (Ltf  3>;j,  tt6t3eo{,  x.  r.  %.  liut  one  who  acts 
aci'ording  to  his  corrupt  desires,  and  does  so  ha- 
bitually, is  called  in  scripture  ^\^pl  servant  cit  slave 
of  sin;  it  is  said  of  him  that  he  lives  to  sin,  he 
terves  il,  he  obrt/s  it,  he  is  sold  under  sin,  and  it 
rules  over  hitn.  Vide  Hs.  xix.  14;  Horn.  vi.  I, 
9,  6,  12,  Irt, '20;  vii.  14,  24;  xiv.  24;  John,  viii. 
34,  seq. ;  2  I'et.  ii.  19.  He  only  who  is  placed 
in  a  state  in  which  he  can  govern  his  desires, 
and  subject  his  appptiies  to  reason  enlightened 
hy  divine  instruction,  is  -Afrre  man,  (John,  viii. 
34  ;)  whoever  cannot  do  this  is  a  slave  of  sin. 

The  state  of  all  who  am  devoted  to  sin  is  not, 
however,  alike.  Every  vicious  man  is,  in  his 
own  way,  a  servant  of  sin;  but  all  ar**  not  so  in 
the  same  way.    Three  principal  classes  may  be 


in  general  here  distinguished,  (a)  Some  adopt 
the  appearance  of  virtue  and  piety;  they  give  a 
saintly  appearance  even  to  their  crimes,  in  order 
to  obtain  the  advantages  connected  with  good- 
ness. These  are  hypocrites,  and  their  fault  is 
called  vnoxpi^ij, -ir^r,  3(3,  HQ-ir ;  opposite  to  which 
are  rnvN,  n3>t:K,  kKr'^iia,  truth,  sincerity.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  shameful,  aggravated,  and  dan- 
gerous crimes — the  hatefulness  and  destriictive- 
ness  of  which  are  more  fully  considered  in  the 
department  of  Morals.  Cf.  Matt.  vi.  and  xxiii.; 
Luke,  xi.  37—54;  2  Tim.  iii.  5.  (b)  Others 
have  no  hesitation  in  acting  out  before  the  world 
the  ungodly  desires  and  purposes  of  their  hearts. 
Such  are  called  ungodly,  improbi,  aiixoi,  owfJuj, 
D^wi,  because  they  do  not  fear  nor  regard  (iod 
or  his  law ;  opposite  to  these  are  those  who  fear 
God — i.  e.,  act  with  reverential  regard  to  his 
commands,  (c)  'I'hose  sinful  and  godless  men 
who,  by  long  custom  in  sinning,  have  esta- 
blished a  fixed  habit  of  it,  are  called  vicious, 
wicked,  seeleratos.     Cf.  s.  82,  II., ad  finem. 

II.  Tlie  state  of  sinners  in  respect  to  the  conse- 
quences which  sin  involves. 

Tiie  dilTerent  kinds  of  sinners,  noticed  above 
are  all  unhappy,  and  in  the  judgment  of  God 
deserving  of  punishment.  The  feeling  of  their 
danger  and  misery  is  not,  however,  alike  wiih 
them  all;  and  some  live  even  in  entire  insensi- 
bility. In  this  observation  we  have  the  ground 
of  the  divisions  of  the  various  stales  which  have 
been  commonly  made  bj»  theologians,  and  which 
are  founded  in  experience;  though  the  passage 
from  one  to  the  other  of  these  states  is  very 
easy. 

(1)  Some  men  very  plainly  see  the  unlawful- 
ness of  their  actions,  and  the  evil  consequences 
springing  from  them;  they  often  form  the  pur. 
pose  of  renouncing  sin  and  living  belter;  but  the 
power  of  the  evil  inclinatiofts  which  have  ob- 
tained the  mastery  over  them  is  so  strong, 
that  they  allow  themselves  to  be  continually 
hurried  away  into  sin.  Such  are  in  constant 
restlessness,  fear,  and  anguish,  on  account  of 
their  sins;  and  their  stale  is  denominated  by  the- 
ologians, in  comforniity  with  scriptural  ])hra9e- 
ology,  conditionem  sive  staium  servilem  or  servi- 
tutis,  a  stale  of  slavery  ,•  and  this  is  taken  from 
John,  viii.  34;  Romans,  vi.  20,  and  chap.  vii. 
Men  in  this  state  are  like  slaves,  who,  at  least 
sometimes,  if  not  always,  wish  to  be  free,  ami 
make  attempts  for  their  own  deliverance,  and 
yet  always  remain  slaves. 

(2)  Others  had  a  sinful  lile,  without  having 
an  earnest  desire  to  free  themselves  from  the 
dominion  of  sin.  They  pay  no  regard  to  tbfir 
unlawful  actions,  and  have  no  scruples  about 
them,  either  from  ignorance  or  levity,  or  because 
they  hope  to  remain  unpunished,  and  from  many 
other   reasons,  often   those  which   are   in   the 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


30S 


highest  deorree  foolish.  This  is  called  the  state 
of  sccurili/ — i.  e.,  freedom  from  care,  like  the 
Latin  stcurus ; — status  sccurttatts,  or  Hbertatis 
earnalis,  because  those  who  are  in  it  feel  free  to 
follow  their  sinful  appetites,  ((ja'pl.)  This  state 
is  far  more  dangerous  than  the  preceding  one; 
and  with  such  sinners  reformation  is  far  more 
difficult.  Cf.  Matt.  xxiv.  39;  Ephes.  iv.  17— 
19;  Jude,  ver.  4,  seq.  The  state  of  such  is 
therefore  compared  with  that  of  the  sleepiiig  or 
of  the  ckad,  Ephes.  v.  14.  They  live  for  sin, 
but  are  dead  to  goodness;  while  it  ought  to  be 
the  reverse. 

Note. — Theologians  distinguish  between  this 
state  and  that  of  spiritual  liberty  or  security. 
They  give  the  latter  name  to  the  state  of  the 
pious,  the  whole  disposition  of  whose  heart  is 
so  renovated  as  to  be  conformed  to  the  precepts 
of  Christianity,  who  by  divine  assistance  control 
their  evil  desires,  and  are  sure  of  the  pardon  of 
their  sins.  Vide  John,  viii.  36;  Rom.  v.  1 ;  vi. 
18.  For  true  spiritual  freedom  consists  in  being 
free  from  the  power  and  dominion  of  sin,  and 
also  from  its  punishmeiBj  and  we  owe  both  to 
Christ.  These  are  the  uwssed  f^odly  ones  {Gott- 
seligen,  in  'he  proper  sense  of  the  term) — i.  e.. 
those  who  are  blessed  in  the  conviction  which 
they  feel  of  the  forgiveness  of  God,  who  inter- 
nally and  from  the  heart  enjoy  a  happiness  in 
which  they  cannot  be  disturbed  even  by  out- 
ward calamities.  Ihifrjiy  and  unhappy  {selig 
and  unselig)  are  terms  which  apply  properly  to 
the  internal  state — the  well  or  ill-being  of  the 
soul ;  fortunate  and  unfortunate,  {gli/cklich  and 
ungli'c/click,)  more  to  the  external  state. 

(3)  Others  still  come  into  a  state  of  hardness 
or  obduracy.  This  state  exists  when  any  one 
remains  insensible  and  indifferent  under  the 
raost  powerful  motives  to  repentance,  so  that 
they  cease  to  make  any  impression  on  him.  It 
springs  (h)  from  the  frequent  repetition  of  sin, 
and  from  the  settled  habit  of  sinning.  This 
produces  a  gradual  diminution  of  the  power  of 
the  motives  to  abandon  sin,  and  at  length  an 
entire  cessation  of  their  efficacy.  (/>)  But  those 
are  in  peculiar  danger  of  coming  into  this  state 
who  have  had  placed  before  them  the  most 
urgent  and  moving  inducements  to  religion  and 
virtue,  but  have  yet  neglected  and  desjiiseH  them 
all.  It  is  in  the  very  nature  of  the  human  soul 
that  these  motives,  at  each  repetition  of  sin,  lose 
something  of  their  pnenjy,  and  that  at  length  an 
entire  indifierence  must  ensue,  rendering  the 
conversion  of  one  who  has  brought  himself  into 
«uch  a  state  morally  irtipossHde.  This  state  is 
called  by  theologians,  sfattnn  indurationis  per- 
ftttum.  It  is  described  by  Paul,  Heb.  vi.  4, — 
6,  and  la.  vi,  10,  "  Who  have  eyes,  but  see  not; 
ears,  but  hear  not" — i.  e.,  who  are  deaf  and  in- 
sensible to  all  the  motives  to  holiness  wliich  are 
held  before  them,  and  which  tliey  clearly  under- 


stand, and  who  therefore  cannot  be  healed — i.  e._ 
renovated  and  made  happy,  Cf.  John,  xii.  40; 
Acts,  xxviii.  26,  27;  2  Cor.  iv.  4;  iii.  14;  also 
Exod.  vii,  13. 

The  words  and  phrases  used  in  the  Bible  to 
denote  this  state  are,  (1)  -ips,  jSaprrss^ai,  /3a^vy. 
These  words  are  literally  employed  to  siirnify 
lohat  is  heavy  and  inactive;  they  are  then  used 
with  reference  to  the  members  of  the  body  and 
the  organs  of  sense,  as  heavy  tongues,  hands, 
cars,  denoting  their  inactivity,  and  the  difficiiliy 
of  their  use;  Zech.  vii,  11;  Gen.  xlviii.  10; 
Matt,  xxvi.  43;  lastly,  ihey  are  app.'ed  U.  tiie 
soul,  indicating  stupidity  of  the  understar-ling, 
and  slowness  of  belief;  1  Sam.  vi.  6;  2  Cnron. 
XXV.  19;  sometimes  also  the  qualities  ot"  the 
will,  and  sometimes  those  of  l!i<'  imdi-rstanding 
and  will  both, — an  inertness  of  soul,  and  an  in- 
capaoiiy  to  the  right  use  of  its  essential  powers, 
(2)  ni."|-i.  literally,  hard ,-  Hiphil,  nv^'n,  ax%r;pvfftv, 
oxXi^pi-veri^a.t,'  hence  the  term  ax%r;\)oxafi^ia,  from 
which  obduratio  is  taken.  The  state  of  mind 
now  under  consideration  is  often  indicated  by 
this  tjxXr^pvvtn^ai,  as  Heb.  iii,  8,  15,  seq. ;  Rom. 
ii,  5 ;  and  by  nrp  in  the  Old  Testament,  Exodus, 
vii.  3;  f^zek.  iii.  7.  (3)  The  words  which  ori- 
ginally signify yV//,  denote  also  this  state  of  in- 
sensibility and  unfeelingness — e,  g.,  ^crn.  pin- 
gue  fieri,  naxvvfd^ai.  Is.  vi,  10,  and  Matt.  xiil. 
15;  as  likewise  the  Latin  pinguis  is  synony- 
mous with  htbes,  stupidus,  tardus — e.  g.,  inge- 
nium  pingue  is  the  same  as  dull  and  obtuse. 
The  fat  of  the  body  of  animals  is  without  sensa- 
tion ;  and  this  observation  was  much  more  fa- 
miliar to  nations  offering  sacrifices,  and  so 
having  much  to  do  with  the  slaughter  of  ani- 
mals, than  to  us;  and  hence  this  phraseology 
was  so  current  among  them.  (4)  The  words 
which  indicate  deep  sleep,  in  which  all  external 
sensation  ceases;  xardw^i^,  Rom.  xi.  8,  an- 
swering in  the  LXX.  to  the  Hebrew  nn^n.  (5) 
One  of  the  most  common  words  used  in  the 
New  Testament  on  this  subject  i^rtwptdi5i?.  and 
rftopdw,  rftoporo^ai — P.  g.,  Rom,  xi.  7,  25 ;  2  Cnr. 
iii.  15;  Mark,  vi.  52,  xapbia  rtfnwpa)/<ei»;.  This 
word  is  properly  taken  from  rtd-poj,  which  means, 
having  a  hard,  indurated  skin,  (as  in  the  hnnds 
of  workmen;)  callous,  without  feeling;  and  so 
rfiipwrtj  figuratively  denotes,  accordinsr  to  Ilesy- 
chius,  the  same  as  r  diattJ^T/a,  and  is  synony- 
mous with  fltz^rpoxapSta.  All  these  words 
which  signify  hardheartedness  are  sometimes 
used  in  reference  to  the  understanding,  (called 
2^,)  sometimes  in  reference  to  the  will,  and 
often  with  reference  to  both.  A  soft  heart  is, 
accordingly,  susceptibility  for  reasons  and  con- 
viction, the  open  car  of  the  soul.  A  hard  heart 
is  the  opposite,  and  indicates  a  want  of  know- 
ledge and  capacity — the  remiss  use  of  them, 
inactivity. 

With  reo-ard  to  this  status  induraiionis  there 


Il^ 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


has  bcpn  a  grnat  difficulty,  which  may  l)e  st;Ued 
as  fjllowa: — From  what  has  been  already  s.iid, 
it  appears  that  when  a  man  comes  into  this 
state,  he  alone  is  to  blame,  and  has  all  the 
guilt  of  it  resting  upon  himself.  This  is  taught 
in  the  scriptures  in  many  of  the  passages  al- 
ready cited.  Still  there  are  other  texts  of  scrip- 
ture in  which  God  seems  to  be  made  the  author 
of  this  obduracy  of  men,  and  of  sin  in  general, 
and  its  consecjuences — e.  g.,  Exod.  iv.  21,  "I 
will  harden  Pharaoh's  heart:"  xiv.  17,  seq.;  Is. 
Ixiii.  17;  Deut.  ii.  30;  Josh.  xi.  20;  Ezek.  xx. 
25;  and  in  the  New  Testament,  .John,  xii.  40, 
TfTvfXiJxtt  o'^baX/ioii;  avrwi'  stcu  7Cf;twpcjx{  x(x,j- 
6iai.  Rom.  ix.  18,  also  i.  21.  These  and  simi- 
lar t<^xts  were  explained  by  the  severe  par/icu- 
larists  of  the  reformed  church,  also  by  the  .lan- 
senists  and  many  of  the  stricter  Thomists  of  the 
Romish  church,  to  mean,  that  God  is  the  etfi- 
cient  cause  of  these  elTects ;  that  from  such  men 
lie  withdraws  or  withholds,  for  some  reason  to 
us  inscrutable,  a  certain  supernatural  or  irre- 
sistible grace,  without  which  they  cannot  be- 
come holy  or  happy;  and  that  he  does  this  by 
his  unconiliiional  decree.  This  iiiter|)rei.itifm 
resulted  frotn  ignorance  of  the  iisui  lutjuoidi  of 
the  s.icred  writers.  Let  the  student  consider  the 
f  >!lf>witig  particulars — viz., 

(«)  Even  in  modern  languages  we  often  use 
expressions  by  which  we  ascribe  to  an  indivi- 
dual the  remote  consequences  of  his  actions, 
even  when  he  did  not  design  to  produce  these 
consequences,  and  perhaps  employed  all  the 
means  in  his  power  to  guard  against  them — e. 
g..  after  I  have  often  exhorted  some  one  to  re- 
pent, and  all  without  elTcct,  except  that,  in  di- 
rect opposition  to  my  intentions,  he  becomes, 
tliroufrh  my  repented  warnings,  only  the  more 
unfieling,  I  then  say,  I  hai'e  preaehed  him  dcnf, 
I  have  Tiifiile  liiin  h  rilcr  ami  more  wiehcd  by  ini/ 
tff'ris.  Thus,  Isa.  vi.  10,  "Make  hard  this 
people  (by  pre, idling),  and  let  their  ears  be 
deaf."  Vide  Michaelis'  note  on  Exod.  iv.  21. 
We  speak  in  the  same  way  when  our  good  pur- 
poses have  miscarried.     But, 

(/<)  In  the  ancient,  and  especially  the  Orien- 
tal l.iiifrua^es,  this  mode  of  speech  is  far  more 
cvirr>»iit  than  in  modern  languages.  It  is  alto- 
peiher  ap|)ropriate  to  the  whole  manner  of 
thinking  and  speaking  in  the  ancient  world; 
hut  it  has  by  degrees  become  foreijjn  to  the  sci- 
eniitic  dialed  of  the  modern  world,  altboiKjrh  it 
has  not  wholly  fallen  into  disuse  in  common 
lite.  Hence  it  oftr'n  has  a  strange  appearance 
t'>  the  learned,  while  to  the  unlearned  it  sounds 
niore  natural.  The  simplieiiy  of  tliat  earlv  ajje 
of  the  world  often  ascribes  everyUiin?  whieh 
tikes  place  under  tin-  insjiection  and  sjiecial 
puidince  of  ProvKlence,  whether  it  be  gooii  or 
rvil.  directly  to  God  liimself,  nnd  resntrds  him 
as  the  author  and  elficieat  cau«e  of  every  event 


and  of  its  consequences,  because  nothing  takefl 
place  without  iiis  permission  and  foreknow- 
ledge. Vide  s.  58,  11.  1,  and  especially  s.  70, 
note,  ad  finem.  Thus,  (iod  performs  miracles 
in  order  to  induce  Pharaoh  to  let  Israel  go; 
Pijaraoh  does  not  comply ;  and  the  oflener  the 
miracles  are.  repeated,  the  more  hard-hearted 
does  he  become.  Now  it  is  said  that  God  hard- 
ened Pharaoh,  rendereil  him  unfeeling,  and  even 
by  those  very  means  which  should  have  render- 
ed him  feeling;  and  at  Ike  same  time,  the  ea/a- 
niity  which  rwu>  b>fai:i  him  is  re<^ardcd  as  a  pu' 
ni.shnuut  which  (jnd  injiicls  upon  him.  This 
last  opinion  plainly  shews  that  it  was  not  the 
belief  that  God  acted  irresistibly  upon  Pharaoh  t 
for  in  that  case  how  could  he  he  punished  1 
This  language  is  tiien  to  be  understood  in  a 
manner  perfectly  consistent  with  the  personal 
2uilt  of  Pharaoh.  Cf.  Rom.  i.  26;  ix.  17;  -2 
Tliess.  ii.  11.  In  the  same  way,  the  froitd  ac 
Hum  of  men  are  ascribed  to  (iod ;  and  from  the 
misunderstanding  of  the  texts  in  which  this  is 
done  originated  the  doctrine  respeclinij  siipcrno' 
luritl  and  iirasistible  jjmce,  as  from  the  misiui- 
derstaruliiig  of  the  othff  the  doctrine  nfjudiriu, 
hfirdiicsH,  The  mode  of  thinking  an«l  spi.akins 
now  referred  lo  is  found  also  among  the  Gr^^eks, 
and  indeed  in  all  ancient  writings;  it  occurs  in 
Homer  as  well  as  in  the  Uilde,  and  also  in  the 
Arabic  writers.  In  Homer  it  is  said  that  the 
Deity  infuses  i^ood  and  evil  into  the  heart,  (»u- 
Sdy.'Kfi  jco^iAtr';)  that  he  inspires  ivi.idntn  and 
fol/y,  (Odyss.  xxiii.  11,  seq.;)  that  he  infatu- 
ates and  deceives  men,  dejirives  them  of  their 
reason,  so  that  they  may  act  foolishly,  deludes 
their  senses,  Zf vj  «j>,)t'iaj  fiXfro,  II.  ix.  377.  xix. 
137;)  tempts  them  to  evil,  (Odyss.  xxiii.  222;  • 
and  is  the  cause  of  the  wickedness  of  men 
For  he  does  evrri/lhim;.  II.  xix.  87,  90,  seq.; 
Odyss.  xvi.  280.  2D7,  298;  II.  ix.  ti32,  seq. 

Ovf/ov  £jiffro?£offi  ?iei  iiaai-,      .      .      . 

Shall  there  he  evil  in  a  cily,  and  the  Lord  hath 
not  done  it?     Amos,  in.  »•. 

y„ff, — Tlie  text,  Rom.  ix.  18,  S*  ^i\ji  ixtri, 
oi-  6i  5>tXfi  ixXjfiHift  means,  according  to  many, 
/«  freatn  hnrd/y,  like  Job,  xxxix.  Hi,  (u,toiacXi~ 
)>vift  Tf'xro;)  and  the  principal  reason  tV.r  this 
is,  the  contrast  of  iXftiv.  This  interpretation, 
however,  does  not  aijree  with  ver.  19;  and  iho 
whole  passajre  alludes  loo  plainly  to  the  pa»« 
sage  in  Exodus  respectinij  Pharaoh  to  ndmil  of 
this  interpretation.  This  langnatrp  is  llierefore 
to  be  understood  here  also  in  the  common  sense, 
and  the  verse  may  be  tlms  explained — viz., 
"The  good  and  the  evil  which  hofai  men  de- 
pend alike  ui<on  the  divine  will.  .Some  (who 
are  pleading  to  him,  ns  his  children)  tie  causes 
to  prosper;  others  he  hardi  inf—i.  e.,  he  siilTcrs 
them  to  feel  the  con«equence8  of  iheir  oiislinacy 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


311 


msensibilily,  and  indifTerence  to  his  oft-repeated 
commands;  as  in  the  case  of  Pharaoh,  ver.  17." 
The  same  thing  which  is  called  '}x\T;pivfi,v  here, 
is  called  (v^si^ars^t,  opyrv,  ver.  22.  Vide  Rahn, 
ad  ioc.  Rom.  ix.  17—23;  Halae,  1789. 

SECTION  LXXXVL 

WHAT  PtNISHME.NT  IS,  AND  WHAT  IS  THE  OBJECT 
CF  it;  how  the  divine  PUNISHMENTS  ARE 
NAMED  IN  THE  BIBLE,  AND  WHAT  WE  ARE 
THERE  TAUGHT  RESPECTING  THEIR  NATURE  ; 
ALSO  THE  VARIOUS  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  DIVINE 
PUNISHMENTS. 

In  our  treatment  of  this  whole  subject  we 
must  proceed  on  the  ground  of  what  has  been 
already  said  on  the  divine  laws  and  punish- 
ments in  ihe  discussion  of  the  subject  of  divine 
jitslice,  s.  30,  31.  Supposing  the  student  al- 
ready acquainted  with  these,  we  proceed  to 
make  some  additional  observations,  and  a  more 
immediate  application  of  what  has  been  already 
said. 

I.   What  is  Putiishmenf,  and  what  is  Us  object  ? 

^^  Punishment  is  an  evil  (sufferin<j,  something 
awakening  unpleasant  sensations)  which  the 
superior  inflicts  upon  those  placed  under  him, 
on  account  of  some  trespass,  (the  theologian 
calls  it  sni,-)  and  this,  for  the  sake  of  maintain- 
ing the  authority  of  his  laws  for  the  good  of  his 
subjects,  or  to  promote  their  improvement  and 
welfare."  This  is  the  general  notion  of  pu- 
nishment, which  is  also  to  be  applied  to  the  di- 
vine judgments,  though  with  a  careful  separa- 
tion of  every  human  imperfection.  The  follow- 
ing points  need  to  be  carefully  considered  : — 

(1)  The  one  who  punishes  another  must  in 
all  cases  be  the  supreme  magistrate,  whether  it 
be  (iod  or  man.  For  no  one  has  the  right  to 
punish  who  has  not  the  right  to  give  laws,  and 
this  is  the  peculiar  province  of  the  supreme  ma- 
pistrate.  Vide  s.  73,  I.  All  punishments  there- 
fore depend  upon  the  law,  and  one  can  inflict 
punishment  only  upon  those  over  whom  he  pos- 
sesses the  power  of  legislation.  Consequently 
the  right  of  punishment  belongs  to  God. 

(2)  In  order  to  he  punished,  one  must  be  sub- 
ject to  a  law,  and  have  broken  it,  and  in  such  a 
way,  too,  that  bis  transgression  can  be  imputed 
tr>  him.  And  this  may  be  when  he  has  either 
committ'^d  unlaw  ful  actions  himseff,  or  contri- 
buted to  those  of  fithrrs.  But  it  is  only  when 
the  trespass  can  thus  be  imputed  to  a  person  that 
punishment  can  be  inflicted  upon  him. 

(3)  The  objects  of  pimishment  are,  o//«»i/«u'- 
ftil  actions.  In  human  judicatories  the  external 
actions  only  are  the  objects  of  punishment;  be- 
cause the  knowledge  o*"  men  extends  no  further 
than  these ;  but  at  the  \>ar  of  God  not  only  these 


but  also  internal  actions,  evil  thoughts,  desicrns, 
and  desires,  are  liable^to  punishment.  Vide  s. 
82,  ad  finem. 

(4)  The  guilt  of  a  person  has,  therefore,  its 
ground  in  his  relation  to  the  law  transgressed 
by  him,  and  to  its  author.  On  account  of  this 
relation  he  deserves  the  punishment  which  is 
threatened  against  transgressors — i.  e.,  he  must 
take  upon  himself  the  evil  connected  with  the 
transgression  of  the  law.  The  guilty  person 
(qui  culpam  siistinef)  is  called  in  t,he  scriptures 
d(})ftXir;^5,  (J  t%uv  ujUopTiai',  tvoxof  I'Ofiov,  irtobixof 
^{9,  rixvov  6^)yr^i — one  who  must  give  account, 
&c.  Vide  Morus,  p.  110,  s.  4,  note  1.  All  men 
are  described  in  the  Bible  as  being  such  ;  and 
the  sacred  writers  insist  upon  it  with  great  ear- 
nestness, that  men  should  look  upon  themselves 
as  subject  to  the  penalty  of  the  law,  as  the  only 
way  for  them  to  become  disposed  to  accept  of 
the  means  of  improvement  offered  to  them,  and 
to  comply  with  the  prescribed  conditions.  Vide 
s,  80. 

(5)  The  last  end  of  punishments.  This  in 
general  may  be  best  stated  as  follows:  they 
aim  at  the  welfare  and  reformation  of  the  sub- 
ject; or  it  is  their  object  to  support  the  autho- 
rity of  the  law  for  the  welfare  and  improvement 
of  those  placed  under  it.  This  subject  is  treat- 
ed more  at  large  in  s.  31,  II.  2,  where  the  opi- 
nion <f  Michaelis,  that  the  only  object  of  pu- 
nishment is  to  deter  men  from  sin  is  further  con- 
sidered. The  imperfections  which  cleave  to 
human  punishments  must  necessarily  be  sepa- 
rated from  divine;  nor  should  human  punish- 
ments ever  be  made  the  standard  by  which 
divine  punishments  are  to  be  judged  of. 

Aotc. — Some  modern  philosophers  have  as- 
serted that  God  cannot  punish,  and  that  divine 
puuifhmcnts  ought  never  to  l)e  spoken  of,  be- 
cause what  are  so  called  are  to  be  regarded  as 
benefits,  and  have  benevolent  ends  :md  results. 
But  merely  because  punishments  tend  to  pro- 
mote the  good  of  men,  and  are  designed  to  se- 
cure the  most  benevolent  results,  they  do  not 
cease  to  be  evils,  and  become  the  same  with 
what  are  ordinarily  denominated  benefits.  The 
pain  which  is  felt  in  sickness  is  beneficial;  it 
makes  one  mindful  in  time  of  danger,  leads  to 
caution,  and  so  is  often  the  means  of  preserving 
life;  still  it  is  an  evil  which  we  endeavour  to 
avoid,  and  the  approach  of  which  we  fear. 
Thus  it  is  with  punishments.  And  it  is  in  the 
highest  degree  injurious  to  undertake  to  oblite- 
rate from  the  minds  of  the  great  multitude  of 
unconverted  men  the  fear  of  divine  punishment. 
Too  great  caution  cannot  be  used  against  that 
miscalled  philosophy  which  does  this;  for 
wherever  it  has  found  entrance,  either  in  an- 
cient or  modern  times,  it  has  always  destroyed 
religion,  morality,  and  civil  order.  Vide  s.  156 


Iff 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


n.  Scriptural  navies  of  Divine  runif^hments,  and 
the  nature  of  the«e puniahnunts. 

(1)  Many  of  these  narties  bear  the  impress 
»f  the  simplicity  of  the  popular  phraseolnay  of 
the  earliest  times.  'I'tiey  are  sometimes  derived 
from  injured  and  irritated  rulers,  who  give  free 
scope  to  their  anger,  and  take  revenge  for  the 
injury  done  them;  someiimes  from  judges,  who 
hold  judgment  over  the  guilty,  pronounce  sen- 
tence upon  tliem,  and  execute  it.  It  would  be 
a  great  mistake,  however,  for  any  one  to  charge 
the  scriptural  writers  with  entertaining  gross 
anthropomorphic  ideas  on  this  subject  merely 
because  they  sometimes  use  expressions  of  this 
nature.  They  only  retained  the  common  terms 
in  use  among  men,  while  they  always  under- 
stood them  in  a  refined  and  elevated  sense.  It 
is  not  with  them,  as  in  Homer,  where  even  the 
gods  fear  that  Jupiter,  when  he  is  enraged,  will 
punish  the  innocent  and  guilty  alike,  II.  xv. 
137.  Nothing  like  this  is  taught  in  the  scrip- 
tures. That  the  sacred  writers  connected  ideas 
worthy  of  God  with  those  popular  expressions 
which  they  made  use  of  is  evident  from  the  New 
Testament,  in  which,  notwithstanding  the  most 
just  conceptions  of  the  divine  nature  are  un- 
question.ibly  contained,  still  the  terms  in  com- 
mon use  with  regard  to  the  Divine  Being,  such 
as  the  rcvcni^e,  I  fit  oath,  the  cume  of  God,  often  ap- 
pear. The  same  is  true  in  the  Old  Testament, 
in  the  books  of  Moses  and  in  the  Psalms. 

Kxpressions  like  these,  it  may  also  be  said, 
make  a  far  stronger  impression  upon  the  uncul- 
tivated mass  of  mankind,  depending  as  they  do 
upon  their  senses,  than  terms  more  abstract; 
they  take  firmer  hold  upon  them,  and  sink 
deeper  and  more  easily  into  their  hearts,  than 
terms  which  represent  the  thing  less  plainly  to 
the  senses.  For  this  reason,  terms  of  this  na- 
ture are  employed  by  the  sacred  writers,  espe- 
cially when  they  have  to  do  with  men  of  the 
character  now  described;  they  alternate,  how- 
ever, such  expressions  with  others;  and  in  this 
we  ought  to  imitate  them. 

The  following  are  among  the  names  which 
they  employ — viz.,  r^x,  pin,  nrn,  <ipy»;,  i^vuof. 
Psalm  vii.  1'2;  Romans,  v.  9,  coll.  s.  31,  ad 
init. ;  rtair,  Deut.  i.  27;  c?J,  ixf>ixrmf,  Isaiah, 
Ixiii.  1 ;  I, like,  sxi.  2-2.  The  oppositcs  of  these 
are  the  Invc,  the  favour,  \\\p.  friendship  of  God, 
T<i,  p,  aydntj,  h.fof,  x^fytf,  x.  r.  X.  With  refer- 
ence to  announcing  or  threatening  the  divine 
punishments,  the  sacred  writers  frequently  em- 
ploy words  which  literally  mean  to  rrbuhc,  in- 
trtpnre,  which  the  irritated  man  commonly 
does;  especially,  •'■fi,  n->vj,  f?riT(«o'ui,  intriuia, 
Jnde,  9,  seq.  Again:  the  words  which  signify 
tnrsin:^,  imprecation,  are  used  to  denote  the 
same  thing  as  n'^'r',  xorapa,  n-vr,  &c,,  Dent.  ix. 
96,  seq. ;  Gal.  iii.  20.     Opposite  to  this  is  n^-^s. 


(ixoyia,  fvXo-/<»v,  Deut.  xxviii,  15  ;  Gal.  iii.  13. 
As  vocnbula  media  (used  with  reference  either 
to  benefits  or  punishments)  all  the  uomina  judi' 
cii  and  verba  judicandi  are  often  employed; 
more  frequently,  however,  with  reference  to  di- 
vine punishments,  as  wTut,  jn,  iti,  xjuotj,  xpi^aj 
xarcixpt^uo.  Gal.  v.  10;  Horn.  ii.  3.  The  words, 
too,  which  designate  a  judicial  declaration,  are 
often  employed  to  denote  threatenings  and  pu- 
nishments; so  even  -^ai,  Jtoyoj,  l-rfia  ©sov. 
Among  the  voeabula  media  belong  also  all  the 
verba  intuendi  and  aspiciendi,  such  as  rKn,  inti- 
6*iv,  and  especially  ipr,  to  which  the  word 
Erttnx/rtrfoJJai  answers  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  in  the  Vulgate,  visitarc ;  in  the  good  sense, 
to  beludd  any  one  with  a  cheerful  face,  is  to  shew 
him  kindness  or  favour — e.  g..  Psalm  viii.  5; 
Luke,  i.  68,  78;  in  the  bad  sense,  to  bthold  any 
one  with  an  angry  face,  is  to  punish  him  ;  hence 
nipD  and  ini.'ixortri  sigi\ify  often  punishment— 
e.  g.,  Isaiah,  x.  3;  1  Peter,  ii.  12.  In  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  the  terms  iDir,  id*,  «ou- 
6fvfti',  castii^are,  and  naihfi.a,  are  used  to  denote 
the  father /y  discipline  and  chastisenunt  of  God, 
which  is  the  proper  idea  to  be  entertained  of  the 
divine  punishments,  and  the  ends  for  which  they 
are  infiicted.  Cf.  s.  31,  II.  Finally,  all  the 
Hebrew  words  which  properly  siirnify  sin  and 
guilt  are  often  used  to  denote  |)unishment — e.  g., 
pv',  rvcn,  cu  Vide  s.  73,  II.  2,  ad  fiuem;  ex- 
actly as,  in  Homer,  "Arrj  signifies  crime,  and 
also  its  guilt  and  punishment,  II.  xix.  91.  Cf. 
136,  137. 

A(6j  Si'yurijp  'Arri  i"  iravra;  darai, 

— Jte,  the  daughter  of  Jupiter,  who  brings  every 
one  into  giiilt.  Cf.  II.  ix.  50,  seq.,  and  s.  30,  31. 
Aute. — Some  modern  philosophers  and  theo- 
logians object  to  the  phrase,  t/te  anger  of  God ; 
and  many  young  religious  teachers  carefully 
avoid  it,  and  pronounce  their  older  brethren 
who  still  employ  it  very  unenlightened.  IJut 
they  do  this  without  any  good  reason.  Anger, 
in  general,  is  the  expression  of  strong  disappro- 
bation. In  this  men  indeed  are  liable  to  err; 
they  may  express  their  disapprobalKm  with  re- 
gard to  things  which  do  not  deserve  it.  or  more 
strongly  than  is  proper,  and  often  quite  unjusti- 
fialily  ;  their  anger,  therefore,  may  be,  and  often 
is,  wrong  and  sinful.  Hut  it  is  by  no  meand 
necessary  that  anger  should  be  so;  there  may 
be  a  rii:hteoH8  angrr,  as  is  often  said  in  common 
life,  when  one  expresses  his  deep  and  lively 
displeasure  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  perfectly 
conformable  to  the  subject,  the  end,  and  the  cir- 
cumstances. Nor  can  a  good  moral  being  ex- 
ist, or  even  be  conceived  to  exist,  without  such 
anger.  (Jod,  as  the  most  perfect  and  holy  moral 
beinu,  has  certainly  the  greatest  displeasure 
ag;iinst  sin;  and  as  he  is  the  supreme  moral  go- 
vernor of  the  world,  he  expresses  it  in  a  very 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  FALL. 


313 


impressive  manner.  He  therefore  is  said  to 
burn  w  ith  anorer,  but  his  anger  is  always  jwsi. 

(2)  The  divine  judjrnients  are  inflicted,  ac- 
cording to  the  Bible,  (a)  in  the  present  life;  (6) 
iy  death  (although  this  was  strictly  a  punish- 
ment for  sin  only  in  the  case  of  the  first  man, 
and  with  regard  to  all  others  is  only  a  conse- 
quence of  the  sin  of  Adam;  vide  s.  76,  III.  and 
s.  80,  ad  finein);  (c)  after  death.  All  these  pu- 
nishments, according  to  the  Bible,  stand  con- 
nected with  the  sin  of  our  first  parents.  For 
from  that  arose  the  moral  corruption  which  is 
communicated  to  all  mankind.  This  is  the 
source  of  actual  sins,  and  these  bring  punish- 
ment in  their  train.  Vide  s.  76,  seq.  From  this 
evil  the  second  Head  of  our  race  has  freed  us. 

That  the  representations  given  in  the  Bible 
respecting  the  divine  punishments  and  their  end 
agree  perfectly  with  what  sound  reason  recog- 
nises on  this  subject  iS' very  evident  from  the 
description  it  contains  of  the  nature  of  these 
punishments.  They  are  (a)  always  just  and 
proper;  vide  the  texts  quoted  s.  31  ;  moreover, 
Rom.  ii.  2,  xp-lua  Qiov  tart  xa/r'  aXir^iiav.  Vide 
also  those  texts  which  speak  of  the  drtpoawTto- 
X;;>l-ia  ©foii.  (|3)  They  have  the  ivelfare  af  men 
for  their  object.  This  is  the  last  end  for  which 
they  are  inflicted  ;  (vide  the  texts  cited  ;)  and  if 
this  object  is  not  attained  with  any  particular 
offender,  he  himself  is  alone  in  fault;  and  his 
punishment  then  serves  for  the  good  of  others, 
who  learn  wisdom  from  his  example,  (y)  They 
are  certain,  and  will  be  inevitably  inflicted  ;  they 
are  not  mere  empty  threats;  no  one  will  be  able 
to  escape.  Vide  Rom.  ii.  3,  coll.  Heb.  xii.  25, 
and  especially  Heb.  iv.  12,  13.  This  follows 
from  the  divine  veracity;  these  punishments 
must  be  maintained  in  order  to  uphold  the  au- 
thority of  the  Divine  Being,  and  to  prevent  an 
universal  carelessness  and  indifference  about 
sin.  (8)  The  divine  punishments  are  also  de- 
scribed as  terrible ;  as  in  these  expressions  :  Our 
God  is  a  consunii7ii;  fire ,-  it  is  a  terrible  thins;  to 
fall  into  his  hands,  &c.  Heb.  x.  30,  31 ;  xii.  29. 
For  in  order  that  these  punishments  may  attain 
their  end,  tiiey  must  be  sufl^ciently  severe  to 
terrify  the  transgressor,  and  must  meet  him 
in  the  point  where  he  can  be  most  strongly 
affected. 

III.  Divisions  of  Punishments. 

(1)  A  very  ancient  division  of  punishments 
is  into;;a»</;H  damni  and  sensus,  in  reference  to 
tlie  evil  itself  which  is  inflicted  on  any  one  by 
punishment,  (n)  By  punishment,  a  certain 
good  is  ivithdruiun.  The  judgments  of  men 
respecting  their  true  welfare  and  their  real  inte- 
rests are  ver}'  diverse;  and  consequently  the 
withdrawal  of  their  supposed  advantages  is  va- 
riously estimated  and  felt.  To  one  person, 
riches  appear  a  great  advantage ;  to  another, 
40 


not;  and  so  while  the  former  will  regard  the 
loss  of  them  as  the  greatest  evil,  the  latter  n'ill 
not  suffer  in  the  least  from  their  loss.  It  is  not 
here,  then,  of  so  much  consequence,  whethei 
the  advantages  are  real  or  only  apparent,  as  in 
what  estimation  they  are  held  by  him  from 
whom  they  are  withdrawn.  This  wiihdraw- 
rnent  now  is  called  paina  d^imni,  or  sometimes 
pajia  negaiiva.  (b)  When,  in  addition  to  this, 
positively  unpleasant  feelings  are  caused  and 
pains  inflicted,  this  is  called /y«na  schsus.  These 
two  parts  of  punishment  are  commonly  con- 
nected. These  unpleasant  sensations  have  their 
proper  seat,  either  in  the  body,  and  are  commu- 
nicated through  the  senses  to  the  soul,  or  they 
are  confined  to  the  soul,  and  have  their  origin 
there.  The  latter  are  fell  the  most  keenly,  and 
are  the  most  dreadful. 

(2)  In  respect  to  the  connexion  of  punishment 
with  crime,  punishments  are  divided  into  natu- 
ral, and  positive  or  arbitrary.  The  former  are 
such  as  result  from  the  internal  nature  of  mo- 
rally bad  actions  themselves;  the  latter  are 
such  as  stand  in  no  natural  and  necessary  con- 
nexion with  wicked  actions,  but  which  are  con- 
nected with  them  merely  by  the  good  pleasure 
(a;-i//r?H///)  of  the  lawgiver.  These  two  kinds 
of  punishment  have  been  already  explained,  s. 
31,  as  well  as  the  doctrine  respecting  the  natu- 
ral and  positive  laws  of  God,  s.  30. 

In  this  place  we  shall  add  a  few  remarks  re- 
specting the  natural  punishments  inflicted  by 
God  upon  men,  especially  in  this  life;  in  the 
following  section  we  shall  farther  discuss  the 
subject  of  positive  punishments. 

There  has  been  some  dispute  among  philoso- 
phers (into  which  we  do  not  mean  to  enter  fully 
now)  whether  the  natural  evil  consequences  of 
sin  ought  to  be  called  punishments;  and  the 
propriety  of  this  is  by  some  denied.  Judging 
from  the  common  conceptions  on  this  subject, 
and  the  common  phraseology  founded  on  these, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  we  may  and 
ought  to  consider  the  evil  consequences  result- 
ing from  the  transgression  of  the  divine  com- 
mandments as  punishment.  So  we  say,  for  ex- 
ample, with  respect  to  a  liar,  in  whom  at  length 
no  one  places  any  confidence,  or  with  respect  to 
the  voluptuary  or  drunkard,  who  brings  infamy 
and  disease  upon  himself,  and  in  ail  SHch  cases* 
that  s\n  punishes  itself.  Again,  if  the  /fires  nw 
turales  are  properly  called  laws,  (and  whatever 
is  true  of  law  in  any  case  is  true  of  them,;  how 
can  it  be  doubted  whether  the  consequences  re- 
sulting from  the  transgression  of  thesf;  laws  are 
jiroperly  denominated  punishments? 

But  these  natural  punishments  may  be  distin- 
guished into  two  kinds: — 

(ff)  Such  as  are  the  necessary  and  inevitable 
evil  consequences  of  the  actions  themselves,  and 
which  would  result  equally  from  these  action^ 
2D 


314 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


were  they  not  forbidden,  and  were  the  actions, 
therefore,  not  si/is.  They  are  called  physical 
punishments.  Among  these  are  all  the  sick- 
nesses and  pains  which  arise  from  intemper- 
ance of  every  kind  ;  the  poverty  which  comes 
from  idleness;  the  griif,  sorrow,  and  Bhame, 
which  are  the  results  of  a  dissipated  life;  &c. 
It  is  in  order  to  guard  against  the  necessary  evil 
••onsequenccs  of  sin,  and  so  to  diminish  them, 
that  the  divine  law  is  given;  and  in  this  way  it 
is,  that  what  were  before  mere  evils  now  become 
tinn.     Vide  s.  73,  I. 

(6)  Punishments  which  result /rom  the  rela- 
tion of  liumnn  actions  to  the  law,  or  which  have 
respect  to  the  moral  character  of  men.  These 
are  called  moral  punishments.  These  moral 
consequences  of  sin  fall  principally  and  most 
heavily  upon  the  soul.  Hence  they  are  also 
called  .^/nV/'/Kfl/ punishments.  Among  these  are, 
e.  g.,  tlie  reproaches  of  conscience,  telling  us 
th.it  we  have  violated  the  law  of  God,  rendered 
ourselves  unworthy  of  his  favour,  and  disquali- 
fied for  his  blessings;  also  restlessness  of  soul, 
and  fear  of  punishment,  from  the  consciousness 
of  guilt  or  ill-deserl — the  fear  of  God.  Rom. 
iii.  19,  23  ;  1  John,  i.  8,  seq. ;  iii.  14,  seq.  These 
are  the  most  fearful  and  terrible  of  all  punish- 
ments. 

This  distinction  between  the  dilTerent  kinds 
of  natural  punishment  is  very  important,  espe- 
cially in  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  of  Christ. 
\  ide  s.  Ill,  n.     From  thence  it  appears, 

(«)  That  the  natural  and  physical  evil  conse- 
quences of  certain  wicked  actions  cannot  wholly 
cease,  even  after  pardon  has  been  bestowed  upon 
men,  and  they  have  repented,  or  after  they  have 
appropriated  the  merits  of  Christ.  For  we  have 
no  right  to  suppose  that  God  will  remove,  in  a 
miraculous  manner,  the  necessary  physical  con- 
sequences of  sinful  actions.  From  experience 
we  see  that  God  does  not  do  this  in  the  present 
life.  K.  g.,  if  any  one  has  brought  upon  him- 
self, by  his  excesses,  prolonged  sickness  or  po- 
verty, he  will  not  become  at  once  well  in  body 
and  estate  merely  by  reforming  his  courses  ;  but 
he  must  continue  to  feel  the  necessary  conse- 
quences of  his  errors  and  crimes,  just  as  the  con- 
sequences of  the  sin  of  Adam — dealli  and  other 
temporal  calamities — continue  to  be  felt  by  all 
his  posterity,  even  by  those  who  are  renewed 
and  panioned.  Vide  Rom.  viii.  10,  18 — •J3. 
Nor  does  the  Ilible  anywhere  teach  us,  ihat  in 
some  miraculous  way  (Jod  will,  even  in  the  fu- 
ture lift,  remove  all  the  natural  and  lasting  cnn- 
sequences  of  acliims;  it  is  therefore  highly  pro- 
bable that  some  portion  of  these  conseqiH-ncrs 
will  coniinueeven  liereaficr.  Hut  these  natur.il- 
ly  evil  consequences,  (as  well  those  which  are 
temporal  as  those  which  continue  in  the  t'liturc 
life,)  from  which  we  are  not  entirely  freed  bv 
the  death  of  Christ,  are  yet  mitigated,  and  lose 


the  terror  of  punishment,  to  those  who  are  par- 
doned and  sanctified.  This  experience  in  the 
present  life  teaches  us,  and  the  holy  scriptures 
assure  of  the  same.  Vide  iiom.  viii.  1,  and  v.  1, 
3 — 10.  13ut  the  pirtue  naturalea  gpirituates  cea^e 
entirely  with  the  renewed.     Hence, 

(0)  The  principal  evils  from  which  man  iv 
freed  in  this  and  the  future  life,  when  he  is  par- 
doned and  renewed,  are,  the  moral  consequences 
of  sin;  and  it  is  because  the  believer  is  freed 
from  these,  that  even  the  natural  consequences 
of  sin  are  mitigated  to  him  and  lose  the  terror  of 
punishment.  The  renewed  man  will  never  in- 
deed forget  the  sins  which  he  has  once  commit- 
ted ;  he  will  condemn  them,  and  mourn  over 
them ;  but,  as  he  is  sure  of  pardon,  his  disquiet 
respecting  them,  his  fear  of  (iod  as  a  judge,  and 
the  reproaches  of  his  conscience,  will  either  at 
once  or  by  slow  degrees  entirely  cease ;  peace  of 
soul  will  be  restored,  together  with  a  lively  and 
joyful  feeling  of  his  present  happy  state,  in 
comparison  with  his  former  unhappy  condition. 
This  is  what  the  scriptures  mean  by  the  peace  of 
God  in  the  heart  of  the  man  wiiose  sins  are  for- 
given. Vide  the  texts  before  cited  from  Horn, 
v.  aud  viii. 

SECTION  LXXXVII. 

SOME    REMARKS    ON    "POSITIVE"    DIVINE 
PUNISHMENTS. 

In  addition  to  what  we  have  already  said  on 
this  subject,  in  stating  the  doctrine  of  divine 
justice,  s.  31,  we  add  here  the  following  re- 
marks:— 

(1)  The  term  arbitrary  punishments  (po'tue 
arbitrarix')  seems  to  be  somewhat  inconvenient, 
and  to  be  liable  to  be  misunderstood ;  it  is  for 
this  reason  objected  to  by  very  many  modern 
writers,  e.  g.,  Steinbart,  Syst.  s.  130;  Eberhard, 
Apologie  d.  Sokr.  th.  i. ;  and  the  author  of  the 
"  Apologie  der  Vernunft."  And  if  the  term  ar- 
liitrary  must  be  understood  to  denote  a  blind 
caprice,  in  which  no  regard  is  paid  to  rectitude 
and  propriety,  and  to  the  nature  of  the  olTence, 
it  could  never,  without  blasphemy,  be  predicated 
of  the  punishments  inllicted  by  (»od.  Hut  no 
advocate  of  the  arbitrariness  of  God  in  the  pu- 
nisbinenls  he  inflicts  has  ever  understood  it  in 
this  sense;  for  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  even 
a  man  of  common  understanding  and  goodness 
would  punish  in  such  a  manner.  These  evils, 
which  are  called  positive  punishments,  are  not< 
indeed,  founded  in  the  internal  nature  of  the  for- 
bidden actions  themselves;  they  are  not  the  im- 
mediate natural  consequences  of  these  actions; 
but  they  are  added  to,  and  coujiinetl  with,  the 
natural  consequences  of  sin,  by  the  special  ap- 
pointment of  the  legislator;  and  it  is  for  this 
reason  that  they  are  called  arbitrariir.  They  nic 
mala  ex  arbilrio~—i.  e.,  libe.  o  Dei  (^judieit  <n 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  B\  THE  FALL. 


315 


domini)  consilin  sive  inslilulo  exirinsecus  immissa. 
But  lliey  arfi  always  determined  by  the  rules  of 
Supreme  Wisdom  and  goodness,  and  liave  all 
the  qualities  of  the  other  divine  operations. 
They  are  moreover  resorted  to  by  God,  in  cases 
where  his  object  cannot  be  attained  by  merely 
natural  punishments.  We  should  not,  then,  be 
over-scrupulous  about  the  use  of  this  term,  for 
when  we  hear  it  said  that  God,  the  All-wise  and 
just,  iriHicts  arbitrary  punishments,  the  associ- 
ated idea  of  blind  caprice,  actings  without  cause 
or  reason,  falls  away  at  once  and  of  itself.  The 
same  is  true  of  this  term,  as  of  the  expression, 
the  an^er  of  God.  Vide  s.  8G.  The  arbiiriuin 
of  God  is  always  wise,  and  never  a  blind  caprice, 
as  it  often  is  with  men,  especially  with  passion- 
ate rulers  and  magistrates.  In  case  this  term 
were  rejected,  we  might  substitute  the  phrase 
free  piintahincnts. 

(•2)  That  there  are  positive  divine  punish- 
ments, especially  in  the  future  world,  the  Bible 
teaches  with  sufficient  clearness.  And  indeed, 
from  the  scriptural  doctrines,  that  God  forgives 
«'«»,  (i.  e.,  removes  their  consequences,)  and  that 
Christ,  the  innocent,  endured pumshiitnl  for  us, 
it  seems  to  follow  that  the  sacred  writers  be- 
lieved in  positive  punishmeiit^and  their  remis- 
sion. A  philosophic  argument  in  behalf  of  po- 
sitive punishments  is  derived  from  the  nature 
and  efficacy  of  natural  punishments,  which  are 
not  sufficiently  great  to  deter  the  sinner  from 
crime,  or  lead  him  to  repentance,  so  that  positive 
punishments  in  addition  to  these  are  necessary, 
in  order  to  produce  this  effect.  It  was  a  great 
object  with  INlichaelis  to  establish  this  point. 
The  arguments  brought  in  opposition  to  it  by 
Steinbart,  Eberhard,  and  others,  together  with 
the  arguments  in  its  favour,  were  brieiiy  stated, 
s.  31. 

But  since  this  subject  is  attended  with  various 
dillu-ulties,  which  can  never  be  entirely  removed 
by  human  philosophy,  owing  to  the  limitation 
ol  our  minds,  the  question  arises.  What  course 
shall  the  religious  teacher  pursue  on  this  subject, 
and  what  instruction  shall  he  give  respecting  po- 
sitive divine  punishments?  In  order  to  come  to 
a  right  decision  on  this  question,  and  to  be  able 
to  answer  it  for  ourselves,  we  must  not  proceed 
upon  empty  speculations  or  ideal  conceptions, 
but  from  the  following  results  of  experience. 
The  history  of  all  ages  teaches  that  the  prevail- 
ing notion  among  men  always  has  been  and 
still  is,  that  God  inflicts  not  only  natural,  but 
also  positive  and  arbitrary  punishments;  or, 
that  moral  evil  has  not  only  natural  evil  for  its 
consequent,  but  also  such  punishments  as  de- 
pend entirely  upon  the  choice  of  the  lawgiver. 
Hence  sicknesses  and  other  cahiuiities,  which 
stand  in  no  natural  connexion  wi'.li  crime,  were 
yet  ot'ten  reijarded  as  the  punislnn'nts  of  it — e. 
g.,  the  pestilence  in  the  camp  of  tiie  Greeks  be- 


fore Troy  was  so  regarded  in  Homer;  cf.  Iliad, 
xvi.  384,  seq.  Now,  in  what  way  did  this  idea 
obtain  so  wide  a  prevalence  among  men,  and  so 
strong  a  hold  upon  them  1  If  we  make  history 
and  experience  our  teachers,  we  shall  come  tc 
the  following  conclusions: — 

(a)  Human  legislators  can  threaten  only  po- 
sitive punishments,  because  they  are  able  to  in 
flict  no  other.  For  they  are  neither  the  authors 
nor  the  rulers  of  nature,  but  are  themselves,  as 
well  as  those  ovei*  wliom  they  rule,  subject  to 
that  constitution  which  God  has  given  to  nature. 
Since,  now,  men  are  apt  to  reason  from  the  hu- 
man to  ^he  divine,  they  were  disposed  to  trans- 
fer to  God  and  his  government  those  procedures 
and  institutions  common  in  human  families  and 
states.  From  hence  it  is  obvious  how  even  hea- 
then nations  should  have  come  so  generally  to 
this  notion.  They  reasoned  thus:  As  men  have 
the  right  to  enact  arbitrary  laws  and  impose  ar- 
bitrary punishments,  this  right  must  belong  in 
a  far  higher  degree  to  the  supreme  legislative 
power,  which  knows  of  no  limitation.  It  was  by 
such  arguments  that  they  arrived  at  this  idea, 
though  by  such  alone  the  reflecting  mind  is  not 
satisfied.     But, 

(i)  The  true  cause  of  this  universal  belief  lies 
much  deeper.  There  is  on  this  subject  a  certain 
feeling  of  need  in  human  nature  which  cannot  be 
reasoned  away,  and  which  often  exen  ises  its 
power  even  over  the  speculative  philosopher,  al- 
though he  has  long  supjjressed  it  by  his  specula- 
tion. It  is  but  too  clearly  proved  by  d;iily  ex- 
perience, that  fear  of  the  nu^rely  natural  conse- 
cjuences  of  sin  is  too  inefficacious  to  restrain  men 
from  committing  it.  For  these  natural  punish- 
ments man  has  but  little  regard,  and  he  thinks 
he  can  find  means  to  avoid  them,  or  to  secure 
himself  against  them.  The  end,  therefore,  can 
be  more  surely  answered  by  positive  punish- 
ments. This  result,  built  upon  experience,  al- 
though men  were  only  obscurely  conscious  of  it, 
awakened  in  them  a  feeling  which  made  it  ne- 
cessary for  them  to  believe  that  there  are  posi- 
tive divine  judgments.  Hence  many  even  of  the 
ancient  heathen  lawgivers  took  means  to  give 
to  natural  laws  and  penalties  the  authority  of 
positive,  and  for  this  purpose  they  intimately 
associated  the  civil  and  religious  institutions  of 
thi'ir  country. 

(c)  If  there  are  positive  rewards  in  the  future 
world,  as  all  concede,  it  is  hard  to  see  how  posi- 
tive j)H;u'»/iwe/!/s  can  be  denied.     Vide  s.  31. 

{d)  'Vo  any  one  who  makes  the  holy  scriptures 
the  Sf)urce  of  his  knowledge,  this  subject  cannot 
be  doubtful;  for  the  scriptures  clearly  leach 
that  there  are  positive  punishments,  and  presup- 
pose them  in  many  of  the  most  important  doc- 
trines. 

But  if  any  one  remains  unconvinced  by  philo- 
sophical  arguments  and  by  the  authority  of  the 


316 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Bible,  tliat  God  actually  appoints  positive  pu- 
nishments, he  must  be  referred  to  the  fvict  and 
observation  above  mentioned,  that  this  belief 
cannot  be  taken  away  from  a  people  without 
endangering  its  mor.ility.  Even  if  a  reli<fious 
teacher  should  iiimself  entertain  doubts  on  this 
subject,  it  would  be  foolish  and  wrontr  in  him  to 
communicate  these  doubts  to  the  people,  and 
thus  deprive  them  of  a  belief  for  whicii  he  can 
substitute  nothing^  equally  firm  and  salutary. 
The  history  of  all  agres  teaches  that  nothing  has 
so  injurious  an  effect  upon  the  morality  of  peo- 
ple as  the  persuasion  that  there  are  no  positive 
punishments  which  they  have  to  fear  from  the 
hand  of  (iod.  When  such  punishments  have 
been  expected,  the  fear  of  them  has  always 
proved  a  mi;rhty  barrier  against  all  the  gross  out- 
breakings  of  sin.  For  a  confirmation  of  these 
remarks  let  the  student  consult  history  ;  cf.  also 
s.  15G,  II.  Xote. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  the  duty 
of  the  religious  teacher  to  rectify,  by  scriptural 
views,  the  false  opinions  which  people  are  apt 
to  form  respecting  the  nature  of  these  positive 
puiiisliinenls,  and  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible, 
their  injurious  influence.  In  discharging  this 
duty  he  may  be  aided  by  the  following  scrip- 
tural observations.  From  the  prevailing  false 
ideas  respecting  positive  punishments,  occasion 
is  someti;nps  taken  to  condemn  others,  and  to 
pronounce  upon  them  uncharitable  censures,  as, 
on  the  other  hand,  from  the  bestowment  of  posi- 
tive rewards,  many  are  disposed  to  extol  and  to 
imitate  those  upon  whom  they  are  conferred, 
supposing  them  to  be  the  favourites  of  Heaven. 
This  results  from  the  mistake  tiiat  prosperity 
and  adversity  in  this  life  are  proofs  of  the  plea- 
sure or  displeasure  of  God  with  the  conduct  of 
men;  something  as  it  is  with  those  who  stand 
in  favour  or  disfavour  with  human  rulers.  But 
all  such  opinions  have  a  most  unfavoural)le  in- 
fluence up'm  morality  and  upon  the  dispositions 
of  men.  The  teacher  must  therefore  take  pains 
to  sliew, 

(a)  'i'hnt  external  prosperity  and  adversity 
in  this  life  are  not  distributed  by  (Jod  as  reward 
and  punistriient  for  the  worr// conduct  of  men, 
(vide  s.  71,  H. ;)  and  that  it  is  therefore  jud<ring 
hastily  to  pronounce  positively  and  decidedly 
that  the  calamities  which  befal  particular  coun- 
tries or  individuals,  from  natural  and  not  moral 
causes,  ar' judgments  from  God,  although  they 
may  he  so  overruled  by  the  providence  of  God, 
ajid  should  he  so  improved  as  to  contribute  to  the 
promotion  of  moral  good  and  to  the  diminution 
of  moral  evil. 

(J)  That  even  alihoujjh  positive  divine  ro- 
Wards  and  punishments  should  take  place  in  the 
present  life,  (which  we  are  not  entitled  to  deny 
in  thcil,)  yet  men  are  not  in  a  situation,  nor  in 
any  way  qualified,  to  decide  that  ihey  are  so  in 


particular  cases,  because  they  have  no  Kurs  and 
infallible  marks  by  which  they  can  distimjuish 
these  from  advantages  and  calamities  which  ro* 
suit  from  other  causes,  and  have  no  connexion 
with  the  good  or  ill  desert  of  men.  Hence 
Christ  himself  warns  aijainst  such  precipitate 
judgments.     Vide  s.  31,  coll.  Ps.  Ixxiii.  -2.  seq, 

(y)  The  Old  Testament  is  often  app*>aled  to, 
where  much  is  indeed  said  respecting  positive 
rewards  and  punishments  even  in  the  present 
life;  and  by  the  unguarded  application  of  such 
texts  much  injury  may  be  done,  even  by  sincere 
and  well-disposed  religious  teachers.  On  this 
point  instruction  should  be  given  to  the  people 
with  due  discretion,  in  conformity  with  what 
was  said  on  this  point,  s.  31,  ad  finem,  in  the 
note.  It  must  be  shewn  that  the  same  is  not 
true  now  as  was  true  in  that  early  period  of  the 
world,  and  under  the  peculiar  constitution  of 
the  .lewish  religion.  This  matter  can  be  made 
very  plain  to  any  one,  by  remarking  that  then 
there  were  prophets,  who,  as  the  divine  ambas- 
sadors, expressly  declared  that  this  and  that 
physical  evil  was  a  positive  punishment  from 
(iod  ;  but  that,  as  we  have  no  prophets  now,  we 
are  unable  in  particular  cases  to  pronounce  a  de- 
finite decision  whether  this  and  that  evil  is  or  ia 
not  to  be  regarded  as  a  positive  punishment. 

(3)  .Still  another  chief  objection,  wiiifh  is 
often  urged  against  the  existence  of  ])ositive  re- 
wards and  punishments  in  the  future  wnrld.  is 
this:  God  would  have  named  the  positive  pu- 
nishments which  he  meant  to  inflict,  and  wotild 
have  settled  the  manner  of  their  infliction  in  hie 
laws.  This  is  done,  it  is  said,  by  every  hu- 
mane and  just  legislator  among  men;  and  it  is 
regarded  by  us  as  tyranny  and  despotism  for  a 
ruler  to  inflict  punishment  which  he  has  not 
previously  threatened.  But  this  comparison  of 
human  rulers  and  rfiagistrates  willi  God,  and  of 
their  punishments  with  his,  will  not  hold.  For 
(ft)  with  human  judges  and  magistrates  this  re- 
gulation is  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
judfje  from  acting  unjustly  or  rashly,  or  f'rom 
inflicting  too  light  or  too  severe  a  punishment 
under  the  influence  of  momentary  feeling.  Hut 
we  are  secure  from  any  such  danger  when  the  pu- 
nishments to  be  inflicted  are  left  to  the  disposal 
of  an  omniscient,  all-wise,  and  benevolent  Uuier, 
There  is  not,  therefore,  the  same  reasnn  f'"r  this 
that  there  is  in  the  case  of  men.  (6)  Human 
criminal  codes,  even  those  which  an  most  con>- 
plete,  contain  only  a  few  species  of  crimes;  nor 
can  they  have  any  respect  in  the  appointment 
of  the  punishment  to  the  motives,  the  sfale  ot 
mind,  and  innumerable  other  r  ircnmslances 
which  make  the  crime  greater  or  less.  Rut  to 
all  these  circumstances  CJod,  who  is  perfectly 
wise  and  just,  must  have  respect.  How  irnpos* 
sible,  now.  must  it  bo  to  give  n  catalogue  of  all 
sins  and  their  punishments,  according  to  their 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  B\   THF-  REDEMPTION.       317 


endlessly  diversified  degrees  and  modifications'? 
Who  would  read,  understand,  or  reijard  such  a 
catalogue^  Would  it  not  make  many  for  the 
first  time,  and  to  their  great  injury,  acquainted 
with  sins  of  which  they  otherwise  would  have 
known  nothing?  (c)  As  the  future  world  lies 
entirely  beyond  the  circle  of  our  ideas,  it  might 
not  be  even  possible  fully  to  describe  to  us,  in 
our  present  state,  every  kind  of  positive  reward 
and  punishment,  (d)  The  fear  of  a  positive  pu- 
nishment at  present  unknown  makes  a  stronger 
impression  upon  the  sinner,  and  is  more  effica- 
cious in  deferring  him  from  sin,  than  that  of  a 
punishment  definitely  described ;  for,  in  the 
former  case,  the  sinner  v.ill  always  fear  the 
worst,  and  expect  that  the  punishment  will 
strike  where  he  is  most  susceptible. 

Note. — The  holy  scriptures,  and  particularly 


Jesus  and  his  apostles,  make  it  a  great  object 
to  unfold  all  the  conserjuences  of  sin,  and  to 
shew  how  we  can  be  freed  from  them.  Those 
who  are  teachers  of  the  gospel  should  follow 
their  example  in  this  respect.  They  insist  par- 
ticularly upon  the  misery  rf  the  soul  arising  from 
sin,  and  upon  the  punishments  of  the  future 
world.  This  entire  misery,  or  the  unhappy 
state  of  both  soul  and  body,  as  produced  by  sin, 
is  called  in  the  scriptures  by  various  names — 
e.  g.,  b7.i^\)0i,  drtu/T^fitt,  ^raroj,  nxoTOf,  x.  T.  X. 
Vide  Morus,  p.  Ill,  prope  ad  finem.  Of  the 
external  evil  consequences  of  sin  which  befal 
men  in  the  present  life  the  sacred  writers  speak 
less  frequently,  partly  because  these  are  not  by 
any  means  so  great  and  terrible  as  the  other, 
and  partly  because  they  are  perfectly  obvious, 
and  fall  under  the  notice  of  every  one. 


PART  II.-STATE  INTO   WHICH  MAN   IS  BROUGHT 
BY  THE   REDEMPTION. 


ARTICLE    X. 

•    OF  JESUS  CHRIST. 

■  CrvyTf^"  HIS   important  article   has 

— '^.^  "  been  treated  in  a  great  va- 

riety of  ways  from  the  ear- 
liest times.  The  teachers 
of  religion  and  the  inter- 
preters of  the  Bible  have, 
for  various  reasons,  been 
'|;t€\  dissatisfied  with  the  simple  scriptural 
Iri  *■  representation,  and  have  often  predeter- 
f/Jk  ni'fied,  by  the  principles  of  some  school 
'SA  of  philosophy,  or  by  religious  opinions 
<^  current  at  their  own  time,  what  could 
be  believed  concerning  the  person,  oflices,  and 
merits  of  Jesus  Christ.  Any  declarations  of  the 
Bible  in  opposition  to  their  views  have  been 
either  overlooked,  as  if  they  could  not  be  found, 
or,  by  the  help  of  that  artificial  exegesis  which 
makes  anything  out  of  everything,  have  '  phu 
f-o  explained  as  to  agree  with  their  preconceived 
opinions.  In  this  manner  has  this  article  espe- 
cially been  treated  of  late  in  the  protestant 
church,  particularly  in  the  Lutheran  church  in 
Germany.  And  so  common  has  it  become  to 
pervert  this  doctrine  in  the  universities,  schools, 
and  in  p"pular  discourses  and  writings,  that  the 
teacher  who  turns  aside  from  the  beaten  path 
must  possess  no  small  degree  of  unprejudiced 
piety.  My  desiijn  is,  to  exhibit,  according  to 
my  honest  conviction,  the  purr,  uvfaUifii'd  doc- 
trine of  the  Bible,  with  its  proof,  and  carefully  to 


distinguish  it  from  ecclesiasticl  distinctions,  and 
from  other  additions  and  alterations. 

The  latter  I  shall  consider  by  themselves,  and 
endeavour  to  illustrate  them  from  history,  and  to 
pronounce  judgment  upon  them  according  to 
their  true  merits. 


CHAPTER   I. 

OF  THE  DIVINE  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  RESTO- 
RATION OF  MEN  IN  A  GENERAL  VIEW;  THE 
EXPECTATIONS,  PREDICTIONS,  AND  TYPES  OF 
THE  MESSIAH,  AND  THEIR  FULFILMENT  IN 
JESUS  OF  NAZARETH. 

SECTION  LXXXVni. 

OF  THE  INSTITUTIONS  ESTABLISHED  BY  GOD  FOR 
THE  MORAL  RICfOVERY  ASD  THE  SALVATION  OF 
THE  HUMAN  RACE  IN  A  GENERAL  VIEW;  AND 
THE  SCRIPTURAL  DOCTRINES  AND  REPRESENTA- 
TIONS ON  THIS  subject;  as  A  OKNERAL  INTRO- 
DUCTION TO  WHAT  FOLLOWS. 

I.  Wliat  is  requisite  fur  the  moral  recovery  of  man. 
The  Bible  everywhere  teaches  that  man  is 
debarred  from  the  enjoyment  of  Jral  happiness 
which  God  intended  for  him,  by  llie  want  of 
holiness,  by  sin,  and  deserved  punishment.  Vide 
Art.  IX.  Holiness  gives  the  only  right  of  citi- 
zenship in  the  moral  kingdom  of  God,  (^oujiXtio 
0fov.)  Now  because  sin  is  universal  anions 
men,  all  have  need  of fir^iveticsa  and  reformat 
3d -2 


318 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


f/or>— the  remission  of  sins  and  regeneration, 
(a'})f'?[{,  fifTuvoia,  aiayifvir'jii.')  And  since  we 
never  attain  to  perfect  holiness  in  this  life,  what- 
ever advances  we  may  make,  [and  hence  must 
be  disquieted  with  regard  to  our  acceptance  with 
God,]  it  is  equally  ese?ntial  that  we  should 
have  some  quitting  assurance  respecting  what 
awaits  us,  in  order  to  the  exercise  of  true  reli- 
gion, as  that  we  should  reform.  These,  then, 
are  the  principal  objects  at  which  Christianity 
nims.  If  men  are  to  be  redeemed,  these  hin- 
drances to  their  happiness  must  be  removed, 
they  must  be  reformed,  and  must  be  forgiven, 
and  a  comforting  assurance  that  they  are  so  must 
be  imparted.     This  is  done  in  two  ways: 

(1)  By  one  method,  the  power  of  sinful  nffic- 
Uoiis  is  weakened ;  so  that  reason  will  again  at- 
tain to  its  dominion  over  them;  by  which  man 
will  he  placed  in  a  situation  to  lead  a  holy  and 
pious  life,  (6ix;atiL{x(u  t v-jj.iSwj  s rv,  x.r.?..)  This 
means,  however,  must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
leave  human  freedom  entirely  unimpaired.  Re- 
formation in  a  moral  being  is  effected  by  bring- 
ing the  desires  and  inclinations,  from  which 
actions  spring,  under  the  control  of  the  intelli- 
gent mind.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  in  Chris- 
tianity a  doctrine  is  revealed  to  men  to  be  re- 
ceived and  believed  by  them,  intended  to  en- 
lighten tiieir  minds,  to  teach  them  how  to  avoid 
nnd  overcome  the  temptations  to  sin,  and  how  to 
live  agreeably  to  the  will  of  God  and  their  own 
destination.  This  doctrine  must  exhibit  the 
motives  for  the  avoidance  of  sin  and  the  practice 
of  virtue  and  holiness  in  a  manner  universally 
intelligible  and  convincing,  equally  designed  to 
illuminate  the  reason  and  affect  the  heart.  But 
it  must  also  shew  in  what  way  man  can  attain 
power  to  enable  him  to  be  holy.  For  any  mere 
doctrine  of  virtue,  or  code  of  moral  prrcepis,  does 
not  confer  upon  man  the  power  of  becoming  ac- 
tually virtuous.  This,  as  I'aul  says,  is  to  aiv- 
varof  rou  vouov.  The  moral  law,  with  all  its 
precepts,  threatenings,  and  promises,  could  not 
by  itself  make  us  holy  and  acceptable.  The 
fault,  however,  does  not  lie  in  the  law,  but  in 
that  weakness  and  imperfection  which  results 
from  our  depra"ity,  (.Sinnlichkeit.)  Ev  9  ij^^^f- 
wi  6ta  oa,)xo{.  Now  in  Christianity,  as  we  are 
taught  by  the  sacred  writers,  the  most  |)erfect 
instruction  of  this  nature  is  given  to  men. 

(•2)  Rut  the  Bible  teaches  us  that  the  reco- 
very of  man  to  hajipiness  requires  something 
more  than  this  instruction.  This  other  means 
is,  the  fi)rgiveness  of  sins,  or,  freedom  from  the 
punishment  of  sin.  Nor  was  it  enougii  that 
men  should  be  merely  forgiven;  their  tranquil- 
lity and  happiness  recpiire  that  they  should  be 
able  to  attain  to  an  n-nsurdnre  and  certain  con- 
viction of  the  fact.  'I'his  can  be  done  thrnnjrli 
the  atonement  of  Christ.     .Many  ancient  and 


modern  philosophers  and  religious  teachers  hav«, 
indt*ed,  maintained  tiiat  no  such  atonement  is 
necessary,  since  (Jod  forgives  the  sins  of  men 
whenever  they  reform.  But  thi^  whole  history 
of  the  human  race,  in  ancient  and  modern  times, 
proves  that  an  universal  apprehension,  arising 
from  a  universal  feeling  of  need,  has  prevailed 
among  men,  that  besides  inward  reformation, 
some  other  means  of  propitiating  the  Deity,  and 
averting  the  deserved  punishment  of  sin,  are 
neessary,  and  do  actually  exist. 

The  following  reasons  may  be  given  for  this 
feeling: — viz.  (a)  Although  one  shnuKl  be 
guilty  of  no  new  transgressions,  he  cannot  feel 
a  comforting  assurance  that  the  sins  which  he 
has  previiiuxly  committed  will  be  forgiven  on  the 
ground  of  his  subsequent  reformation.  Indeed, 
he  can  find  no  reason  to  believe  this,  while  he 
has  reason  enough  to  fear  the  contrary.  For 
how  can  that  which  is  once  done  be  undone,  or 
the  consequences  of  it  be  prevented  1  (b)  Every 
man,  whatever  his  advances  in  sanctification, 
must  still  confess  that  his  holiness  is  very  im- 
perfect, and  that  he  frequently  sins.  How, 
then,  can  he  hope  to  deserve  the  mercy  of  GoJ 
by  a  holiness  which  is  so  imperfect  and  min- 
gled with  sin?  It  is  the  voice  of  conscience, 
then,  which  has  produced  and  spread  so  widely 
among  men  this  feeling  of  the  necessity  of  an 
expiation.  There  is  not  a  nation  upon  the 
globe,  as  Plutarch  has  observed,  which  has  not 
certain  appointments  for  this  purpose;  such  as 
offerings,  cleansings,  and  other  religious  rites. 
Cf.  Meiners,  Geschichte  der  Religionem,  4. 
123,  f. 

Now  it  will  be  in  vain  to  endeavour  to  take 
away  this  feeling  from  man,  considering  how 
universal  and  deeply  rooted  it  is,  and  that  it  is 
founded  upon  the  voice  of  conscience,  and  cor- 
responds with  the  most  natural  and  familiar  no- 
tions which  men  form  respecting  God,  and  his 
manner  of  feeling  and  acting.  The  religious 
teacher  who  withholds  from  his  people  tlte  doc- 
trine of  pardon  throw^h  C/irist — who  represents 
it  as  uncertain  and  doubtful,  or  entirely  rejects 
it,  acts  very  inconsiderately  and  tinadvisedly. 
He  cannot  substitute  anything  better,  or  more 
consoling.  And  when  llic  conscienres  of  men 
awake,  he  will  be  unable  to  give  other  grounds 
which  can  prove  so  entirely  sufficient  for  their 
consolation. 

II.  The  different  »;w/i7u/io/m  u-hich  Gr.d  has  ap- 
pointed for  the  ruloration  and  moral  perfection 
of  the  hainan  race  in  a  general  view. 

(I)  The  means  which  God  em)doy«!  for  this 
purpose  are  very  various  and  manifi/d.  They 
are  designed  partly  to  weaken  thf  power  and 
dominion  of  sin;  partly  to  instruct  men,  and  to 
shew  them  the  true  way  to  happiness,  and  give 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BKOUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       319 


them  power  to  pursue  it.  These  objects  are 
promoted  even  by  the  original  constitution  which 
God  has  given  to  nature,  the  movements  of  con- 
science, the  unhappy  feelings  which  follow  upon 
sinful  actions,  f^c  ;  also  by  the  common  and  ex- 
traordinary instruction  which  God  has  given  to 
men,  in  one  way  and  another,  (noT-vjufpuij  xal 
rtoxvfpdrttof,  Heb.  i.  1 ;)  by  the  opportunity 
afforded  us  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  na- 
ture of  virtue  and  vice — the  happiness  of  the 
good,  and  the  wretchedness  of  the  bad,  by  ob- 
serving the  example  and  profiting  by  the  expe- 
rience of  others; — in  short,  by  history,  which  is 
one  of  the  best  teachers  of  the  human  race. 

The  history  of  every  nation  is  useful  in  this 
respect ;  but  that  of  the  Jewish  nation  possesses 
uncommon  interest.  Jesus  and  his  apostles 
allude  to  it  constantly  in  their  discourses.  It  is 
indeed  highly  instructive,  and  exhibited  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  the  deepest  impression  upon 
the  most  numerous  class  of  men.  It  always  re- 
presents God  not  simply  as  a  metaphysteal  being, 
but  as  conversant  with  men,  and  acting  after  the 
manner  of  men.  It  presents  clearly  before  our 
eyes  the  attributes  of  God,  the  course  of  his  pro- 
vidence, and  the  salutary  discipline  he  exercises 
over  men.  Those  religious  teachers  who  en- 
tirely reject  the  use  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
instruction  of  the  common  people  and  of  the 
young,  and  who  would  gladly  see  the  book  itself 
cast  aside,  know  not  what  they  do.  They  de- 
prive themselves  and  their  charge  of  great  ad- 
vantages. It  is,  indeed,  abused  in  various  ways, 
as  it  was  at  the  time  of  Christ;  but  this  does 
not  prevent  its  proper  use.  Respecting  the  use 
of  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament,  vide  I  Cor. 
X.  6,  II;  Rom.  xv.  4,  and  Koppen's  excellent 
work,  "Die  Bibel,  ein  Werk  der  gottlichen  Weis- 
heit;"  and  J.  G.  Muller,  Von  dem  christlichen 
Religionsunterrichte;  Winterihur,  1809,  8vo. 

But  the  greatest  blessing  which  God  has  be- 
stowed upon  men,  as  the  Bible  everywhere 
teaches,  is  the  appearance  of  Christ  in  the  world, 
his  instructions,  and  his  entire  work  for  the  hu- 
man race;  Rom.  xi.  33,  3G.  Still,  we  ongiit 
not  to  undervalue  or  exclude  the  other  benevo- 
lent institutions  by  which  God  has  benefited 
and  does  still  benefit,  not  only  Christians,  but 
mankind  at  large.  All  these  means  should  be 
considered  as  inseparably  connected,  as  they 
really  are,  and  as  the  scriptures  represent  them. 
Cf.  Jerusalem,  Betrachtungen,  th.  ii. ;  Hess, 
Vom  ReiJjie  Gottes;  Lessing,  Erziehung  des 
Menschengeschfechts;  Berlin,  1780. 

(2)  These  means  are  universal.  Vide  Morns, 
p.  126,  s.  6.  God  has  not,  indeed,  bestowed 
them  at  all  times,  and  upon  all  nations;  since 
all  men  in  all  ages  have  not  been  capable  of  re- 
ce'ving  them  ;  but  he  has  selected  the  most  pro- 
per in  every  age  and  nation ;  so  that  the  know- 


Ipdge  and  worship  of  God,  piety  and  virtue, 
have  never  been  wholly  lost  from  the  earth. 
We  should  not  confine  our  attention  to  the  Jew- 
ish nation,  but  should  search  out  and  thankfully 
admire  the  traces  of  divine  care  over  nations 
called  heathen.  Even  in  the  rnidst  of  their  im- 
perfect knowledge  of  God,  and  of  their  polythe- 
ism, we  often  find  true  religiousness  aiid  piety, 
which,  notwithstanding  their  erronerns  views, 
are  certainly  acceptable  in  the  sight  of  God. 
The  ancient  writers  are  full  of  such  instances. 
The  gracious  care  and  providence  of  God  is  as 
clearly  seen  in  raising  up  good  legislators,  prac- 
tical sages,  teachers  of  the  people,  promoters  of 
science  and  morality,  among  the  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, and  other  people  of  the  earth,  for  their 
improvement  and  moral  good,  as  in  the  institu- 
tions which  he  established  among  the  Jewish 
people  for  the  same  purposes.  These  natural 
means  which  God  employs  redound  as  much  to 
his  glory  as  the  supernatural. 

Paul  therefore  says  expressly,  that  God  has 
given  the  heathen  opportunity  of  knowing  him  ; 
that  he  has  not  left  himself  without  a  witness 
among  them  ;  and  that  they,  too,  will  be  inex- 
cusable if  they  leave  unimproved  that  knowledge 
of  God  imparted  to  them  through  nature.  Acts, 
xvii.  27;  Rom.  i.  18,  seq.  Accordingly,  the 
virtue  and  piety  which  the  heathen  practise, 
after  the  measure  of  their  imperfect  knowledge, 
is  represented  in  the  Bible  as  agreeable  to  God. 
The  case  of  the  centurion  Cornelius  is  an  exam- 
ple. Acts,  X.  God  accounted  him  worthy  to  be 
entrusted  with  more  knowledge,  because  he 
proved  himself  faithful  in  the  use  of  that  lesser 
degree  which  he  possessed. 

The  national  pride  of  the  Jews  led  them  into 
the  mistake  that  God  had  a  special  regard  for 
thetii ;  that  they  were  more  agreeable  to  him  than 
other  nations;  that  they  exclusively  were  his 
children;  and  that  the  Messiah  was  designed 
only  for  them.  These  mistakes  are  frequently 
opposed  in  the  New  Testament;  there  is  fl< 
0f 6j  xai  nar»;p  xairuv,  Ephes.  iv.  5,  0  ;  1  Tim. 
ii.  5,  seq.  God  has  no  partiality,  {n\wnuino7.r'\ia.) 
Rom.  x.  12;  Acts,  x.  34;  all  have  equal  right 
to  the  divine  blessings,  especially  to  those  con- 
ferred by  Christianity;  John,  x.  16  ;  Ephes.  i.  10; 
ii.  14,18;  Rom.  v.  18,  seq.;  and  the  textscitedby 
Morus,  p.  12f),  s.  6,  n.  1,  3.  This  universality  of 
the  divine  favours  is  expressly  asserted  even  in 
the  Old  Testament.  The  prophets  fre(|uently 
affirm  that  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God  will 
become  universal  among  the  heathen,  and  that 
they  by  no  means  shall  be  excluded  t>om  it; 
Dent,  xxxii.  31  ;  Isaiah,  ii.  and  Ixvi.  Indeed, 
the  Old  Testament  contains  promises  of  far  bet- 
ter times  in  future  for  the  heathen  than  for  the 
Jews. 

(3)  They  are  appointed  by  God  with  greai 


320 


CHRISTIAN"  TIIFOLOGY. 


wisdom  in  rofcrence  to  the  nature  of  man  and 
tlie  circumstances  of  particular  times.  Such 
means  are  selected  as  allow  the  freedom  of 
•nan,  and  leave  him  at  liberf)'  to  choose  or  reject. 
It  is  the  internal  force  of  truth  which  is  made  to 
influence  man,  and  not  external  compulsaiory 
means.  Moreover,  God,  like  a  wise  fatiier  and 
teacher,  proceeds  according  to  the  time  and  age 
of  the  human  race  in  general,  and  of  nations  and 
individuals  in  particular.  He  regulates  his  in- 
btruction  according  to  their  capacity.  He  does 
not  overload  tlieir  infancy  with  such  laws  and 
precepts  as  they  cannot  understand,  but  saves 
the  higher  instruction  for  the  maturer  age  of  a 
more  advanced  generation. 

This  greater  or  less  capability  of  some  gene- 
rations and  nations  in  comparison  with  others, 
should  be  considered  as  one  reason  why  God 
did  not  earlier  disclose  certain  truths  which  are 
peculiar  to  Christianity,  and  why  he  still  with- 
holds them  from  certain  nations  and  countries. 
For  suoh  nations,  however,  he  provides  in  ano- 
ther way,  and  leads  them  to  that  degree  of  hap- 
piness of  which  they  are  capable.  He  is  not 
confined  to  one  method,  as  is  shewn  in  the 
Introduction.  Nor  is  the  education  of  the  human 
race  confined  to  this  life;  provision  will  doubt- 
less be  made  to  enable  those  who  are  innocently 
deficient  here  to  maUe  up  their  loss  hereafter. 

Xote. — In  the  New  Testament,  the  terms 
jfa,)ij,  x'^\)ii  0fov,  Sifipftt  0fov,  are  used  to  denote 
the  whulc  cunipnss  of  means  employed  by  God  to 
bring  men  to  happiness,  as  well  as  any  particu- 
lar means.  Vide  Morus,  p.  122,  125.  The  term 
xa^iLf  is  used  in  various  senses;  and  as  unscrip- 
tural  ideas  are  often  attached  to  it,  we  shall  here 
briefly  e.\j)lain  the  scriptural  significatioiis.  It 
corresponds  to  the  Hebrew  'n,  and  sometimes  to 
1?-,  and  similar  words.  It  signifies  (1)  in  gene- 
ral, the  unmerited  Iovr  and  benevolence  which 
(iod,  as  the  supreme  Governor,  bears  for  all  his 
creatures  and  subjects,  and  especially  for  men; 
and  so  is  synonymous  with  ayartj;,  Z\>*i'^fo'^*li^ 
ij'v?uii>,>wrt;tt.  Til.  iii.  4;  and  (2)  the  conse- 
quences and  proofs  of  this  gracious  regard;  in 
short,  all  umleserved  divine  favours;  John,  i. 
I6.;ta,)cidiri  ;^ttptro<.  These  areelscwhere  called 
j;a,)i'7^o,  6u(jfa,  x.'jr.  X.  Cf.  Rom.  v.  15.  Inas- 
much as  they  are  undeserved,  they  are  contrast- 
ed with  6<}>fiV>;ua,  Rnm.  iv.  1. 

Hence  atiso  various  other  significations,  by 
which  certain  irreat  favours  are  called  ;^aptrf{, 
by  way  of  eminence:  as  (a)  the  (.'hristiaii  doc- 
trine and  institute  in  general,  and  particularly 
tliat  principal  doctrine  of  Christianity,  the  gra- 
cious forgiveness  of  sin  on  account  of  Christ. 
Xup({  xai,  aXr^'^fia,  .lohn,  i.  7  ;  \6yof  ;j;a(itroj,  lliR 
benevolent  doctrine.  Acts,  xiv.  3;  x'^i'^i  ^^fov, 
Tit.  ii.  11,  ;^a()i<  XiittroG,  and  x^\>^i  simply. 
Acts,  xviii.  27,  seq.    (6)  Certain  employ  menus, 


businesses,  and  offices  in  the  Christian  churchi 
and  the  talents,  abilities,  and  gifts  bestowed  by 
God  upon  particular  persons  in  reference  to 
these  oflices.  Thus  Rom.  i.  5,  ;^apij  xcw  artt^ 
rsro7.r^'  also  xii.  3.  In  other  texts,  ;^a))tiua  is 
used,  with  which  x'^^'-i  's  interchangeil  as  sy 
nonymous  in  1  Pet.  iv.  10,  and  in  the  episilea 
to  the  Corinthians.  From  these  and  similar 
texts  is  derived  (c)  the  ecclesiastical  usage,  in 
which  gratia  denotes,  by  way  of  eminence,  the 
operations  of  God  upon  the  hearts  of  men  for 
their  improvement  and  conversion.  These  ope- 
rations were  called  aclioncs  i^atiic,  and  the  con- 
dition of  a  converted  man  statum  ^ralix.  The 
Latin  church,  especially  since  the  time  of  Au- 
gustine, has  used  this  word  in  this  sense.  Vide 
Vide  infra,  s.  129. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  appears  that  th« 
grace  of  God  is  only  his  i::oodness,  considered  in 
a  particular  relation.  Grace  is  the  goodness  of 
a  superior  to  a  subordinate  person.  The  ruler, 
properly  speaking,  is  gracious  only  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  the  lord  to  the  slave.  The  Bible  con- 
forms to  this  usage.  God,  then,  is  <jjacious,  in 
the  highest  sense  of  this  word,  because  he  is  the 
supreme  and  necessary  ruler  and  governor  of 
men.  Everything,  consequently,  which  God 
does  for  men,  relating  to  the  body  or  soul,  is  an 
operation  of  his  grace,  actus  grulix  diuina;.  And 
this  grace  \sfrce,  because  no  one  can  compel  it; 
and  the  very  idea  of  {^race  excludes  all  merit, 
Rom.  iv.  1. 

III.  The  particular  purpose  of  Cnd  to  restore  the 
human  race  by  Christ. 

The  New  Testament  teaches  that  God  has 
determined  to  bestow  his  favours  upon  men 
through  Christ,  and  to  lead  them  to  holiness  and 
happiness  by  him.  Hence  Christ  is  called 
'VJ^'^yt'J  S"^5'  Acts,  iii.  15,  coll.  ve.r.  26.  This 
term  is  explained  by  oirioj  dwTJjpiaj,  Heb.  v.  9, 
coll.  Acts,  xvii.  30,  31.  The  gracious  decree 
of  (lod  to  pardon,  sanctify,  and  lili<ss  mankind« 
and  the  institutions  he  has  established  for  this 
purpose,  are  called  ;^upi{  (jwr>;ptoj.  Til.  ii.  II; 
iii.  4.  The  following  particulars  are  implied— 
viz.,  God  designs  to  free  men  from  the  unhap* 
piness  occasioned  by  sin,  {mj^^tlv  x)  and  also  to 
bestow  upon  them  unmerited  f.iv.iurs,  x^'-'^ovvt 
;^api^,  X.  r.  JL.)  These  favours  are  pardon,  sano 
tification,  and  eternal  l)lessedness,  also  informa- 
tion communicated  by  God  respecting  this 
blessedness,  instruction  as  to  the  u^nner  how 
we  may  attain  to  it,  and  strengfli  imparted  to  us 
for  this  end.  This  grace  of  God  is  called  ^ 
Jfapij  0FOV  iv  XpiiTui  fioiifiTa,  1  Cor.  i.  4.  It  is 
always  represented  in  the  New  Testament  as 
bestowed  upon  us  througli  Christ,  and  on  his 
account.  Hy  liiin  (Jod  teaches  us  and  renewg 
us;  pardons  us  on  account  of  his  death;  tarf 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      331 


oeatows  upon  us  eternal  blessedness  through 
him  and  tor  his  sake.  Everything  proceeds 
from  him,  ;ind  is  referred  to  him.  Tliis  purpose 
of  God  is  also  described  in  the  Bible  by  the 
words  ^t?.rua  ©fov,  rtpci^f ctti  npoyvuaii  and  rtpo- 
opi^?i»,  E|)hes.  i.  4,  11;  iii.  11.  The  Bible 
says,  too,  that  God  made  this  decree  from  eter- 
nity^ {tC\->6  aiiii'tov,  or  xardiioXr^i  xoafiov.)  All 
the  divine  decrees  are  of  this  peculiar  nature, 
as  is  implied  in  the  particle  rtp6.  The  passage 
1  Pet.  i.  20  is  very  clear  upon  this  subject. 
From  the  Old  Testament,  the  passage  Ps.  xl. 
7,  seq.,  belongs  in  this  connexion.  This  decree 
is  always  described  as  ihefree  determination  of 
God.  Thus  in  the  passages  cited  it  is  called 
tvboxia  ^('/.r;uatoi.  Not  that  it  would  have  been 
consistent  for  God  to  desert  the  human  race,  and 
leave  it  to  perish;  the  divine  goodness  forbids 
such  a  supposition.  The  simple  meaning  is, 
that  no  external  necessity  compelled  him  to  it, 
and  that  it  is  his  free  grace,  without  any  desert 
or  worthiness  on  the  part  of  men.  Paul  too,  in 
Rom.  ix. — xi.,  speaks  of  the  free  grace  of  God 
in  respect  to  the  new  institute  which  he  esta- 
blished upon  earth  by  Christ. 

The  following  result  may  be  deduced  from 
what  has  been  said: — Christianity  is  founded 
upon  the  principles,  (a)  that  all  men  are  consi- 
dered as  sinners  in  the  sight  of  God  ;  to  which 
the  conscience  of  every  one  bears  testimony, 
(vide  No.  I.  ad  finem ;)  and  that  therefore 
(b)  they  are  subject  to  the  punishment  of  sin, 
as  experience  proves.  The  distinguishing  trait 
of  Christianity  is  this:  that  it  promises  to  men 

DEt.IVERANCE    FROM    SIN,    AND    THE    PUNISHMENT 

OF  SIN,  before  it  requires  of  them  perfect  holi- 
ness, acceptable  to  God.  It  thus  comes  to  the 
relief  of  ignorant,  desponding,  and  feeble  man; 
inspires  him  with  confidence  in  God,  and  with 
love  to  him;  acquaints  him  with  his  destination 
to  true  holiness  and  unalterable  happiness,  and 
shews  the  only  way  by  which  he  can  attain  it. 
Any  philosophy  or  system  of  religion  wiiich  re- 
verses this  order,  and  demands  holiness  of  men 
before  it  gives  the  power  to  attain  it;  which  re- 
presents holiness  as  the  procuring  cause  of  for- 
giveness ;  fails  of  its  object,  and  asserts  and 
requires  an  impossibility.  The  great  point  in 
this  pardon  or  amnesty  which  Christianity  pro- 
mises, is  the  doctrine  that  Jesus  Christ  came 
into  the  world  to  bless  sinful  men,  to  free  them 
from  sin  and  death;  1  Tim.  i.  15,  coll.  2  Tim. 
..  10;  John,  iii.  IG,  17.  This  pardon,  however, 
reaches  men  only  when,  under  divine  guidance 
and  assistance,  they  act  according  to  the  con- 
ditions and  precepts  laid  down.  Hence  forgive- 
ness and  eternal  life  are  inseparably  connected 
in  Christianity  with  the  requisition  of  repent- 
ance and  faith  made  active  by  love.  These 
doctrines  are  always  connected  in  the  scrip- 
tures; 80  Til.  ii  11 — 14. 
41 


SECTION  LXXXIX. 

formation  and  devei.opmknt  of  the  idea  of 
messiah  among  the  ancient  and  modern 
jews;  their  various  opinions  respecting 
him;  and  the  proof  that  jesus  was  thk 

MESSIAH. 

I.  The  gradual  development  of  the  idea  of  a 
Messiah  among  the  Israelites. 

(1)  The  idea  of  a  former  happy  condition  in 
the  earliest  ages  of  the  world  is  universal  among 
men,  and  is  found  too  among  the  Israelites 
Vide  s.  5G.  But  it  is  quite  as  natural  to  the 
human  mind  to  console  itself  in  the  midst  of 
troubles,  sufferings,  and  the  feeling  of  physical 
and  moral  imperfection,  with  the  hope  of  better 
times  to  come,  and  of  a  future  happy  condition, 
either  in  this  life  or  the  life  to  come,  or  in  both 
together.  Hence  arose  the  fables  of  the  heathen 
respecting  the  return  of  a  golden  age,  the  ex- 
pected dwelling  of  the  gods  upon  earth,  and 
pictures  of  a  similar  nature,  in  which  their 
wishes  and  expectations  were  embodit^d.  These 
ideas,  like  those  concerning  the  original  golden 
age,  are  held  by  every  nation,  and  are  founded, 
like  those,  in  a  feeling  of  necessity  which  is 
deep  laid  in  the  human  soul.  These  ideas,  ex- 
pectations, and  wishes,  are  found  in  every  na- 
tion; differently  modified,  however,  according 
to  their  particular  situation  and  mode  of  think- 
ing and  representation.  One  people  is  more 
bold  and  confident  in  its  expectations  ;  another 
is  more  moderate,  hoping  and  wishing  "atner 
than  determining  and  deciding. 

(2)  The  Jewish  nation,  too,  expected  such  a 
return  of  the  golden  age  to  the  earth ;  and  they 
were  justified  in  this  by  the  declarations  and 
promises  of  their  ol'dest  prophets.  But  this  ex- 
pectation of  the  Jews  was  peculiar,  and  distin- 
guished from  that  of  others  in  this  respect,  that 
this  period  was  placed  by  them  in  the  times 
when  the  Messiah  should  appear.  These  happy 
times  were  called  N3n  aSp. 

(3)  But  the  question  here  arises — Is  the  doc- 
trine respecting  the  Messiah,  the  Saviour  of  th© 
world,  a  doctrine  really  revealed  by  God  to 
men  ;  or  is  it  merely  a  hunrran  opinion,  origi- 
nating among  the  Jews  from  their  accidental 
circumstances, — in  short,  a  Jewish  fable,  em 
ployed  by  Christ  and  the  apostles  for  benevo 
lent,  moral  purposes] 

First.  The  last  supposition  is  maintained  in 
general  by  those  who  deny  or  question  all  di- 
rect revelation  ;  by  all,  indeed,  who  deny  the 
reality  of  miracles  i  for  predictions  belong  to  the 
class  of  miraculous  occurrences;  and  the  objec- 
tions made  to  one  may  be  made  to  the  other. 
Vide  s.  7,  III.,  s.  72,  II.  These  writers  endea- 
vour by  various  hypotheses  to  explain  the  nap 
tural  origin  of  this  idea.     Of.  Siephani,  Gedan- 


323 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ken  fiber  die  Entstehung  und  Ausbildunj  der 
Idee  von  einem  Messias;  Nurnberg,  1767,  8vo. 
Eckermann,  Theologisclie  Heytruge,  b.  ii.  st. 
1  ;  Altoiia,  1791,  Hvo.  Zieirlrr,  Entwickelung 
dcs  \vahrscht»inlichen  Ursprungs  dcr  Idee  vom 
Messias,  in  Henke's  Mag.  fur  Religionsphilo- 
sophie,  b.  i.  st.  I,  Abhandl.  2.  Ainmon,  Ver- 
sucli  einer  Christologie  des  alien  Testaments ; 
Erlantren,  1794,  8vo.  Their  principal  opinions 
may  be  compressed  intlie  following  statement — 
viz., 

Many  brave  heroes  and  deliverers  (^ur^p;j 
o>;"r>:)  had  appeared  among  the  Jews  from  the 
earliest  period  of  their  history,  and  had  contri- 
buted to  the  public  weal.  Such  were  the^jro- 
phcis  and  ij;reat  kings.  But  the  advantages 
which  had  been  hoped  for,  both  in  respect  to 
religious  and  moral  improvement,  and  also  in 
respect  to  civil  and  social  welfare,  had  not  as 
yet  been  realized,  and  were  still  expected  in  fu- 
ture time.  By  degrees,  all  wishes,  hopes,  and 
expectations  centred  in  one  person,  who  would 
accomplish  all  which  was  desired.  This  idea 
did  not  become  general,  or  rather,  did  not  take 
its  origin,  among  the  Jews  until  after  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity.  This  person  was  expected  to 
be  the  deliverer  and  helper  of  the  Jeivisk  nation, 
and  principally  a  temporal  deliverer,  who  would 
establish  an  earthly  kingdom.  This  idea  pre- 
vailed widely  among  the  Jews  at  the  time  of 
Christ,  and,  by  the  aid  of  the  allegorical  inter- 
pretation then  current,  was  carried  into  the  more 
ancient  of  their  sacred  books.  Now  Jesus,  it 
is  said,  fouml  this  idea,  and  connected  it,  such 
as  he  found  it,  with  his  doctrine;  not  consider- 
ing it  himself  (as  many  say)  to  be  really  true. 
He  modified  this  idea,  and  gave  himself  out  for 
a  .s/wVjVi/rt/ deliverer  of  mankind  by  his  tnatruc- 
tton.  Eckermann,  therefore,  atlirnts  distinctly, 
that  in  the  whole  Old  Testament  there  are  no 
proper  predictions  of  Christ.     Beytr.  st,  1. 

Remarks  on  this  Explanation. 

(«)  All  accounts  of  the  origin  of  this  idea, 
which  are  exclusive  of  direct  divine  revelation, 
if  not  otherwise  objertional)le,  are  merely  con- 
jectural and  hypothetical,  and  cannot  be  histo- 
rically proved.  This  is  the  reason  why  they 
are  so  various  and  contradictory;  there  is  no 
sure  historical  ground  and  basis  upon  which 
they  can  be  established  anil  built ;  they  are  mere 
plays  of  the  imagination,  mere  conjectures  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  the  thing  may  possibly 
have  been.  And  indeed,  many  cases  may  be 
imagined  possible,  no  one  of  which  can  he  proved 
to  be  historically  true,  and  most  of  which  have 
historical  evidence  against  them.  This  discre- 
pancy of  views  among  writers  on  this  subject, 
therefore,  never  will  or  can  cease,  as  long  as 
they  proceed  in  this  way. 

(6)  The  assertioo  of  Eckermann  and  others, 


that  the  Old-Testamen?  •'  scriptions  of  the  Me»» 
siah  are  not  descriptions  of  Jcsui,  but  of  an 
earthly  king,  is  unfounded.  For  although  the 
Messiah  is  often  compared  to  a  kinjj,  as  even 
God  is,  he  is  also  named  and  described  as  a 
prophet  and  priest.  And  to  free  men  from  sin, 
to  instruct  them,  and  promote  their  moral  im- 
provement, are  ascribed  to  him  as  the  principal 
part  and  proper  object  of  his  advent.  Psalm 
xxii.,  xl.,  ex.;  Isaiah,  ii.,  xi.,  liii. 

(c)  The  predictions  of  the  prophets  represent 
the  Messiah  not  as  the  king  and  ruler  of  a  sin- 
gle nation,  as  the  Jewish  kings  were,  but  as  the 
king  and  benefactor  of  all  who  should  be  friend- 
ly to  him.  In  the  predictions  of  the  Jewisfc 
prophets  he  is  promised  quite  as  much,  and 
even  more,  to  the  heathen  than  to  the  Jews 
themselves.  Vide  the  passages  before  cited. 
The  promises  given  to  Abraham,  Gen.  xii.  3  ; 
xxii,  18,  are  certainly  free  from  any  Jewish  ex- 
clusiveness,  and  are  as  comprehensive  as  pos- 
sible. 

(f/)  The  assertion  that  the  idea  of  Alessiah 
originated  during  the  Bfhylonish  captivity,  or 
afterwards,  and  that  the  earlier  Jews  ditTerently 
understood  the  so-named  Messianic  passages  in 
Moses  and  the  prophets,  is  contrary  to  history. 
For  the  idea  respecting  a  Messiah  was  univer- 
sal among  the  Samaritans  at  the  time  of  Christ, 
and  much  earlier.  And  indeed  it  was  held  by 
the  Samaritans  more  purely  than  by  'he  greater 
part  of  the  Jews ;  as  the  Messiah  was  represent- 
ed by  them  as  the  great  Prophet  ami  Saviour, 
John,  iv.  25,  42,  seq.  Therefore  this  idea  must 
have  existed  among  the  Jews  before  the  reli- 
gious separation  between  them  and  the  Samari« 
tans;  and  consequently  before  the  H;ibvIonian 
exile.  For  the  Samaritans  would  not  certainly 
have  received  it  from  the  Jews  after  the  separa- 
tion. Whence  then  did  they  derive  it  1  'I'hey 
admitted  only  the  five  books  of  Mos-s  Irom  the 
whole  Old  Testament.  Accordinrrly.  they  must 
have  grounded  their  expectation  np'^n  the  testi- 
mony of  Moses,  and  the  interpretaii"n  of  this 
testimony  tjiven  them  by  the  Israeliti-^h  teach- 
ers sent  to  them  from  Assyria,  2  Kii)«rs,  xvij. 
27,  seq.  The  Israelites,  therefore,  must  have 
had  the  idea  of  a  Messiah  lonjj  before  the  Baby- 
lonian exile,  and  must  have  found  it,  too,  in  the 
books  of  Moses, 

Seconplv. — The  whole  opinion  that  the  idea 
of  Messiah  does  not  depend  upon  divine  revela- 
tion, and  that  it  is  not  contained  in  the  oldest 
sacred  records  of  the  Hebrews,  stan<ls  in  the 
most  palpable  rontrailiclion  to  the  clearest  decla- 
rations of  Christ  and  his  apostles.  For  (n)  the 
writings  of  the  pruphets  are  acknowlodcjed  ny 
them  to  be  of  divine  authority,  and  the  do<-/ 
trines  and  predictions  contained  in  them  are  not 
treated  as  fictions  and  fables,  hut  as  truly  re- 
vealed by  God.     And  (fr)  it  is  no  less  certain 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       323 


that  they  teach  that  there  are  in  Moses  and  the 
prophets  predictions  respecting  the  Messiah,  or 
benefactor  of  the  world,  and  that  these  were  ful- 
filled in  Jesus.  Jesus  himself  frequently  as- 
serts this  in  the  most  impressive  and  solemn 
manner,  Luke,  xviii,  31 — 33;  xxii.  37;  xxiv. 
27;  Matt.  xx.  18,  19;  xxvi.  54;  Mark,  ix.  12; 
John,  V.  39,  4G.  And  in  this  his  apostles  ex- 
actly follow  his  example.  Acts,  ii.  10,  25;  viii. 
18;  x.  34;  xiii.  23,  32;  xxvi.  22,  23;  1  Pet.  i. 
11  ;  2  Pet.  i.  19,  and  the  Pauline  epistles.  The 
apostles  themselves  therefore  believed  this. 

Now  if  Jesus  and  his  apostles  were  merely 
human  teachers,  they  may  possibly  have  erred 
in  this  matter;  as  also  many  of  the  Jewish 
teachers  of  that  time,  who  interpreted  these  pas- 
sages in  the  same  way,  may  have  done.  But 
if  they  were  divinely  commissioned,  what  they 
say  on  this  subject  must  be  believed.  For  I 
am  not  at  liberty  to  proceed  optionally  in  be- 
lii  ving  the  declarations  of  a  man  whom  I  ac- 
knowledge to  be  divinely  commissioned.  I  am 
not  at  lilerty  to  make  selection  of  what  I  will 
admit  and  what  reject  at  my  good  pleasure.  I 
must  rather  yield  unconditional  faith  to  each 
and  every  thing  which  he,  as  a  divine  messen- 
ger, teaches  and  declares.  Consistency,  then, 
requires  us  to  go  on  this  principle  in  this  sub- 
ject. Vide  Herder,  Briefe  das  Studium  der 
Theoloiiie  betreffend,  br.  18,  21,  particularly  s. 
303.  f..?4 9—352,  th.  ii.  Cf.  Herder's  Work, 
"  Voui  Krloser  der  Menschen,  nach  unsern  drey 
erst<n  Evangelisten ;  Riga,  179G,  8vo.  [Cf.  es- 
pecially Hengstenberg,  "  Christologie,"  where 
this  whole  subject  is  more  ably  discussed  than 
anywhere  else. — Tr.] 

II.  Vcrious  opinions  of  the  Jews  at  and  afler  the 
time  of  Christ  respecting  the  Messiah,  and  the 
fiiilure  of  his  kingdom. 

(I)  At  the  time  of  Christ,  and  previously, 
the  current  opinion  of  the  people  in  Palestine, 
and  indeed  of  most  of  the  Pharisees  and  law- 
yer>:,  was,  that  he  would  be  a  temporal  deliverer 
and  a  king  of  the  Jews,  and  indeed,  a  universal 
monarch,  who  would  reign  over  all  nations. 
,  Thus  they  interpreted  the  passages.  Psalm  ii.  2, 
G,  8  ;  Jer.  xxiii.  5,  6 ;  Zech.  ix.  4,  seq.  Hence 
those  who,  during  the  lifetime  of  Jesus,  ac- 
knowledged him  to  be  the  Messiah,  wished  to 
proclaim  him  king,  John,  vi.  15,  coU.^Iatt.  xxi. 
8,  9.  The  apostles  themselves  held  this  opi- 
nion until  after  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  Mat- 
thew, XX.  20,  21 ;  Luke,  xxiv.  21  ;  Acts,  i.  G. 
And  Jesus  himself,  during  his  life  upon  earth, 
proceeded  very  guardedly,  in  order  to  lead  them 
gradually  from  this  deep-rooted  prejudice,  and 
and  not  to  take  it  away  at  once.  Josephus  says 
that  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Jews  in  the  war 
against  the  Romans,  was  very  much  increased 
by  this  belief  of  an  universal  monarchy.     Vide 


Bell.  Jud.  vi.  5.  Suetonius  (Vesp.  c.  4)  and 
Tacitus  (Hist.  v.  13)  speak  of  this  expectation 
spread  throughout  all  the  East  by  the  Jews.  It 
was  expected  that  he  would  institute  new  reli- 
gious rites,  (John,  i.  25 ;)  that  he  would  perform 
uncommonly  great  miracles,  (John,  vii.  31  ;) 
that  he  would  be  born  at  Bethlehem,  of  the  line 
of  David,  and  yet  from  obscure  parents,  (John, 
vii.  42;)  and  that  he  would  never  die,  (John, 
xii.  34.) 

(2)  Some,  but  by  far  the  smallest  number, 
had  purer  ideas  respecting  the  Messiah  ;  and  did 
not  so  much  expect  an  earthly  kingdom  as  for- 
giveness of  sin,  instruction,  diffusion  of  truth, 
and,  in  short,  spiritual  blessings.  Simeon  had 
this  correct  view,  (Luke,  ii.  30,  seq. ;)  the  ma- 
lefactor on  the  cross,  (Luke,  xxiii.  43;)  and  i 
few  other  Jews  at  the  time  of  Chr?"*.  Many 
pious  Jews,  too,  out  of  Palestine,  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  had  the  same  correct  views.  For 
even  the  common  people  of  Samaria  had  opi- 
nions on  this  subject  comparatively  pure.  Vide 
John,  iv.  25,  seq.  Jesus  approved  these  opi- 
nion's as  just  and  scriptural,  and  always  acted 
in  conformity  with  them.  Vide  Luke,  xvii.  20, 
21 ;  John,  xviii,  36 — 38.  It  is,  then,  very  un- 
just to  charge  him  with  the  intention  of  esta- 
blishing an  earthly  kingdom,  as  is  done  in  the 
work  '*  Vom  Zweck  Jesu,"  Braunschweig, 
1778.  Vide  Koppe  "  Progr.  de  sententia  Judse- 
orum  de  Messia  et  futuro  ejus  regno;"  Gott. 
1779. 

(3)  Many  united  both  of  these  opinions,  and 
considered  the  Messiah  as  a  teacher  and  earthly 
king  at  the  same  time,  as  the  supreme  head  of 
church  and  state.  This  appears  to  have  been 
the  opinion  of  the  apostles  and  most  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  Christ,  while  he  lived  upon  the  earth. 
A  multitudeof  Christians  of  the  Judaizing  party, 
durin?  the  first  and  second  centuries,  believed 
that  Christ  would  return  to  the  earth  to  establish 
a  temporal  kingdom  for  a  thouand  years — an 
opinion  which  has  been  indulged  by  many 
Christians  in  every  age  down  to  the  present 
time. 

(4)  Some  of  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ, 
and  previously,  were  free-thinkers,  and  appear 
to  have  rejected  the  whole  notion  of  a  Messiah 
as  a  popular  superstition,  a  fabulous  and  ground- 
less expectation.  Especially  was  this  the  case 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  state  by  the 
Romans.  Many  of  the  Jews  out  of  Palestine, 
especially  the  learned  Grecian  Jews,  appear  to 
have  been  of  this  way  of  thinking.  Accord- 
ingly, there  is  no  mention  of  this  idea  even  in 
the  Book  of  Wisdom,  or  in  all  the  writings  of 
Philo.  And  even  Josephus,  in  his  desire  to 
please  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  appears  to  have 
been  ashamed  of  this  faith  of  his  fathers,  and  so 
always  avoids  the  subject.  They  were  satis- 
fied with  mere  morality,  and  connected  the  Gre- 


324 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


cian  philosophy  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Jew- 
eh  religion  and  theoloiry.  This  silence  is  ihe 
more  remarkable,  especially  in  Pliilo,  consider- 
\rt\r  how  much  he  was  given  to  the  allegorical 
interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament. 

(5)  We  find  all  these  dillerent  opinions  re- 
peated in  the  writings  of  the  Jews  who  lived 
after  the  time  of  Christ  and  the  destruction  of 
the  temple, — in  the  Chaldaic  paraphrases,  in 
the  book  .Sohar,  in  the  Talmud,  and  in  the  Rab- 
bins, where  so  many  of  the  ancient  traditions 
are  exhibited. 

(«)  The  opinions  of  the  more  modern  Jews 
were  very  various  respecting  the  importance  of 
the  doctrine  itself.  Some  considered  it  to  be 
the  most  important  doctrine  of  their  faith,  and 
expected  tiiat  a  complete  restoration  of  religion, 
morality,  and  ha|>piness,  would  be  eiTected  by 
the  Messiah.  In  their  view  he  was  to  accom- 
plish, as  it  were,  a  new  political  and  moral 
creation;  so  Maimonides.  Others  considered 
it  as  a  doctrine  of  less  importance,  and  stildom 
mentioned  it.  Many  of  them  appear,  in  reality, 
to  have  rejected  it  altogether,  or  to  have  been 
ashamed  o(  it. 

(i)  In  respect  to  the  institutions  of  the  Mes- 
siah, and  the  object  of  his  mission,  they  exhi- 
bited the  same  diversity  as  prevailed  at  an  ear- 
lier period.  Most  adhered  to  the  gross  opinion 
of  the  establishment  of  an  earthly  kingdom,  and 
the  subjection  of  the  a^:.  Otiiers  made  iiis 
most  prominent  object  to  be,  the  improvement 
of  doctrine,  the  restoration  of  morals,  and  spiri- 
tual blessedness.  But  these  were  comparatively 
few. 

(c)  Some  of  the  Jews  who  could  not  under- 
stand how  the  Messiah  should  be  described  by 
the  prophets  sometimes  as  king  (Ps.  ii.,  ex.; 
Is.  xi.,)  and  sometimes  as  inferior,  lowly  and 
despised,  (Ps.  xxii.;  Is.  liii.,)  invented  the  doc- 
trine of  a  twofold  Mtsm'ah,  in  order  to  reconcile 
these  accounts;  one,  the  inferior,  despised  Mes- 
siah, Joseph's  son,  in  whom  (christians  believe; 
the  ottier,  David's  son,  who  is  yet  to  come  and 
estiblish  his  kingdom. 

((i)  Many  of  the  Jews  endeavoured  to  account 
for  the  long  delay  of  the  Messiah  by  the  sinful- 
ness of  which  their  nation  is  guilty.  The  pro- 
mise, they  s.iy,  was  made  conditionally.  I)ut 
this  hypothesis  derives  no  support  from  the 
Messianic  oracles  in  the  Old  Testament. 

III.  T7ie  method  of  profinir  that  Jems  tf  Nazareth 
M  the  true  Messiah. 

(1)  This  is  proved  from  the  marks  and  de- 
scriptions which  the  Old  Testament  gives  of 
the  Messiah,  ail  of  which  meet  in  Jesus  in  the 
most  remarkable  manner.  This  proof  that  Jesus 
is  the  Messiah  promised  in  the  Old  Testament, 
may  oe  made  extremely  convincing.  Chris- 
tians, however,  do  not,  as  Collins  supposes,  by 


any  means  rely  solely  on  ihe  predictions  of  tli« 
Old  Testament  for  the  Messianic  authority  of 
Jesus,  nor  does  Christ  himself.  Vide  John,  v. 
34,  seq.  For  these  predictions,  though  ever  so 
valuable  and  important  in  themselves,  are  al- 
ways, like  all  predictions,  in  a  certain  degree 
obscure.  The  Old  Testament  is  indeed  very 
instructive  and  useful,  when  rightly  employed, 
but  it  is  not  the  only  ground  on  which  the  con- 
fidence of  Christians  rests.  It  atTords  important 
proof  even  for  Christians,  but  not  the  only  proof. 
Vide  vol.  i.  s.  1-3,  II. 

This  method  of  proof  from  the  Old  Testament 
is  especially  useful  in  convincing  the  Jews,  and 
in  refuting  their  objections.  Thus  Christ  ap- 
plies it,  John,  V.  39 — 47.  All  the  marks  which 
the  Jews  consider  characteristic  of  the  Messiah, 
according  to  their  sacred  books,  agree  exactly 
in  Jesus.  And  all  those  traits  and  minute  cir- 
cumstances which  are  exhibited  in  passages  of 
the  Old  Testament  acknowledged  by  the  Jews 
themselves  to  relate  to  the  Messiah,  meet  in  hiin 
as  tliey  do  not  in  any  other  person  known  in 
history.  He  was  born  at  Bethlehem,  of  the  fa- 
mily of  David,  of  which  the  Jews  have  now  for 
a  long  time  had  no  continued  genealogical  ta- 
bles. He  had  a  precursor.  He  confirmed  his 
doctrine  by  the  most  striking  miracles.  He 
died,  was  honourably  buried,  and  rose  again. 
Ilis  garments  were  divided.  Vinegar  was 
given  him  to  drink.  And  many  other  circum- 
stances of  tiie  same  nature,  greater  and  smaller, 
which  were  predicted  concerning  the  Messiah, 
were  fulfilled  in  Jesus.  Such  passages  are 
therefore  very  frequently  urged  by  the  apostles 
against  the  Jews,  in  order  to  convince  them. 

(*2)  Christians  who  acknowledge  the  divine 
authority  of  the  New  Testament,  and  the  credi- 
bility of  Jesus  and  the  apostles,  have  an  addi- 
tional and  principal  ground  of  their  belief  of 
this  truth,  in  the  testimony  and  information 
contained  in  the  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
Throughout  these  books  Jesus  is  represented  as 
the  greatest  divine  messenger.  Lord  overall,  thn 
Savidur  of  the  world,  (2wt>;,),  <f^i  roi-  xon^iov,  o 
Kvpioj.)  In  short,  he  is  described  as  the  same 
person  whom  the  Jews  call  Mcxsinh.  If  divine 
wisdom  had  seen  proper  to  raise  hin>  up  in  an- 
other country,  and  under  other  circun)stancps. 
his  name  and  the  form  of  his  doctrine  might,  in- 
deed, have  been  dilferent,  while  the  substance 
itself  would  have  continued  the  same. 

According  to  the  constant  representition  ot 
the  New  Testament,  God  himself  confirmed  Ihe 
truth  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah.  He  did  this 
by  John  the  Baptist,  John,  i.  ID— 11  ;  by  voices 
from  heaven  at  the  baptism  of  Christ,  and  on 
other  c«ccasion8;  by  angels,  Luke,  i.  3l1 — .IS;  by 
Jesus  himself,  who  confirmed  the  truth  of  hit 
declarations  by  miracles,  John,  iv.  25,  '20 ;  Mat* 
xxvi.  6'2,  63 ;  and  by  the  apostles  commissioned 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       326 


V)  be  his  messengers,  Acts,  ii.  22 — 38 ;  1  John, 
i.  and  ii.  1 ;  &c. 

Thus  in  all  the  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment where  it  is  said  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah, 
or  that  the  Messiah  has  come  in  the  person  of 
Jesus,  the  idea  is  always  implied  that  Jesus  is 
the  promised  Lord  and  liedeemer,  ihe  BenefucJor 
and  Saviour.  In  short,  the  word  Messiah,  which 
irrammaticallj/  signifies  king,  becomes  a  doc- 
trinal word,  synonymous  with  Kvjjtoj  and  Su- 
r»;p.  And  in  this  way  the  erroneous  views  of 
the  Jews  respecting  the  Messiah  were  correct- 
ed. If  we  would  consider  the  subject  in  this 
light,  and  be  satisfied  with  the  representations 
which  the  New  Testament  gives  of  it,  we  should 
easily  avoid  the  difficulties  with  which  many 
nave  been  perplexed  regarding  this  doctrine. 
Vide  Eckermann,  Theol.  Beytr.  st.  I.  We 
should  not  then  declare,  with  this  writer  and 
others,  that  the  doctrine  that  Jesus  is  ihe  Mes- 
siah belongs  only  to  the  Jews,  and  is  not  an  es- 
sential doctrine  of  pure  Christianity.  The  He- 
brew name  n^;:':;  was  Jewish  or  Israelitish,  but 
the  thing  denoted  by  it  was  intended  for  all,  and 
is  a  fundamental  doctrine  of  Christianity. 

J^vte. — Works  on  some  of  the  subjects  treated 
in  this  section.  For  information  respecting 
the  Jewish  opinions  of  the  Messiah,  vide  Mali 
"Synopsis  Theol.  Judaicte;"  Giess,  1C98, 
4to;  Glassner,  De  geniino  Judajorum  Messia; 
Helmst,  1739,  4to;  Eisenmenger,  Enldecktes 
Judenthum;  Keil  (Prof.  Lips.),  Hist.  Dogm. 
de  regno  Messise,  Jesu  et  app.  setate ;  Lipsiae, 
1781.  On  the  point  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah, 
vide  the  ancient  works  of  Olearius  and  Schott- 
gen,  in  "  Hor.  Hebr."  t.  ii.  The  most  com- 
plete work  after  these  is  that  of  Bishop  Kidder, 
"  Convincing  Proof  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah," 
translated  from  the  English  by  Rambach;  Ros- 
tock, 1757,  4to.  [For  a  fuller  account  of  the 
literature  of  this  subject,  cf.  Hahn,  Lehrhuch,  s. 
4  1 1,  Anmerk.  Vide  especially  the  late  work 
of  Hengstenberg,  Christologie  des  A.  T. — Tn.] 

SECTION  XC. 

OF  THE  PRINCIPLES  ON  WHICH  WE  ARE  TO  INTER- 
PRET THE  LITERAL  AND  FIGURATIVE  PREDIC- 
TIONS CONTAINED  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 
RESPECTING  THE  MESSIAH,  AND  THE  NEW  IN- 
STITUTE FOUNDED  BY  HIM. 

I.  Brief  History  of  the  manner  in  which  Christians 
liave  interpreted  the  Messianic  Predictions. 

The  allegorical  method  of  interpretation  pre- 
vailpd  among  the  early  Christian  fathers,  espe- 
cially the  Egyptian  fathers — e.  g.,  Justin  the 
Martyr,  Paniaenus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Ta- 
tian,  and  still  more  after  the  age  of  Orijjen. 
They  considered  the  Bible,  as  Philo  and  other 
learned  Grecian  Jews  had  done  before  them,  to 


be  a  repository  of  every  kind  of  useful  informa- 
tion, and  especially  of  all  religious  truth.  Any 
truth  of  this  kind  which  they  did  not  find  clear- 
ly exhibited  in  it,  they  introduced  by  means  uf 
their  allegorical  interpretation,  exactly  in  tha 
same  way  as  the  stoics,  and  many  other  learned 
Grecians,  had  proceeded  with  Homer  and  some 
other  of  their  sacred  books.  On  this  principle 
it  was  that  many  of  these  fathers  endeavoured 
to  find  all  the  perfection  of  Christian  knowledge 
in  the  Old  Testament,  and  carried  back  into  it 
the  entire  Christian  system.  But  in  this  tlwy 
deviated  widely  from  the  mind  of  the  apostles, 
who  expressly  say  that  the  patriarchs  saw  the 
promised  blessings  only  from  afar  off,  (Heb. 
xi.  13,)  and  that  there  was  much  oh-curily  in 
the  predictions  concerning  Cinist,  2  Peter,  i. 
19—21;  1  Peter,  i,  10—12. 

But  this  extreme  was  objected  to  by  many  cf 
the  learned  fathers — e.  g.,  Eusebius  the  Eine- 
sene,  Diodorus  of  Tarsus,  Theodorus  of  Mopsu- 
estia.  Some  of  these  fell  into  the  opposite  ex- 
treme, and  allow  few  or  no  passages  in  the  Old 
Testament  to  refer  to  the  Messiah.  Chrysos- 
tom,  Theodoret,  and  others,  took  a  middle  course 
between  these  two  parties.  Tliis  difference  of 
opinion  has  continued  down  through  all  ages  of 
the  Christian  church.  Some  have  seen  the 
Messiah  rarely  or  nowhere,  others  everywhere, 
in  the  Old  Testament;  while  others  still  have 
pursued  a  middle  course.  Vide  Ernesti,  "  Nar- 
ratio  critica  de  interpret,  prophetiarum  Mess,  in 
eccl."  in  Opusc.  Theol. 

II.  Examination  of  the  principles  of  the  theory  if 
accommodaiion  applied  to  the  interpretation  of 
ihe  Messianic  Predictions. 
Since  the  time  of  Semler,  about  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  an  opinion  has  prevailed 
widely  in  the  protestant  church,  that  the  Old 
Testament  contains  very  few  passages,  or  none 
at  all,  which  treat  literally  and  properly  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  that  all  or  most  of  the  passages 
cited  in  the  New  Testament  are  used  in  the  way 
of  acenmmndafion.  The  following  reasons  liave 
been  offered  in  support  of  this  theory.  The  Jews 
at  the  time  of  Christ  were  very  much  given  to 
the  allegorical  interpretation  of  scripture.  Ever 
after  the  time  of  the  exile,  when  the  expectation 
of  a  Messiah  had  become  universal  among  them, 
they  had  eagerly  searched  the  Old  Testament  for 
everything  which  in  the  least  favoured  this  ex- 
pectation ;  and  had  succeeded,  by  the  help  of 
their  allegorical  interpretation,  in  making  their 
scriptures  seem  to  contain  predictions  respect- 
ing a  Messiah.  Jesus  and  the  apostles  were 
therefore  compelled  to  pursue  the  same  method, 
and  to  use  it  as  »  means  of  gradually  brinsfing 
the  Jews  to  a  better  knowledge  of  religion. 
Their  pursuincr  this  curse  does  not  prove  that 
they  themselves  considered  these  passages  as 
2E 


MG 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


actual  predictions.  Tliat  iliey  did  not  so  con- 
siiit-r  them  appears  from  the  fact  that  they  pur- 
sued a  d liferent  course  wlien  veaching  gentiles, 
and  did  not  in  that  case  appeal  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

Rut  in  this  statecnent  we  must  carefully  dis- 
tintfuish  between  what  is  true  and  what  is  erro- 
neous and  exagtreraled. 

(1)  The  allegorical  interpretation  of  the  sa- 
cred scriptures  cannot  be  historically  proved  to 
have  prevailed  among  the  Jews  from  tlie  time 
of  the  exile,  or  to  have  been  common  with  the 
Jews  of  Palestine  at  the  time  of  (.'lirist  and  his 
apostles.  Although  the  Saniiedrim  and  the 
hearers  of  Jesus  often  appealed  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, according  to  the  testimony  of  the  New- 
Testament  writers,  they  give  no  indication  of 
the  allegorical  interpretation.  Kven  Josephus 
has  noihinij  of  it.  The  I'latonic  Jews  of  Egypt 
began,  in  the  first  century,  in  imitation  of  the 
heathen  Greeks,  to  interpret  the  Old  Testament 
allegorically.  Philo  was  distinguished  among 
those  in  that  place  who  practised  this  method, 
and  he  defends  it  as  sometiiing  new,  and  before 
unheard  of,  and  for  that  reason  opposed  by  the 
othi-r  Jews;  De  Confus.  Lingu.  p.  317,  seq. 
Jesus  was  not,  therefore,  in  a  situation  where 
he  was  compelled  to  comply  with  a  prcvailinir 
custinn  of  allegorical  interpretation;  for  this 
method  did  not  prevail  at  that  time  among  the 
Jews;  certainly  not  in  Palestine,  where  Jesus 
tauirht. 

(2)  The  writers  of  tne  New  Testament  them- 
selves make  a  dear  di»tinction  between  the  alle- 
gorical and  literal  interpretation  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. When  they  use  the  allegorical  method, 
they  either  say  expressly,  here  is  a/ki^ory.  Gal. 
iv.  21,  or  ihey  shew  it  by  the  context,  or  by  ore- 
fixing  some  particle  of  com()arison — e.  g.,  wa«{p 
xcowj,  Ilpb.  vii.;  John,  iii.  11;  Matt.  xii.  40. 
But  they  express  themselves  very  dilferently  in 
texts  which  they  quote  as  literal  prophecy  for 
the  purpose  of  proof. 

(3)  If  the  apostles  did  not  allude  to  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  instructions  which  they  gave 
to  gentiles,  it  does  not  follow  either  that  they 
believed  the  Old  Testament  to  be  of  no  use  to 
theni,  or  that  they  did  n<il  seriously  consider 
the  passages  which  they  cited  as  predictions 
in  their  instructions  to  the  Jews  to  he  really 
«u<-h.  The  reason  why  the  apostles  omitted  these 
allusirjns  in  the  commencement  of  the  instruc- 
tion wliich  lliey  (jave  to  the  heathen  is  the  same 
as  leads  the  wise  missionary  at  tlte  present  day 
to  omit  thf  in  in  the  saiiii-  cinMimstances.  Their 
gentile  hearers  and  readt-rs  knew  nothing  of  the 
Bible,  and  could  not,  of  course,  he  convinced 
from  ar  unknown  Ivok.  The  a|)nstleR,  however, 
gradually  instructed  their  gentile  converts  in  the 
contents  of  this  hook,  and  then  appealed  to  it  as 
frequently  before  them  as  before  Jews  or  con- 


verts from  Judaism.  This  is  proved  by  th« 
Epistles  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Thus 
Peter  says  to  the  heathen  centurion,  Cornelius, 
after  the  latter  had  become  acquainted  with  the 
prophets,  "Of  this  Jesus  testify  all  the  pro- 
phets," &c..  Acts,  X.  43,  coll.  Acts,  viii.  '2G — 35, 
and  the  epistles  of  Paul. 

(  I)  It  cannot  be  shewn,  in  general,  that  Jesus 
and  his  apostles,  in  compliance  with  thecurient 
prejudices  of  their  conlempordries,  ever  taught 
anything  or  seemingly  affirmed  anything  to  be 
true  wliich  they  themselves  considered  as  false. 
No  more  can  it  be  sh^wn,  in  particular,  that  they 
ailopted  and  autliorized  any  explanations  of  the 
Old  Testament  which  they  theniselves  consider- 
ed as  invalid,  merely  because  they  were  common 
among  their  contempor.iries.  Such  compliance 
is  entirely  contrary  to  their  usual  course  of  ac- 
tion ;  (vide  Matt.  v.  V),  viS  ;)  nor  can  it  be  at  all 
justified  on  pure  moral  principles,  as  even  mo- 
dern theologians  are  beginning  more  and  more 
to  allow.  When  Christ,  therefore,  says  dis- 
tinctly, Matt.  xxii.  43,  that  David,  by  divine  rt- 
velalion,  called  the  Messiah,  Lord  (Ps.  ex.),  he 
must  have  bePieved  exactly  as  he  said,  and  so 
have  admitted  a  divine  prediction  respecting  the 
Messiah  in  this  psalm.  The  same  when  he  says, 
.lohn,  V.  4G, "  that  .M'>ses  wrote  concerning  him." 
Hence  it  follows,  that  whenever  Ji  sus  and  the 
apostles  exjiressly  assent  to  the  Jewish  e.xjila- 
nations  of  the  Old  Testament,  or  build  (troipfs 
ujion  them,  they  themselves  must  have  consi- 
dered these  explanations  Hsjiist. 

Here  everything  depends  upon  the  doctrine 
above  stated;  if  CMirist  and  his  apostles  were 
mere  human  teachers,  they  may  have  erred  ;  but 
if  tney  spake  as  divine  messengers,  they  must  be 
lielieved  on  their  simple  authority. 

III.  Tlie  principles  ofjnterprelntion  on  ichich  Christ 
and  his  Apostkn  proceed  in  qutitini^  from  the  Old 
Testament,  enpecially  the  Messianic  Passngci. 

Undoubtedly  many  of  the  same  princi|),les 
often  appear  in  Jewish  writings,  as  well  as  thfl 
same  formula  of  quotation,  "thus  is  fulfilled," 
fee.  Vide  Wiihner,  Antiq(|.  Heb.  t.  ii.;  Suren- 
hus,  Bi.3xoj  xuruW.ay^j.  Wetstein  ad  Matt.  i. 
2"2,  and  Schuttgen,  in  s.wD  of  his  book  last  cited. 
.Now  if  Clirist,  by  his  own  pxam|)le,  autiiorlzot 
the  principles  which  were  embraced  by  the 
Jews,  he  himself  must  have  considered  them  to 
he  true.  Whether  ice  must  on  this  account 
consider  them  as  true,  must  he  rletermined  by 
the  alternative  above  staled.  The  principles  "f 
interpreting  the  Old  IVstainent  wliich  many 
modern  commentators  have  adopted,  dilfer  allo- 
gi'lher  from  those  which  Clirisi  and  his  apostles 
followed;  still  these  modern  principles  must 
not  i>e  ascribed  to  Christ  and  his  apostles,  but 
we  must  inquire  historically.  IVhnI  tvtrc  thi 
principles  on  which  Christ  and  his  apusllcs  pru- 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       35r. 


teedtd?     These  need   not  necessarily  be  the 
same  as  those  which  modern  interpreters  adopt. 

(1)  God  determined/ro/n  eternity  (rtpo  xata- 
/Sox^s  x6-}fiov)  to  send  a  benefactor  and  saviour 
(Suit'jjp,  Messias)  to  bless  the  world  made 
wretched  by  sin.  This  purpose  was  revealed 
very  early,  and  was  from  time  to  time  repeated 
and  rendered  more  plain.  Thus  Christ  and  the 
epostles  declare,  with  the  Jews,  "that  Moses, 
the  Psalms,  and  the  prophets  spake  concerning 
him."     Vide  s.  89. 

(•2)  God  saw  best  to  communicate  his  will  to 
the  patriarchs  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  to  trans- 
mit this  revelation  to  their  posterity  by  means 
of  extraordinary  men,  messengers,  (d"S''3j;)  thus 
making  llie  Israelites,  as  it  were,  the  deposita- 
Ties  of  the  divine  revelations  for  the  salvation 
of  men  during  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world.  In 
this  respect,  too,  Christ  and  the  Jews  were 
agreed  ;  and  in  this,  also,  that  God  had  refer- 
ence, in  all  his  instructions  and  ordinances  given 
by  the  prophets,  to  his  great  plan  respecting  ihe 
Messiah. 

(3)  Consequently,  according  to  the  doctrine 
of  Christ,  the  writings  of  the'jimphets,  from 
Moses  downwards,  contain  literul  predictions 
respecting  this  Saviour  of  the  world  and  the 
new  institute  to  be  founded  by  him,  though  all 
these  predictions  are  not  of  equal  clearness. 

(-1)  Hut  to  these  prophets  themselves  every- 
thing which  they  predicted  was  not  perfectly 
plain  and  intelligible.  God  saw  best  to  reserve 
the  more  clear  explanation  of  the  sense  of  many 
of  his  earlier  oracles  to  be  communicated  by 
prophets  at  a  later  period.  Thus  many  of  the 
pretiictions  respecting  Christ  and  his  apostles 
could  be  more  distinctly  and  justly  interpreted 
in  after  times  than  by  the  prophets  themselves 
who  originally  uttered  them.  This  maxim 
often  appears  in  the  writings  of  the  Jew'S,  and 
is  expressly  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament; 
1  Pet  i.  10—12,  and  2  Pet.  i.  19.  Vide  Progr. 
ad  h.  1.  [Vide  the  discussion  of  this  point  in 
the  Bib.  Repository,  No.  I.  Art.  4 ;  also  No. 
IV.  Art.  4.  Cf.  Woods  on  Inspiration,  Lect.  i. 
p.  33.— Tr.] 

(5)  The  duties  and  offices  of  the  Messiah  very 
much  resemble  the  duties  and  offices  of  the  Old- 
Testament  priiphcis,  priests,  and  /ii»fj;s.  These 
names  are  tiierefore  frequently  applied  to  him. 
As  a  king  of  the  house  of  David,  he  inherited, 
as  it  were,  all  the  rigiits,  privileges,  and  titles 
of  the  kings,  (p.  g..  of  David  or  Solomon  ;)  as 
z  pripfiet,  those  of  the  Jewish  prophets,  (e.  or,, 
of  Moses  and  others;)  and  as  z  priest,  those  of 
lie  priests,  (e.  g.,  of  Melchisedec  and  Aaron.) 
The  character  which  they  possessed,  and  the  ac- 
tions which  they  performed  imperfectly,  and  on 
a  small  scale,  he  possessed  and  performed  per- 
fectly, and  on  a  large  scale.  This  canon  of  in- 
.*irpretat; on  s  held  by  the  Rabbins,  and  is  not 


ill  any  way  objectionable.  The  case  is  very 
much  the  same  as  when  the  rights  of  an  empe- 
ror are  proved  by  shewing  from  the  history  of 
the  empire  that  his  predecessors  possessed  them; 
or  when  the  official  rights  of  a  person  are  esta- 
blished from  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  office, 
and  from  the  history  of  his  predecessors  in  it. 
Cf.  Psalm  Ixxxix.  27,  31—34. 

This  principle  casts  light  upon  the  passages 
of  the  New  Testament,  where  texts  are  cited 
from  the  Old,  which  appear  at  first  sight  to 
treat  of  different  persons  and  objects.  All  the 
texts  in  which  the  rights,  offices,  and  dignities 
of  the  Israeiitish  prophets,  priests,  and  kings, 
are  the  subjects  of  consideration,  relate  to  the 
Messiah,  the  greatest  of  their  successors,  and 
are  directly  applicable  to  him.  He  possesses 
all  the  greatness,  distinction,  and  pre-eminence 
ascribed  to  them,  only  in  a  far  higher  degree. 
So  it  is  in  the  writings  of  the  Jews,  and  in  the 
New  Testament,  Ileb.  i.  and  ii.,  and  other 
places. 

(G)  The  Jews  generally,  though  not  uniformly, 
asserted  the  pre-existence  of  the  Messiah  before 
his  visible  appearance  upon  the  earth,  although 
the  doctrine  of  his  miraculous  birth  was  not  as 
yet  entirely  clear  to  them.  This  is  seen  in  the 
Chaldaic  pvira]>hrases  and  in  the  writings  of  the 
Rabbins.  Christ  himself  affirms  his  pre-exist- 
ence in  the  clearest  manner,  John,  viii.  58 ;  chap, 
xvii.  seq.  The  writers  just  mentioned  ascribe 
everything  which  was  done  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment for  the  salvation  of  men,  and  particularly 
of  the  Jews,  to  the  Messiah,  as  the  efficient  or 
concurrent  cause.  He  led  them  from  Egypt, 
defended  them  in  their  journey  through  the  de- 
sert, and  spake  to  them  by  the  prophets.  They 
explained  many  passages  of  the  Old  Testament 
in  which  the  appearance  of  God,  or  of  the  angel 
of  the  Lord,  is  mentioned,  as  applying  directly 
tc  the  Messiah.  This  principle,  too,  is  author- 
ized and  adopted  in  tlie  New  Testament.  Ac- 
cording to  1  Pet.  i,  1 1,  it  was  the  Spirit  rf  Christ 
which  inspired  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  communicated  revelations  through 
them.  According  to  1  Cor.  x.  4,  the  Bocl:  (a 
common  appellation  of  God)  which  accompa- 
nied the  Israelites  in  the  desert  was  Christ. 
When  they  tempted  God  by  disobedience,  they 
tempted  Christ,  (ver.  9.)  Isaiah,  who  saw  God 
in  bis  glory,  (Isaiah,  vi.)  is  said  to  iiave  seen 
the  glory  of  the  Messiah,  John,  xii.  41. 

Thus  we  see  why  texts  of  the  Old  Testament, 
which  treat  of  God  in  general,  and  of  his  works 
among  men,  especially  among  bis  own  people, 
are  applied  in  the  New  Testament  directly  to 
the  Messiah. 

(7)  Instruction  by  means  of  alletrories,  sym- 
bols, and  symbolical  actions,  is  very  suitable  to 
men;  especially  during  the  childhood  both  of 
individuals   and   nations.     Such  instruction  is 


32S 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


exactl)'  in  t\e  spirit  of  thp  Hebrews,  and  of 
other  oriental  nations.  This  beintj  so,  it  would 
have  been  a  subject  of  wonder  if  instruction  of 
this  kind  liau  not  been  given  respecting  so  im- 
portant an  object  as  the  new  dispensation  to  be 
instituted  by  the  Messiah.  That  such  instruc- 
tion was  given,  the  Jews  have  always  main- 
tained ;  and  it  is  clearly  contained  in  many  pas- 
Bages  of  the  Old  Testament — e.  g.,  Ps.  xl.  7, 
Beq.  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  dis- 
tinctly teach  that  some  of  the  ordinances  ap- 
point'id  by  Moses  and  the  other  prophets  by 
divine  command,  were  designed  by  God  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  future  Saviour  of  the 
world,  to  point  to  him,  and  to  be  types  of  him 
and  his  blessings.  Sacrifice,  expiation,  and 
other  ordinances  of  the  Old  Testament,  were 
not  appointed  on  their  own  account,  but  were 
intended  as  images  of  the  more  perfect  ordi- 
nances to  be  expected  in  future  time.  Many 
of  the  expressions  and  images  in  the  discourses 
of  John  the  B;iptist  and  of  Christ  respecting 
sacrifices  and  the  sacrificial  lamb,  lead  to  this 
conclusion  ;  and  the  correctness  of  it  is  distinctly 
declared  by  the  apostles.  Vide  Col.  ii.  17; 
Rom.  iii.  21 ;  the  epistle  to  the  Galatians,  and 
Heb.  viii.,  ix.,  x. ;  John,  xix.  36. 

But  we  are  very  liable  to  go  too  far  in  the 
illustration  and  development  of  these  allegorical 
predictions;  and  this  study  frequently  degene- 
rates into  an  idle  amusement.  The  charge  of 
extravagance  in  this  respect  may  be  justly  made 
against  many  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  and 
many  protestant  theologians  of  later  times,  espe- 
cially against  Cocceius  and  his  followers,  at  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  best  way 
to  avoid  such  mistakes  is  to  admit  of  no  allego- 
rical predi  -tioiis  except  such  as  are  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament,  and  to  extend  the  resem- 
blance no  further  tlian  it  is  carried  there. 

But  we  must  not  suppose,  because  some  have 
made  this  subject  ridiculous  by  their  extrava- 
gance, that  the  New  Testament  does  not  autlior- 
ize  the  belief  of  allegoriealpredictions.  Such 
a  supposition  is  most  obviously  untrue;  and  the 
only  reason  why  any  have  supported  it  is,  that 
the3j  would  prrfrr  that  an  idea  so  inconsistent, 
as  it  seemed  to  them,  with  the  spirit  and  ideas 
of  our  own  age,  shoubi  not  be  found  in  the  New 
Testament.  That  the  design  of  God  relatinir 
to  the  future  was  not  always  made  known  im- 
mediately on  the  establishment  of  the  ordinances 
of  the  former  dispensation,  does  not  jirove  that 
God,  in  founding  those  ordinances,  had  no  such 
design.  It  was  sufficient  that  he  made  it  known 
as  soon  as  men  were  capable  of  understsinding 
it.     Vide  supra,  No.  4. 

These  allegorical  or  symbolical  predictions 
and  indications  are  commonly  called  Ij/pfs.  So 
they  were  called  by  the  fathers,  who  took  this 
terra  from  H-^b.  viii.  5;  Rom.  vi.  7;  1  Cor.  x. 


C,  11.  They  were  divided  into  ttjpos  persordileM, 
certain  persons  (rulers,  prophets,  priests,)  whd 
were  the  representatives  of  the  Messiah ;  and 
typos  rea/es,  to  which  the  Levitical  ritual,  sacri- 
fices, and  other  ordinances  of  Moses  belong. 
Vide  Michaelis,  Typische  Gottesgelahrtheit; 
Dr.  Rau,  Freymiithige  Untersuchung  uber  die 
Typologie;  Erlangen,  1781,  8vo;  and,  most  of 
all,  Storr  Commentar  uber  den  Brief  an  die 
Hebraer,  particularly  s.  199 — 208. 

i\We. — In  the  instruction  of  the  common 
people,  the  following  view  of  this  subject  may 
be  most  scripturally  and  safely  presented  : — 
By  means  of  various  religious  ordinances  and 
remarkable  persons  among  the  Israelites,  God 
represented  and  pointed  out  the  M<^ssiah ;  to 
these  Jesus  and  his  apostles  often  allude,  in 
order  to  shew  that  the  present  dispensation  was 
of  old  designed  and  decreed  by  God,  and  in 
order  to  excite  a  due  estimation  of  these  bene- 
fits in  us,  who  have  not  the  shadow  simply,  but 
the  full  enjoyment  and  possession  of  them; 
Col.  ii.  17. 

Those  who  deny  any  direct  revelation  of  the 
divine  will  during  the  Old-Testament  dispensa- 
tion, declare  themselves  against  allegorical  pre- 
dictions with  great  zeal.  And  so  they  must,  in 
order  to  be  consistent.  But  this  shews  that 
their  doctrine  is  not  agreeable  to  the  scriptures, 
which  affirm  that  both  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments contain  direct  divine  revelations. 

(8)  Finally,  all  these  observations  are  per- 
fectly consistent  with  the  principle  that  many 
texts  of  the  Old  Testament  are  cited  merely  on 
account  of  some  accidental  resemblance  in  sub- 
ject or  expression  ;  in  the  same  way  as  quota- 
tions are  made  in  works  of  every  kind  ;  convey- 
ing the  idea,  t/uil  what  was  true  in  the  passage 
cited  in  one  sense  is  true  here  iti  another  sense. 
Thus  the  text.  Is.  liii.  4,  5,  "he  removed  our 
sicknesses,"  denoting  spiritual  sicknesses,  is 
applied.  Matt.  viii.  17,  to  bixlily  infirmities. 
The  discourse  of  Christ,  John,  xviii.  9,  coll. 
chap.  xvii.  12,  afl'ords  a  similar  exani|)le.  Cf. 
on  this  subject,  Koppen,  Die  Bibel  ein  Werk 
der  (Tultlichen  Weisheit.  th.  1.8.23.");  Michaelis, 
Dogmatik,  s.  122 — 128;  Scrip.  Var.  Ar<j.  p. 
009,  spq.  resjiecting  nXriiw^^rmt,  x.  t.  7.. ;  Kleu 
ker,  Tractat.  de  nexu  prophetico  inter  utrumque 
constitutionis  divina?  fu>(lus.  [Vide  also  Woods 
on  Inspiration,  Lect.  ii. — Tr.] 

SECTION  XCI. 

OF  THE  SUCCESSIVE  PEGREES  OF  THE  REVELA- 
TIONS AND  PREPICTIONS  CONTAINED  IN  THB 
OLD  TESTAMENT  RESPECTING  THE  MESSIAH. 

Divine  providence  frequently  makes  a  lon^ 
and  secret  preparation  for  great  and  irhportant 
events,  before  they  are  actually  accomplished. 
Commonly  it  gives  at  first  only  intimations 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       329 


and  distant  allusions,  b  it  gradually  unfolds  its 
designs  more  clearly.  We  might  expect,  then, 
with  much  probability,  that  the  divine  revela- 
tions respecting  the  Messiah  would,  at  first,  be 
comparatively  scanty  and  obscure,  and  would 
gradually  become  more  clear  and  evident.  And 
such  we  find  to  be  the  fact.  Besides,  the  early 
childhood  of  the  world  and  of  the  Jewish  nation 
was  not  prepared  to  receive  full  information  upon 
this  subject.  Theologians  observe,  very  justly, 
that  God  has  most  exactly  adapted  the  instruc- 
tion given  respecting  the  Messiah  to  the  neces- 
sities of  men,  and  the  circumstances  of  particular 
times.  The  Messiah,  accordingly,  is  sometimes 
represented  under  the  image  of  a  king,  some- 
times under  that  of  a  prophet,  again  under  that 
of  a  priest,  &:c. ;  s.  90. 

Four  periods  are  commonly  distinguished. 

(1)  Tlie  first  period  extends  from  the  com- 
mencement of  scriptural  history  to  the  time  of 
David.  In  this  period  there  is,  by  general  con- 
fession, the  most  obscurity.  From  the  remetest 
Bges,  however,  there  was  a  general  belief  that 
a  time  would  come,  in  a  distant  futurity,  in 
which  God  would  shew  signal  favour  to  men, 
and  especially  to  pious  men,  in  some  extraordi- 
nary manner,  by  means  of  his  prophets,  and 
particularly  one  of  them.  This  belief  was  suf- 
ficient; "They  saw  the  promised  blessings  from 
a  distance,"  Heb.  xi.  13. 

The  first  text  of  this  kind  occurs  Gen.  iii.  15. 
Vide  s.  75,  ad  finem.  [Also  Hengstenberg's 
Christologie,  s.  2G,  ff.]  It  was  during  the  life 
of  Abraham,  and  the  times  immediately  follow- 
ing, if  we  judge  from  the  Bible,  that  the  general 
truth  was  made  known,  that  his  family  would 
be  the  medium  of  communicating  this  great 
blessing  to  a  future  age.  Here  belongs  the  pro- 
mise. Gen.  xii.  3,  that  "  in  Abraham  all  nations 
should  be  blessed."  This  cannot  mean  that 
they  should  prosper  if  they  received  him  and 
his  posterity  with  kindness  and  treated  them 
as  friends,  and  be  unfortunate  if  they  did  the 
contrary  ;  but  that  this  happiness  should  be  dif- 
fused over  all  Mz-oiii,--/*  Abraham  and  his  posteri- 
ty; he  should  be  the  ivslrument  or  agent  in  the 
hand  of  Divine  Providence.  Further,  Gen.  xxii. 
8,  "In  (or  through)  thy  seed  shall  all  nations 
be  blessed."  This  cannot  mean  that  Abraham's 
posterity,  as  well  as  he  himself,  should  be  re- 
markably favoured  by  God ;  and  all  nations 
friendly  to  them,  and  who  wished  them  well, 
should  be  prospered  on  their  account.  But  here 
again  is  the  idea  conveyed  that  the  great  happi- 
ness (f  the  nations  should  |)roceed  from  Abraham 
and  his  posterity,  the  Israelites.  The  former 
passage  is  explained  by  this.  The  word  j-\i 
may  be  used  collectively  here,  as  Paul  uses  it, 
Rom.  iv.  13.  But,  in  Gal.  iii.  11,  he  refers  this 
Vy  more  especially  to  the  Messiah,  and  remarks 
that  it  may  be  translated  in  the  singular.  Christ 
42 


says  expressly,  that  Abraham  rejoiced  in  view 
of  the  birth  and  appearance  of  the  Messiah  upon 
the  earth,  John,  viii.  56;  and  all  tlie  writers  of 
the  New  Testament  agree  in  referring  these 
texts  to  the  Messiah. 

Another  text  is  found  in  the  song  of  Jacob, 
Gen.  xlix.  10.  This  is  not,  indeed,  cited  in  the 
New  Testament  as  a  Messianic  prediction  ;  but 
it  is  so  understood  by  the  Chaldaic  paraphrast, 
the  Talmud,  and  many  of  the  Rabbins  among 
the  Jews;  and  by  Justin  the  Martyr,  in  the  se- 
cond century  ;  and  afterwards  by  Augustine  and 
others  among  the  Christian  fathers.  Tiie  word 
n'?''r,  which  Luther  renders  held  (hero),  has  been 
explained  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  But  in 
whatever  way  this  word  is  understood,  the  rest 
of  this  text  applies  very  well  to  the  Messiah  ;  and 
if  Abraham  expected  such  a  deliverer,  and  waited 
for  the  day  of  the  Messiah,  according  to  the  de- 
claration of  Christ  above  quoted,  the  same  cer- 
tainly may  be  true,  in  the  view  of  Ciirist,  re- 
specting his  grandson,  who  had  the  same  pro- 
mises and  indulged  the  same  hopes  as  Abraham, 
This  texts  declares,  that  "/Ae  sceptre  shall  not 
depart  from  Jiidah,^^  (i.  e.,  the  pre-eminence  of 
this  tribe  over  the  others  shall  continue,  although 
Judah  was  not  the  firstborn;  that  tribe  furnished 
the  nation  with  the  greatest  kings  and  warriors, 
long  before  the  time  of  the  Messiah,)  i-^  until  at 
last  the  rT?'i:'  (to  be  descended  from  it)  should 
come,  and  to  him  should  other  nations  u'other^''— 
i.  e.,  many  other  nations,  besides  the  Jewish, 
should  be  subjected  to  him  anj  dependent  upon 
him.  The  best  translation  of  n-"i:'  is  proles  ejus, 
filius  ejus,  especially  his  great  descendant.  After 
Schultens,  vStange  has  explained  this  word  in 
the  best  manner,  in  his  work,  "  Symmikta,"  th. 
ii.  s.  224,  f.,  Halle,  1S02;  though  I  cannot 
consent  to  refer  the  whole  passage  to  Solomon, 
as  he  does. 

The  last  text  is  Deut.  xviii.  18,  ".■/  prophet 
like  me  will  Jehovah  raise  up"  &c.  This  text 
is  referred  to  Christ  in  the  discourses  of  Peter 
and  Stephen,  Acts,  iii.  22  and  vii.  37;  and  is 
probably  alluded  to  in  John,  i.  45.  Moses  is 
giving  the  distinguishing  mark  of  true  and  false 
prophets,  and  wishes  to  assure  the  Israelites 
that  they  would  not  be  destitute  of  direct  mes- 
sengers from  God  after  his  death.  By  itself, 
therefore,  it  might  be  taken  colltclittiv,  meaning 
"prophets  like  me,"  &c.  But  if  at  the  tiine  of 
Moses  there  was  a  belief  in  a  general  reforma- 
tion of  religion  and  morals,  which  should  be 
efliected  in  some  future  time  in  a  special  manner, 
by  a  prophet  sent  from  God,  (the  oj'posite  of 
which  cannot  be  proved.)  this  word  may  be  used 
especially  to  denote  this  future  reformer;  and 
Jesus  expressly  says,  "  Moses  wrote  concerning 
me,"  John,  v.  46. 

Besides  these,  the  origin  of  many  of  the  sym- 
bolical predictions  respecting  the  Messiah  may 
2e  2 


330 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


be  traced  to  this  period ;  respecting  them,  vide 
s.  DO. 

(2)  The  second  period  comprises  the  reign  of 
David.  A  considerable  number  of  texts  are 
found  in  the  Psalms  of  David  which  may  be 
referred  to  Christ  more  easily  and  naturally  than 
to  any  other  person.  Some  of  them  make  men- 
tion of  very  minute  circumstances  which  had 
their  accomplishment  in  Jesus.  These  Psalms 
are  actually  referred  to  Christ  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. The  most  important  of  them  are,  Ps. 
ii.,  xvi,,  xxii.,  xl.,  ex.  Now  many  of  the 
Psalms  from  which  passajres  are  cited  in  the 
New  Testament  as  referring  to  the  Messiah, 
may,  indeed,  be  understood  to  refer,  in  their 
primary  and  literal  sense,  to  another  king,  from 
whose  history  they  may  be  explained.  IJut 
this  is  no  objection  to  considering  them,  as  the 
New  Testament  does,  to  be  predictions  of  the 
Messiah,  according  to  the  principle  contained 
in  s.  no,  III.,  No.  5; — e.  g.,  Ps.  xlv.,  Ixviii., 
Ixix.,  Ixxii. 

Somethites,  in  these  Psalms,  the  Messiah  is 
represented  as  a  king  and  priest — in  short,  in 
his  exaltation.  The  wide  extension  of  his  king- 
dom is  described  ;  and  the  spiritual  nature  of  his 
mission  is  denoted  with  sulTicient  clearness. 
Thus  Psalm  ii.  and  parts  of  Psalms  xvi.,  xl., 
ex.  ./?i,'rtjn,.  he  is  represented  in  suffering  and 
humiliation.  Thus  Psalm  xxii.  and  part  of 
Psalms  xvi.  and  xl.  The  piercing  of  his  hands 
and  feet,  and  the  jiarting  of  liis  garments  by  lot, 
are  mentioned  in  Psalm  xxii.  7,  11,  seq.  His 
death  and  resurrection  are  mentioned  in  Psalm 
xvi.  10,  1 1,  and  also  in  Ps.  xxii.  25. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  the  appellation 
n'rt  (;^|)nTo?) — i.  e.,  /nni^,  hy  way  of  eminence, 
became  common;  because  the  Messiah  was  de- 
Bcriberi  as  a  ruler  appointed  by  (lod,  as  the  re[)re- 
sentaiive  of  the  Deity  upon  earth.  At  this  time, 
too,  it  was  distinctly  predicted  that  he  should 
be  born  of  the  line  of  David.  Vide  '2  Sam. 
vii.  1"2,  seii- ;  Ps.  ii.  and  Ixxxix;  Acts,  ii,  30; 
xiii.  31. 

(3)  T/ie  third  period  extends  from  the  reign 
of  David  to  the  IJ.ibylonian  captivity,  and  a 
little  later.  The  writings  of  the  prophets  during 
this  ])eriod  contain  many  passages  which  treat 
of  the  future  restoration  of  the  Jewish  state,  and 
of  the  church,  then  fallen  into  great  degeneracy, 
and  which  encourage  the  hope  that  a  distin- 
guished reformer  and  deliverer,  commissioned 
by  God,  would  appear,  atid  that  with  hirn  the 
golden  age  would  nturn  to  the  earth.  These 
blessings  are  not  promised,  however,  to  the 
Jews  oi\ly,  but  also  to  the  heathen,  and  to  all 
who  should  desire  to  share  in  them.  Indeed,  far 
better  promises  are  given  in  these  prophets  to 
tiie  heathen  than  to  the  Jews; — e.  g.,  Is.  ii.  and 
Ixvi. — promises  which  have  been  confirmed  bv 
the  result.     la  this  period,  as  in  the  second,  tiie  , 


Messiah  is  described  as  a  king  and  ruler,  born 
from  (lie  line  of  David,  as  a  prophet  and  a  re< 
former  of  religion  and  morals;  as  Is.  xi.  1,  seq.; 
chap,  xl. — Ixvi. 

But  the  passage,  Isaiah  liii.,  is  particularly 
applicable  to  the  Messiah.  It  describes  his  hu- 
miliation, rejection,  death,  exaltation,  the  diffu- 
sion of  his  doctrine,  &c.  No  other  person  has 
been  found  in  history  to  whom  this  passage  can 
apply,  although  some  have  referred  it  to  Heze- 
kiiih,  others  to  the  Jewish  people,  and  others  to 
Jeremiah.  Vide  Doderlein,  "  UebersetzXing  des 
Isaias,"  (edit.  3rd,)  where  he  endeavours  to  ap- 
ply this  passage  to  the  Jewish  people.  Dr. 
Eckermann  (Theol.  Beytr.  st.  i.  s.  1!)'2)  endea- 
vours to  shew  that  the  new  Israelitish  state  is 
here  meant  by  the  servant  of  Jthovah.  Slaudlin 
understands  it  of  Isaiah,  explaining  it  from  the 
Jewish  story,  that  king  Manasseh  persecuted- 
Isaiah,  and  at  last  caused  him  to  be  sawn  asun- 
der. But  this  interpretation  is /ercerf,  and  the 
stoiy  itself  a  modern /u6/e.  Paulus  refers  the 
passage  to  the  belter  part  of  the  Jewish  nation, 
which  was  called  nm'  i3?.  The  New  Testa- 
ment always  refers  this  passage  to  Christ,  and 
to  none  else;  and  all  other  explanations  must  be 
allowed  to  be  difficult  and  forced.  There  is  no 
person  in  history  to  whom  it  applies  as  well  as 
it  does  to  Christ.  If  we  were  not  sure  that  it 
was  written  long  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  we 
might  be  tempted  to  believe  that  it  was  an  imi- 
tation of  the  evangelical  history,  and  was  an  ex- 
tract from  it,  clothed  in  poetical  language. 

The  passage  of  Micab,  (who  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Isaiah,)  chap.  v.  1,  was  considered  by 
the  Jewish  Sanhedrim  as  givingf  iiidubitajjle  in- 
dication of  the  birth-place  of  the  Messiah,  Mat- 
thew, ii.  4,  seq.  In  Zech.  xii.  1"2,  13,  we  have 
the  lineage  of  the  family  of  David,  from  which 
the  Messiah  should  be  born  (vide  Dalhe  in  loc); 
and  in  Hag.  ii.  7 — 9,  an  exact  indication  of  the 
time  in  which  he  should  appear — viz.,  the  time 
of  the  second  temple.  This  passage  treats,  in- 
deed, more  particularly  of  the  gifts,  presents, 
and  oflerings,  which  foreiijners  would  bring  to 
the  second  temple.  Still  it  exhibits  those  cheer- 
ful prospects  for  the  future  which  were  first 
realized  at  the  time  of  the  Messiah.  The  pas- 
sages Mai.  iii.  1,  iv.  5.^6,  respecting  the  Mes- 
siah and  his  precursor  Elias,  are  more  clear. 

The  passage,  Dan.  ix.  21,  seq.,  respecting 
the  screntff  wcekx  has  been  commonly  considered 
very  important,  and  as  calculated  to  carry  con- 
viction even  to  the  Jews.  But  the  passage  is 
so  obscure.  ai\d  is  encompassed  with  so  many 
dilTicuhies,  that  it  is  not  so  useful  as  many  be- 
lieve for  the  purpose  of  convincing  the  Jews 
that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  the  Messiah.  Some 
modern  interpreters  have  even  doubted  whe- 
tlier  the  Messiah  is  the  subject  of  the  passage. 
By  r)>r3  some  have  understood  Cyrus,  others,  a 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       331 


King.  Modern  commentators  have  laboured 
with  the  greatest  zeal  to  throw  light  upon  this 
subject.  Clauswitz,  I\Iichaelis,  Hassenkamp, 
Dathe,  Blayney,  Gerdes,  Velthusen,  Less, 
Doederlein,  and  Berthold,  have  written  upon  it; 
but  much  yet  remains  uncertain.  Still  it  can- 
not be  referred  to  any  but  the  Messiah,  without 
doing  violence  to  the  words.  And  so  much  is 
clear  from  this  passage,  that  the  advent  of  the 
Messiah  is  fixed  to  a  time,  which  has  now  been 
past  for  upwards  of  a  thousand  years.  The 
Jews,  then,  may  be  convinced  from  this  passage, 
that  the  Messiah  has  long  since  come ;  and  then, 
from  other  passages,  that  Jesus  is  the  person  in 
whom  all  the  characteristics  of  the  Messiah  are 
found,  [Cf.  the  late  Commentary  of  Hengsten- 
bei;g  on  Daniel. — Tr.] 

(4)  Fourth  period.  We  have  already  shewn 
in  s.  89,  from  the  New  Testament  and  other 
writers,  how  general  ihe  expectation  of  the  ^les- 
eiah  was  about  the  time  when  Jesus  appeared, 
and  shortly  after,  especially  after  the  Jews  be- 
came subject  to  the  Romans,  and  how  this  idea 
was  modified  by  the  great  multitude,  and  inter- 
mingled with  various  unscriptural  views.  A  few, 
however,  entertained  right  conceptions.  If  we 
had  more  Jewish  writers  of  this  later  period, 
especially  more  from  the  Jews  of  Palestine, 
who  had  written  upon  the  religious  opinions  of 
their  nation,  we  should  certainly  obtain  more 
accurate  ami  distinct  knowledge  upon  this  point. 
Siill,  in  what  we  do  know  with  certainty,  we 
have  enough  for  our  thorough  conviction.  Fur- 
ther: one  age  was  distinguished  above  another 
in  the  earnest  expectation  of  the  Messiah  to 
come,  just  as  among  Christians  one  age  is  dis- 
tinguished above  another  in  its  belief  on  the 
Messiah  already  come.  Even  in  the  Christian 
ciiurch  some  one  doctrine  has,  at  one  particular 
time,  been  made  more  prominent  than  others. 
And  so  it  was  in  the  Jewish  church. 

Thus  far  the  first  chapter,  as  introductory. 
We  have  now  to  consider  the  doctrine  respect- 
ing Jesus  Christ  himself,  what  he  was  accord- 
ing to  the  description  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  what  he  performed  for  the  salvation  of  men. 
The  New  Testament  proposes  Christ  himself  as 
the  foundation  of  the  Christian  fhitli,  John,  xvii, 
3.  We  shill  treat  first  of  the  history  of  Jesus, 
or  of  the  doctrine  of  the  states  of  Jesus,  in  chap, 
ii, ;  then  of  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  chap, 
iii.,  (it  bring  inconvenient  to  treat  of  this  su-b- 
ject  first,  as  is  done  in  many  systems;)  finally, 
the  doctrine  respecting  what  Chri-^t  has  done 
for  the  good  of  man,  or  respectintr  the  work  and 
offii-e  of  Christ  (Je  munere  Ckristf).  in  chap.  iv. 
Mnrus  discusses  all  these  subjects,  ji,  134 — 196, 
and  has  interspersed  many  excelhist  exegetical, 
doctrinal,  and  practical  observations,  but  he 
treat?  them  in  a  very  broken  ami  disconnected 
way,   v»»d  in  an  entirely  different  order  from 


what  is  comijjon  in  the  systems  ;  and,  in  short, 
in  a  manner  not  very  much  calculated  to  facili- 
tate the  subject  to  the  student  just  commencing 
his  theological  studies. 


CHAPTER  II, 

HISTORY   OF   JESUS    IX   HIS   TWO   STATES    OF 
HUMILIATION  AND  OF  EXALTATION. 


SECTION  XCII. 

THE  SCRIPTCRAL  REPnESENTATION  OF  THE  TWO 
PRINCIPAL  PERIODS  l.\  THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS ; 
THE  SCRIPTURAL  NAMES  OF  THESE  PERIODS  ; 
THE  PROOF-TEXTS  ;    AND  SOME  CONCLUSIONS. 

Before  the  man  Jesus  was  raised  by  God  to 
that  illustrious  dignity  (6o^tt)  which,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  the  New  Testament,  he  now 
enjoys  even  in  his  human  nature,  he  lived  upon 
the  earth  in  greater  depression  and  indigence, 
more  despised  and  neglected,  than  the  greater 
part  of  mankind.  This  gave  occasion  to  the  di- 
vision of  the  whole  life  of  Christ  into  two  parts, 
or  conditions — the  state  of  humiiiation,  and  tlie 
state  of  exaltation ;  or  better,  status  lituuilitatis 
et  gloriie.  These  conditions  might  be  called, 
with  equal  scrij)tural  authority,  the  states  of 
subjection  and  of  dominion,  of  poverty  and 
splendour,  of  lowliness  and  majesty,  &c. 

I.  Scriptural  names  of  both  conditiims. 

(1)  Ta,-tftj'dj,  fartf (rtdiytj,  and  r^-oj,  r4<^^»;>'at. 
These,  which  are  the  more  common  theological 
terms,  are  taken  from  Phil.  ii.  8,  {iranf'tvuaev 
io.vrov,')  and  ver.  9,  (0f6?  ai-tbv  •i'rt.«pv'4u>5f.) 
Tortftvoj  denotes,  in  general,  misery,  inferiority, 
indiirence  ;  and  i-^oj,  elevation,  greatness,  majes- 
ty i  James,  i.  9,  10;  ]\Iait.  xxiii.  12, 

Note. — The  word  r^ovv  is  applied  by  Christ 
himself,  in  a  different  sense,  to  his  crucifixion, 
John,  iii,  13,  14  ;  viii,  2S ;  xii,  32,  34,  For  the 
verba  exaltandi  signify  also  among  the  Hebrews, 
to  hamr  tip,  puh/ic/y  to  execute  a  malif actor.  Vide 
Gen,  xl,  13,  19, 

(2)  2ap5,  and  the  opposite  Tti'fifia..  Sapf 
and  ■\i:'2  do  not  denote  simple  humanity  and 
human  nature,  but  frequently  w.  ak.  mortal,  siif' 
firing  humanity,  and  the  depressed  condition  in 
which  man  lives.  They  are  nearly  synonymous 
with  mortalis,  conditio  mortalis.  The  opposite 
7fv(vi.ta  denotes  what  is  perfect,  a  pofct  condi- 
tion. Thus  Paul,  1  Cor.  xv,  50,  calls  the  mor- 
tal body  of  man  oap^  xai  alua,  which  he  after-  ^ 
wards  calls  irtiyfiov.  and  nCiua  rartftiwafuj.  The 
heavenly  body  he  calls  jtifv^oTixdv.  and  the 
heavenly  condition  of  Christ  yrifiua.  Accord* 
ingly,  the  humble  life  of  Christ  upon  the  eartK 

is  called  ^^ipai  t^j  soj-xd,,  Heb.  v.  7,  and  j3<o< 


332 


CHRISTIAN  THKOLOGY. 


iv  (jopjTc,  1  Pet.  iv.  2.  The  same  explanation 
must  be  given  to  the  followinor  terms, — viz,, 
X()(iToj  fX^Xv^fv,  ifai-fjiu^  fi'  lofixi,  I  John,  iv. 
2;  I  Tim.  iii.  15,  16;  oapj  iyivfro  John,  i.  11; 
(Jrtf()ua  :i,aiit5  xari  aa'pxa,  Rom.  ix.  5;  i.  3,  4  ; 
and  1  Pet.  iii.  IS.  Vide  Doderlein,  in  Rt-pert. 
ii.  s.  1,  f. 

(3)  The  term  xa^ruara  is  applied  to  the 
state  of  humiliation,  1  Pet.  i.  11;  and  the 
phrase  oT  firra,  ravra  bo^ai  to  the  opposite 
state.  For,  in  fact,  the  suiTerinffs  and  calami- 
ties of  Christ  were  bj'  no  means  confined  to  the 
last  period  of  his  life,  but  were  extended 
thronirh  the  whole  of  his  state  of  humiliation. 
Cf.  Luke,  xxiv.  26,  where  rta^tlv  stands  con- 
trasted with  fiifXi^ftK  (ii  rr^v  bu^av.  Tiie  phrase 
ho%a.  xtti  rturi  is  used  in  the  same  way  in  Heb. 
ii.  9  (Ps.  viii.),  and,  6o;ai>^i(w  very  frequently 
in  John,  as  in  chap.  xvii. 

(1)  The  words  riXfuJ^rxai,  and  rfXfiwJtj  are 
applied  to  the  state  of  exaltation,  Heb.  ii.  10; 
V.  9.  The  phrase,  6ia  rta^rud-a^v  (rfXtiwaai), 
added  in  Heb.  ii.  10,  signifies  after  the  suffer- 
ings endured.  These  words  are  literally  used 
to  denote  the  reward  of  victors  in  mock  con- 
tests, when  they  receive  the  prize  (.3pa?ftoi') ; 
in  which  sense  Philo  uses  them.     Cf.  xii.  23. 

II.  Most  important  proof-texts. 

These  are,  on  the  general  subject,  I  Pet.  i. 
11  ;  Hpb.  i.  3,  4;  v.  7—9;  xii.  2,  3,  seq.  The 
first  of  these  has  been  already  explained.  No.  I. ; 
the  second  will  be  when  we  come  to  speak  de 
statu  cxnllationis.  But  the  two  passaijes,  Phil, 
ii.  6 — 11;  and  Heb.  ii.  9 — 11,  may  be  consi- 
dered as  tiie  most  full.  A  brief  explanation  of 
these  two  passages  is  here  subjoined. 

(1)  Phil.  ii.  6,  seq.  Paul  exhorts  Chris- 
tians to  imitate,  in  respect  to  their  feeling  to- 
wards others,  the  example  of  Jesus,  who  re- 
nounced and  sacrificed  all  his  own  advantages 
for  their  good.  The  passage  relates  to  Jesus, 
considered  as  the  Messiah.  Mopfj;  0fov  stands 
in  opposition  to  uo,.f  >;  Jovxov,  ver.  7,  and  so  de- 
notes divine  authority  and  uuijisly,  Mopifr  is 
the  same  as  n:(rua„  ver.  7.  The  same  senti- 
inont  is  pxprossed  more  strongly  by  the  phrase 
(Ji  at  ha  (=)f 9 — equal  to  God,  the  imat^e  of  God. 
Homer  applif'S  the  epithets OfOftxfXoi,  dirt^foj — 
divine,  ei/iiol  to  God,  to  Ulysses  and  Achilles. 
The  antithesis  is  ouotwuo  or^^pwrtwr,  ver.  7, 
which  signifies,  not  merely  similar  to,  but  the 
sarri':  as,  men.  ('•  He  that  sees  me,  sees  the 
Father,"  John,  xiv.  9.)  Christ  is  the  imanre 
of  God  upon  earth.  Col.  i.  1.');  Heb.  i.  3. 

Ov;(f  ct/irtayMoi'  ryriaro- — 1.  e.,  he  did  not  wear 
his  divinity  for  the  sake  of  ostentation,  nor  did 
he  make  vain  a  display  of  it;  the  antithesis  of 
which  i^  in  ver.  3.  'Exmuth'  tairo'r.  ver.  7,  is 
synonymous  with  (Tarxniw^fv  iavroi;  ver.  8. 
Kf>oj  corrisponds  to  the  Hebrew  ,"»'>"i;  and  ,■>'■> 


is  rendered  poor,  needy,  in  the  LXX.,  and  in 
Luke,  i.  54,  where  xnoij  and  ttTjovr ovirai  are 
contrasted.  This  phrase,  then,  is  synonymous 
with  the  one  used  in  2  Cor.  viii.  9,  fnrw^fv5f 
6t'  i-ftdi,  se  ipsum  dcinisit  ad  statum  tcinnni — he 
let  himself  down,  he  freely  sncrificed  the  riches, 
privileges,  and  all  the  divine  m;ij»sty  and  glory, 
which  he  might  still  have  possessed. 

'Ev  ouoiJiuari  dibpurtwi'  yivoufto^,  offer  he  ap- 
peared  as  man,  he  assumed  the  form  of  a  ser- 
vant. Indeed,  (ver.  8,)  he  went  so  far  in  his 
obedience  to  (he  divine  will,  that  from  love  to 
his  Father,  and  to  us  his  brethren,  he  submitted 
to  death,  and  even  to  a  disgraceful  crucifixion. 

^^Therifore'^  (in  re;vard  for  his  sacrifice  and 
obedience)  "  has  God  hii^hly  exalted  him."  (this 
is  explained  by  what  follows,)  "and  raised  him 
to  supreme  dignity,"  (oro/io,  Heb.  i.  4.)  The 
reference  is  to  the  name  Lord,  ver.  11,  which 
denotes  \\\s  dominion  over  everything  in  his  state 
of  exaltation;  according  to  ver.  10,  11  ;  Heb.  i. 
4.  "That  before  Jesus,"  (or  at  the  name  of 
Jesus,  the  name  Kvptoj — audita  nomine  Jisu—i. 
e.,  before  Jesus  as  their  Lord,)  "  the  inhabitants 
of  heaven,  earth,  and  the  under-world,  should' 
bow  the  knee" — i.  e.,  universal  reverence  and 
adoration  should  be  rendered  to  him,  (as  to 
h-ini(s,  Is.  xlv.  23;)  "and  that  all.  with  one 
mouth,  should  confess  that  Jesus,  the  Christ,  is 
Lord,  (Kvptoi',)  or  universal  ruler,  (ver.  10.) 
Ktj  So^ai' Qrou  riarpoj,  "  this  contril>ules  to  the 
honour  and  glorification  of  the  Father,"  John, 
xvii,  4,  6.  Whoever  does  this,  honours  the 
Father:  for  it  is  his  will  that  all  should  honour 
the  Son;  John,  v.  23;  inasmuch  as  Christ, 
even  now,  since  his  return  to  (iod,  provides  for 
the  extension  of  the  kingdom  of  God  upon 
earth,  and  promotes  morality  and  happiness. 

(2)  Heb,  ii,  9 — 11,  Paul  shews  that  man,  at 
some  future  time,  will  pass  into  a  happy  life,  and 
into  a  perfect  condition,  although,  while  upon 
earth,  he  is  imperfect  and  mort  il.  This  he  illus- 
trates from  the  example  of  Christ,  who  in  this  is 
similar  to  us. 

"We  see  that  Jesus,  who  [like  other  men] 
was  inferior  in  dignity  to  the  angels,  (vide 
Psalm  viii.  5,)  was  crowned  with  glory  and 
honour,  after  he  had  endured  suflerings."  (He 
was  thus  depressed,  in  order  to  sulfer  death  for 
the  good  of  us  all,  according  to  the  gracioun 
purpose  of  God.)  "/or  it  Incame  God,  from  ^ 
whom  all  thinfrs  proceed,  atul  to  whose  glory 
evrrythin^  Contributes — it  became  him  (i.  e.,  no- 
thing else  could  be  expected  from  his  justice 
and  goodness)  to  bestnu  upon  7 :^r^v  Ihc  hi<:h-st 
lilfsxeilncss,  after  he  had  endured  stiff,  rini;*,  anil 
had  led  so  many  children  (worshippers  of  (irKl) 
to  .lory,  (the  enjoyment  of  eternal  blessedness;) 
and  had  Ihux  litcoaic  the  author  of  their  saliyilion, 
(np;j;>;yoj  nwrrpiaj,)  fhr  he  that  sanrli'its  (o 
ayia^uf ,  Jesus)  and  tlicy  who  are  sunctijitd  (ciyta 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       333 


^ojMvoc)  are  nf  one  race,  (or  common  human  ori- 
gin, £^  Uoi  sc.  noTpcij  sive  aiftaroi.  Acts,  xvii. 
2G.  He  is  man,  as  well  as  we.)  Hoice  he  is 
not  ashamed  lo  call  us  brethren,  (relatives.)'' 
Here  we  see  clearly  on  what  analogy  the  apostle 
arufues. 

III.  Rcnii'dH  from  these  and  other  texts;  and  general 
observations  on  the  doctrine  of  the  conditions  of 
Christ. 

(1)  The  states  of  humiliation  and  exaltation 
concern  the  human  nature  only,  and  not  the  di- 
vine nature  of  Christ.  These  texts  refer  only  to 
the  man  Jesus,  or  to  Christ  as  man.  For  as  God 
he  is  always  the  same,  (o  avrdj.)  and  can  nei- 
ther be  humbled  nor  exalted.  But  the  ancient 
writers  frecjuently  express  themselves  incau- 
tiously and  loosely  upon  this  subject.  Origen 
says,  **  the  divine  nature  let  itself  down  from  its 
majesty,  and  became  man."  De  prin.  ii.  6. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  says,  "xfiovroi  ly  ^for»;5  '»» 
X^s'r'i]  ytj/jjrat  rij  di'J^purttvjj  ^vcff  t.'  Siicli  lan- 
guage, indeed,  admits  of  explanation,  and  was 
understood  by  them  in  a  right  sense;  but  it  is 
bard  and  inconvenient,  and  not  according  to  the 
example  of  the  holy  scriptures. 

(•2)  Two  things,  as  we  may  learn  from  these 
passages,  are  implied  in  the  humiliation  of 
Christ.  («)  The  abdication,  surrender,  or  re- 
nunciation which  he  made,  for  the  good  of  man, 
of  the  exalted  privileges  which  he  could  have 
enjoyed,  {curetiiia  sive  abdicalio  usits  majestatis 
suaj.)  This  is  commonly  called  xs'vwcrtj,  from 
Phil,  ii.,  fx£i'io5f I'  iavrov,  which  Luther  renders, 
"£;•  dusscrle,  OT  ent-dusserle  sich  se//«<."  The 
idea,  however,  is  founded  rather  upon  tlie  whole 
subject  of  this  passage  and  of  other  passages, 
such  as  2  Cor.  viii.  9,  than  on  this  particular 
word.  It  is  also  implied  in  the  idea  of  his  e/t- 
vatinn;  for  he  the7i  entered  upon  the  possession 
and  enjoyment  of  all  his  rights  and  privileges. 
(6)  His  submission  to  great  misery  and  to  many 
sufferings.  Although  innocent  inmseif,  as  the 
Bible  represents  him,  yet  for  our  good  \\e  freely 
submitted  to  all  that  distress  and  wretchedness 
which  are  the  inevitable  consequences  of  our 
sins.  Vide  Phil.  ii.  and  the  other  texts  cited. 
Note  1. — ^Theologians  have  disputed  whether 
Christ  laid  aside  the  use  of  his  divine  attributes, 
or  continued  in  the  actual  pos<5ession  of  them, 
only  veiling  them  from  the  eyes  of  men.  There 
were  various  opinions  upon  this  subject  in  the 
Lutheran  church,  even  as  early  as  the  sixteenth 
century.  But  in  I61fi,a  controversy  commenced 
between  the  theologians  of  Giessen  and  Tubin- 
gen, and  otlier  theologians  of  Wurtemberg. 
Those  of  Giessen  maintained  that  Christ  fre- 
quently renounced  the  use  of  his  divine  attri- 
butes, and  alleged  the  word  ixivufjF.  But  the 
theologians  nf  Tubingen  maintained  that  the 
xrrnii  idiomatum  divinorum  existed  in  Christ 


even  in  statu  exanilionis,  although  he  never 
used  them;  so  that  it  was  a  mere  x^i^i^.  This 
controversy  was  in  a  good  measure  logomachy. 
The  theologians  of  Saxony  rather  favoured  the 
views  of  the  theologians  of  Giessen  than  of  Tu- 
bingen. So  much,  however,  is  certain,  that  if 
the  person  of  Christ,  even  during  his  life  upon 
earth,  was  the  person  of  the  Son  of  God,  (as  he 
himself  clearly  affirms,)  it  was  possible  for  him 
to  exercise  his  divine  attributes.  But,  on  ac- 
count of  the  work  which  he  had  to  perform  upon 
earth,  he  forbore  the  full  use  of  them  ;  which  is 
just  what  the  theologians  of  Tubingen  would 
say.  Vide  the  works  cited  by  INIorus,  p.  173, 
n.  3.  Cf.  p.  192,  n.  3.  [Cf.  Hahn,  Lehrbuch, 
s.  470.— Tr.] 

Note  2. — Theologians  generally  allow  some 
use  of  these  attributes  on  different  occasions. 
Others  object  that  this  is  not  consistent  with 
ihe  constant  humiliation  of  Christ  while  upon 
tlie  earth,  and  is  not  clearly  supported  by  the 
New  Testament.  He  himself  frequently  says, 
especially  in  the  gospel  of  .John,  that  he  per- 
formed the  miracles  which  he  wrought  as  man 
through  a  miraculous  divine  power,  and  as  the 
messenger  of  the  Father.  The  case  was  the 
same  as  to  his  instruction.  Neither  Jesus  him- 
self, nor  the  apostles,  ever  alluded  to  his  proper 
divinity  in  such  a  way  as  to  imply  that  it  qua- 
lified him,  as  a  man  upon  earth,  to  instruct  and 
work  miracles.  He  had  resigned  his  divine 
prerogatives,  and  his  qualifications  are  always 
considered  as  derived  from  the  Father.  Vide 
s.  102.  But  this  free  renunciation  of  the  privi- 
leges which  belonged  to  him  as  God  did  not 
exclude  the  use  of  them  when  occasion  should 
require.  Ciirist  himself  said  that  he  performed 
his  work  in  comnnon  with  his  Father,  John,  v. 
17,  seq.,  and  chap,  x.;  he  that  saw  him,  saw 
the  Father,  John,  xiv.  9;  his  glory,  wliich  the 
apostles  had  seen,  was  a  glory  which  belonged 
exclusively  to  the  only  begotten  Son;  John,i.  14. 

(3)  Although  Jesus  lived  upon  earth  in  humi- 
liation and  indigence,  his  whole  life  upon  lurth 
cannot  be  called,  as  it  is  by  many,  a  state  of  hu' 
niilialion.  The  passage,  Phil,  ii.,  is  often  ap- 
pealed to  in  behalf  of  this  opinion.  But  Pao' 
evidently  mentions  the  rartfutouij,  xmucij,  anr* 
/lop^jj  govXoi',  (ii.  8,  9,)  as  constituting  only  i 
part  of  this  life.  The  incarnation  is  never  men 
tioned  in  scripture  as  belonging  to  the  stale  oj 
humiliation.  It  is  so  considered,  however,  by 
many  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers;  as  Origen, 
Gregory  of  Nyssa;  and  by  many  of  the  Latins, 
as  Leo  the  Great,  in  his  epistles.  They  are  con- 
sequently compelled  to  assert  that  God,  or  the 
divine  nature  of  Christ,  lowered  itself  by  be- 
coinins  man.  Neither  are  the  forty  days  which 
Christ  lived  upon  earth  after  the  resure/jlion  to 
be  entimerated  among  the  days  of  his  humilia- 
tion, (^UEpOl  oopxcj.) 


m 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


(4)  The  state  of  humiliation  is  commonly  di- 
vided into  five  gradus,  degrees,  periods ;  and  the 
state  of  exaltation  inio  the  same  number.  Some, 
however,  suppose  more,  and  others  fewer.  The 
common  division  and  arrangement  is  taken  from 
the  so-named  cipostoh'eal  creed.  Hut  the  object 
of  this  creed  was  not  to  make  a  systematic  and 
logical  division,  and  to  determine  the  limits  of 
the  two  conditions;  but  to  oppose  certain  doc- 
trines condemned  by  the  orthodox  church  as  er- 
roneous. The  conception  is  made  to  stand  first; 
but  tills  does  not  belong  to  the  state  of  humilia- 
tion, because  the  divine  nature  cannot  be  lower- 
ed ;  nor  could  the  human  nature  before  it  existed. 
[Vide  Hahn,  Lehrbuch,  s.  171.— Tr.] 

We  proceed  now  to  treat  of  Christ  considered 
as  man,  or  of  the  man  Jesus,  in  the  state  of  his 
humiliation  upon  earth,  s.  93 — 9G;  and  then  in 
the  stale  of  his  exaltation  and  glory,  s.  97 — 99, 
inclusive. 

SECTION  XCIII. 

OF  THE  ORIGIN,  C0.\CEPTI0.N%  BIRTH,  AND  YOUTH 
OF  JESUS  ;  HIS  TRUE  HUMANITY,  AND  THE  EX- 
CELLENCES OF  IT. 

Jesus  was  the  son  of  Mary,  conceived  by  her 
in  a  miraculous  manner  (6ttt  rtifii^uaroj  ayiov,) 
(Matt.  \.  \f<\  Luke,  i.  35;)  of  the  posterity  of 
Abraham  (Rom.  ix.  5;)  and  the  royal  line  of 
Uavid.  The  register  of  his  descent  is  inserted 
both  in  Matt.  i.  1,  seq.  ami  in  Luke,  iii.  23,  seq. 
They  both  agree  in  making  him  the  descendant 
of  David,  however  they  may  apparently  differ  in 
tracing  his  descent.  Ancient  writers  did  not 
agree  upon  the  method  of  reconciling  the  two 
tables.  The  most  correct  solution  is  this:  that 
Matthew  gives  the  genealogy  of  Joseph,  of 
whom  Jesus  was  the  adopted  son;  and  Luke 
that  of  Mary.  Both  descended  from  David ; 
Joseph  through  Solomon,  and  Mary  through 
Natlian,  who  also  was  David's  son.  Jesus  was 
born  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  (I^uke,  ii.  I  ;) 
probably  earlier  by  some  four  or  five  years  than 
the  common  Dionysian  mode  of  reckoning, 
which  we  follow;  accordingly,  in  the  tliirtieih 
year  of  the  reign  of  Augustus,  7 19  (according  to 
Dionysiiis,  l^y\)  from  the  building  of  Rome. 
We  subjoin  the  following  doctrinal  observa- 
tions : — 

I.  Miraculous  Conception  of  Christ. 

The  scriptural  view  of  the  events  of  the  world 
is  altogether  different  and  higher  than  the  com- 
mon view.  The  Hible  derives  everything  which 
takes  place  in  the  material  world  directly  from 
the  will  and  agency  of  the  Supreme  IJeing,  and 
refers  everything  back  to  him.  Hut  it  teaches 
at  the  same  time,  in  what  way,  by  what  means 
Hnd  appointments,  f«od  arranges  and  accom- 
plishes all  things  which  take  place  around  us. 
With  regard  to  all  important  events  especially, 


we  are  taught,  by  scriptural  principles,  that  they 
have  their  deeper  origin  in  the  invisible  world, 
and  that  the  way  is  prepared  for  them  bv  God, 
and  that  they  are  finally  brought  forward  into 
maturity  and  accomplishment  chiefly  ihrougb 
the  ministry  of  superior  spirits.  Such,  then,  for 
a  higher  reason,  was  the  fact  respecting  that 
most  important  of  all  events,  the  appearance  of 
the  Saviour  of  the  world,  and  of  his  precursor.  It 
was  required,  not  only  by  the  Jewish  nation,  but 
by  the  whole  ancient  world,  that  great  and  ex- 
traordinary persons,  employed  by  (Jod  as  instru- 
ments for  the  accomplishment  of  his  designs, 
should  receive  some  extraordinary  and  miracu- 
lous attestation  of  their  mission,  and  proofs  of 
their  authority.  Such  attestation  was  expected 
at  and  before  their  birth,  during  their  life,  and  at 
and  after  their  death.  Vide  Wetstein  on  Matt, 
i.  20.  Now  though  God  is  represented  in  the 
Bible  as  a  being  high  and  exalted  over  all,  he  is 
still  described  as  willingly  complying  with  the 
necessities  of  men,  as  condescemling  to  them, 
and  in  his  intercourse  with  men  acting  after  the 
manner  of  men  ;  especially  whenever  by  so  do« 
ing  he  can  attain  his  great  objects,  their  sancti- 
fication  and  salvation.  Accordingly,  those  ex- 
traordinary men  by  whom  God  intended  to  pro 
mote  these  objects  received  his  seal  to  their  tes- 
timony  in  that  extraordinary  manner  which  was 
calculated  to  convince  mankind,  and  to  satisfy 
their  expectations.  In  this  manner,  the  Bible 
informs  us,  was  the  testimony  of  Moses  and  all 
the  prophets  down  to  John,  of  Jesus  also  and  his 
apostles,  confirmed  by  God. 

It  deserves  to  be  mentioned  in  this  connexion 
that  the  Jews  called  the  Messiah  the  second 
.Idam,  (as  Paul  did,)  and  that  they  imagined  he 
would  be  born  as  guiltless  and  pure  as  Adam 
was  when  he  first  came  from  the  hands  of  God, 
and  was  therefore  called  rov  0rov,  (Tloj.)  Luke, 
iii.  38.  In  common  generation,  as  scripture 
and  experience  teach  us,  the  depravity  of  man 
is  propagated.  But  Christ  is  described  in  the 
New  Testament  as  similar  indeed  to  us,  but 
without  sin. 

riifvua  aytoi',  (Luke,  i.  35,)  signifies  mirneu' 
Iinis  divine  power,  and  is  synonymous  with  Hiof 
«ij  v-^i'jrov.  Vide  Acts,  i.  5,  8.  Every  extra- 
ordinary and  supernatural  event  takes  place 
llirough  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
the  performing  of  all  miracles  is  referred  to  hira. 
'I'he  phrases.  In  cnme  vpon  one  (f-tfVfvifrot), 
and,  overshadow  one  («?tiixaiift)  amount  to  the 
same  thing:  "thou  shalt  experience  a  miracu- 
lous divine  power  exerted  upon  thee;  thou  shalt 
become  pregnant  by  this  divine  miraculous 
power,  in  an  extraordinary  way."  In  Matt.  i. 
20,  it  is  briefly  said,  »•  that  which  is  born  of  her 
ix  rii'fvuoToj  firci'  ayinv," 

The  phrase,  conceived  fmm  the  Holy  Ghost, 
which  occurs  in  the  ancient  creeds    (e.  g.,  in 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       333 


the  apostolic  creed,)  is  derived  from  this  pas- 
sage (Matt.  i.  20.)  (This  phrase  was  intro- 
duced as  antithetic  to  the  declarations  of  such 
as  considered  Jesus  to  be  a  natural  son  of  Jo- 
seph ;ind  iMury.  For  he  was  so  considfred  by 
many  of  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ,  (cf. 
Luke,  iii.  23,)  and  by  some  Christian  sects,  as 
the  Ebionites.  Vide  Iren.  Haeres.  v.,  c.  i.  This 
same  opinion  has  been  advocated  lately  in  a 
work  entitled  "  Versuch  eines  schriftmassigen 
Beweises,  dass  Joseph  der  wahre  Vater  Christi 
sey;"  Berlin  and  Stralsund,  1792,  8vo.  The 
author  of  this  work  does  palpable  violence  to 
the  sacred  writers,  and  has  not  considered  this 
narrative  in  the  spirit  of  the  age  in  which  it  was 
written.  His  explanation  goes  upon  the  sup- 
position that  the  first  two  chapters  of  Matthew 
are  spurious,  and  tliat  Luke,  in  his  narratives, 
followed  a  report  which  had  circulated  only 
among  a  few  Christians  respecting  the  concep- 
tion of  Christ.)  From  the  New  Testament  it 
is  certain  that  before  the  conception  of  Jesus 
Mary  was  a  virgin.  Cf.  Matt.  i.  23,  and  Luke, 
i.  The  extraordinary  manner  of  her  conception 
has  led  many  to  say  that  the  name  of  rta|j^£)05 
belongs  to  her,  even  since  the  birth  of  Christ. 
This  name,  however,  is  not  given  to  her  in  the 
New  Testament  after  this  event;  on  the  con- 
trary, Christ  is  said  to  be  yivontvov  ix  yni'aixoj. 
Gal.  iv.  4.  When  the  monastic  life  became 
popular,  and  the  unmarried  state  was  regarded 
as  the  most  holy  and  pleasing  to  God,  the  opi- 
nion prevailed,  that  after  the  birth  of  Christ, 
]\Iary  lived,  even  in  the  married  state,  in  entire 
continence,  like  a  nun,  and  had  no  cliildren  by 
Joseph.  Hence  she  was  called  afirtap^troj.  In 
the  fourth  century  this  opinion  was  almost  uni- 
versal;  and  Epiphanius  and  Hieronymus  pro- 
nounced Apollinaris,  Helvidius,  Jovinian,  and 
others,  who  disputed  it,  to  be  heretics.  But 
Basilius  the  Great  considered  it  as  a  question 
of  minor  importance. 

II.  True  Humanity  of  Christ. 

From  the  New  Testament  it  is  evident  that 
Christ  was  a  real  man,  both  as  to  body  and  soul. 
He  had  feelings,  senses,  and  organs  of  sense,  as 
we  have.  He  hungered,  thirsted,  shed  his 
olood,  and  died.  He  exhibits,  too,  all  the  pro- 
perties of  the  soul.  He  attained  gradually  to 
the  knowledge  and  understanding  which  he 
possessed  as  a  man  ;  Luke,  ii.  5*2.  He  displayed 
human  feelings,  joy,  sorrow,  indignation,  &c. ; 
Luke,  xxii.  42,  44;  xxiii.  46.  Paul  calls  him 
expressly,  ai^pwrtoj  Xpcoroj  'I>;5ov5, 1  Tim.  ii.  5. 
Men  are  called  his  brethren,  Heb.  ii.  11 — 14. 
He  frequentlj'  dalls  himself,  6  vioj  rov  av^puittov ; 
the  more  proper  meaning  of  which  phrase  is,  the 
son  of  Adam,  the  great  son  of  Mam,  d  Stvrfpoj 
'ASa'fi,  as  I'aul  says.  But  in  whatever  way  this 
piirast  is  understood,  it  clearly  denotes  the  true 


humanity  of  Christ.  The  phrases,  he  came  or 
appeared  in  the  flesh,  he  became  flesh,  denote  the 
same  thing;  John,  i.  14;  1  John,  iv.  3;  Rom 
viii.  4,  seq. 

But  certain  popular  prejudices  and  incorrect 
philosophical  principles  led  some  to  doubt,  and 
others  to  deny,  this  clear  troth.     Hence  the  true , 
humanity  of  Christ  was  expressly  mentioned  in 
the  ancient  creeds. 

(1)  Some  taught  that  Christ  did  not  possess 
a  true  human  body,  but  only  a  bodily  phantom 
and  shade;  that  he  appeared  tv  6ox»;'7fi  or  fav- 
rdofxari,  for  such  aerial  bodies  were  then  as- 
cribed to  departed  spirits,  and  even  to  divini- 
ties. These  were  the  persons  who  believed 
that  matter  was  the  origin  of  all  evil,  and  did 
not  proceed  from  God,  but  from  an  evil  and  ma- 
licious being.  Hence,  according  to  their  view, 
the  pure  divine  spirit  of  Christ,  one  of  the  high- 
est a;ons,  could  not  have  dwelt  in  a  material 
body.  Those  who  held  these  opinions  were 
called  Docetx  and  Phantasiasts  ,•  they  comprised 
most  of  the  Gnostics,  as  Marcion  and  others ; 
also  the  Manicheans  and  their  followers. 

(2)  After  the  fourth  century,  others  denied 
the  existence  of  the  human  soul  of  Christ,  be- 
lieving that  it  was  unnecessary,  inasmuch  as 
the  Logos  supplied  its  place.  We  find,  indeed, 
that  the  oldest  fathers  had  no  particular  and  dis- 
tinct conception  of  the  human  soul  of  Christ. 
They  did  not  deny  its  existence,  but  they  made 
no  distinct  and  express  mention  of  it  in  their 
writings,  presupposing  it  as  understood  of 
course.  Origen,  in  the  third  century,  taught,  for 
the  first  time,  the  exact  doctrine  of  the  human 
soul  of  Christ,  and  shewed  its  importance.  It 
was  a  considerable  time,  however,  before  this 
doctrine  was  introduced  into  theology  as  a  spe- 
cific article.  It  did  not  become  universal  among 
the  catholics  until  after  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century,  when  Apollinaris  the  younpfr  appear- 
ed, and  boldly  denied  that  Christ  iiad  a  human 
soul.  Afterwards  he  determined  more  exactlj 
that  Christ  indeed  possessed  the  i^v^rv.  (animal 
soul,)  which  was  the  organ  by  which  the  Logos 
operated  upon  the  human  body  of  Jesus;  but 
that  he  was  destitute  of  the  ^i^vaa  vovi,  (the 
rational  soul,)  the  place  of  which  was  supplied 
by  the  Logos.  Attention  was  now  excited,  for 
the  first  time,  to  this  doctrine ;  it  was  introduced 
into  the  Christian  creed;  scriptural  rtfutation 
of  the  error  of  Apollinaris  was  soujiit;  decrees 
of  councils  were  made,  and  laws  were  enacted 
against  it.  [Vide  Hahn,  Lehrb.  s.  05,  s.  456. 
Neander,  Kirchengesch.  b.  i.  Abth.  iii.  s.  1060, 
flf.,  and  b.  ii.  Abth.  ii.  s.  904;  Abth.  iii.  a 
1170.— Tr.] 

III.  Excellences  of  the  Humanity  ofJesua. 

A.  In  respect  to  his  body. 

(1)  The  beauty  of  his  appearance.     Many  of 


336 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


the  fathers  imagined  him  to  be  the  ideal  of  man- 
ly beauty  ;  and  the  painters  of  succeeding  ages 
have  endeavoured  to  express  this  in  their  pic- 
MTL'S  of  him.  The  New  Testament  itself  gives 
us  no  means  of  determining  either  for  or  against 
such  a  supposition.  Only  we  must  be  careful, 
if  we  adi>j)t  this  opinion,  not  to  consider  it  es- 
*feential,  and  must  remember  the  declaration  of 
Christ,  r;  r,(^,^  ovx  Z^f>^t  oibiv,  John,  vi.  C3 ; 
and  what  Paul  says,  thatyirwixfty  XptdTov  xara 
edpxa  is  not  the  thing  required;  2  Cor.  v.  IG. 
Vide  Carp/.ov,  Progr.  "  de  forma  oris  et  corpo- 
ris Chrisli;"  Ilelmsludt,  1777. 

(2)  The  immortality  of  his  body.  We  reason 
thus: — Immortality  belonged  to  Christ  because 
he  was  without  sin,  for  death  is  the  consequence 
of  sin  ;  Rom.  vi.  2.3.  He  was  not  subjected  to 
the  necessity  of  dying,  although  he  actually 
died,  in  obedience  to  God,  and  from  love  to  us, 
and  for  our  advantage.  This  took  place,  how- 
ever, not  against  his  will,  but  with  his  consent, 
John,  X.  18.  Hence  Paul  mentions  it  as  the 
express  design  of  the  incarnation  of  Jesus,  that 
he  mii^ht  sulTer  death. 

B.  In  respect  to  his  soul.   Among  these  are — 

(1)  His  extraordinary  human  understanding, 
sagacity,  and  knowledge.  His  whole  history 
proves,  that  even  as  a  man  he  was  not  of  the 
common  and  ordinary  class,  but  one  of  those 
great  and  extraordinary  persons  of  whom  the 
world  has  seen  hut  few.  But  he  was  like  other 
men  in  this  respect,  that  his  talents  and  intel- 
lectual faculties  did  not  unfold  themselves  at 
once,  hut  gradually,  and  were  capable  of  pro- 
gressive improvement.  Hence  Luke  records 
(ii.  52),  tliat  he  rt^otxonre  oo-fiJa.  Hence,  loo, 
he  learned  and  practised  obedience  to  the  divine 
command,  and*submission  to  the  divine  will, 
Heb.  V.  8  ;  he. prepared  himself  for  his  office,  &c. 

(2)  His  perfect  moral  purity,  and  the  blame- 
lessness  of  his  life.  Theologians  call  this,  the 
ainlcsaness  (fiiap^oT);'jia)  of  Jesus.  The  great- 
est honesty,  virtue,  and  piety  shone  forth  in  all 
the  doctrines  and  discourses,  in  the  whole  life 
and  conduct,  of  Jesus.  Hence  most  of  the  ene- 
mies of  Ciiristianily  admit  this  excellence  of  the 
moral  doctrine  and  of  the  person  of  Clirist,  and 
consider  him  as  an  example  of  piety  and  virtue. 
Cf.  Hess,  Gcschiehle  der  drey  letxtt-n  Lcbens- 
jahre  Jesu.  [Also  the  remarkable  passage  in 
Rousseau's  Conf.  du  Vic.  Sav.  in  his  Kmilius.] 
The  most  important  passages  which  treat  of  the 
sinlessness  of  Jesus  are,  2  Cor.  v.  21,  ^jj  yvoira 
ofia^tiax — i.  P.,ptccali  expcrlcm  esse  (Is.  lix.  8) ; 
1  Johfi,  iii.  3,  5,  iyioj  iiri,,  and  a^a,)na  oix  tin 
iv  airtjt.  Heb.  iv.  15,  "He  was  like  us,  but 
j^upi;  OLfiapTiac  1  Pet.  1.  19,  dui'ov  d^wuov  xai 
domJiov.  The  texts  also  in  which  it  is  said  that 
he  was  obedient  to  the  will  and  command  of 
Gud  buhing  in  this  connexion;  as  Heb.  v.  8, 


(which  is  called  obedientiam  activam,")  and 
m-iny  passages  in  John. 

Jesus  being  free  from  sin,  was  free  from  the 
punishment  of  sin,  and  from  all  that  evil  which 
men  bring  upon  themselves  by  their  own  sins. 
He  suffered  what  he  did  suffer,  undeservedly 
and  voluntarily.  Vide  Heb.  vii.  27;  1  Pet.  i. 
19.  The  sinlessness  of  Jesus  is  to  be  rpgarded 
as  a  consequence  of  the  fact  that  he  was  born 
without  moral  pollution.     Cf.  s.  92, 

But  this  subject  is  frequently  represented  as 
if  it  would  have  been  impossii)le  for  the  man 
Jesus  to  sin;  and  as  if  his  virtue  and  holiness 
were  absolutely  nccessari/.  Cf.  Baumgarten, 
Diss,  de  aio^i^air.ni-a.  Christi;  Halle,  1753, 
But, 

(a)  The  scripture  nowhere  teaches  that  the 
possibility  of  sinning  would  have  ceased  ia 
Adam  and  his  posterity  if  Adam  had  not  fallea. 
The  possibility  of  erring  and  transgressing 
would  belong  to  man,  even  if  he  had  no  natural 
depravity.  Otherwise  Adam  could  not  have 
fallen;  for  before  the  fall  he  was  without  origi- 
nal sin.  The  case  must  have  been  the  same, 
therefore,  with  the  man  Jesus,  although  he  was 
without  natural  depravity.     Vide  s.  80,  II.  2. 

(6)  If  it  should  be  impossible  for  a  man  to  live 
otherwise  than  virtuously,  or  if  his  virtue  should 
be  necessar)',  it  would  have  no  value  and  no 
merit.  All  freedom,  in  that  case,  would  vanish, 
and  man  would  become  a  mere  machine;  ac- 
cording to  the  remarks  made  in  the  place  just 
referred  to.  The  virtue  of  Christ,  then,  in  re- 
sisting stedfaslly  all  the  temptations  to  sin,  ac- 
quires a  real  value  and  merit  only  on  admission 
that  he  could  have  sinned.  It  was  in  tiiis  sense, 
doubtless,  that  Scotus  made  that  affirmation 
which  was  alleged  against  him,  hiunaiiain  ikm 
turarn  Christi  nonfuisse  dvaua'prj^ror. 

(c)  This  opinion  is,  in  fact,  scriptural.  Fo? 
(a)  we  are  frequently  exhorted  to  imitate  the 
example  of  Jesus,  in  his  virtue,  his  conquest  of 
sinful  desires,  &c.  But  how  could  this  be  done 
if  he  had  none  of  those  inducements  to  sin  which 
we  have,  and  if  it  had  been  impossible  for  him 
to  commit  it.  (3)  Improvement  in  knowledge 
and  in  perfections  of  every  kind  is  ascribed  in 
scripture  to  Christ;  and  Paul  says,  "that 
through  sufferinffs  he  constantly  improved  in 
obedience  (J!ud!in'  irraxoy.^^,"  Ileh.  v.  8.  (y) 
We  read  expressly,  that  Clirist  was  tried — i.  e., 
tempted  to  sin;  b'lt  that  he  overcame  the  temp- 
tation, M;Ut.  iv.  1,  seq.  This  temptation  took 
place  shortly  before  his  entrance  upon  his  public 
office,  and  tended  to  prepare  him  for  it.  It  was 
intended  to  exercise  and  confirm  him  in  virtue, 
and  in  obedience  to  God.  But  what  object 
could  there  have  been  in  this  temptation,  if  \* 
had  been  impossible  for  Jesus  to  yield  to  it? 
And  what  merit  would  there  have  been  in  hii 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       337 


resistance  1  No  difference  is  made  in  the  thing 
iiselt",  and  in  its  consequences,  by  considering 
it,  with  Farmer  and  others,  as  a  vision  and  pa- 
rable, and  not  as  a  real  occurrence.  If  it  was 
impossible  that  Christ,  as  a  man,  should  sin,  it 
would  be  hard  to  find  what  the  Bible  means 
when  it  speaks  of  his  being  tempted,  and  com- 
mends him  for  overcoming  temptation. 

IV.  Early  History  of  Jesus. 

A3  the  gospels  contain  but  little  important  in- 
ormation  respecting  the  events  of  the  childhood 
of  Christ,  the  apostles  themselves  could  not  have 
been  acquainted  with  many  credible  circum- 
stances relating  to  it.  The  apocryphal  gospels 
contain  a  multitude  of  stories  and  fables  upon 
this  subject,  especially  the  gospel  "infantia; 
Christi."  Vide  Fabricii  Codex  apocr.  N.  T., 
T.  I.  It  cannot  be  proved,  that  Jesus  performed 
miracles  before  his  entrance  on  his  public  office, 
to  which  he  was  consecrated  by  John  the  Bap- 
tist. The  supposition  is,  in  fact,  contradictory 
to  the  clear  declaration  of  John,  who  calls  the 
miracle  in  Cana  of  Galilee,  wjtxriv  ajjun'iov,  ii.  11. 

Joseph  was  a  mechanic.  Hence  Jesus  is 
called  •  rixtovo^  vloi.  Matt.  xiii.  55.  All  the 
ancient  stories  agree  that  he  followed  the  em- 
ployment of  his  father,  which  is  very  probable, 
since  he  himself  is  called  otixtuiv,  Mark,  vi.  3. 
Besides,  it  was  not  uncommon  for  the  Jewish 
literati  to  learn  and  practise  some  handicraft. 
So  Paul  did,  Acts,  xviii.  3.  It  appears  from 
the  united  testimony  of  the  ancient  fathers  that 
Jesus  was  faber  lignarius,  ■fixTuv  ^vXtov.  Even 
in  Hebrew,  unn  denotes  a  carpenter,  by  way  of 
eminence,  2  Kings,  xxii.  6. 

But  Jesus  was  also  learned  in  the  Jewish  law 
and  all  Jewish  literature,  although  he  had  not 
studied  at  the  common  Jewish  schools,  nor  with 
the  lawyers.  Vide  John,  vii.  15,  rtwj  oltoi 
ypdjuftar  a  olhi,  fir;  /xf/xa^;;xu)j.  Cf.  Matt.  xiii. 
54.  Probably  Divine  Providence  made  use,  in 
part,  of  natural  means,  in  furnishing  Jesus  with 
tliis  human  knowledge.  Mary  was  a  relative 
of  Elizabeth,  the  pious  mother  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, and  a  guest  at  her  house,  Luke,  i.  36,  40. 
We  may  imagine,  then,  that  Jesus  received 
good  instruction  in  his  youth  from  some  one  of 
this  pious,  sacerdotal  family.  We  see  from  the 
first  chapters  of  Luke,  that  Joseph  and  INIary 
belonged  to  a  large  circle  of  pious  male  and 
female  friends,  in  whose  profitable  society  Jesus 
passed  his  youth,  and  who  contributed  much  to 
his  education  as  a  man,  especially  as  they  ex- 
pected something  great  from  him,  from  his  very 
birth,  as  appears  from  Simeon.  Respecting  the 
early  history  of  Jesus,  vide  Casauboni  "  Exer- 
citt.  in  Annales  Baronii."  Hess,  in  the  appen- 
dix to  his  "  Geschichte  der  drey  letzten  Lebens- 
jahre  Jesu  ;"  and  Heilmann,  "  Opusc."  tom.  ii. 
p.  501,  seq. 

'    43 


SECTION  XCIV. 

OF  THE  DOCTRIXE  OF    JKSL'S,  AND    HIS    OFFICE    A* 
TEACHER. 

The  work  committed  to  Christ  bv  God  was 
twofold  : — (tf)  to  teach  by  oral  instruction  and 
example;  (i)  to  suffer  and  die  for  the  good  ot 
men.  Both  together  compose  what  is  called 
the  ipyor  of  Christ,  John,  xvii.  And  it  was  that 
he  might  execute  both  of  these  offices  that,  ac 
cording  to  the  Bible,  he  became  man.  We  treat 
here,  in  the  first  place,  (f  his  office  as  teacher. 

I.  Commencement  and  continuance  of  his  office  as 

Teacher;  also  the  names  and  importance  of  this 

office. 

(1)  Jesus  entered  upon  his  office  as  teacher, 
according  to  the  custom  of  Jewish  teachers, 
when  he  was  about  thirty  years  of  age;  Luke, 
iii.  23.  Respecting  the  continuance  of  jiis  office,, 
the  opinions  of  the  learned  have  differed  from 
the  earliest  limes.  The  opinions  most  wide 
from  the  truth,  are,  on  the  one  side,  that  of  Ire- 
naeus,  that  it  was  sixteen  years;  and,  on  the 
other,  that  it  was  only  one  year.  Origen  sup- 
posed, that  it  was  three  years  and  a  haf,  which 
has  become  the  common  opinion,  and  is  founded 
upon  Luke,  xiii.  7,  33,  and  upon  the  computa- 
tion of  the  passover,  especially  according  to 
John.     Cf.  Morus,  p.  149,  s.  3. 

(•2)  The  New  Testament  everywhere  teaches 
that  Christ,  considered  as  a  man,  was  qualified 
by  God  for  his  office  as  teacher,  by  extraordinary 
intellectual  endowments;  like  the  prophets  of 
old,  and  his  own  apostles  in  after  times,  only  in 
a  far  higher  degree  than  they.  John,  iii.  34, 
God  gave  to  him  oix  ix  jxir^w  toTtvivfia.  The 
prophets  had  these  endowments,  but  in  a  less 
degree;  he,  as  the  highest  messenger  of  God, 
had  them  ivilhout  measure.  Acts,  x.  38,  t;^ptue«' 
avtbv  u  0f6j  rti'fvjiiart  aylat  xai  Svmjutt.  JesU3 
received  these  higher  gifts  of  the  Spirit  when 
John  baptized  hiiu;  for  he  himself  submitted  of 
his  own  accord  to  this  baptism,  by  which  the 
Jews  were  to  be  initiated  into  the  kingdom  of 
the  ]Messiah.  John  himself  was  convinced,  by 
a  confessedly  miraculous  occurrence  at  his  bap- 
tism, that  Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God,  and  heard 
a  heavenly  voice  which  expressly  declared  him 
such;  Matt.  iii.  13—17;  John,  iii.  31— 33,  coll. 
Luke,  iv.  1,  14.  Whatever,  therefore,  the  man 
Jesus  either  did  or  taught  after  his  baptism,  he 
did  and  taught  as  the  messenger  of  God — as  an 
inspired  man,  under  direct  divine  command, 
and  special  divine  assistance;  iy  rtwvuaTt,  at 
the  New  Testament  expresses  it.  Vide  Morus. 
p.  149,  note. 

The  name  of  ?l  prophet,  (^<'3J,)  which  denote* 
in  general  an  immediate  messenger,  and  author- 
ized ambassador  of  God,  (vide  s.  9.  No.  2,)  was 
given  to  Christ,  because,  as  above  remarked,  ho 
2F 


338 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


taught  by  divine  inspiration,  and  proved  to  his 
cont«mpor;iries  the  truth  of  his  doctrine  and  of 
his  divine  mission  by  miracles;  John,  xiv.  10. 
The  Jews  expected  this  of  the  Messiah,  whom 
they  hence  called  s^j^n,  o  rtpo<j»;r»;j,  by  way  of 
eminence.  Vide  John,  vi.  11;  Matt.  xxi.  11; 
Luke,  xxiv.  19;  Acts,  iii.  2-2;  and  other  texts. 

Christ  commonly  called  his  office  as  teacher, 
and  indeed  his  whole  office,  tjjyoi/,  his  work,  bu- 
siness, (cf,  John,  xvii.  4;)  also  to  Xy^ov  rov  rta- 
rpo{,  (John,  iv.  31,  seq.,)  in  order  to  shew  that 
the  Father  himself  had  commissioned  him;  ac- 
cording to  what  he  elsewhere  declares,  that  his 
doctrine  was  not  his  own,  (discovered  by  him- 
self as  a  man,)  but  revealed  and  entrusted  to 
him  (the  man  Jesus)  by  God;  John,  xii.  49; 
xiv.  10. 

The  nime  '(wr^p  (benefactor  of  men)  is  given 
to  Christ,  partly  because  he  died  for  our  good, 
and  partly  because  he  is  our  teacher  by  precept 
and  example.  Both  of  these  belong  to  the  great 
work  of  Jesus,  and  one  ought  not  to  be  separated 
from  the  other.  He  himself  says  (John,  xviii. 
37)  that  he  was  born  and  had  come  into  the 
world  to  proclaim  the  true  doctrine,  (^a7.r^^na;) 
and  that  his  kingilom  (.5aTi>.fto)  was  the  king- 
dom of  truth.  But  we  owe  it  to  his  death  alone 
that  we  bicome  citizens  of  this  kingdom,  John, 
iii.  6.  His  death  is  always  described  as  the 
procuring  cause  of  our  salvation;  and  our  sins 
are  not  forgiven  us  on  account  of  our  own  refor- 
mation and  holiness,  but  on  account  of  the  death 
of  Christ. 

II.   ChrUl'ti  method  and  manner  in  his  Ministri/  ,- 
and  the  chief  contents  uf  his  I)i>ctrine. 

(1)  The  instruction  which  Christ  gave  was 
f^nly  piih/ic,  (John,  xviii.  '30,)  and  partly  co;i/j- 
dential,  or  private.  And  accordingly  the  manner 
and  nature  of  his  discourse  were  dilferent.  Like 
all  the  ancient  teachers,  he  had  two  classes  of 
hearers  and  disciples;  the  exoteric,  \hn<*e  who 
were  publicly  instructed,  and  the  esoteric,  the 
disciples  of  the  inner  school,  to  whom  he  gave 
private  instruction.  The  Jews  of  Palestine,  at 
the  time  of  Christ,  were  very  ignorant,  mis- 
guided, and  prejudiced.  Christ  was  therefore 
compelled  to  condescend  to  their  level,  and  was 
unable  fully  to  instruct  thc-m  in  many  truths, 
for  which  they  had  no  relish,  and  which  they 
could  not  understand.  He  could  carry  them  no 
further  ih  in  the  first  elements  of  his  doctrine; 
and  had,  first  of  all,  to  endeavour  to  excite  them 
to  attention  and  inquiry.  Vide  Malt.  xiii.  11, 
seq  Luke,  X.  1,  10,  vuiv  (csoterieis)  ^lAoroi 
yvZvtu  ^v^fr^fiia  lia/yiXnaf'  ixrivotf  (^exutrrieis)  ov 
iiiorai.  His  disciples  were  not,  however,  to 
keep  any  secret  doctrines  {disciplitia  nreani)  for 
themselves,  but  as  soon  as  their  hearers  were 
prepared  for  if,  to  give  them  still  further  instruc- 


tion, and   declare   to   them    the   whole.     ViJe 
Matt.  X.  2G,  27;  Luke,  viii.  17. 

Hut  although  the  instruction  of  Jesus  was  so 
variously  modified  as  to  manner  and  subject, 
according  to  the  wants  of  his  hearers,  his  doc- 
trine itself  was  always  the  same.  He  had  no 
twofold  scheme  of  salvation— one  for  the  refined 
and  the  noble,  the  other  for  the  mean  and  uncul- 
tivated ;  but  one  and  the  same  for  all.  "  Repent 
and  believe  the  gospel"  was  his  direction,  as  it 
was  of  John  the  Baptist.  This  was  the  great 
point  which  he  brought  to  view  in  all  his  dis- 
courses before  rich  and  poor,  enlightened  and 
ignorant.  We  do  not  find  that  Jesus  ever  with- 
held or  omitted  any  of  his  doctrines,  or  even 
proposed  tliem  less  frequently,  because  they 
might  be  offensive  or  unpleasant  to  his  hearers, 
or  opposed  to  their  inclinations.  On  tin?  contrary, 
he  exhibited  these  very  haled  truths  witli  the  most 
frequency  and  urgency,  because  tlwv  were  the 
most  important,  salutary,  and  indispensable  to 
his  hearers.  He  disregarded  their  persecution 
and  contempt.  The  doctrines  of  his  deaih  and  its 
consequences,  of  the  necessity  of  regeneration 
and  of  holiness,  are  examples  of  this  kind  ;  John, 
iii.,  vi.,  viii.,  x.  His  early  disciples  ft)llowed 
his  example  in  this  respect;  as  appears  from 
Acts  and  the  epistles.  And  his  disciples  in  all 
ages  are  sacredly  bound  to  do  the  same;  and  if 
they  do  not,  they  are  unicorthy  of  him. 

Moreover,  his  [lublic  religious  instrurtion  was 
in  a  high  degree  intelligible,  throuu-^nout  prac- 
tical, and  adapted  to  the  necessi'ies  of  his 
hearers.  It  was  without  fear  or  favour  of  man, 
Malt.  xxii.  10,  U).  He  was  eloquent  and  im- 
pressive, and  skilfully  availed  himself  of  the 
present  occasion,  place,  and  circumstances; 
John,  iv.  11.  31,  seq.  The  populace,  accord- 
ingly, found  his  instructions  far  more  excellent, 
impressive,  and  sincere,  than  those  of  the  Phari- 
sees or  lawyers.  With  all  this,  however,  he  was, 
as  a  teacher,  in  a  high  degree  modest  and  unpre- 
tending.   Vide  Malt.  xi.  29;  John,  vii.  IG — H. 

Considering  the  imperfect  knowlt'ili.'e  of  his 
hearers,  Jesus  endeavoured  to  represent  the 
truth  as  palpably  and  obviously  to  their  senses 
as  possible,  and  fre(|uenlly  spoke  in  figures. 
He  frequently  availed  himself  of  the  sayings 
and  proverbs  current  among  his  cintempora- 
rit»s.  Following  the  example  of  the  an- 
cient, and  especially  of  the  oriental  moralists, 
he  frequently  taught  moral  principles  in  apc»- 
ihegms,  as  in  the  sermon  on  the  Mount:  But 
he  made  the  most  use  of  parahis,  which  were 
very  commonly  employed  by  Jewish  teachers 
in  their  instructions.  Vide  Vilringa,  De  Synng. 
Vet.  I.  3.  Storr,  De  Parabolis  Chri^ti,  in  hi* 
Opusc.  Academ.,  tom.  i. 

He  gave  most  of  his  instructions  in  the  nr/i- 
snoua  dialect  common  with  the  Jews.    And  many 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       339 


of  his  pxprpsslnns — e.  g.,  in  the  sermon  on  the 
Mount,  in  his  a<idress  to  Nicodennus,  &c.,  can- 
not be  clearly  understood  without  a  knowledge 
of  this  dialect.  It  is  the  same,  for  the  most 
part,  as  we  find  in  the  Talmud  and  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Rabbins.  Bui  much  of  the  ancient 
Jewish  phraseology  had  been  frequently  misun- 
derstood and  perverted.  These  abuses  Christ 
corrected,  and  gave  a  different,  more  just,  and 
important  meaning  to  this  ancient  phraseology  ; 
as  wise  teachers  of  religion  have  always  done. 
But  the  superior  impression  which  the  scriptural 
language  and  the  phraseology  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment made,  led  Christ  to  use  them,  in  prefer- 
ence to  any  other,  even  where  another  might 
have  answered  his  purpose. 

We  observe  in  all  the  discourses  of  Jesus  a 
wise  forbearance  and  indulgence  of  such  preju- 
dices (e.  g.,  respecting  the  kingdom  of  the 
Messiah,  s.  89)  as  coujd  not  have  been  at  once 
removed,  or  were  not  necessarily  of  injurious 
practical  tendency.  This  is  called  avyxatd- 
pasij,  cccimomia,  accomodatio.  But  we  find  no 
case  in  which  .lesus  ever  taught  any  thing 
which  he  considered  as  false  or  erroneous, 
merely  because  it  might  be  pleasing  to  his 
hearers,  or  agreeable  to  prevailing  prejudices. 
Such  a  course  would  be  contrary  to  his  own 
maxims  and  his  whole  mode  of  procedure,  and 
couM  not  be  justified  on  correct  moral  principles. 
Vide  s.  G 1,  G5.  This,  it  seems,  is  more  and  more 
conceded  by  modern  theologians.  INlany  who 
do  not  consider  Jesus  as  a  divine  teacher  in  the 
strict  sense,  prefer  saying  that  he  mistook  in  this 
or  that  particular,  to  allowing  that  he  declared 
or  taught  anything  which  he  himself  considered 
erroneous.  They  perceive  that  the  latter  sup- 
position is  entirely  irreconcilable  with  the  moral 
purity  which  is  everywhere  exhibited  in  the 
character  of  Jesus.  Others,  however,  who  are 
not  willing  to  allow  that  Jesus  taught  anything 
inconsistent  with  their  own  opinions,  affirm  that 
Christ  did  not  actually  believe,  in  such  cases, 
what  he  said,  but  accommodated  his  doctrine  to 
Jewish  opinions,  in  which  he  himself  had  no 
belief.  But  they  cannot  prove  the  fact ;  and  they 
do  not  consider  in  what  a  suspicious  light  they 
place  his  character.  One  that  allows-  Christ  to 
be  a  divine  teacher,  if  he  would  be  consistent, 
must  admit  his  declarations  and  doctrines  with- 
out exception,  and  will  not  venture  to  select  from 
them  at  pleasure  what  he  will  believe,  or  to  pre- 
fer his  own  views  to  those  of  Christ,  or  to  affirm 
that  Christ  could  not  have  taught  such  a  thing, 
because  it  appears  differently  to  him,  or  because 
it  is  contrary  to  the  prevailing  opinions  of  his 
age.  See  Heringa,  Ueber  die  Lehrart  Jesu  and 
seiner  Apostel  in  Hinsicht  auf  die  Religions- 
begriffe  ihrer  Zeitgenossen;  a  prize  essay  ;  Of- 
fenoach,    179'2,   8vo;    Storr,   Er'lauterung  des 


Briefs  an  die  Hebraer,  th.  ii.  s.  536,  f.,  and 
Opusc.  Theol.  Iste  Abhandl. 

(2)  The  contents  of  the  public  instruction  of 
Jesus.  On  this  subject,  and  on  the  plan  of 
Christ  in  general,  cf.  Dr.  Reinhaid,  Ueber  den 
Plan  des  Stiflers  der  Christ.  Relig. 

(«)  He  instructed  his  disciples  in  the  doctrine 
respecting  God  and  his  attributes;  especially  re- 
specting his  impartial  and  universal  love  to  sin- 
ful men,  and  his  desire  for  the  welfare  of  all, 
respecting  providence,  and  reward  and  punish- 
ment after  death.  This  last  doctrine  he  made 
eminently  practical. 

(i)  He  taught  them  with  still  more  particu- 
larity the  destination  of  man  and  the  duties  of 
the  true  worshipper  of  God  ;  especially  the  love 
of  God  and  of  our  neighbour,  in  opposition  to 
Jewish  exclusiveness.  He  placed  before  them 
the  motives  for  the  fulfilment  of  these  duties, 
and  refuted  many  practical  prejudices  which 
were  common  among  the  Jews  and  other  rations. 
He  always  opposed  the  arrogance,  self-right- 
eousness, and  self-confidence  of  men,  and  en- 
deavoured to  shew  them  that  their  virtue  was 
very  imperfect,  and  that  they  deserved  nothing 
on  account  of  it,  and  received  every  favour  from 
the  grace  of  God  ;  Luke,  xvii.  9  ;  xviii.  9  ;  Matt. 
XX.  1,  seq. 

(c)  He  endeavoured  to  give  them  juster  views 
respecting  the  Messiah,  and  the  benevolent  de- 
sign of  God  in  his  mission,  and  the  new  order 
which  he  was  to  bring  about — in  short,  respect- 
ing ihe  kingdom  cf  God.  He  proved  to  them 
that  he  was  the  Messiah,  and  predicted  the  wide 
extension  of  his  religion.  He  endeavoured  to 
awaken  in  his  hearers  a  feeling  of  the  necessity 
of  a  Saviour. 

(f/)  He  instructed  them  in  the  exalted  hea- 
venly dignity  of  his  person  (John,  v.,  viii.,  x.,) 
respecting  his  death,  its  causes,  and  happy  con- 
sequences. He  assured  them  that  he  was  the 
person  through  whom  and  on  ichose  account  men 
would  be  saved  ;  that  he  was  the  Saviour  of 
men,  through  whom  they  obtained  freedom  from 
sin  and  from  the  punishment  of  sin  ;  and  all  this 
through  the  influence  of  his  drctrine  and  instruc- 
tion, and  especially  of  his  death;  John,  iii.,  vi., 
viii,,  X.  He  announced  the  entire  abolition  of 
the  Old-Testament  dispensation  and  the  Mosaic 
institute,  and  the  near  approach  of  the  time  when 
a  spiritual  and  perfect  worship  should  be  esta- 
blished universally.  Instructions  of  this  kind 
are  mostly  found  in  John.  Still  they  were  only 
the  first  indications  :  for  Christ  had  reserved  the 
more  perfect  instruction  to  be  given  by  his  dis- 
ciples after  his  death  and  ascension.  He  only 
went  before  them,  and  prepared  his  hearers  for 
the  instruction  which  they  would  afterwards 
give.  He  sowed,  but  it  was  for  them  and  their 
successors  to  reap  the  full  harvest;  John,  iv. 


340 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


We.  f.nd,  as  a  general  tiling,  that  Jesus,  in  his 
public  instructions,  uinied  principally  at  the  im- 
provement and  corri'ction  of  the  Jiwin/i  doctrine, 
in  order  to  prepare  and  (lualify  the  great  multi- 
tude fur  the  reception  of  his  religion;  while  in 
his  private  instructions,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
discoursed  mon-  particularly  on  his  own  institu- 
tions. Vide  Matt.  xxii.  29;  John,  iii.  1,  secj.; 
v.  7,  seq.  In  his  public  discourses,  he  fre- 
quently treats  of  general  moral  truths;  not,  how- 
ever, in  the  coiiiinon  unprofitable  way  in  which 
men  are  told  what  they  ought  to  do,  without  be- 
ing told  how  to  do  it.  He  shews  how  the  law  of 
Moses  should  be  interpreted,  and  warns  against 
the  false  explanations  commonly  given  to  it, 
and  the  additions  made  to  it  by  men,  and  against 
the  falsification  of  the  Divine  commands ;  Matt. 
V.  seq. 

He  was  accustomed,  like  many  of  the  Jewish 
teachers  in  his  age,  to  travel  about  with  his  dis- 
ciples, and  to  teach  in  the  synagogues,  on  the 
highways,  in  the  market-places,  the  field,  and 
the  temple.     Vide  John,  xviii.  20. 

(3)  The  private  instruction  of  Christ. 

He  had  destined  his /H/»//i«/e/rien(/jt  (esoteric 
disciples)  to  be  the  future  teachers,  through 
whom  his  great  plan  should  be  carried  into  exe- 
cution. To  these  he  gave  more  minute  expla- 
nation and  instruction  respecting  the  doctrines 
mentioned  in  No.  2.  He  solved  for  them  any 
dilTicullies  or  obscurities  which  remained  in  liis 
public  discourses.  Vide  Mark,  iv.  10,  11,  34. 
But  even  this  instruction  was  in  a  great  measure 
only  elementary,  and  preparatory  to  their  future 
destination.  Hence  he  frequenily  endures  their 
weakness  and  their  prejudices  with  wise  for- 
bearance; John,  xvi.  12 — 15,  25,  seq.;  Acts, 
i.  7,  seq.  He  tells  them  expressly  that  they 
could  not  understand  or  endure,  at  that  time, 
many  things  which  it  was  important  for  them 
to  know.  And  he  promises  to  instruct  them 
more  perfectly  after  his  departure,  by  means  of 
the  Paracleius,  and  to  make  known  to  them  the 
whole  extent  of  whatever  it  should  be  neces- 
sary for  tiiein  to  know  and  to  teach,  for  their 
own  good  or  the  good  of  others,  John,  xiv.  2G; 
xvi.  12 — 14,  &.C. 

yi>tc. — Although  Jesus  frequently  declares 
that  his  doctrine  is  of  divine  origin,  and  reveal- 
ed to  him  by  (iod  himself,  (since  he  was  the 
greatest  of  the  divine  messengers.)  we  are  not 
to  suppose  from  this  that  every  particular  doc- 
trine which  ('lirist  tiuglit  was  given  out  by  him 
aa  entirely  iww,  and  as  imparted  to  him  by  di- 
rect inspiration  of  (loii.  Many  of  his  theoreti- 
cal and  practical  doctrines  were  known  to  the 
Jews  of  his  age,  from  the  writini^s  of  the  Old 
Testament,  as  Christ  himself  says  Matt.  v.  17  ; 
or  by  some  other  means — e.  g.,  the  unwrillen 
instructions  of  the  projihets  who  lived  at  and 
after  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity.    But 


Christ  completed  and  amended  thest  doctrinfig, 
made  additions  to  them,  and  placed  iliem  in 
relations  and  connexions  which  were  entirely 
new  and  peculiar,  thus  giving  them  new  weight 
and  inii-rest.  This  was  the  case  with  the  doc- 
trine of  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  regenera- 
tion, prayer,  &c.  It  may  therefore  be  said,  wiih 
truth,  that  a  great  part  of  all  the  doctrinal  and 
moral  instruction  which  is  found  in  the  dis- 
courses of  Jesus,  actually  existed  among  the 
Jews  of  his  own  age.  We  find  many  of  his 
maxims,  parables,  &c.,  in  the  Talmud  and  the 
Rabbins.  Vide  Lightf)ot,  Schottgen,  and 
Wetstein,  on  the  New  Testament. 

But  while  we  willingly  concede  this,  we  may 
also  truly  maintain  that  Jesus  founded  a  new 
religious  system.  He  himself  says  distinctly 
that  the  religious  teacher  must  make  use  of  both 
new  and  old  doctrines.  "A  Christian  teacher 
must  be  like  a  householder,  who  brings  out  of 
his  treasure  things  new  and  old  ;  Matt.  xiii.  52. 
But  C'hrist  did  more  than  any  other  religious 
teacher  before  or  since  his  time,  by  teaching, 
not  simply  what  men  have  to  do,  but  by  pro- 
viding and  pointing  out  the  means  by  which 
they  can  perform  their  duties.  Vide  John,  i. 
17;  Titus,  ii.  11,  seq. 

The  question  disputed  by  theologians.  Whe- 
ther Christ  can  be  called  a  new  lawgiver,  may 
be  decided  by  these  considerations.  C/r//law8 
and  institutions  are  here  out  of  the  question; 
auch  Christ  did  not  intend  to  establish,  since 
his  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world.  Jaiw  must 
be  understood  as  synonymous  with  rcHi^ion,  rc' 
li'^iitua  (Jnclrine;  according  to  the  use  of  the 
Hebrew  n-\vi,  and  the  (ireek  louo^.  The  ques- 
tion would  then  be,  more  correctly,  whether  ho 
was  a  new  relii^iotu  teacher.  The  remarks  above 
made  shew  that  Christ  is  entitled  to  this  name, 
and  in  a  far  higher  sense  than  Moses  was.  He 
himself  calls  his  religion,  and  tlie  ordinances 
and  institutions  to  be  connected  with  it,  xw.vi[f 
hio^rxr^y,  in  opposition  to  the  ancient  Mosaic 
dispensation.  Matt,  xxvi.  28.  And  Paul  calls 
Christ  the  author  nnd  finindcr  of  the  new  dis- 
pensation, (^fitTi;j  xmirj  6ioI»;x>;{,)  Heb.  ix. 
15;  xii.  24.  His  religion,  according  to  Paul, 
succeeds  to  the  Mosaic,  and  puts  an  end  to  the 
Mosaic  dispensation  as  such.  The  term  norua 
kirialulor  has  been  rendered  suspicious  in  the 
view  of  some  theologians  t'rom  the  use  which 
Socinians  make  of  it.  designating  by  it  the  whole 
olTice  and  merit  of  (Christ. 

Ante  2. — Jesus  always  appeals  to  his  miracles, 
and  proves  by  them  that  his  doctrine  is  divine; 
Joiin,  vii.  11.  His  apostles  do  the  same;  Acts, 
ii.  22.  But  this  proof  is  allogethpr  rejected  l»y 
many  at  the  present  day,  or,  at  least,  very  little 
regarded.  This  is  the  case  among  ihosn,  prin- 
cipally, who  labour  for  the  abolition  of  all  posi- 
tive religion,  and  the  introdoction  of  the  religion 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE;  REDEMPTION.       341 


jf  reason;  for  the  positive  divine  authority  of 
the  religion  of  Jesus  stands  or  falls  with  his 
miraclfs.  The  truths  of  reason  which  Jesus 
taught  would,  indeed,  remain  valid,  althouah 
confirmed  by  no  miracles;  but,  in  that  case,  his 
declarations  would  not  continue  to  possess  di- 
vine authority.  We  should  no  longer  be  com- 
pelled to  believe  in  any  of  his  doctrines  because 
he  taui^ht  thei/i,  as  he  always  requires  us  to  do; 
John,  iv.  Our  belief,  on  the  contrary,  would  be 
entirely  independent  of  him  and  of  his  declara- 
tions. His  declarations  and  doctrines  would  be 
subjected  to  the  revision  of  human  reason,  like 
the  declarations  and  doctrines  of  any  merely 
human  teacher.  The  authority  of  Jesus  would 
not  be  more  binding  than  that  of  Socrates,  of 
Confucius,  Zoroaster,  and  other  wise  men  of 
antiquity.  Whoever,  then,  denies  the  miracle? 
of  Jesus,  removes  all  that  is  positive  in  the 
Christian  religion;  the  sure  consequence  of 
which  is,  that  every  man  may  believe  as  much 
of  the  Christian  doctrine  as  he  pleases,  and  is 
by  no  means  bound  to  admit  the  truth  of  what- 
ever Jesus  says,  because  he  is  of  opinion  that 
the  doctrine  of  Jesus  is  subjected  to  the  revision 
of  his  reason.  To  such  an  one  the  writings  of 
the  New  Testament  may  possess  an  historical, 
but  not  a  ductrinal  value.  Cf.  Riihl,  Werth  der 
Behauptungen  Jesu  und  siener  Apostel ;  Leip- 
zig, 1792,  Svo;  especially  the  first  treatise. 

SECTION  XCV. 

OF  THE  HARDSHIPS  AND  SUFFERINGS  OF  JESUS. 

I.  During  his  whole  life  upon  the  earth. 

Although  it  is  true  that  Jesus  suffered  a 
great  deal  while  he  was  upon  the  earth,  we 
should  avoid  all  unscriptural  exaggeration  of 
this  subject,  and  not  maintain  that  his  whole 
earthly  existence  was  mere  uninterrupted  suf- 
fering. We  find  scenes  in  the  life  of  Jesus 
which  caused  him  many  happy  and  cheerful 
hours,  Luke,  x.  21 ;  Matt.  xvii.  1,  seq.  Jesus, 
as  a  man,  possessed  very  tender  feelings  and 
warm  attections,  John,  xi.  Both  pain  and  plea- 
sure, therefore,  made  a  strong  and  deep  impres- 
sion upon  his  heart.  The  evangelical  history  ex- 
hibits him  as  at  one  time  in  deep  distress,  and 
at  another  in  great  joy. 

His  external  trials  and  hardships  consisted 
principally  in  his  great  poverty  and  indigence, 
Matt.  viii.  20;  Luke,  ix.  58;  2  Cor.  viii.  9; 
the  many  difficulties  and  hindrances  in  the  way 
of  the  accomplishment  of  iiis  office  as  teacher; 
contempt,  persecution,  danger,  and  the  suffering 
which  the  disobedience  and  obstinacy  of  his 
contemporaries  occasioned  him.  The  sufferings 
which  he  endured  at  the  end  of  his  life  will  be 
considered  in  No.  II.  The  following  remarks 
will  serve  to  the  better  understanding  of  the 


doctrine  respecting  the  suffering  and  adversities 
of  Jesus. 

(1)  Human  infirmities  and  calamities  are 
of  two  kinds — viz.,  (a)  Natural;  which  are 
founded  in  the  laws  and  constitution  of  human 
nature,  and  are  therefore  common  to  all  men. 
Jesus,  too,  we  find,  was  subject  to  these,  s.  I'3, 
but  in  common  with  all  others;  and  when  he 
became  a  true  man  he  of  course  subjected  him- 
self to  them,  (hi)  Cuntitigent,  (accessoria\) 
which  do  not  happen  to  all,  but  only  to  a  fe  w. 
Such  are  lowliness,  poverty,  contempt,  &:c. 
Jesus,  as  a  man,  was  not  necessitated  to  emlure 
these;  and  the  very  opposite  of  them  w;is  ex- 
pected in  the  Messiah.  He  submitted  to  them, 
because  the  divine  plan  for  the  good  of  men  re- 
quired it;   Heb.  xii,  2;  Phii    ii.  (1,  7. 

(2)  Many  things  which  are  commonly  ac- 
counted hardships  and  trials  are  not  so  in  the 
eyes  of  the  true  sage,  who  is  superior  to  the  pre- 
judices of  the  multitude.  And,  on  the  other 
hand,  many  things  which  are  commonly  admired 
as  the  best  fortune  do  not  appear  to  him  either 
good  fortune  or  real  welfare.  We  should  be 
careful,  therefore,  not  to  enumerate  among  the 
sufferings  and  afflictions  of  Jesus  such  things 
as  would  be  so  accounted  only  by  the  voluptuary 
and  libertine,  and  not  by  the  wise  man.  Such 
things  are,  his  frequent  journeys,  his  being  born 
in  a  stable,  laid  in  a  manger,  &c.  These  cir- 
cumstances, in  themselves  considered,  were  no 
hardships  to  a  man  who  disregarded  conve- 
nience and  worldly  honour. 

Religions  teachers  must  exercise  great  caiition 
on  this  subject.  There  is  a  double  disadvantage 
in  enumerating  such  circumstances  among  the 
>:tifferi7}gs  of  Jesus;  one  is,  that  the  common 
people  will  be  confirmed  in  the  error,  (which  is 
very  prevalent,)  of  considering  the  goods  of  for- 
tune, rank,  birth,  splendour,  and  other  external 
advantages,  as  of  great  value  ;  the  other  is,  that 
they  will  be  encouraged  in  effeminacy  and  false 
sensitiveness.  The  example  of  Jesus  in  his 
humiliation  ought,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  em- 
ployed to  shew  that  a  man  of  true  piety  and 
magnanimity  needs  none  of  those  external  ad- 
vantages which  are  commonly  so  highly  es- 
teemed, in  order  to  be  happy  and  contented  ;  that 
a  man,  even  in  poverty  and  humiliation,  may  he 
highly  useful  to  others.  &c.  The  sufferings  of 
Jesus,  considered  in  this  light,  are  very  encour- 
aging and  cheering  to  despised  or  neglected 
worth.  And  the  New  Testament  makes  this 
very  use  of  the  doctrine  of  the  sufferings  and 
humiliation  of  Jesus — e.  g.,  Hebrews,  xii.  2, 
air^X^'K?  xara^poj/;''^o{ — i.  e.,  he  was  so  supe- 
rior to  his  enemies  in  greatness  and  strength  of 
spirit  that  he  disregarded  their  insults  and  their 
foolish  judiiments  resjiecting  him. 

The  sufferings  of  Jesus  are  eminently  calcu- 
lated to  impress  oui  minds  with  f  view  of  his 
2  f2 


J42 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY, 


great  love  to  inen.  He  became  poor  for  our 
sakes,  that  we  might  become  rich.  Tht-  proper 
etfect  of  this  view  is  to  lead  us  to  gratitude  and 
cheerful  obedience. 

(3)  Some  are  accustomed  to  particularize  the 
sins  for  which  Jesus  atoned  by  purlicular  hard- 
ships and  sufferings,  and  also  the  virtues,  for 
the  performance  of  which  he  at  such  times  pro- 
curt^d  us  the  power.  But  we  ought  not  to  go 
beyond  the  New  Testament,  and  to  make  arbi- 
trary distinctions,  which  have  no  scriptural 
ground.  The  Bible  does  not  represent  Christ 
as  enduring,  in  the  highest  possible  degree, 
every  imaginable  distress  of  mind  and  body. 
The  greatness  of  the  merits  of  his  sulferings  de- 
pends neither  upon  their  continuance  nor  upon 
their  niaguilude  and  variety.  The  sufferings  of 
Christ  would  still  possess  their  whole  adeijuate 
value,  even  if  he  did  not  endure  every  imagina- 
ble distress. 

II.  Sufferlnifs  of  Christ  at  the  end  of  his  life  ; 
coininnnlif  called  his  passion. 

(I)  The  sorrowful  feelings  of  his  sou!,  or  his 
»7icn/a/su(T.'ring,  his  anguish  of  heart,  exhibited 
most  strikinTly  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  in  Geih- 
semane;  M.itt,  xxvi.  .37 — M;  Luke,  xxii.  41 — 
44.  This  anguish  is  described  by  Luke  as  great 
to  an  extraordinary  degree.  He  felt  it  shortly 
before  his  enemies  commenced  their  abuse.  In 
view  of  this  distress  many  difllculties  have 
arisen.  Tlie  martyrs  of  religion  have  frequently 
exhibited,  under  greater  siitTerings  than  these, 
and  tortures  which  they  iiave  actually  solicited, 
a  joy  and  firmness  which  we  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  admire.  Besides,  Jesus  exhibited 
thro'ighout  all  the  rest  of  his  life  and  his  after 
Bufferings  an  unexainpleil  magnanimity  and 
power.  He  foresaw  his  su(Tt;rings  with  chepr- 
fol  courage,  and  undertook  them  of  his  own  ac- 
cord. But  Jesus  did  not  exhibit,  either  in  the 
last  moments  of  his  life,  or  at  any  oilier  period, 
that  ill-timed  enthusiasm  which  was  so  much 
admireil  in  the  Christian  martyrs  of  the  second 
and  third  centuries;  nor,  on  the  otlier  hand,  did 
lie  shew  any  cold  insensiliiliiy  to  suffering. 
Both  enthusiasts  and  philosophers  are  therefore 
displ«-a<<ed  with  his  ;illowing  himself  to  feel  this 
fear  and  timidity;  and  enatiy  iiiter|ir»!ters  have 
exerted  tlieir  skill  upon  these  passages,  to  per- 
vert their  true  meaning.  Why  such  despond- 
ency and  anguish  just  at  this  timel  We  remark 
upon  this  subject, 

(«)  There  is  nothing  in  the  conduct  of  Jesus 
at  this  time  which  is  inconsistent  with  a  great 
man.  He  was  f.ir  from  that  apathy  and  sto- 
cism  which  the  martyrs  exhibite<l,  either  from 
affectation,  enthusiasm,  or  insensibility.  He 
nctui'.lly  endured  therefore,  for  a  considerable 
time,  the  p-,»ins  of  dentb  which  are  natural  to 
men,  as  appears  from  Matt.  xxvi.  39 — 1  i ;  John, 


xii.  -27;  and  Paul  says  distinctly,  Heb.  v.  7.  8 
that  Christ  wished  to  resemble  us,  his  brethren, 
in  respect  to  the  painful  accompaniments  of 
death,  in  order  to  qualify  himself  better  to  be- 
come a  compassionate  high-priest.  "  He  pray- 
ed to  God,  who  could  deliver  him  from  death, 
with  loud  crying  and  tears."  A  forced,  stoical 
apathy  is  entirely  opposed  to  the  spirit  of 
Christ  and  his  religion.  Christianity  pronounces 
against  everything  which  is  forced,  artificial,  and 
un^uited  to  the  nature  which  CJud  has  given  us. 
It  is  the  duty  of  men  to  improve  and  to  increase 
in  holiness;  but  they  should  still  continue  to  be 
men,  and  not  be  a.shamed  of  human  feelings, 
and  of  the  natural  and  innocent  expressions  of 
them.  The  example  of  Christ  is  instructive  in 
this  res|>ect  But  the  most  important  consider- 
ation is  the  following — viz., 

(i)  These  sulTeriiigs,  as  Jesus  and  his  apos- 
tles always  t.uiglii,  were  endured  for  our  sakes, 
and  were  the  punishment  of  our  sins.  This  be- 
ing the  ca.se,  it  was  necessary  for  Christ  to  feel 
that  he  sulTered.  He  could  not,  and  should  not, 
remain  insensible.  We  must  see  by  his  exam- 
ple what  we  deserved  to  suffer.  Some  hours 
before  his  death,  Jesus  assigned  this  as  th.>  true 
object  of  his  siitferings:  "He  would  shed  his 
blood  for  the  remission  of  the  sins  of  men, "and 
he  instituted  the4jord's  supper  in  nn'mnry  of 
this  great  event;  INIatt.  xxvi.  aR.  This  sulTer- 
ing,  therefore,  arose  priiici|)aUy  from  a  view  and 
a  lively  feeling  of  the  great  multitude  of  sins, 
their  criminality,  and  liability  to  punishment. 
Cf.  Harwood,  Ueber  die  Ursachen  der  Seele- 
nangst  Christi,  1  Abhandl. ;  Berlin,  177  1.  Tiie 
history  of  the  sulf.'rings  and  death  of  Ciirist  is 
considered  in  this  light  throughout  the  gospel 
and  epistles.  He  sulTered  and  died  for  us,  and 
on  our  aceonnt ;  and  we  thus  learn  what  we  de- 
serve. This  history  was  not  intended  to  pro- 
duce a  short  and  transient  emotion,  or  mere 
compassionate?  sympathy  :  and  the  preacher  who 
employs  it  for  these  purposes  only  negbots  its 
propei  object.  'Hiis  is  a  great  fault  of  many 
Passion  and  Good-Friday  discourses! 

(3)  The  gre-.it  boilHi/  sutTerings  and  tortures 
which  he  firmly  endured ;  with  which  is  con- 
nected, 

(3)  His  condenination  to  a  violent  death  on 
the  cross,  and  his  undergoing  of  this  sentence. 
His  life  of  humiliation  on  the  earth  r^ui^xu  ia,>*o'j 
closed  with  his  death;  for  the  time  which  lie 
lived  upon  the  earth  after  his  resurrection  did 
not  belong  to  it.  Crueifixion,  which  was  de- 
signed for  slaves  and  fiisiir^fnls,  was  a  vtiry 
disgraceful  punishment.  Vide  (iaiafians,  iii. 
13,  coll.  Dent.  xxi.  23.  Paul  therefore  consi- 
ders it  as  the  lowest  point  of  the  bumiliati'  n  o| 
Jesus,  and  c  ills  it  ra.t ';'iv)3(5  in  iljstinction,  Phil 
ii.  ."i — 3;  ef.  He!(.  xii,  2.  Kvi-ry  thing  was  or- 
dered by  God  in  such  a  way  as  to  convince  the 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       543 


world,  beyond  a  question,  that  his  death  had 
actually  Uiken  place.  Vide  the  circumstances, 
John,  xix.  30,  seq.  In  that  age  no  one  doubted 
the  fact.  Jesus  was  laid  in  the  tomb  as  plainly 
dead.  He  remained  in  the  tomb  until  the  third 
day,  that  the  iact  of  his  death  might  be  the  more 
certain.  His  burial  was  honourable.  The  pas- 
sajre.  Is.  liii.  9,  may  well  be  referred  to  this 
event:  "he  was  destined  to  a  grave  among 
transgressors;  but  was  buried  with  the  rich." 
Thp  New  Testament  does  not,  however,  ex- 
pressly cite  it  as  applicable  to  this  event. 

The  question  has  sometimes  been  asked. 
Whether  the  burial  of  Jesus  belonged  to  his 
state  of  humiliation  or  exaltation.  It  is  sufR- 
cient  to  answer,  neither  to  one  nor  the  other. 
The  burial  concerned  only  the  lifeless  body, 
separated  from  the  soul.  But  according  to  the 
common  way  of  thinking  and  feeling  among 
men,  the  circumstances  of  the  burial  were  ho- 
nourable to  Jesus,  and  should  therefore  be  ra- 
ther connected  with  his  exaltation  than  his  hu- 
n)iliation. 

yiite. — At  the  time  of  the  apostles  no  one 
doubted  the  actual  deatli  of  Jesus.  All,  Chris- 
tians, Jews,  and  Gentiles,  as  a|)pears  from  the 
New  Testament,  were  firmly  convinced  of  it  as 
an  undeniable  fact.  Some,  however,  apjieared 
in  the  second  century,  who  either  doubted  or 
denied  the  actual  death  of  Christ;  or  who  gave 
such  a  turn  to  the  affair  as  to  remove  from  his 
death  and  crucifixion  whatever  was  offensive  to 
the  Jews  and  heathen.  The  death  of  Jesus  was 
not,  however,  disputed  on  historical  grounds, 
for  there  were  none;  but  merely  for  doctrinal 
reasons.  The  doctrine  of  Christ's  death  was 
inconsistent  with  some  of  their  philosophical 
hypotheses.  Most  of  the  Gnostics  and  Mani- 
cheans,  who  maintained  that  Christ  had  a  seem- 
ing or  shadowy  body,  contended  that  he  did  not 
actually  suffer  torturer  and  death ;  but  ordy  tv 
Soxrj'JH  (seemingly,  in  his  8een)ing  body.)  Vide 
s.  93,  H.  The  Basilidiani  maintained  that  Jesus 
was  not  crucified,  but  Simon  of  Cyrene  in  his 
stead.  Cerinthus  taught  that  one  of  the  highest 
eec/ns,  Christ  or  the  Aciyoj,  united  himself  with 
tLe  man  Jesus,  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  at 
his  baptism  ;  tliat  Christ  deserted  the  man  Jesus 
daring  his  sufferings,  and  returned  to  heaven; 
and  that  thus  the  man  Jesus  alone  suffered  and 
died.  In  accordance  with  this  opinion,  he  and 
liis  followers  exfdained  the  exclamation  of 
Christ  upon  the  cross,  "My  God!  why  hast 
thou  forsaken  meT'  Matthew,  xxvii.  •}(>. 

This  desertion  (dtrelielio  p.  Deu)  has  been 
very  differently  understood,  even  in  modern 
times.  'I'lie  words  which  Christ  uses  are  taken 
from  Ps.  xxii.  1 — a  psalm  which  he  frequently 
cites  as  referring  to  himself.  It  is  the  language 
of  a  deeply  distressed  sufferer,  who  looks  for- 
ward with  anxious  loniring  to  the  termination 


of  his  sufferings,  and  to  whom  the  assistance 
of  God,  comfort,  and  consolation,  seem  to  dis- 
appear altogether,  or  to  delay  too  long.  Ti,e 
phrase  to  be  deserted  by  God  is  frequently  used 
without  implying  a  prevailing  doubt  in  the  ac- 
tual j)rovidence  of  God;  as  Ps.  Ixxi.  11  ;  Isa. 
xlix,  M.  Notwithstanding,  this  anxious  feeling 
was  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  piercing  of  the 
mental  sufferings  of  Jesus.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  very  consoling  and  quieting  to  one  who 
comes  into  similar  circumstances,  especially  at 
the  close  of  his  life,  since  he  can  count  upon 
being  heard  in  the  same  way.  Tiius  Jesus  was 
enabled,  shortly  before  his  death,  when  he  saw 
his  approaching  end,  joyfully  to  exclaim,  Ttri- 
T-fa-rai — i.  e.,  now  everything  which  I  had  to  do 
or  to  suffer  according  to  the  will  of  God  is  ac- 
complished and  perfected;  John,  xix.  30,  coll. 
v.  38.  This  term  refers  especially,  as  nXr^^tovv 
does  in  other  cases,  to  the  fulfilment  of  what 
was  predicted  concerning  him  as  the  decree  of 
God.  Vide  Luke,  xviii.  31  ;  xxii.  37;  Acts, 
xiii.  29. 

III.  Atlrlljules  and  Motives  of  the  Sufferings  of 
Christ. 

Jesus  underwent  all  these  sufferings,  and 
death  itself,  (1)  innocentli/,  Luke,  xxiii.  14,  15, 
and  the  parallel  texts,  2  Cor.  v.  21  ;  1  Pet.  ii 
22  ;  iii.  18 ;  (2)/m/^,  Matt.  xvi.  21—24  ;  John, 
X.  11,  17,  18;  xiii.  1,  21—33;  xviii.  1—8;  (3) 
with  the  greatest  patience  and  firiiniess,  1  Pet 
ii.  23;  {'I)  from  unexampled  and  mai^finnimoui 
laveio  us ;  also,  from  obedience  to  God,  he  herein 
subjected  himself  to  the  will  and  decree  of  God. 
Vide  s.  88;  John,  xv.  13;  Rom.  v.  G— 8. 

Theologians  call  this  obedience  which  Jesus 
exhibited  in  suffering,  jiassive  obedience,  from 
Phil.  ii.  8,  "obedient  unto  the  death  of  the 
cross."  The  active  obedience  of  Christ,  his 
doing  everything  which  was  suitable  to  the 
divine  will  and  command,  was  considered  s.  93, 
III.  They  are  one  and  the  same  obedience  in 
reality.  The  origin  and  advantage  of  this  dis- 
tinction will  be  further  considered  in  the  Article 
on  Justification.  The  various  objects  and  uses 
of  the  sufferings  of  Christ  will  also  be  consi- 
dered more  fully  in  the  same  Article,  s.  115. 
Cf.  Morus,  p.  ICO,  161,  s.  7. 

SECTION  XCVL 

OF  Christ's  descent  into  hell. 

I.  Meanirig  of  the  phraseology,  "to  descend  into 
hell,"  (^iNr  '?N  -in",  Karaliaivtw  cif  aint',)  find  art 
explanation  of  the  texts  relating  to  this  subject. 

(1)  The  ancients  believed  universally,  not 
excluding  the  Orientalists  and  the  Hebrews, 
that  there  was  a  place  in  the  invisible  world, 
conceived  to  be  deep  under  the  earth,  into  which 


844 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


the  disembodied  aoiils  of  men,  good  and  bad, 
went  iinriiediatfly  ufter  death.  The  name  of 
this  place  was  ^wr,  airj,  orcus,  the  utulcr-world, 
the  kin^i/oin  of  the  dend.  This  word  never  de- 
notes the  place  of  the  diimned,  either  in  the  scrip- 
tures or  in  the  t'atiiers  of  the  first  three  cen- 
turies. Accordinfrly,  the  phrase  desccndcre  in 
oreum  always  denotes  in  the  Hible  the  separation 
(if  the  soul f mm  the  body,  and,  the  condition  of  the 
dive'uhodiul  spirit  after  death ;  Num.  xvi.  30, 
33;  Job,  vii.  9  ;  Ps.  Iv.  16;  Isaiah,  xiv.  15;  and 
frequently  in  the  apocryphal  books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  When  the  heroes  of  Homer  are 
slain,  their  souls  are  said  to  descend  to  Hades. 

This  phrase  may  then  be  explained,  in  this 
sense,  to  refer  to  the  death  of  Christ;  and  so  it 
is  a  tropical  or  figurative  representation  of  his 
death,  and  the  separation  of  his  soul  from  his 
bodv.  When  he  died,  he  descended  into  Hades, 
and  continued  tlirre,  as  to  his  soul,  as  long  as 
his  body  continued  in  the  grave.  We  find  the 
continuance  of  Christ  in  Hades  actually  men- 
tioned in  this  sense  in  the  New  Testament. 
Peter,  in  his  speech,  (Acts,  ii.  27,)  cites  the 
passage.  Psalm  xvi.  10,  oix  iyxara7.fi'^fii  zr-v 
'^vxr,v  fiov  ftj  rlbov,  which  is  always  referred  to 
Christ's  death  and  continuance  in  the  grave. 
The  piirase  xara^cuvtiv  f ij  af^r^v  does  not  indeed 
occur  in  that  passage  ;  but  the  omission  is  mere- 
ly accidental.  It  was  certainly  used  by  the 
first  Christians  respecting  Christ  as  deceaxed,  in 
the  same  way  as  respecting  other  dead. 

(2)  But  the  chief  dependence  is  placed  upon 
two  other  texts  of  the  New  Testament,  in  which 
the  descent  of  Christ  to  hell  is  expressly  men- 
tioned, and  in  one  of  which  his  employment  in 
Flades  is  thought  to  be  determined. 

(rt)  Ephes.  iv.  9.  But  the  context  shews 
that  the  descent  of  Christ  to  hell  is  not  the  sub- 
ject in  this  text,  but  his  descent  from  heaven 
down  to  the  earth,  and  his  subsequent  return 
into  heaven. 

(//)  The  principal  passage  is,  1  Pet.  iii.  18 — 
20.  Various  explanations  are  given  of  this  pas- 
sage. In  the  earliest  times,  it  was  universally 
considered  as  denoting  the  continuance  of  Christ 
in  Hades;  and  this  meaning  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  natural,  and  best  suited  to  the  words,  the 
context,  and  all  the  ideas  of  anti(|uitv.  But  as 
this  meaning  does  not  accord  with  mndern  ideas, 
various  other  explanations  have  been  altemjjted. 
But  the  context  shews  that  the  rotititiuance  of 
lesus  in  Hades  is  the  subject  of  this  |)assa<re — 
I.  e.,  that  it  treats  of  the  condition  and  employ- 
ment of  the  soul  of  Christ  after  death.  The 
apostle  is  shewing,  from  the  example  of  Jesus, 
that  sulTering  for  the  good  of  others  is  honour- 
able and  will  be  rewarded.  Christ  laid  men 
under  freat  obligations  to  hnn,  by  suflTering  and 
dying  for  tliem,  ver.  IS;  by  what  he  did  too 
after  death,  while  his  spirit  was  in  Hades,  ver. 


19;  (ver.  20  is  parenthetic;)  bj-  his  resurrec* 
tion,  ver.  21  ;  his  return  to  (lod,  and  his  elevated 
situation  in  heaven,  ver.  22.  The  sense  then  is: 
the  body  of  Christ  died,  but  his  smil  was  pre- 
served. (Peter  always  uses  rio,)?  and  nvtviia.  in 
this  sense;  as  iv.  1,  G.)  While  his  body  was 
lying  in  the  grave,  his  soul  {iv  o,  sc.  «ifvuaTi) 
wandered  down  to  the  kingdom  of  the  dead,  and 
there  preached  to  the  disembodied  spirits.  It 
was  the  belief  of  the  ancients  that  the  manes 
still  continued,  in  the  under-world,  to  prosecute 
their  former  employments.  Vide  Isaiah,  xiv. 
9.  The  same  belief  is  seen  in  the  fables  of  the 
Grecian  kings  and  judges.  Tiresias  still  con- 
tinued to  prophesy.  Vide  Isaiah,  xiv.  9.  Christ, 
by  his  instructions  and  exhortations  to  reforma- 
tion, deserved  well  of  men  while  he  was  upon 
earth.  He  continued  this  employment  in  Hades. 
He  preached  to  the  greatest  sinners ;  and  Noah's 
contemporaries  are  particularized  as  distinguish- 
ed examples  of  ancient  sinners,  ver.  20.  Now 
that  Peicr  really  supposed  that  Christ  descended 
to  Hades  appears  from  Acts,  ii.  31. 

II.  A  Sketch  of  the  History  of  this  Doctrine. 

For  the  various  opinions  of  commentators  re- 
specting the  descent  of  Christ  to  hell,  cf.  Die- 
telmaier,  Historia  dogmatis  de  descensu  Christi 
ad  inferos,  ed.  2  ;  Altorf.  17G2,  8vo;  Semler,  in 
Profjramm.  Acad.  p.  371,  seq.;  Pott,  Epistola 
Catholica  perpetua  antlolatione  illustr.,  vol.  ii.  ; 
GOttingen,  1790;  Kxcurs.  iii.  (ad  1  Pel.  iii.;^  and 
Dr.  Hacker,  (court-preacher  in  Dresden,)  Diss, 
de  descensu  Christi  ad  inferos,  ad  provinciaui 
Messiah  demandatam  referendo  ;  Dresden,  1802. 
[Cf.  Halm,  s.  -172.] 

The  passage,  Acts,  ii.,  coll.  Psalm  xvi.  10, 
was  the  foimdation  upon  which  this  ductrine 
was  built.  Its  simple  meaning  is,  that  Christ 
really  died,  like  other  men,  and  that,  while  his 
lifeless  body  lay  in  the  grave,  his  soul  was  in 
the  same  place  and  state  with  the  souls  of  all 
the  dead.  So  the  early  Christians  undoubtedly 
understood  it.  The  question  now  arose.  Was 
the  soul  of  one  who  while  on  earth  had  been  so 
active  for  the  good  of  men,  idle  and  unem- 
ployed in  Hades?  No.  Hence  a  third  ques- 
tion, What  was  his  em|doynient  while  there? 
'I'he  same  as  on  earth — he  inslrtictrd — was  tho 
natural  ronclusion,  which  was  confirmed  by  the 
word  fxr|>v$f,  1  Pet.  iii.  19.  But  since,  in  later 
times.  Hades  was  understood  to  signify  only 
the  place  if  the  damned ;  and  since  ^vXnxr;  and 
sinners  are  mentioned  by  Peter  in  this  passage; 
it  was  thither — to  the  place  of  the  damned — that 
Christ  was  supposed  to  have  gone,  to  preach 
repentance,  (xrpvtTfir,)  to  shew  himself  as  a 
victor  in  triumph,  Arc 

Such  is  the  course  which  the  invesli'/ation  of 
this  question  naturally  took.  Now  'he  histori* 
cal  sketch  itself. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      34.'5 


(l)The  ecclesiastical  fathers  of  the  first 
three  centuries  were  agreed  in  the  opinion  that 
durintr  the  three  days  in  which  the  body  of 
Christ  lay  in  the  grave  his  soul  was  in  the 
kingdom  of  the  dead.  This  opinion  they  de- 
rived correcll}'  from  I  Pet.  iii.  and  Acts,  ii.  By 
this  representation  they  supposed,  in  substance, 
tlie  condition  of  Christ,  as  to  his  soul  during 
his  death,  to  be  described.  Thus  Irena^us  says, 
"Christ  in  this  way  fulfilled  the  law  of  the 
dead,"  v.  31.  Clement  of  Alexandria  expresses 
himself  in  the  same  way.  Origen  says,  yvuvv 
aui/xaroi  yifofifvrj  -^vxr;,  Contra  Celsum,  ii. 
Tertullian  says,  "  Christus  forma  humanse  mor- 
tis apud  inferos  (est)  functus,"  &c. 

They  differed  in  opinion  respecting  his  em- 
ployment there.  Most  supposed  that  he  preached 
the  gospel  to  the  ancient  believers  who  expected 
his  advent — to  the  patriarchs,  &c.  Vide  Iren. 
(iv.  45,  50.)  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian, 
Origen,  and  others.  But  Origen  and  some 
otiiers  seem  to  have  believed  that  Christ  rescued 
the  damned  who  believed  on  him  in  Hades,  and 
transported  them  to  the  abode  of  the  blessed. 
Still,  the  desceiit  to  hell  is  nowhere  expressly 
mentioned  in  the  ancient  creeds  of  the  first 
three  centuries,  either  in  the  Eastern  or  West- 
ern church.  No  one  in  this  period  held  it  to  be 
the  interment  of  Christ;  nor  did  any  one  as- 
sert that  he  went  exclusively  to  the  place  of  the 
damned. 

(•2)  This  doctrine  was  gradually  regarded  as 
fixed  after  the  fourth  century,  and  was  adopted 
into  the  creeds.  The  phrase  xartX^oi'ta  fi j  ra 
xarax^ov'ia  was  established  at  the  Arian  Coun- 
cil at  Sirniium,  in  the  year  357,  and  at  many 
orthodox  and  Arian  councils  after  that  time.  It 
was  now  inserted  in  the  more  ancient  creeds,  to 
which  it  had  not  previously  belonged — e.  g., 
into  the  apostolical  creed,  particularly,  as  it 
seems,  on  account  of  the  controversies  with 
Apollinaris.  But  all  the  churches  had  not  ad- 
mitted it  into  this  creed  before  the  sixth  century. 
Rnffin  says  (Expos.  S.  Ap.),  that  the  Romish 
church  did  not  admit  this  doctrine  into  the 
apostolical  creed,  "tuc  in  Orientis  ecchsiishabe- 
iur"  and  adds,  that  the  word  buried  which  is 
tliere  used,  conveys  the  same  sense.  The  rea- 
son why  this  doctrine  was  so  much  insisted  on, 
and  admitted  into  the  creeds,  especially  after 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  is,  that  it 
afforded  a  weighty  argument  against  the  fol- 
lowers of  Apollinaris,  who  denied  the  existence 
of  a  human  soul  in  Christ.  Vide  s.  93,  II.  ad 
finem.  It  may  be  added,  that  the  fathers  of  the 
fovirth  century,  and  of  the  one  succeeding,  ad- 
hered for  the  most  part  to  the  opinions  found 
among  the  earlier  fathers.  No.  1. 

(3)  The  opinions  of  the  earlier  fathers  were 
gradually  set  aside  in  after  ajie?,  especially  in 
ne  Western  church.  The  ojnnion,  that  the 
44 


separation  of  the  soul  from  the  body  was  all 
that  was  intended  by  the  representation  of 
Christ's  descent  to  hell,  was  by  degrees  entirely 
laid  aside.  The  inftnnis  was  considered  by 
many  as  the  appropriate  designation  of  the 
place  of  the  damned,  and  the  passage  in  1  Pet. 
iii.  as  the  only  proof-text ;  and  so  the  descent  to 
hell  became  equivalent  to  the  descent  of  Christ 
to  the  place  of  the  damned.  Such  were  the 
views  of  many  of  the  schoolmen.  Thomas 
Aquinas  adopted  the  opinion  of  Hieronymus 
and  Gregory,  that  Christ  rescued  the  souls  of 
the  pious  fathers  who  lived  before  Christ  from 
the  liiiibus  patrtim,  (a  kind  of  entrance  to  hell, 
stains  medius.)     So  also  the  Council  al  Trent. 

They  now  began  to  dispute,  whellier  the  soul 
only  of  Christ  was  in  hell,  or  his  body  also; 
whether  he  was  there  during  the  whole  time  in 
which  his  body  was  in  the  grave,  or  only  on  the 
third  day,  shortly  before  the  resurrection,  &c. 
Durandus  and  other  schoolmen  understood  the 
matter  figuratively.  According  to  them,  Jesus 
was  not  in  hell  quoad  rcalem  jirwseniium  (as  to 
his  substance),  but  only  quoad  ejficiuni.  This 
opinion  had  many  advocates. 

The  protestant  theologians  since  the  Reforma- 
tion have  been  divided  in  opinion  upon  this 
subject. 

(«)  Luther  spoke  very  doubtfully  upon  the 
subject,  and  was  unwilling  to  determine  any- 
thing decidedly.  He  agreed  at  first  wiih  Hiero- 
nymus and  Gregory,  in  supposing  a  llndius  pa- 
trum  whithet  Christ  went.  But  whenever  he 
mentioned  the  subject,  especially  after  1533,  he 
was  accustomed  to  remark  that  Christ  destroyed 
the  power  of  the  devil  and  of  bell,  whither  he 
went  with  soul  and  body.  This  induced  the 
theologians,  who  adhered  strictly  to  every  par- 
ticular doctrine  of  Luther,  to  represent  the  r/e- 
scent  of  Christ  to  hell  as  his  victory  over  the 
devil,  as  was  done  in  the  Formula  Coiicordise, 
art.  ix.  M.  Flaccius  had  represented  the  descent 
to  hell  as  belonging  to  the  state  of  humiliation. 
But  they  represented  it  as  belonging  to  the 
state  of  exaltation,  and  declared  that  on  the  mo- 
ment of  the  resurrection  Christ  repaired  tj  hell, 
with  soul  and  body,  in  both  natures,  shewed 
himself  to  Satan  and  hell  as  victor,  and  then 
appeared  alive  upon  the  earth  at  daybreak. 
They  are  not  so  unreasonable,  however,  as  to 
demand  a  belief  in  all  their  distinctions  respect- 
ing this  doctrine.  Hutter,  Baier,  Winkler, 
Carpzov,  and  others,  held  these  views.  But 
there  is  no  foundation  for  them  in  tlie  Bible. 
Some  of  the  ancient  creeds  say,  the  i^ates  of 
hell  (kingdom  of  the  dead)  trembled  at  his  ap- 
proach— e.  g.,  the  Sirmian  creed,  357. 

(i)  Beza  and  other  reformers  understood  the 
descent  of  Christ  to  hell  to  mean  his  burial.  Russ 
and  Rambach  among  the  Lutherans  assented 
to  this  opinion.     It  is  false,  however ;  for  d«- 


316 


CHHISTlAX  THKOLOGY 


scent  to  heii,  in  the  sense  of  the  ancients,  does 

not  refer  to  the  body  but  to  the  soul.  Vide 
supra. 

(c)  Others  afTirmed  that  Christ  preaclied  the 
gospel  in  Hades;  some  sny,  to  the  believers 
who  lived  before  his  advent;  otiiers,  lo  the 
wicked  also,  and  that  such  as  subinited  to  him 
were  delivered  from  the  place  of  the  damned  ; 
almost  like  the  opinion  of  many  of  the  ancients. 
Kven  Seller  thinks  this  opinion  very  probable. 
He  supposes,  with  others,  that  both  the  body 
and  soul  of  Christ  were  in  Hades.  But  Flac- 
eius,  Brentius,  Dreyer,  and  others,  a^ree  with 
the  ancii-nts,  that  only  the  soul  of  Christ  was 
there,  while  his  body  lay  in  the  grave.  But 
these  ditler  a^ain  on  the  question,  whether  the 
descent  to  hell  belongs  to  the  stale  of  humilia- 
tion or  exaltation. 

(f/)  Some  supposed,  as  Durandus  did,  that 
the  whole  subject  should  be  understood  figura- 
tively. 

(e)  Zeltner,  Baumgarten,  CEder,  and  others, 
returned  to  the  ancient  opinion,  and  understood 
({.hrji  to  denote  in  general  Hit  place  and  comlition 
vf  d'-parled  spirits.  Ho  most  of  tb.e  English 
and  Arminian  theologians. 

(/)  John  vEpinus  (a  Lutheran  theologian  at 
HamliuriT.  of  the  sixteenth  century)  affirmed 
that  Jesus  endured  in  hell  the  pains  of  tbe 
damned,  and  therefore  accounted  his  descent 
thither  as  belonging  to  the  state  of  humiliation. 
He  had  tnany  followers,  though  he  was  not  the 
first  who  advanced  this  opinion,  ^ardinal  Ni- 
colaus  of  Casa  had  before  asserted  the  same 
thing  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  also  many 
refornieu  and  Lutheran  theoloaians  since  the 
sixteenth  century,  as  John  Arrricola,  Hunnius, 
Brentius,  (^)cceius,  and  \\  itsius. 

We  omit  the  mention  of  the  peculiar  hypo- 
theses of  some  other  theologians. 

I.  Critical  Obserrations,  and  a  result  from  what 
luiB  been  said. 
Theologians  at  the  present  day  are  agreed,  for 
the  most  part,  that  this  question  is  one  of  minor 
importance.  Some  have  often  afTirnied  that  the 
passage  I  Pet.  iii.  did  not  relate  lo  this  subject. 
But  all  the  other  explanations  piven  are  forced 
ami  unnatural,  and  the  idea,  after  all,  is  scrip- 
tural, for  the  jtassage  Acts  ii.  cannot  be  exjjlained 
away.  According  to  the  passage,  1  Pet.  iii.,  the 
anul  of  (.'hrist  actually  went  lo  the  placr  nf  the 
damiwd  {'fv'Knxr.  career  cmcnin)  in  Hades,  and 
there  preached  to  the  disembodied  spirits.  Until 
the  last  judgment  the  souls  of  all  liie  deceased 
are  in  Hules,  (i.  e.,  they  are  mattes,  disem- 
bodied,) but  in  different  renrjons,  distant  from 
each  other,  (i.e.,  in  vario  utatu),  Luke,  xvi.  II) — 
3L  CI  rist,  then,  during  his  continuance  there, 
did  wh,4t  he  was  accustomed  to  do  while  yet  on 
the   eaith  for  the  good  of  men ;  he  instructed 


those  who  needed  instruction,  and  exhorted. 
The  object  and  use  of  this  preaching,  which  is 
mentioned  in  the  passage  in  Peler,  we  cannot 
see,  since  those  who  are  in  Hades  are  always 
represented  by  Jesus,  the  apostles,  and  Peter 
himself,  as  fixed  in  their  destiny,  and  reserved 
lo  the  day  of  judgment.    Cf.  Luke,  xvi. 

It  will  be  sufficient  for  the  teacher  of  religion 
to  say  that  the  phrase,  Christ  descended  lo  hell, 
teaches  (1)  thai  during  the  time  in  which  tlie 
body  of  Christ  lay  in  the  grave  he  was  really 
dead;  and  (2)  that  the  human  soul  of  ("hrist 
was  in  the  same  unknown  condition  and  place 
to  which  the  souls  of  all  the  deceased  go,  and 
wfiere  they  continue  till  the  day  of  judgment; 
(.3)  ihat  in  this  respect  also,  as  in  others,  he 
was  like  men,  his  brethren,  and  that  (4)  he  had 
a  true  human  soul  ;  Acts,  ii.  (5)  Peter  assures 
us  thai  Christ  did  this  for  the  good  of  men  ;  he 
preached  lo  the  departed. spirits.  The  nature  of  this 
preaching,  its  particular  object  ami  consequences, 
what  he  intended  to  efTeet,  and  did  actually  effect 
by  it,  are  entirely  unknown  lo  us,  as  many  other 
things  which  pertain  to  the  invisible  kiiiijdom  of 
s|)irits.  When  we  ourselves  shall  belongto  that 
invisible  kingdom,  and  probably  not  till  then,  we 
shall  receive  more  perfect  information  respecting 
this  subject,  if  it  can  be  useful  for  us  to  have  it. 

SECTION  xcvn. 

HISTOKV  OF  CHRIST  CONSIDEHEn  AS  A  MAN,  IN  HIS 
STATK  OK  EXALTATION  OR  PERFECTION.  S.  97 
90,  INCLUSIVE. 

I.    Of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ. 

(1)  The  vivification  and  resurrection  of  the 
man  Jesus  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  ;;a/'s  s/«/uj 
exaltationis,  but  terminus  a  quo,  as  some  theo- 
logians have  justly  remarked.  So  his  concep- 
tion was  the  terminus  a  quo  of  the  state  of  hu- 
miliation. The  state  (f  exaltation,  strictly  speak- 
ing, commences  with  the  ascension  of  Christ, 
The  events  which  preceded  were  merely  pre- 
l>aratory. 

(2)  The  resurrection  of  Jesus  is  frequently 
ascribed  in  scripture  to  thej-'alher;  Acts,  ii  24, 
32;  iii.  15.  Vide  other  texts  Morus,  p.  174, 
s.  I,  note.  Jesus,  however,  fVequenlly  ascribes 
it  to  himself,  as  the  Son  of  (iod,  John,  x.  1? 
coll.  ii.  10,  "I  have  power  (t^ovn/ai)  to  lake 
my  life  again."  He  had  this  power,  inasmucn 
as  he  acted  in  common  with  the  Father,  and,  as 
Messiah,  had  received  power  from  the  Fatner 
ade(|uate  to  this  purpose. 

(3)  The  proif  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ 
on  liie  third  day  is  to  be  dedticeil  entirely  from 
the  accounts  given  of  it  in  the  New  'i'estament. 
'I'he  i;enuincntss  of  these  histories,  and  the  en- 
tire crcdibilitff  of  the  accounts  contained  in  them, 
are  here  presupposed.  On  these  grounds  we 
may  be  satisfied  of  the  truth  of  this  fact,  eveo 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTIOxV. 


if  no  inspiriition  is  admitted.  Vide  s.  6,8.  The 
followiiitr  circumstances  deserve  notice — viz., 
(«)  The  disciples  of  Jesus  had  always  ex- 
pected that  he  would  establish  a  visible  kinjrdom 
upon  earth.  They  had  never  understood,  and  al- 
ways perverted,  what  he  frequently  said  to  them 
respecting  his  death  and  resurrection.  When, 
therefore,  his  death  took  place,  they  did  not  be- 
Ifeve  that  he  would  actually  rise  again.  Vide 
John,  xx.  9,  coll.  ver.  24,  25.  Accordingly 
they  were  so  incredulous  on  this  subject,  that 
they  regarded  the  first  information  of  the  fact 
which  they  received  as  fabulous  and  unworthy 

of  credit;  Luke,  xxiv.   11,  coll.  ver.  22 24. 

Gregory  the  Great  remarks,  justly  and  iiappiiy, 
dubitatum  est  ab  I'/h's,  ne  dubitardur  a  nobis. 

(i)  After  this  event  Jesus  appeared  frequently 
to  his  apostles  and  his  other  disciples.  Ten 
ditTerenl  appearances  have  been  noticed  by  some 
writers  in  the  Evangelists.  At  these  times  he 
conversed  with  his  disciples,  and  gave  them 
Buch  palpable  di-monstrations  of  liis  resurrec- 
tion £hat  none  of  them  could  longer  doubt  re- 
specting the  fact.  Vide  the  iast'chapters  of 
the  gospels,  and  particularly  John,  xx.  21,  and 
Acts,  i.  2,  .3;  X.  41.  Some,  at  first,  regarded 
his  appearance  to  be  that  of  a  dead  man  with  a 
sh.idoicy  bnjy,  such  as  was  believed  by  the 
Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans ;  very  much  the 
same  as  in  Homer  and  Virgil.  So  Thomas,  in 
John,  XX.  25,  seq.  For  tliis  reason  Jesus  ate 
with  them,  and  allowed  them  to  handle  him, 
John,  xxi. 

(c)  Thenceforward  they  were  so  convinced  of 
the  truth  of  his  resurrection  that  they  never  were 
or  could  be  persuaded  to  doubt  respecting  it. 
They  spake  of  it,  after  the  final  departure  of 
Christ  from  the  earth,  as  an  established  fact, 
which  was  universally  admitted.  They  pro- 
claimed  it  publicly  at  Jerusalem,  where  Jesus 
was  condemned,  before  the  Sanhedrim,  and  other 
tribunals;  nor  could  any  one  convince  them  of 
the  contrary.  Acts,  ii.24,  32  ;  iv.  8—13;  iii., 
X.,  xiii. ;  1  Cor.  xv.  5,  seq. ;  1  Pet.  i.  21. 

{d)  No  solid  historical  objection  has  been 
ever  broutrht  against  this  event;  nor  has  any 
ground  been  alleged  sufficient  to  convict  the 
apostles  of  imposture,  because  the  data  for  such 
proof  are  wanting.  The  event  must  therefore 
be  regarded  as  true,  until  the  contrary  can  be 
proved  by  htdurical  reasons,  or  until  the  wit- 
nesses  cnn  be  convicted  of  untruth.  The  ene- 
mies  of  Christianity  have  often  been  challenged 
to  produce  a  single  example  of  a  history  so  well 
attested  as  that  of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus,  and 
followed  too  by  such  important  consequences,, 
both  among  cultivated  and  ruder  )\.  tions,  which 
has  turned  out  in  the  end  to  be  filse  and  ficti- 
tious. But  such  an  example  th-  y  have  never 
been  abh^  to  produce.  It  is  woriiiy  of  notice, 
Uiat  we  do  not  find  in  the  whole  history  of  the 


347 

apostles  that  any  of  the  most  enlightened  ene- 
mies of  Christianity,  even  the   Sanhedrim    at 
Jerusalem,  undertook  to  say  that  Christ  had  not 
risen,  although  they  hated  the  apostles  so  much 
as  to  abuse  and  condemn  them.     Jt  that  time, 
no  one  ventured  seriously  to  question  this  fact. 
Tlie  grave  was  watched  ;  the  frightened  guards 
brought  the  news  of  what  had  happeued  to  the 
Sanhedrim,  and  were  bribed  to  give  out  that  the 
disciples  of  Jesus  had  stolen  his  corpse;  Matt, 
xxviii.  11 — 13.     Incredible  as  this  story  was, 
still  many  of  the  Jews  at  first  believed  it,  as 
Matthew  declares,  ver.  15  of  the  same  cha])ter. 
To  this  latter  supposition,  the  Wolfenb.  Un- 
irenaniite  has  entirely   assented,  in   his  work, 
Vom  Zu-tck  Jtsii,  and  in  the  fragment,  "  Ueber 
die  Auferstehungsgeschichte  Jesu,"  which  Les- 
sing  published  in  his  "  Beytragen  zur  Gesch- 
ichte  und  Literatnr,"  b.  4,  1777.'    He  looks  up 
all  possible  discrepancies  in  the  narrative  which 
the  evangelists  have  given  of  minute  circum- 
stances, although  they  would  not  be  sufficient, 
even  if  w  ell  grounded,  to  render  the  fact  histori. 
cally  suspicious.     Vide  Doederlein,  Fragmente 
und  Aniifragmente,  2  thie.;  Nurnberg,   1781; 
Scmler's  "  Beantwortung;"  2ud  ed.  1780;  Mi- 
chaelis,  Auferstehungsgeschichle  Jesu  ;  Halle, 
1783.     Among  the  ancient  writers,  see  Ditten, 
Wahrheit  der  cbristlichen  Religion  auf  der  Au- 
ferstehungsgeschichte  Jesu,  u.  s.  w;  and  Sher- 
lok,  Gerichtliches  Verlior  der  Zeugen  fur,  u.  s.  w. 
Some  have  endeavoured  to  render  this  history 
suspicious,  from  the  fact  that  Jesus  did  not;;«<i- 
liciy  shew  himself  after  his  resurrection,  and  did 
not  appear  to  his  enemies.     Some  reply  that  it 
does  not  follow  from  the  silence  of  the  evange- 
lists that  he  did  not.     But  Peter  says  expressly 
that  he  appeared  ov  nairi  r^  Xau,  aX?. — r^^lv, 
(the  disciples,)  Acts,  x.  40,  41.     What  object, 
now,  would  have  been  answered  by  this  public 
appearance  1  'J'hose  who  had  not  before  received 
him  as  Messiah  would  have  rejected  him  anew; 
and  even  although  they  should  effect  nothing 
by  it,  they  would  still  have  given  out  the  whole 
thing  as  an  iiuposition.  And  suppose  the  whole 
l)opulace  had  believed,  they  might  have  com- 
menced dangerous  innovations,   and  made  ar- 
rangements to  establish   Christ  as  an  earthly 
king.     Cf.  John,  vi.   15.     Those  who  had  no 
taste  or  capacity  for  the  spiritual  kingdom  of 
Christ  would  no  more  have  believed  in  him,  or 
firmly  and   faithfully  adhered  to  him.  after  he 
had  appeared  to  them  raised  from  the  dead,  and 
had  himself  preached  to  them,  than  before,  when 
he  also  preached  to  them  in  person,  and  wrought 
the  greatest  miracles  before  them ;  so   that  he 
himself  would  have  found  the  truth  of  what  is 
said,  Luke,  xvi.  31. 

Persons  have  not  been  wantinsr  who  have 
considered  the  account  of  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  as   allegorical.     Semler  supposed   that 


948 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Christ  dill  not  physicaVy  rise  from  the  dead,  and 
that  the  life  which  is  ascribed  to  him  is  spiritual 
life  in  heaven  and  in  the  hearts  of  men.  Others 
suppose  that  he  did  not  actually  die  upon  the 
cross,  hut  that  he  lived  in  private  among  his 
friends  for  a  considerable  time  after  his  cruci- 
fixion, and  then  disappeared.  They  suppose 
that  when  his  side  was  pierced  he  fell  into  a 
swoon,  from  which  he  was  revived  by  the  evapo- 
ration of  the  spices  in  the  tomb;  without  think- 
ing' that,  even  if  he  had  survived  the  crucifixion, 
this  evaporation  in  a  confined  cave  would  neces- 
sarily have  sufi"ocated  him.  Spinoza  says, 
somewhere,  that  the  resurrection  and  ascension 
were  not  events  which  took  place  in  the  material 
world,  but  in  the  moral  world — i.  e.,  they  are 
fictions,  ancient  Christian  fables,  which,  how- 
ever,  had  (jreat  moral  consequences.  Many  mo- 
dern writers,  and  even  some  theolog-ians,  have 
adopted  this  opinion.  Dr.  Paulus  rather  in- 
clines to  it  in  his  Comments  on  the  Evangelists. 

(4)  The  necessity  and  importance  of  this  doc- 
trine. It  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
positive  and  peculiar  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
and  is  so  regarded  by  Christ,  and  in  the  whole 
New  Testament.     Morus,  p.  175,  seq.,  s.  3. 

(«)  The  apostles  always  rcprpsent  this  as  a 
fundamental  truth  of  the  Christian  faith.  The 
I>'}>^)j  dyyf'xoif,  hc  shewed  hi mstlf  alive  to  his  mes- 
tenaers — i.  e.,  disciples — is  mentioned  as  a 
'"undamenlal  truth,  1  Tim.  iii.  IG,  coll.  Rom.  x. 
>.  The  apostles  were  called  ua'pTvpfjaia-rra'jfwj 
X|)i7rov,  Acts,  i.  22.  Paul  therefore  says,  that 
if  Christ  be  not  risen  we  can  have  no  hope  of 
resurrection,  and  our  whole  faith  in  him  is  un- 
founded; I  Cor.  XV.  11,  17,  coll.  ver.  5 — 7;  for 
the  instructions  of  Christ  are  attested  and  con- 
firmed as  certain  and  divine  only  by  the  resurrec- 
tion.    Cf.  1  Pet.  i.  3,  and  Morus,  p.  176,  n.  5. 

(i)  All  the  apostles  agree  that  Christ  by  his 
resurrection  received  the  seal  and  sanction  of 
God,  as  the  great  Prophet  and  Saviour  consti- 
tuted by  him.  He  himself  had  claimed  to  be 
the  Messiah;  but  his  death  seemed  to  frustrate 
every  ho|)p.  Vide  Luke,  xxiv,  20,  21.  His 
resurrection,  however,  rendered  this  belief  more 
sure  and  unwavering.  His  disciples  now  saw 
that  he  was  the  person  whom  he  claimed  to  be. 
They  were  compelled  to  conclude  that  (Jod 
would  not,  by  such  a  distinguished  miracle, 
authorize  and  support  an  impostor,  who  merely 
pretended  to  he  a  divine  messenger.  Added  to 
tliis  is  the  fact,  that  he  himself  had  prophesied 
that  he  shouhi  rise  in  three  days  ;  Luke,  xviii. 
33;  John,  x.  17.  The  accomplishment  of  this 
prophecy  proves  that  Christ  diil  not  teach  in  his 
own  name,  but  as  the  messenger  of  (Jod  ;  as  he 
<^pflen  said ;  John,  viii. — x.  The  following  are 
the  most  iiiiportant  texts  relating  to  this  point — 
viz.,  Romans,  i.  4  ;  Acts.  xvii.  31  ;  1  'I'iin.  iii. 
IG.   The  passage,  Ps.  ii.  7,  '  Thou  art  my  Son, 


this  day  have  I  begotten  thee,"  is  often  referred 
in  the  New  Testament  directly  to  the  resurrec- 
tion. "I  have  declared  thee  (by  raisine  thee 
to  life)  on  this  day  (the  day  of  the  resurrection) 
to  be  the  Messiah,"  Acts,  xiii.  33,  34. 

II.  The  Ascension  of  Chrijtt. 
(1)  Jesus  spent  forty  days  on  earth  after  his 
resurrection,  in  order  to  render  his  liisciples 
more  sure  of  the  fact,  to  teach  tiiem  many  im- 
portant tilings,  and  to  prepare  them  fur  the  dis- 
charge of  their  public  oflice.  Vide  the  last 
chapters  of  the  evangelists,  and  Acts,  i.  After- 
wards,  he  was  removed  lo  the  abodes  of  the 
blessed.  These  abodes  are  situated  in  regions 
invisible  to  men,  at  a  distance  from  the  earth, 
and  inaccessible  to  us  while  we  continue  here. 
They  cannot  be  better  described  than  by  the 
word  heacen,  which  almost  all  people  and  lan- 
guages have,  and  which  the  sacred  wrivers  fre- 
quently employ.  As  they  use  it,  it  denotes  the 
place  of  the  highest  sanctuary  of  God — i.  »., 
the  place  where  the  Omnipresent  Being  reveals 
himself  with  peculiar  glory.    Cf.  John,x<v.  2,3. 

Jesus  was  taken  up  from  earth  in  view 
of  his  apostles,  and  borne  hence,  (trtro^r,  rlif- 
Xrf^j;'  fi5  0V|jar6r,)  Acts,  i.  9 — 11;  1  IVt.  iii. 
22;  Heb.  ix.  10,  11,  24.  He  ascended  from 
Bethany  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  Luke,  xxiv. 
51.  He  predicted  his  ascension  to  his  disci- 
ples; John,  vi.  G2;  xiv.  2,  3.  This  doctrine, 
like  that  of  the  resurrection,  is  enumerated 
among  the  fundamental  truths  of  Chn&fianity, 
1  Tim.  iii.  Itj,  (dif>.»;t;>r  iv  *d|,;;)  1  t'et.  iii. 
22.  He  taught  his  disciples  to  fin<l  in  .lil  these 
events  confirmation  of  his  declarations-  and  joy 
and  consolation.  As  he  had  risen,  the  first 
that  arose  from  the  dead,  and  had  been  trans- 
lated to  heaven,  they  too  should  one  d  iv  arise, 
and  he  glorified,  if  they  reposed  faith  wiiti  con- 
fidence in  him.  They  should  be  wttli  him 
where  he  was,  at  home,  in  the  hous^  of  his 
Father,  &c. 

Xote. — Some  modern  writers  have  endea- 
voured to  awaken  suspicion  resjtecting  the  doc- 
trine of  the  ascension  of  C^hrist,  from  the  fact 
that  Matthew,  Luke,  and  John  do  not  etmessly 
narrate  this  history  of  the  ascension  in  their 
gospels,  as  Mark  does  in  his,  and  as  h^kc  does 
in  the  Acts.  Hut  they  could  not  ha*e  been 
ignorant  or  doubtful  respecting  this  evf  ni.  any 
more  than  the  other  writers  of  the  New  Tea 
lament;  since  Jesus  had  mentioned  it  in  his 
early  instructions,  according  to  John.  *i.  »>'3, 
and  had  fre.juenily  alluded  to  it  afierA'arda. 
'I'lie  writings  of  I'aul,  Peter,  and  the  .\.»i»  '-' 
the  .\po8tles  written  by  Liike,  shfW  ho  a-  vinl- 
versal  was  the  belief  of  this  event  amnnjr  the 
first  Christian  teachers.  And  how  cuhl  tiese 
two  have  been  exceptioii!>  ?  X'ide  tlie  Kws.jvB, 
"  War.  m   haben   nicht  tilie    KvangelisUii   die 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       34S 


Hime'lfalirt  Cliristi  ausdriicklich  miterzuhlt? 
n  Flatt's  Magazin,  Siiick  8,  Tubingen,  1802, 
Num.  2. 

(2)  According  to  the  clear  declarations  of  the 
New  Testament,  Christ  lives  in  the  abodes  of 
the  blessed,  as  a  true  man.  Cf.  Acts,  i.  11; 
xvii.  ."^1  ;  Heb.  ix.  10,  seq.  Vide  his  appear- 
ances in  the  Acts.  But  the  saints  in  heaven  do 
not  have  a  gross,  feeble,  perishable  body,  like 
the  human  body  which  we  possess  upon  the 
earth ;  but  a  more  perfect,  imperishable,  glori- 
fied body,  very  much  like  that  of  the  gods  of 
Homer  and  the  Grecians.  1  Cor.  xv.  coll.  s. 
152.  New  Jesus  received  such  a  body  in  hea- 
ven, as  we  shall  one  day  receive;  Phil.  iii.  21 
— (jW|Ua  6o;/j5  (i.  e.,  tvlx^ov)  avrov,  which  our 
present  earthly  body  (aw.ua  rartftVwfffwj)  will  in 
future  resemble.  The  same  doctrine  is  carried 
out,  1  Cor.  XV.  42 — 53.  As  inhabitants  of 
of  earth,  men  have  a  mortal  body,  like  Adam  ; 
as  inhaliitants  of  heaven,  a  refined  and  immor- 
tal body,  like  Christ,  the  second  Adam,  Christ, 
however,  did  not  receive  this  body  immediately 
on  his  resurrection ;  but  when  he  became  an 
inhal)itant  of  heaven.  During  the  forty  days 
vvliich  succeeded  his  resurrection,  he  ate  and 
drank  wiih  his  disciples — actions  which  cannot 
be  predicated  of  heavenly  bodies.  He  bore, 
too,  on  l:is  body  the  scars  and  marks  of  the 
crucifixion.  Some  iew  have  supposed  that  he 
then  possessed  a  spiritual  body,  from  a  misun- 
derstanding of  the  words  J^vpiJi/  xexXn'^fxivuiv^ 
.John,  XX.  19,  26.  The  declaration  in  the  epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews,  that  he  olfers  to  God,  as 
High-priest,  his  own  blood,  in  the  holy  of  holies, 
shews  that  the  same  Jesus,  who  according  to 
the  divine  decree  died  on  the  earth  for  our  good, 
now  lives  in  heaven,  and  that  we  may  always 
rejoice  in  the  happy  consequences  of  his  sacri- 
fice; Heb.  ix.  14,  24,  seq. 

Diute, — The  dispute  relative  to  the  Lord's 
supper  has  occasioned  much  controversy  since 
the  sixteenth  century,  respecting  the  omnipre- 
sence of  the  body  of  Christ,  which  was  asserted 
by  many  Lutheran  theologians.  But  the  doctrine 
de  ontniprcsenlia  or  uhiquilate  of  the  human  body 
of  Christ,  is  a  mere  hypothesis  of  some  theolo- 
gians, without  any  sure  scriptural  support.  In- 
deed, ihose  divine  attributes,  which,  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  cannot  be  predicated  of  body 
in  general,  cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  body  of 
Christ,  although  it  be  glorified.  Besides,  we 
are  expressly  assured  that  we  shall  in  future 
receive  a  body  of  the  same  kind  as  the  heavenly 
body  of  Christ,  Phil.  iii.  21;  1  Cor.  xv.  49. 
Finally,  this  doctrine  is  not  necessary  for  the 
defence  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine  respecting  the 
Lord's  supper.  Vide  infra  respecting  this  doc- 
trine. 

(3)  There  has  always  been  a  great  diversity 


of  opinions  on  the  question,  How  long  Christ, 
as  a  man,  will  continue  in  heaven,  and  when, 
according  to  his  promise,  he  will  return  and 
visibly  reajipear  on  the  earth.  Christ  himself 
has  promised  no  other  visible  return  than  that 
at  the  end  of  the  world,  as  the  Judge  of  men. 
For  his  napovoia  to  destroy  Jerusalem,  and 
punish  his  enemies,  is  a  figurative  mode  of 
speech,  like  the  adventus  Dei  so  often  spoken 
of  by  the  prophets.  But  many  of  the  early 
Christians,  who  were  inclined  to  Judaism,  and 
expected  the  establishment  of  an  earthly  king- 
dom, explained  many  texts  in  accordance  with 
such  an  opinion,  although  there  is  not  one  pas- 
sage in  all  the  writings  of  the  apostles  distinct- 
ly in  favour  of  it.  The  apostles  always  sup- 
posed that  Christ  would  remain  in  heaven  until 
the  end  of  the  world,  (during  the  whole  time 
of  the  New-Testament  dispensation,)  and  not 
visibly  return  until  that  time;  although  they 
did  not  undertake  to  determine  how  long  this 
period  would  continue.  Vide  Acts,  i.  11; 
1  Thess.  i.  10,  coll.  2  Thess.  ii.  seq. 

Here  belongs  that  remarkable  passage  in  the 
speech  of  Peter,  Acts,  iii.  20,  21,  which  has 
been  so  often  misunderstood  and  referred  to  the 
restoration  of  <ill  things,  "(iod  has  caused 
the  joyful  times  of  the  New  Testament  to  ap- 
pear, (xatpot  dia^v^f"?,  cf.  2  Cor.  vi.  2,)  and 
has  sent  Jesus  Christ,  whom  now  the  heaven 
hath  again  received,  or  still  retains,  as  long  as 
this  happy  period  of  the  Xeiv  Testament  (the 
new  dispensation  upon  the  earth)  shall cnntinue.^^ 
Here,  then,  is  no  promise  that  Christ  will  re- 
turn to  found  an  earthly  kingdom.  At'saTjiai, 
when  spoken  of  a  place,  always  means,  accord- 
ing to  a  Greek  idiom,  that  the  place  receives  or 
retains  any  one.  So  all  the  ancient  interpreters, 
and  Beza,  who  denied  the  omnipresence  of  the 
body  of  Christ  from  this  passage.  For  this 
reason  the  Lutheran  theologians  have  preferred 
to  refer  8i5aa^at  to  Christ.  The  ;^poioi  anvxa- 
raiTaofcii  are,  the  times  of  the  New  Testament, 
like  ;^poi'0(,  8[op>w(Tftoj,  Heb.  ix.  10.  Vide  ver. 
20.  And  a;^pt  signifies  not  until,  but  dum, 
lohile,  during ,-  tt;tp'S  a^/tfpoj'  xaXftTcu,  Heb. 
iii.  13.  Vide  Ernesti,  Program,  ad.  h.  1.  in 
Opusc.  Theol.  p.  483.  seq. 

Note. — It  was  intended  to  teach  men  by  this 
event,  to  regard  Christ,  even  in  his  human  na- 
ture, as  henceforth  standing  in  the  closest  con- 
nexion with  God — as  in  the  possession  and 
enjoyment  of  supreme  felicity  and  power,  and 
as  the  Ruler  and  Lord,  whose  agency  and  influ- 
ence were  unlimited.  The  description  of  God, 
as  dwelling  in  heaven,  suggests  the  idea  of  his 
supremacy  over  all  the  inhabitants  and  evfnts 
of  the  world,  his  controlling  providence,  bound- 
less reign,  and  perfect  enjoyment.  Morus,  p. 
ITT.  not.  extr. 


2G 


350 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


SECTION  XCVIII. 

WHEREIN  THE  HEAVEXLV  OLMRY  OR  MAJESTV 
OF  CHRIST,  AS  A  MAN,  CONSISTS;  AND  THE 
SCRIPTURAL  inEA  OF  THE  KINGDOM  AND  DO- 
MINION   OF    CHRIST. 

I.  Scriptural  deeignation  of  the  Glory  of  Christ. 

The  im|)erfection  and  inferiority  which  Christ 
had  voluntarily  assumed  during  his  life  upon 
earth  ceased  immediately  on  his  ascension.  He 
now  became,  even  as  a  man,  immortal  and 
blessed;  Rom.  vi.  9,  10;  Heb.  vii.  16,  25. 
Even  in  his  human  nature  he  was  raised  by  God 
to  a  very  illustrious  dignity;  John,  xvii.  5, 
(6o|tt,  5a|a^>;.m,)  Acts,  ii.  33— 3t5 ;  Eph.  i.  20, 
seq. ;  Col.  i.  17.  Xhoua  vrtfp  nixv  oiofia,  Phil, 
ii.  9,  10.  He  is  entitled  to  honour  from  every 
being,  even  from  the  higher  intelligences,  Heb. 
i.  6:  Phil.  ii.  9,  10;  since  he  is  henceforth 
raised  in  glory  and  majesty  above  all,  1  Pet.  iii. 
22.  Hence  a  kingdom  is  ascribed  to  him,  over 
which  he  reigns  in  heaven.  He  is  called  King, 
and  divinely  appointed  Lord ;  o  Kvpioj,  Acts,  ii. 
3G  ;  and  Kvpioj  bo^r;^,  especially  by  Paul,  1  Cor. 
ii.  8,  (i.  e.,ihe  glorious,  adorable  Lord,  loan  i^r, 
Ps.  xxiv.  7,  8.)  In  Heb.  i.  9,  Paul  applies 
to  Christ  the  passage,  Ps.  Ixv.  8,  "  God  hath 
anointed  the^  with  the  oil  of  joy  above  thy  fel- 
lows"— i.  e.,  God  honours  thee  more,  and  gives 
thee  mure  privileges,  than  all  the  partners  of  thy 
dignity — the  other  kings,  or  sons  of  God. 

Nnle. — Various  other  appellations  are  applied 
in  the  New  Testament  to  Christ,  descriptive 
partly  of  his  supremacy,  and  partly  of  his  care 
for  the  church  as  its  head.  Among  these  are 
the  following — viz.,  Ki(pa7.r;,  the  Christian 
church  being  often  compared  with  a  hmly,  Eph. 
i.  22,  23  ;  v.  23  ;  d.rp,  marittm,  2  Cor.  xi.  2  ; 
and  ivwpi'ii.  John,  iii.  29.  Also  the  appellation 
of  a  shiphcrd,  and  the  comparisons  taken  from 
it,  John,  X.  12.  So  Christ  is  called  by  Paul, 
noifiiva  riiv  ^iyav,  Heb.  xiii.  20,  and  a|i;^i,-toturt', 
1  Pel.  V.  1.  This  is  a  very  honnurabie  appella- 
tion, since  ^•/nifg  were  called  n/uphcrd^  by  the  He- 
brews, Ps,  Ixxx.  2,  seq.,  like  the  noiftiti^  jiawf 
of  Homer.  We  must  understand,  however,  by 
this  appellation,  a  pa.ilnral prince,  such  perhaps 
as  Abraham  was,  and  the  orientalists  frequently 
were  ;  the  proprietor  and  owner  of  the  herds, 
who  had  servants  in  his  employment  as  under 
shepherds. 

II.  T/ie  Niittire  and  Extent  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Chriat,  the  Ad/nini.itration  of  his  Kiign  which 
he  carries  on  from  Heaven. 

Cf.  Ncnsselt,  Diss.  *'  de  Christo  homine  reg- 
nante,"  Opusc.  tom.  ii.;  Halle,  1773;  and  the 
programni,  "  De  Christo  ad  dextram  Dei  se- 
dente,*'  p.  10,  seq.;  Halle,  1787.  There  are 
some  good  remarks,  together  with  many  very 


unfounded  ones,  in  Dr.  Eckermann's  Essay, 
Ueberdie  UegritTe  vom  Reiche  und  der  VVieder- 
kunft  Chrisli,  in  his  Theologischen  Hevtragen, 
b.  ii.  St.  1;  Altona,  1891,  8vo.  Morus  treat*" 
this  subject  admirably,  p.  178,  seq. 

(1)  The  terms  which  signify  rule  are  some- 
limes  used  figuratively,  and  denote,  a  joyful 
siluulion,  happy,  and  honourable  in  an  uneont' 
mon  degree — freedom,  independence,  authority  ; 
in  short,  every  kind  of  distinguished  happiness 
and  welfare.  Thus  the  stoic  paradox;  "omnem 
sapientem  regnare,  sive  esse  regem  ,•"  and  Cicero : 
"oliin  cum  regnare  existimahamur."  In  this 
sense.  Christians  are  called  kings,  I  Pet.  ii.  9; 
Rev.  i.  6.  They  are  said  ovu^a'iO.fvuv  r^ 
Xpt^Tcj,  to  share  with  Christ  the  royal  privileges, 
2  Tim.  ii.  12.  In  the  parallel  passage.  Rom. 
viii.  17,  they  are  said  ■jvi'So^tn^riai.  They  are 
said,  also,  xXr^fiovoudv  iSa'JiT^iat ,  Matt.  xxv.  34  : 
and  3a-ji\fvfiv  iv  ^ur,  Rom.  v.  17.  According- 
ly, when  Christ  is  said  to  reign,  his  life  in  hea- 
ven may  be  intended.  But  this  phrase  applied 
to  him  is  not  confined  to  this  meaning;  it  sig- 
nifies something  far  more  great  and  elevated 
than  all  this,  as  will  appear  from  the  following 
remarks. 

(2)  The  kingdom  of  Christ,  according  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  New  Testament,  is  of  very  wide 
extent. 

A.  It  extends  over  everything  in  all  the  uni- 
verse. "All  power  in  heaven  and  on  earth  is 
given  to  nie,"  Matt,  xxviii.  IS.  '0,-Tn7?;p  ndvra 
bihuixiv  fi's  ;tf'p<*J  airov,  x.  r.  7..,  John.  xiii.  3. 
God  exalted  him,  even  as  a  man,  above  every- 
thing which  is  great  and  powerful  in  the  mate- 
rial and  spiritual  world,  in  order  that  he  might 
rule  over  them ;  and  subjected  to  him  even  the 
dilTerent  orders  and  classes  of  good  and  bad 
spirits.  Christ  reigns  over  them  as  Lord,  Phil, 
ii.  9—11;  Eph.  i.  20,  21;  Col.  i.  15—17; 
Heb.  i.  4—11;  1  Pet.  iii.  22.  The  ground 
and  object  of  such  an  extensive  rule  is  this:— 
There  are  many  things  both  in  the  material  and 
spiritual  world  which  operate  to  the  advantage 
or  disadvantage  of  men.  Now,  if  men  are  to 
be  peculiarly  the  subjects  over  whom  Christ  is 
to  reign  as  king;  if  to  promote  their  welfare 
and  to  shield  them  from  all  harm;  if  to  punish 
his  own  enemies  and  the  enemies  of  his  king- 
dom, and  to  bless  and  reward  his  foUnwcrs,  are 
to  be  his  peculiar  concern  ; — he  must  be  able  to 
control  all  these  other  objects.     For, 

B.  The  reign  or  government  of  Jesus,  as 
Christ  or  Messiah,  has  a  principal  respect  to  the 
httman  race.  He  exerts  his  autlmrily  "n  account 
of  men,  and  for  their  advantage.  This  kingdom 
is  twofold, — viz., 

(ff)  liri^num  servni  latiori.  Sinc(>  the  time 
when  Christ  was  received  into  heavt  n,  (Eph. 
i.  20.)  he  has  reigned  over  nil  men,  whether 
they  know  and  honour  him  or  not — i.  c,  h?  pro- 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       351 


▼ides  for  them  all  that  spiritual  welfare  and  true 
happiness  of  which  they  are  capable.  He  re- 
ceived from  the  Fallier  riglit  and  power  over  the 
human  race,  John,  xvii.  2;  Matt,  xxviii.  18; 
Epli.  i.  10;  -2  Pet.  ii.  1. 

(i)  Iicgntiru  iscii.su  strictiori  sive  angustiori,  ex- 
tends over  his  worshippers,  w  ho  know  and  love 
him ;  over  the  whole  society  {(xxXr^aia,  Snp)  of 
those  who  are  united,  not  by  external  power  and 
compulsion,  biit  by  the  power  of  truth  and  by 
instruction.  This  community  is  therefore  called, 
in  the  discourses  of  Jesus,  ^aaiXtia  &iov  sive 
ov^javov,  Eph.  V.  5;  Col.  i.  13.  Over  this  com- 
munity he  exercises  the  most  special  watch- 
fulness and  care.  Its  members,  when  faithful- 
ly devoted  and  obedient  to  him,  are  his  ftpo^ata 
tfia.  The  foundation  was  laid  and  the  begin- 
ning made  in  this  community  during  the  life  of 
Christ  on  earth.  From  the  time  of  John  it  suf- 
fered violence,  Matt.  xi.  12.  But  the  beginning 
was  small,  and,  in  comparison  with  what  after- 
wards took  place,  unobserved  by  the  great  mul- 
titude; ovx  ifixstac  ^tta  naparr^fir^ncu^,  Luke, 
xvii.  20.  This  kingdom  was  not  extended  and 
widened  till  after  the  ascension. 

(3)  The  manner  in  which  Christ  governs  or 
rules  his  kingdom.  He  reigns  as  (jwtjjp,  Eph. 
T.  23—29. 

A.  Now,  during  the  continuance  of  the  pre- 
sent stale  of  the  world, 

(a)  By  instruction  in  the  truth,  John,  xviii. 
37.  At  his  departure  from  the  world  he  com- 
mitted this  instruction  to  his  disciples,  and  espe- 
cially to  his  apostles  as  his  ambassadors,  that 
they  might  communicate  it  everywhere,  without 
regard  to  nation  or  kindred,  Matt,  xxviii.  18 — 20. 
It  was  to  be  more  extensively  diffused  and 
■widely  propagated  by  means  of  other  teachers, 
appointed  by  the  apostles  under  the  guidance 
and  authority  of  Christ,  Eph.  iv.  11,  15,  16. 
Accordingly,  in  the  passages  mentioned,  Paul 
derives  the  qualifications  and  the  ministry  (;i;d- 
p'Ji  a;ap('(r;uaTa)  of  teachers  from  Christ  himself, 
as  Christ  also  himself  does,  John,  x.  1,  seq. 

{b)  By  that  support,  help,  and  assistance 
which  he  imparts  to  his  church,  his  special  con- 
cern in  its  extension,  and  the  frustration  of  the 
designs  of  its  enemies.  Matt,  xxviii.  20;  1  Cor. 
XV.  25,  26 ;  1  John,  iv.  4  ;  v.  4,  5.  . 

Note. — All  the  hindrances  which  stand  in  the 
way  of  the  extension  of  Christianity,  and  the 
success  of  the  designs  of  Christ  to  promote  hu- 
man happiness,  are  frequently  called  ix^^ioi 
Xpiorov.  This  term  is  borrowed  from  Psalm 
ex.  2.  Morus  has  enumerated  these  hindrances, 
as  presented  in  the  scriptures,  p.  180,  seq.,  s.  6. 
Christ  has  already  removed  these  hindrances 
In  a  measure ;  he  is  constantly  diminishing 
Jhem,  and  at  the  end  of  the  present  dispensation 
ivill  have  entirely  surmounted  them.  Ps.  ex. 
1,  2;  1  Cor.  xv.  25.     Morus,  p.  ldl,seq.,s.  7 


B.  In  future,  when  the  present  state  of  the 
world  shall  cease,  (at  which  time  the  greatest 
revolutions  will  take  place  in  the  whole  uni- 
verse, 2  Pet.  iii.  7,  10 — 13.)  Then,  and  not  be- 
fore, will  Christ  exhibit  himself  in  all  his  glory, 
as  Lord  of  the  human  race.  Paul  says,  express- 
ly, that  all  the  glory  of  Clirist  is  x-ji  now  dis- 
played, Heb.  ii.  8;  Col.  iii.  3,  4;  for  all  l.ave 
not  yet  acknowledged  him  as  Lord,  and  his  ene- 
mies have  still  power  to  harm.  But  then  his 
glory  will  become  visible,  1  Cor.  xv.  26,  27 ; 
Heb.  X.  13.  Christ  will  solemnly  and  visibly 
reappear  on  the  earth,  Acts,  i.  11  ;  1  Thess.  iv. 
16;  2  Pet.  iii.  10,  13;  Heb.  ix.  28;  Col.  iii.  4. 
He  will  raise  the  dead,  John,  v.  21 — 23;  Mat- 
thew, XXV.  He  will  sit  in  judgment  upon  the 
dead  and  the  living,  1  Cor.  xv.  26,  27  ;  Rom. 
xiv.  10;  Phil.  ii.  10;  and  will  allot  rewards 
and  punishments,  John,  v.  21 — 23,  27,  seq. ; 
Matt.  XXV.;  Acts,  xvii.  31.  According  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  universality  of  Christ's  kingdom, 
he  will  judge,  not  Christians  only,  but  all  men. 
Cf.  the  passages  above  cited,  and  Acts,  xvii. 
31;  Romans,  ii.  6,  7.  But  the //77/e  of  this  judg- 
ment is  unknown,  and  was  so  even  to  the  apos- 
tles, 1  Thess.  V.  1,  seq.  coll.  2  Thess.  ii.  3. 
Many  of  the  early  Christians,  liowfver,  appear 
to  have  supposed  that  it  was  near  at  hand,  and 
was  connected  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  temple,  which  was  also  called  na- 
pov5ca  Xpiarov.  For  the  Jews  believed  that  the 
temple  would  stand  until  the  end  of  the  world, 
Psalm  Ixxviii.  69.  But  the  apostles  never 
adopted  or  favoured  this  opinion.  Vide  Thess. 
ut  supra. 

(4)  Some  further  observations  on  the  nature 
and  continuance  oi  ihe  government  which  Christ 
as  a  man  administers  in  heaven. 

(a)  The  government  of  Christ  is  described  by 
himself  and  his  apostles  as  being,  not  external 
and  temporal,  but  spiritual,  conducted  principal- 
ly by  means  of  his  religion,  by  the  preaching  of 
the  gospel,  and  the  power  which  attends  it; 
a.7.r^^(^q.,  John,  xviii.  37;  or  l^rifiati.,  Eph.  v.  26. 
Vide  No.  3.  This  fact  excludes  anil  refutes  the 
objection,  that  Christ  designed  to  establish  an 
earthly  kingdom,  s.  89  ;  and  it  frustrates  the 
hopes  of  the  Chiliasts,  who,  agreeably  to  Jew- 
ish prejudices,  are  expecting  such  a  kingdom 
yet  to  come. 

(h)  This  government  which  Jesus  adminis- 
ters, as  a  man,  is  not  natural  to  liim,  or  one 
which  he  attains  b)'  birth,  but  acquired.  He 
received  it  from  his  Father  as  a  reward  for  his 
sufferings,  and  for  his  faithful  perf.>rmance  of 
the  whole  work  and  discharge  of  all  the  office* 
entrusted  to  him  by  God  for  the  good  of  men. 
'E;^aptaaro  avTcjj  otofta,  and  8  i  6  aizov  ifttpir 
4^55,  Phil.  ii.  9.  "We  see  Jesus,  after  he  had 
endured  death,  crowned  with  glory  and  honour," 
&c.,  Hebrews,  ii.  9,  10.     The  Father  is  de* 


353 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


scribed  as  trt6ra|aj  Xpiatu  nunro,  I  Cor.  xv. 
24,  27 ;  Acts,  ii.  31 — 36  ;  the  discourses  of  Jesus 
in  John,  xvii.  5 ;  Matt.  xi.  27,  seq. ;  xxviii.  18  ; 
also  many  of  the  texts  which  speak  of  his  ail- 
ting  at  the  right  hand  if  Gud,  s.  99.  Paul,  in 
his  epistle  to  tiie  Hebrews,  frequently  makes 
use,  in  relation  to  tliis  sui)ject,  of  the  word 
riX(tw^r^v(u,  which  is  applied  literally  to  the 
reward  of  victors.  He  explains  the  idea  in  a 
very  intelligible  manner,  Heb.  v.  8.  Christ 
learned  by  his  sufl'erings  to  obey  God  and  do 
his  will;  and  he  who  knows  how  to  obey  so 
well  is  also  qualified  to  govern  well.  Vide 
Morus,  p.  181,  8.  9,  for  other  texts  and  com- 
ments. This  kingdom  is  therefore  called,  at  one 
time,  the  kingdom  if  God,  from  its  founder;  at 
another  lime,  the  kingdom  nf  Christ,  who  ac- 
com|)lished  the  plan  of  God;  and  still  again, 
the  kingdom  of  God  and  if  Christ,  because  God 
and  Clirist  were  united  in  its  establishment. 

(c)  The  Israelites  imagined,  according  to  the 
iiislniction  of  the  prophets,  that  the  kingdom  of 
the  Messiah  would  be  an  evcrhisting  kingdom 
(aitJitof,  perpetuus,  continuing  as  long  as  the 
world  should  endure.  Thus  it  is  always  repre- 
sented in  the  New  Testament.  "  He  will  reign 
over  the  house  of  Jacob  n'j  roL'j  aiwiaj,  xai  t^j 
Si^x^O.(iai  avtov  ovx  hrat  Tt'xoj,"  Luke,  i.  33. 
riie  text,  1  s.  xlv.  7,  o  ^ijovoj  aoi  f ij  riv  aiuira 
rov  atwi'oj,  is  explained  in  the  same  way,  Hib. 
i.  8.  Christ  himself  says  expressly,  ^Litt.  xvi. 
18,  Tii^oi  dbovov  xaTi?;};v50v3i  T^jf  xxX^jaiaj — i.  e., 
the  society  established  by  him  should  not  de- 
cline  and  perish,  like  so  many  others,  but  al- 
ways  endure.  He  said,  with  great  cxplicilness. 
Matt,  xxviii.  20,  that  his  assistance  and  special 
care  should  extend  to  his  followers  jwj  rr;i  avf 
rtT^iai  Toy  (uu»oj.  His  friends  should  enjoy 
his  constant  presence,  support,  and  assistance, 
in  every  condition  of  life,  until  iho  end  of  the 
world  that  now  is. 

(t/)  From  what  has  been  said,  it  appears  that 
the  government  which  Christ  as  a  man  admi- 
nisters in  heaven  will  continue  only  while  the 
|)resent  constitution  of  the  world  lasts.  At  the 
end  of  the  world,  when  the  heavenly  state  com- 
mences, tlie  government  which  Christ  adminis- 
ters as  a  man  will  ccuse  ;  so  far,  at  least,  as  it 
aims  to  promote  tiie  holiness  and  happiness  of 
men,  since  those  of  our  race  who  labour  for  tliis 
ena  will  ihen  have  attained  the  goal,  and  will 
be  actually  blessed.  So  I'aul  says  expressly, 
1  Cor.  XV.  21 — 28,  in  entire  accordance  with  the 
universal  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament  re- 
Sj)eciitig  the  kingdom  of  Christ  as  man.  He  is 
sptiaking  (if  the  kingdom  of  Jesus,  or  of  his  of. 
fice  as  Mi'ssiah,  and  refers  to  Ps.  ex.  I,  •'.*<ii 
on  my  riglit  hand,  until  I  subject  to  thee  all 
thine  enemies."  The  phrase,  (o  sit  or.  the 
right  hand  if  the  Father,  he  explains  by  Jaii- 
tiAVdf,  and  comprehends  under  this  term  all  the 


offices  of  the  Messiah  and  the  institution* 
which  he  has  established  for  the  good  of  men— 
i.  e.,  for  their  holiness  and  eternal  blessed- 
ness. Tiiese  offices  (his  kingdom)  will  cease  al 
the  end  of  the  world,  when  all  the  opposers  of 
the  advancement  of  his  kingdom  upon  earth, 
and  even  Death,  the  last  enemy  of  his  followers, 
will  be  subdued,  and  when  his  friends  will  be 
introduced  by  himself  into  that  eternal  blessed- 
ness to  which  it  is  his  aim  to  exalt  them.  Then 
will  his  great  plan  for  the  hapjiinoss  of  men  be 
completed,  and  the  end  of  his  oluce  as  Messiah 
will  be  attained.  Thenceforward  the  Father 
will  no  more  make  use,  as  before,  of  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Messiah  to  govern  and  bless  men ; 
for  now  they  will  be  actually  blessed.  Chri-t 
then  will  lay  down  his  former  charge,  and  give 
it  over  to  the  Father,  who  had  entrusted  him 
with  it.  For  we  cannot  expect  that  the  preach- 
ing of  the  gospel  will  be  continued  in  heaven, 
and  that  the  other  institutions  of  the  Chrisiian 
church,  which  relate  only  to  the  present  life, 
will  be  found  there  in  the  same  way  as  they  ex- 
ist here  upon  the  earth.  In  the  abodes  of  the 
blessed,  the  Father  will  himself  reign  over  his 
saints  with  an  immediate  government,  and  in  a 
manner  dilTerent  from  the  rule  which  he  causes 
to  be  exercised  over  them  through  Christ,  his 
ambassador,  while  they  continue  upon  the  earth. 
Vide  Scripta  varii  argument!,  p.  GO,  seq.,  ed.  ii. 
The  glory  and  majesty  of  Christ  will  remain, 
however,  unaltered;  and  he  will  still  (at  excel 
his  friends  and  brethren,  who  enjoy  a  happiness 
similar  to  his  own.  He  will  still  be  honoured 
and  loved  by  them  as  their  Lord,  and  as  the  au- 
thor of  their  salvation,  John,  xvii.  21;  Rom. 
viii.  17;  2  Tim.  ii.  12. 

SECTION  XCIX. 

KE.MARKS  ON  THK  KORM  ANO  SENSE  OF  THE  SCniP- 
TUIIAI.  HEPKESENTATION  RESPECTINU  THE  KINO- 
POM  OE  (;oD  AND  OK  f'HRlsT;  AND  ON  THE  SIG- 
NIKRATION  OE  THE  PHRASE,  "TO  SIT  ON  THK 
RIGHT  HAND  OF  GOD,"    AS  APPLIED  TO    CHRIST. 

I.  Origin  and  Design  rf  the  Formulae  respecting 
the  Kingdom  of  Christ. 

(I)  We  must  begin  with  the  principle,  that 
many  of  the  images,  expressions,  and  pbrast.s, 
which  are  applied  to  God  and  ins  government, 
are  borrowed  from  those  applied  to  earthly 
kings.  We  regard  Ciod  as  possessing  every- 
thing which  is  considered  great,  exaltetl,  and 
pre-eminent  among  men,  but  in  a  far  higher  de- 
gree. With  us  everything  is  small  and  limit- 
ed, with  him,  great,  comprehensive,  and  im- 
measurable. Hut  now  again,  wo  reason  retro- 
gressively  from  the  Deity,  and  from  heaven  to 
earth.  God,  by  his  agency,  is  the  cause  of  every- 
thing great  and  wonderful  which  takes  place 
on  the  earth,  ovbtv  »itv  (diov.    Even  the  govern- 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDLMPTION.       353 


inent  of  kings  is  of  divine  origin,  and  they  are 
appointed  by  the  Deity  himself. 

Ti/x»)  (^(OTpti^toj  /JaiTiAnoj)  i'  iK  At6f  can,  (piXei  ic  I 

Horn.  II.  ii.  197.  "Jupiter  bestows  upon  kings 
their  sceptre,  and  the  right  to  reign  over  others," 
V.  205.  See  also  II.  ix.  9S,  99;  and  Callim. 
Hymn,  in  Jo  v.  ix  Aioj  jSauiJi^jfj,  x.  t.  ^.  They 
are  accordingly  the  representatives  and  ambas- 
eadors  of  tlie  gods,  bear  their  image,  govern  and 
judge  in  their  stead.  Hence  they  are  called 
gods,  sons  of  God,  Sioyciili,  iiotpi^sti,  ©ttot, 
avf  i^!oi,  X.  r.  X. 

All  these  ideas  and  expressions  were  com- 
mon with  the  Israelitish  nation,  and  were  so- 
lemnly sanctioned  by  their  prophets  under  direct 
divine  authority.  The  God  Jehovah  was  their 
proper  king,  supreme  over  their  state  and  na- 
tion. He  governed  them  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  human  regents  and  deputed  kings. 
Their  constitution  was  Iheocratic, — to  make  use 
of  a  happy  term,  first  applied  to  this  subject  by 
Josephus.  Hence  the  Israelitish  state  and  na- 
tion are  called  the  possession,  and  Ike  peculiar 
people  of  Jehovah,  and  also,  the  kingdom  of  Je- 
hovah ;  as  Ex.  xix.  (J ;  Ps.  cxiv.  2.  In  the  same 
way  the  later  Jews  applied  the  phrases,  king- 
dom of  God,  or,  of  heaven,  to  the  Jewish  state 
and  church,  and  to  the  whole  religion  and  ritual 
of  the  Israelites.  When  a  proselyte  was  re- 
ceived by  them,  he  was  said,  to  be  admitted 
into  the  kingdom  of  God,  or,  of  heaven.  Vide 
SchoUgen,  De  regno  coelorum  (Hor.  Heb.T.  I. 
extr.)  ;  and  Wetstein  on  Matt.  xxi.  25,  Note. 
On  this  account  the  Jews  called  themselves 
vlovi  ^aaCKfiai,  Matt.  viii.  12  ;  and  Ciirist  said, 
the  kingdom  if  heaven  (the  rights  of  the  peo- 
ple of  God)  should  be  taken  from  them,  Matt. 
xxi.  43. 

(2)  The  Jews,  according  to  the  instruction  of 
their  prophets,  conceived  of  the  Messiah  as  a 
ruler  and  religious  reformer,  like  Moses  and  the 
pious  kings  of  antiquity,  only  far  greater,  more 
exalted  and  perfect  than  they,  (vide  s.  89  ;)  and 
80  they  spake  of  the  eternal  king,  and  the  eternal 
kingdom  of  David,  2  Sam.  vii. ;  Psalm  Ixxxix. 
They  therefore  called  the  happy  condition  of  the 
church  and  state  under  the  reign  of  the  Messiah, 
and  the  subjects  of  his  government,  by  way  of 
eminence,  ^arnXiLo,  @iov  or  oipavCjv.  They  be- 
lieved that  they  exclusively  should  enjoy  this 
kingdom,  and,  together  with  the  Messiah,  should 
reign  over  all  nations.  After  the  Babylonian 
exile,  this  appellation,  applied  in  this  sense  to 
the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  peculiarly,  became 
very  common,  and  was  probably  taken  from 
Dan.  vii.  13,  14.  It  must  have  been  common 
in  Palestine  at  the  time  of  Christ,  but  it  occurs 
very  rarely  in  the  later  Rabbinical  writings. 
^3)  Jesus  and  his  apostles  did  not,  then,  iniwnt 
45 


these  words  and  phrases ;  they  only  preserved 
the  terms  which  they  found  already  existing,  and 
gave  them  a  meaning  mure  just  and  pure  liian  the 
common  one.  This  they  did,  however,  with 
wise  caution  and  forbearance.  Christ  admitted 
the  expectations  of  the  Jews  ii{  Jnedom  in  the 
kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  hut  he  shewed  that  this 
freedom  was  not  civil  liberty,  i)ut  freedom  from 
the  power  of  .sjn,  John,  viii.  32;  Luke,  xvii.  20. 
He  confirmed  the  opinion  of  the  Jews,  that  the 
sacred  writings  testified  concerning  the  iMessiah, 
and  he  agreed  with  the  Jews  as  to  the  very  pas- 
sages containing  this  testimony,  but  he  tiiught 
them  the  more  just  and  spiritual  interpretation 
of  these  passages.  Vide  s.  90,  III.  Ly  rc- 
ceiving  the  kingdom  of  God,  he  means,  believing 
in  Jesus  Christ,  subtnitting  to  his  guidame  and 
obeying  his  precepts,  and  thus  obtaining  the 
right  of  enjoying  the  divine  favours  jjromised 
through  the  Messiah,  John,  iii. ;  Mark,  x.  15. 
The  same  is  meant  by  being  received  into  the 
kingdom  if  God,  Col.  i.  13;  Ephes.  v.  5.  It 
was  for  this  object  that  John  the  Baptist  had 
before  laboured,  althougli  be  was  ignorant  on 
many  points  belonging  to  the  new  dispensation  ;. 
the  essentials,  however,  he  understood,  and  his 
theme  was,  "  Repent,  for  the  kingdom  of  God 
is  at  hand."  He  knew  Christ  to  be  the  "  Lamb 
of  God,  which  takelh  away  the  sins  of  the 
world  ;"  and  described  the  Messiah  as  the  am- 
bassador of  God,  a  teacher  and  expiator,  John, 
i.  29  ;  iii.  27,  32,  34. 

(4)  These  attempts  of  Jesus  and  his  apostles 
were  very  much  facilitated  by  the  fact  tiiat  the 
terms  kingdom  of  God  and  kingdom  of  heaven 
w:ere  used  figuratively  even  by  the  Jews.  They 
frequently  gave  these  phrases  a  moral  and  spiri- 
tual sense,  denoting  and  comprehending  all  the 
divine  appointments  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of 
men,  for  their  happiness  in  this  and  the  future 
life  ;  everything,  in  short,  which  serves  to  pro- 
mote the  progressive  holiness  and  proportionate 
happiness  of  man  in  this  life,  and  the  life  to 
come,  which  is  his  true  destination.  Hence 
they  conceived  of  a  twofold  kingdom  or  state  of 
God  ;  one  upon  the  earth,  of  which  the  dispensa- 
tion under  the  Messiah  constitutes'the  brightest 
and  greatest  epoch,  the  other  in  heaven.  The 
pious  worshippers  of  God  are  translated  from  the 
former  to  the  latter.  Here  they  live  as  strangers 
in  a  land  of  pilgrimage,  there  they  are  at  home, 
in  their  native  land.  So  they  called  the  latter 
place  the  Fathcr^s  house,  the  upper  church,  the 
heavenly  or  new  Jerusalem.  And  so,  compre- 
hensively, the  entire  sum  of  happiness  after 
death  and  in  the  future  world  was  called  the 
kini^dom  of  God. 

Now  Jesus  and  the  apostles  frequently  use 
the   phrase  fiafiXfia  0fov  or   ovpaiwv,    in    this 
sense  ;  and  still  more  frequently  do  they  con- 
nect the  two  senses  together.     One  who  is  a 
2  g2 


S54 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


member  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  upon 
the  (iarth,  and  obey  his  precepts,  has  a  title  to 
citizenship  in  the  kingdom  of  God  which  is  in 
heaven  (in  the  city  of  God,  in  the  new  Jerusa- 
lem), Fhil.  iii.  20,  21,  coll.  Matt.  xxv.  31; 
James,  ii.  5  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  50  ;  2  Thess.  i.  5 ;  2 
Tim,  iv.  18;  2  Pet.  i.  11.  The  remark  made 
respectintj  licxaiXiimv  auv  XfH5r9,  x.  r.  X.,  be- 
longs in  tliis  connexion.     Vide  s.  98,  II.  1. 

(7)  From  what  has  been  said,  it  appears  that 
images  derived  from  a  king  and  his  suhjicls, 
and  their  mutual  relations,  are  more  proper  and 
suitable  than  any  other  to  represent  and  de- 
scribe the  duties,  benefits,  and  privileges  of  the 
worshippers  of  (iod,  and  especially  of  the  true 
followers  of  the  Messiah.  But  the  Jews,  who 
had  little  taste  for  what  is  spiritual,  were  con- 
tent with  the  mere  image,  and  so  forgot  the 
thing  itself  which  the  image  was  designed  to 
indicHle.  They  imagined  a  king  reigning  visibly 
upon  the  tartk. 

Jesus  and  his  apostles  preserved  these  same 
images,  but  shewed  in  what  way  they  ought  to  be 
understood  and  applied.  They  shewed  that  the 
Messiah,  after  his  ascension,  did  not  visibly  and 
bodily  reign  on  the  earth,  but  that  henceforward 
he  reigned  in  heaven;  and  there,  invisible  to 
mortal  eyes,  would  rule  the  inhabitants  of  hea- 
ven and  earth  (the  latter  by  his  religion  and  vi- 
sible support)  until  the  end  of  the  world.  They 
shewed,  moreover,  that  this  invisible  and  hea- 
yenly  government  was  of  far  wider  extent  than 
the  earthly  government  expected  by  the  Jews, 
and  would  (Miibraco  not  one  nation  only,  but  all 
nations  witliout  distinction  ;  because  the  king- 
dom of  morality,  of  truth,  and  happiness,  is  a 
kingdom  for  all,  such  being  the  destination  of 
all,  and  (Jod,  as  a  father,  being  solicitous  for  the 
happiness  of  all  his  children,  John,  x.  IG; 
avaxf^a'>ja.tilj'ia/y;iaii  to.  navra  iv  XfXTri^,  Kph.  i. 
10,  also  nXr^^iovv  navra,  (comprehendere  impe- 
rio,)  Kphes.  i.  23,  iii.  19;  Col.  i.  18.  They 
taught  that  the  whole  visible  disclosure  of  the 
majesty  of  Christ,  and  his  return  to  tiie  earth, 
would  not  take  place  before  the  end  of  the  pre- 
sent constitution  of  the  world.  Thus  they  pre- 
served the  ancient  expressions  and  phrases 
respecting  the  Messiah  and  his  royal  ofnce, 
which  had  been  common  among  the  Israelites, 
but  60  defined  and  modified  the  meaning  of  them, 
as  to  give  them  an  entirely  dilTerent  aspect — a 
different  and  far  more  elevated  sense  than  was 
common — a  sense,  too,  which  entirely  agreed 
with  the  real  meaning  of  the  Old-Testament 
predictions. 

KinfTs  are  the  sotis  of  God  ;  and  the  most  illus. 
Irious  kings  are  the Jirst-born.  And  so  the  Mes- 
siah ;  but  he,  in  a  far  higher  sense  than  all 
earthly  kings,  is  Tioj  &to\>,  rfpwroroxof,  ^o- 
t«yfi/i-;,  John,  i.;  Heb.  i.  6;  Romans,  viii.  29  ; 
Co\.  i    15,  coll.  ver.  18.     The  ium  of  kings, 


especially  the  firsl-born,  nrc  the  heirs  and  pos- 
sessors of  the  kingdom;  and,  artiong  the  Israel 
ites,  themselves  ruled  as  rej)resentalives  and 
deputies  of  the  father  over  particular  provinces 
of  his  kingdom.  Vide  Annjerkung  zu  Ps.  xlv. 
17.  So,  too,  the  Messiah  rules  over  the  most 
important  parts  of  the  paternal  or  divine  king- 
dom. Hence  he  is  called  xXr^^mvouo^,  Lord, 
possessor  tf  the  kingdom,  Heb.  i.  2.  Kings  de- 
cree justice  and  hold  judgment  in  the  name  of 
God,  as  his  ambassadors  and  deputies,  Psalm 
Ixxii.  1.  So,  too,  the  Messiah;  but  he  will 
hold  judgment  over  the  living  and  the  dead,  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  at  the  end  of  the  world. 
In  the  same  way,  the  other  forms  and  expres- 
sions may  be  easily  solved. 

(6)  This  kind  of  representation  and  mode  of 
instruction  is  in  a  high  degree  intellisrible  at  all 
times;  it  possesses  internal  trutli  and  reality. 
But  it  was  particularly  adapted  to  ail  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  Jews,  and  even  of  the  heathen 
at  that  age.  It  conveyed  to  them,  when  it  was 
properly  understood,  the  most  exallf:il  and  proper 
ideas  respecting  God,  and  his  designs  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Christian  institute  and 
churcli.  At  the  time  of  Christ  and  the  apostles, 
the  belief  universally  prevailed  ainougf  the  Jews, 
and  indeed  appears  to  have  been  entertained 
even  by  the  prophets,  that  God  governed  the 
world  by  means  of  an'^ds,  as  the  s>^rvant3  and 
instruments  of  his  providence.  Viile  s.  58,  tiO. 
The  belief,  too,  of  many  subordiii  ite  deities, 
through  whose  instrumentality  the  supreme 
f  Jod  governed  the  worhi,  prevailed  among  hea- 
then  nations.  Cf.  1  Cor.  viii.  5,  (3.  'I'lie  apos- 
tles, therefore,  shewed  that  (Jod  had  now  en- 
trusted the  government  of  the  world  and  the 
care  of  our  spiritual  welfare  direct!  v  i"  the  man 
Christ ;  and  that  these  ministers  of  Divine  pro- 
vidence, as  well  as  all  the  other  instruments 
which  it  employed,  were  now  subji  i  ted  to  him, 
that  all  might  trust  in  him  alone,  as  the  aiMhor 
of  salvation.  Vide  1  Cor.  ut  supra.  And  so 
Paul,  Heb.  i.,  ii.,  proves  that  Christ  is  far  ex- 
alted  above  all  the  servants  and  ministers  of 
God  (angels),  who  are  now  indeed  made  sub- 
ject and  obedient  to  him.  This  reference  of  the 
apostolical  doctrine  is  very  clear  from  Hebrews, 
li.  5,  ovx  dyyt'Xojj  vntra^f  T^v  otxoyut'i »;)  r^r  ^»X- 
Xovjoy,  (i.  e.,  the  times  of  the  New 'IVstament,) 
but  to  Christ  only,  although  he  lived  in  humi- 
liation upon  the  earth,  (vide  the  verse  follow- 
ing,) which  was  always  revolting  to  the  Jews. 

Note. — To  say  the  whole  briefly  :  the  phrase 
kingdom  of  God,  or,  of  Christ,  in  the  sense  in 
which  John  the  Baptist,  Jesus,  and  his  apostles, 
understood  it,  signifies,  the  whole  work  if  Christ 
for  the  good  of  men,  atui  tvrrything  -j-hirh  is  ef- 
fected liy  this  work.  Hence  the  phrase  denotes 
(a)  all  the  benefits,  rights,  privileges,  and 
rewards  which  his  followers  receive  in  this  and 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       355 


tlic  future  life ;  comprising  the  doctrine  re- 
6i){'Ctin<r  Christ,  forgiveness  of  sin,  and  all  the 
blessedness  which  we  owe  to  him;  and  some- 
times comprisinof,  too,  the  follotuers  of  Christ 
themselves  (c/cc.v),  who  enjoy  these  blessings; 
(6)  all  the  duties  and  the  worship  which  we 
owe  to  God  and  Christ ;  and  so  the  conditions 
on  which  we  obtain  the  blessings  above  enume-. 
rated.  Thus  are  the  comprehensive  phrases,  to 
enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God,  to  see  it,  &c.,  to 
be  understood.  Vide  especially  Morus, p.  184, 
185,  n.  3.  Cf.  Storr,  "  De  notione  regni  coeles- 
tis  in  N.  T."     Opusc.  Acad.  t.  i.  n.  v. 

11.  Signification  of  the  phrase,  "  to  sit  on  the  right 
hand  of  God"  as  applied  to  Christ.* 

(1)  The  phrase  is  borrowed  from  Psalm  ex. 
1,  which  the  Jewish  teachers  at  the  time  of 
Christ  must  have  considered  to  be  a  Messianic 
psalm,  as  appears  from  Matt.  xxii.  44,  seq. 
[Vide,  for  the  explanation  of  this  psalm,  the 
note  to  the  author's  German  translation,  3rd 
ed.]  The  origin  of  this  expression,  too,  is  to 
be  sought  in  a  comparison  of  God  with  earthly 
kings.  We  conceive  of  kings,  rulers,  judges, 
as  silting  on  thrones,  when  they  exercise  rule, 
pronounce  judgment,  or  display  all  their  splen- 
dour and  majesty.  Hence  the  verba  sedendi  (as 
au'^)  signify  also  to  rule,  to  reign.  God  has  his 
throne  in  the  heavens,  and  there  Christ,  after 
his  ascension,  seated  himself  with  God;  1 
Peter,  iii.  22;  Ephes.  i.  20;  Heb.  i.  13.  Now 
for  any  one  to  be  appointed  a  place  with  a  king, 
to  be  seated  with  him,  or  at  his  right  hand,  is 
frequently — 

(«)  A  mere  external  mark  of  honour,  shew- 
ing that  such  a  person  is  highly  respected,  es- 
teemed, and  loved  by  the  king.  So  1  Kings,  ii. 
19,  spq. ;  1  Sam.  xx.  25;  1  Mace.  x.  62— G5. 
Standing  at  the  right  hand  is  the  same  thing, 
I'salm  xiv.  10.  The  Grecian  and  Roman  writers 
furnish  abundant  examples  of  the  same  usage. 
But  it  denotes — 

(b)  Participation  in  the  government  and  asso- 
ciated rule,  though  not  full  equality  in  rank  and 
dignity.  Sitting  tvith  the  king  is  plainly  used 
in  this  sense.  Matt.  xx.  21,  and  frequently  in 
Grecian  and  Roman  writers,  and  in  Grecian 
mythology.  Minerva  is  represented  by  Homer 
as  sitting  beside  Jupiter,  and  by  Pindar  as  sit- 
ting at  his  right  hand,  and  as  giving  charges 
and  commands.  Apollo  is  represented  by  Cal- 
limachus  as  sitting  at  the  right  hand  of  Jupiter, 
and  as  rewarding  singers  and  poets.  In  all 
these  cases,  participation  t»  the  government  and 
associated  rule  are  indicated,  though  not  full 
■equalitij. 

•  Vide  the  Programm  cited  in  the  preceding  Sec- 
tions, in  which  the  various  explanations  which  have 
been  given  to  this  phrase  are  enumerated  and  exa- 
mined.    Cf  Morus,  p.  185,  n.  6. 


(2)  Now  when  this  phrase  is  applied  to 
Christ,  we  easily  see  from  this  analogy  what  it 
must  mean,  and  how  it  must  have  been  under- 
stood by  ancient  readers  and  hearers.  The 
phrase  is  never  applied  to  Christ  except  when 
his  humanity  is  spoken  of,  or  when  he  is  men- 
tioned as  Messiah,  as  ©favJ^fHojtDj.  It  is  not 
spoken  of  his  divine  character,  though  Michaelis 
so  explains  it,  referring  it  to  the  seat  of  God 
upon  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  The  language, 
"Christ  left  his  seat  at  the  right  hand  of  tkt 
Father  in  order  to  become  man,"  was  first  used 
by  the  fathers  who  lived  after  the  fourth  century. 
Such  language  never  occurs  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Sitting  at  the  right  hand  if  God  is  always 
there  represented  as  the  reward  which  the  Mes- 
siah obtained  from  God,  after  his  death  and  as- 
cension, for  the  faithful  accomplishment,  when 
upon  earth,  of  all  his  work  for  the  salvation  of 
man.  It  is  the  promised  reward  (rtXncoatj,  |3p<»- 
jifiov,)  which  the  victor  receives  after  a  long  con- 
test. VideActs,  ii.  31 — 3G;  Heb.  xii.2.  Hence 
the  Father  is  said  to  have  placed  Jesus  at  his  right 
hand,  Ephes.  i.  20.  This  phrase,  therefore, 
beyond  doubt,  implies  everything  which  belongs 
to  the  glurj/  of  Christ  considered  as  a  man, 
and  to  the  dominion  over  the  entire  universe, 
over  the  human  race,  and  especially  over  the 
church  and  its  members,  which  belongs  to  him 
as  a  king.  Vide  s.  98.  This  is  the  reward 
which  he  receives  from  the  Father ;  he  takes 
this  place,  as  a  man,  for  the  first  time,  imme- 
diately after  his  ascension  to  heaven,  1  Peter, 
iii.  22;  Mark,  xvi.  19;  Acts,  ii.  32,  seq.  &c. 
With  this  his  reign  in  heaven  commences. 
Paul  himself  explains  the  phrase  by  j5a<si%(v(iv, 
1  Cor.  XV.  25,  and  opposes  ■Ktifov^yyiiv  (which 
is  applied  to  angels,  vide  Heb.  i.  3,  4)  to  xa^i^siv 
ex  6f§tilii'  0(ov,  Heb.  i.  13,  14.  One  of  the  most 
decisive  texts  is  Ephes.  i.  20 — 22,  "God  raised 
him  from  the  dead,  and  set  him  at  his  own  right 
hand,"  ver.  20.  The  exaltation  and  dominion 
of  Jesus,  which  extends  over  everything  in  all 
the  universe,  is  described  ver.  21  ;  and  finally 
his  reign  over  the  church  is  particularly  men- 
tioned, xai  avToi'  t'Stoxf  xi^aXr^v  trti  rtaiTo.  (su- 
preme ruler)  rvj  ixx%r^i5i.a.,  ver.  22.  Cf.  1  Pet 
iii.  22. 


CHAPTER    III. 

ON  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  PERSON  OF  CHRIST. 

SECTION  C. 

OF  THE  HIGHER    NATURE    IN  CHRIST,  AND  HOW  IT 
IS  PROVED. 

We  have  before  shewn  (s.  93)  that  Christ  wa<- 
a  true  man,  both  as  to  soul  and  body ;  but  have 


356 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


now  to  shew  that,  accorJinjj  lo  the  representa- 
tion of  the  New  Testament,  he  was  not  a  ntirc 
man,  but  tliat  he  possessed  at  the  same  time 
such  exalted  perfections  as  cannot  be  ascribed 
to  any  mere  man,  or,  indeed,  to  any  created  be- 
ing; or,  to  speak  in  the  language  of  the  schools, 
that  he  possessed  a  divine  nature.  Caution  is 
necessary  in  the  selection  of  the  texts  by  which 
this  doctrine  is  proved. 

(1)  This  doctrine  cannol  be  proved, 

(w)  Hy  every  text  in  which  Christ  is  called 
Tioj  0fov,  for  this  is  frequently  a  name  by  which 
his  work  and  oflice,  and  not  his  nature,  are  de- 
noted. There  are  passages,  however,  in  which 
Tioj  0fov  and  jxovoyivr^i;  clearly  indicate  the 
higher  nature  of  Christ.  Vide  s.  73,  G,  b.  Such 
texts  only  must  be  chosen  as  are  determined  by 
the  context  and  predicates  to  have  this  reference 
— e.  g.,  John,  V.  10;  and  the  appellation,  ^uoi-o- 
y(v>;5,  John,  i.;  also  the  texts  in  which  Christ 
calls  God  his  Father,  in  a  sense  in  which  this 
name  is  never  used  by  any  created  being;  those, 
too,  in  which  he  ascribes  attributes  to  himself, 
as  Son,  which  never  were  or  could  be  predicated 
of  a  mortal  or  created  spirit ;  the  texts,  e.  g.,  in 
which  he  says  that  he  works  in  common  with 
his  Father.  It  deserves,  however,  to  be  re- 
marked, that  many  theologians  ever  since  the 
earliest  ages  have  considered  the  appellation 
Soniif  God,  as  denoting  simply  the  divine  nature 
of  Christ.  These  remarks  apply  equally  to  the 
appellation  Aoyoj,  in  itae/f  considered. 

(i)  By  those  expressions,  when  taken  by 
themselves,  which  ascribe  to  Christ  resemblance 
to  God  in  some  high  degree — e.  g.,  tixCjv  ©fov 
ooparov,  Col.  i.  15,  and  drfavyoojua  io^rj^  and 
XOniaxTr;(i  vno/jraniwi  avTor,  lleb.  i.  3.  'Artav- 
ya-,ua  bo^r^i  signifies  Ihi  radiance  of  the  divine 
spUndour  or  majesty;  ;j;a))axr)jp  rrto^rdafuj 
ovroii— a  rinible  ima'^c  (imago  ex|)ressa)  of  the 
divine  substance.  The  sense,  then,  of  these  re- 
presentations is  this,  "  The  Son  is  he  through 
'*hom  God  hath  clearly  revealed,  or  visibly 
Diade  known  himself  to  men."  So  Paul  him- 
self explains  it,  2  Cor.  iv.  4,  "  /Vs  God,  at  the 
crtation,  gave  light  to  the  obscure  earth,  so 
Christ  by  his  religion  gave  light  to  men,  and 
Jed  them  to  a  clear  knowledge  of  (tod."  Vide 
John,  i.  11,  coll,  ver.  18.  But  other  expressions 
in  the  passages  just  cited,  clearly  ascribing  di- 
vine attributes  to  Christ,  are  prouf  of  this  doc- 
trine, as  may  he  seen  below. 

(c)  Nor  is  this  doctrine  proved  by  those  pas- 
sacres  which  treat  of  Christ's  state  of  exaltation, 
and  of  the  eminent  privilegis  which  were  cun- 
ferred  upon  him  as  a  man,  when  he  entered  upon 
that  condition^-e.  g.,  a  large  portion  of  the  pas- 
sages, Phil,  ii.,  and  Heb.  i.  6,  seq.,  which  are 
often  improperly  adduced  as  proof-texts  of  his 
divine  nature. 

One  great  evil  of  an  incautious  selection  of 


proof-texts  is  this,  that  when  one  particular  pas- 
sage is  found  not  to  prove  the  point  for  which 
it  was  adduced,  the  conclusion  is  readily  made 
that  the  whole  doctrine  is  incapable  of  scriptural 
supjiort. 

(•3)  Tiiis  doctrine  mat/  be  proved, 

(a)  By  the  texts  in  which  Christ  is  described 
as  far  exalted  over  all  the  creatures  of  God,  over 
men,  angels,  and  everything  in  the  universe 
besides  God  himself,  and  indeed  as  the  creator 
and  preserver  of  all  things.  Such  texts  are  Col. 
i.  15,  IG,  and  others  already  explained,  s.  38. 
The  proof  in  point  is  not  derived  so  much  from 
the  term,  nxuv  0*ov,  as  from  what  is  there  pre- 
dicated of  Christ.  IIpuToToxoj  jtdaj^j  xris«u){, 
does  not  mean,  the  greatest  or  Jirsi  of  all  crea- 
tures; for  we  find  immediately  after,  that  he 
h\mse\f  created  a/1  things  ;  and  we  must  there- 
fore conclude  that  he  is  not  the  first  of  all  crea- 
tures, since  he  is  himself  the  Creator,  llpwro- 
Toxoj  must  be  rendered  either  /ling,  ruler,  HeU. 
i.  G,  and  Rev.  iii.  14,  where  we  n-ad  a^x^i  ('•  c., 
apx^v)  xnneuii  Qioxi ;  or,  he  who  existed  prior  to 
all  creatures,  in  which  sense  the  Jews  called 
God  primogf.nituin  mundi. 

(b)  By  the  texts  in  which  attributes  are  as- 
cribed to  Clirist  which  can  be  predicated  of  no 
mortal,  and  which  are  never  ascribed  to  angels, 
or  to  the  prophets,  or  other  inspired  teachers 
whom  God  has  employed  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  his  purposes  upon  the  earth.  Such 
texts  are  found  most  frequently  in  John.  Among 
them  are  those  which  contain  the  phrase  so  often 
occurring,  "  Ae  descended  from  heaven,"  Jolin, 
iii.  31  ;  vi.  31,  seq.,  ver.  C'2  ;  viii.  23 ;  xiii.  3  ', 
xvi.  28.  This  phrase  denotes  superhuman,  hea- 
venly, or,  divine  origin  and  nature;  and  is 
spoken  of  manna,  John,  vi.  31  ;  and  of  wisdom, 
James,  i.  17  ;  cf.  1  Cor.  xv.  47.  This  language 
is  never  used  with  respect  to  any  mere  prophet 
or  inspired  teacher.  Even  John,  whose  bap- 
tism was  f?  ovjiaiov  (of  divine  origin),  disliii- 
gui>>hes  himself  from  Christ,  who  c,\\ue  from 
heaven,  (John,  iii.  31  ;)  and  speaking  of  Christ's 
return  to  heaven,  he  says,  "  he  returned  thither 
onov  >■>■  TO  nporfpoi',  John,  vi.  62,  and  xvii.  'i'he 
text  is  so  clear,  that  Sociiuis  and  others,  who 
denied  the  superhuman  nature  of  Christ,  invent- 
ed a  rapture  of  Christ  into  the  heavens,  (r.i|)iiim 
incujhim:)  or  considered  the  text  as  referring 
to  ihe  prc-cxistcncc  of  the  human  soul;  allboush 
not  a  trace  of  sucii  an  opinion  appears  in  the 
Bible. 

Here  it  might  indeed  be  objected,  *'  that 
Christ  is  described  as  an  exalted,  heavenly  spirit, 
but  not  a.i  God;  he  might  still  have  been  created." 
So  tlie  .Vrians.  The  objection,  however,  is  not 
valid  ;  because,  in  these  passages  and  elsewhere, 
he  ia  said  to  exist  before  any  created  linngs, 
I  (i.  e.,  ab  JBternn.)  John.  i.  1,  and  xvii.  Vida 
3.  37,  in  prin.     Before  the  creation  of  the  world 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       357 


Tiotnin<T  existed  besides  God  ;  so  that  whatever 
hail  existence  then  was  God  himself,  belongirijr 
to  his  being  and  his  attributes.  This  is  the  di- 
rect and  incontrovertible  conclusion  of  John  in 
the  passafre  cited.  Indeed,  Christ  is  distinctly 
affirmed  to  have  enjoyed  supreme  divine  glory 
in  heaven.  "  Restore  to  me  (by  exultation)  the 
glory  rv  il%ov  rcpo  tov  tiiv  xonfxov  iliat,  rtapa 
(joi" — i.  e.,  in  heaven,  (referring  to  his  divine 
aature,)  John,  xvii.  5.  Such  language  is  never 
used  in  respect  to  any  prophet,  angel,  or  any 
created  intelligence.  Ad|a,  in  the  last  case, 
cannot  refer  to  the  office  of  Christ,  or  to  his  du- 
miiiion,  for  he  had  none  "  before  the  creation  of 
the  world."  Hence  he  is  called  by  way  of 
eminence,  o  Ttoj  ©f-oiJ,  (John,  v.  10;)  o  uoi-o- 
yfvjjj,  (John,  i.  14;)  because,  among  all  who 
are  elsewhere  called  the  sons  or  children  of  God, 
he  is  alone  in  his  kind,  and  bears  this  name  in 
an  exalted  sense,  in  which  no  man,  no  angel, 
no  created  being,  can  appropriate  it,  John,  v. 
Vide  s.  37. 

Christ  also  frequently  alludes  in  his  dis- 
courses to  his  divine  nature  in  another  way — 
e.  g.,  by  the  word  aui,',  John,  vii.  29,  31,  30; 
"  before  Abraham  was,  I  am,"  John,  viii,  58. 
This  is  the  very  language  in  which  the  immu- 
table God  speak  of  himself  in  the  present  time. 
So  the  Jews  understood  it;  and  regarded  it  as 
blasphemy  for  Christ  to  apply  it  to  himself,  and 
on  this  account  began  to  stone  him,  ver.  59. 
For  never  had  a  prophet  or  any  created  being 
spoken  thus  of  himself. 

Christ  also  frequently  ascribed  the  miracles 
which  he  wrought  to  himself.  He  professed 
that  he  worked,  or  acted,  {/*  common  with  God, 
John,  v.  17;  x.  31.  This,  again,  was  never 
said  of  any  of  the  prophets.  In  the  miracles  of 
which  they  were  the  instruments,  nothing,  in- 
deed, was  done  by  them,  but  ercrythin<r  by  God. 
Accordingly,  the  Jews  affirmed  that  by  this 
claim  Christ  made  \\\m^e\i equal n'ith  God/imv, 
Offcj,  John,  v.  18;  x.  31,  seq.  They  |)erceived 
that  ho  used  the  term  Jiliiis  Bet  in  a  sense  in 
which  no  mere  man  could  use  it  with  respect 
10  himself;  and  that  he  made  himself  fiyi/r?/ with 
God,  by  ascribing  to  himself  what  can  belong  to 
God  only.  And  Christ  does  not  disapprove, 
but  rather  authorizes  their  conclusion,  John,  v. 
and  X. 

There  are  many  other  expressions  in  the  last 
discourses  of  Jesus  to  his  disciples  (John,  xiii., 
seq.)  which  never  are  used  in  the  Bible,  and 
never  can  be  used,  in  respect  to  any  created  be- 
intr:  as  John,  xiv.  G — 9;  also  ver.  13,11,  where 
Christ  ascribes  to  himself  the  hearing  of  prayer, 
&c. 

These  classes  of  texts  prove  clearly  against 
Phoiinus  and  the  Socinians,  that  the  writers  of 
the  New  Testament  did  not  understand  Christ 
o  be  a  mere  man^  bpt  that  they  sunn^>ed  him 


to  possess  a  higher  nature,  far  exalted  above  that 
of  men  and  angels.  This  the  Arians  concede. 
But  they  affirm  that  these  texts  are  not  sufficii-nt 
to  prove  his  equality  with  the  Father.  Even 
these  texts,  however,  go  far  toward-  provinir  this 
point.     But  it  is  proved  more  directly, 

(c)  From  the  third  class  of  texts,  which  shew 
that  Christ  is  represented  by  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament  as  partaking  of  the  divine  na- 
ture as  fully  as  the  Father,  and  being  as  truly 
God  (twj  Ttarpi)  as  the  Father;  and  frotn  texts 
in  which  he  is  called  God.  All  the  necessary 
considerations  respecting  these  texts  are  fjund 
s.  37,  38. 

SECTION  CI. 

OF  THE  CONNEXION  BETWEEN  THE  DEJTY  AND 
Hl'MANITV  OK  CHRIST,  ACCORDING  TO  WHAT 
THE  BIBLE  DIRECTLY  TEACHES,  AND  THE  CON- 
SEQUENCES WHICH  MAY  BE  DEDUCED  FROM  ITS 
INSTRUCTIONS. 

I.   What  the  Bible  directly  teaches  respecting  the 
Union  of  the  two  Natures  in  Christ. 

(1)  When  we  compare,  without  preposses- 
"sion  or  prejudice,  the  various  passages  which 
treat  of  Christ,  we  clearly  perceive  that  two 
parts,  as  it  were,  or  two  aspects,  are  distin- 
guished in  the  same  subject  or  person.  This 
subject,  called  Christ,  is  considered  as  God,  and 
as  7iian  ,•  divine  and  human  attributes  are  equally 
ascribed  to  him  in  one  and  the  same  context; 
as  in  his  own  prayer,  John,  xvii.  5.  It  was  for 
this  reason  that,  even  as  early  as  the  third  cen- 
tury, the  appellation  ©far^ptortoj,  orGtarSpo^,  was 
given  him.  Vides.  1()"3.  The  clearest  passages 
in  point  are  found  in  John ;  especially  i.  3,  coll. 
ver.  18,  which  clearly  teach,  (a)  that  the  same 
Aoyoj,  who  crf!ated  all  things,  and  existed  from 
eternity  with  the  F'ather,  as  his  Son  and  confi- 
dant— the  same  Adyo,  {!>)  became  man,  (lapS 
fyfirro.)  and  lived  among  men.  Hence  the 
fiTtipxtjctj  of  the  fathers.  The  passage  of  Paul, 
Gal.  iv.  4,  agrees  with  the  one  last  mentioned  ; 
but,  taken  by  itself,  is  not  so  clear.  So  the  text, 
John,  xvi.  28,  '•  He  who  came  down  from  hea- 
ven, the  same  returns 'again  to  heaven."  The 
same  person  who,  as  man,  lived  among  men, 
came  down  from  heaven,  and  existed  previously 
in  heaven;  John,  iii.  13;  vi.  02;  xvii.  5  ;  also, 
1  Tim.  iii.  IG  ;  John,  viii.  40,  57,  58  ;  and  chap. 
xiv. 

From  these  texts  it  follows,  (a)  that  the 
Logos,  who  was  from  eternity  with  the  Father, 
is  the  same  person  who  afterwards  appeared 
upon  the  earth  under  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ; 
(b)  that  (his  Logos  became  a  real  man,  (r.--^ 
eyifcfo,)  or  received  a  human  nature 
merely  assumed  an  apjiarent  huma 
Now,  except  we   deviate   arbitrarily  t 


358 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Words  of  the  Bible,  we  cnn  explain  these  facts 
only  on  the  supposition  that  in  Christ  deity  and 
huDtanify  are  distingiiislied,  and  yet  connected. 

(2)  This  connexion  between  the  Son  of  God 
and  the  man  Jesus  commenced  when  Christ  was 
conceived  ;  vide  s.  93.  For  the  supposition  of 
thf  Gnostic  sects,  and  of  Cerinthus,  that  the 
hijher  nature  was  united  with  the  man  Jesus  at 
Borne  later  period,  as  at  his  baptism,  is  wiiolly 
unsf-riptural.  John  plainly  declares,  i.  1  i,  that 
the  Aoyoj  (the  same  to  whom  divine  predicates 
had  been  ascribed,  ver.  1)  na^i^iyirsro.  From 
this  passage  we  are  coinpelh^d  to  conclude  that 
the  divine  nature  connected  itself  with  the  hu- 
Ditii,  when  the  latter  was  conceived.  Theolo- 
gians illustrate  this  by  the  human  soul,  which 
in  con<;epti  )n  is  united  with  the  human  body, 
and  thenceforward  animates  and  governs  it.  In 
the  same- way  was  the  divine  nature  united  with 
tfie  human,  thenceforward  composing  with  it 
on-^  person,  Christ;  as  our  soul  and  body  united 
eon»tiiuie  one  individual  mrt/i,  consisting  of  two 
very  dissimilar  natures. 

(3)  2(/,j;  must  here  be  taken,  in  its  common 
scri()lurdl  sense,  to  denote  not  merely  a  man,  but 
one  infirm  like  others,  on/i/  wilhmd  sin.  Tiie 
theologians  of  the  earliest  ages,  even  of  the  se-. 
con  I  century,  took  occasion  from  this  term  to 
call  Christ's  becoming  man  fVaapxtoijis  and  ivav- 
^,)wrt>;T(j,  L.it.  inecirnatio.  In  after  times  they 
den  iminated  the  same  event /-tpdiXjj^-ij,  assumtiti, 
the  assuming  of  human  nature;  since  we  must 
suppose  that  the  su|)erior  nature  condescended 
to  the  human  and  became  united  with  it,  and  not 
the  reverse.  This  mode  of  speech,  although 
in  itself  unobjectionable,  is  not  scriptural.  For 
the  |)hrase,  /irttp^aroj  A.3j)aau  irci'KaiXiiavfTai, 
Heb.  ii.  16,  means,  that  he  a.nisitd,  took  care  of 
the  chihlren  (if  Jlhraham.  How  could  ariipfia. 
'A  {(laaa  denote  human  nature]  'E,ttXa,u3aj'fo^ai 
and  iLirL'KaMSdi'fn'^cu  rtioj  literally  mean,  to  take 
/ii>hl  if  any  mi':.  Acts,  xxiii.  19;  then,  tu  assist, 
to  lake  care  (f  any  one,  Sir.  iv.  1*2;   Luke,  i.  51. 

II.   Coiiclunioii.1  friiin  Ihfse  Scriptural  S/nlrinents  ; 
and  a  more  precise  exphinal ion  of  them. 

The  connexion  ofdeity  and  humanity  in  Christ 
was, 

(1)  Not  of  surh  a  nature  as  that  either  the 
deity  or  huininity  wa^s  deprived  of  any  essential 
and  |)eciiliar  atlrilmtes,  or  in  any  essential  re- 
spect changed.     For, 

(«)  The  divine  miltirf.  connot  be  supposed  to 
ha»'e  changed.  Such  a  supposition  would  con- 
tradict our  very  first  ideas  respecting  fJod.  It  is 
not  tiiep'fore  just  and  proper  to  say,  as  some  of 
the  fatliers  did.  The  eternal  So.v  of  God  (i.  e., 
the  Deity)  LEFT  heaven,  sultRK^neR>CD  or  re- 
nounced his  i^lory,  and  eondescendtd  to  miJJ'rrinir, 
indii^ence,  &c..  on  the  earth.  Such  language  is 
never  used  in  the  Uible ;  and  the  idea  implied 


by  it  is  inconsistent  with  the  divine  glorj*.  Btk 
for  the  Deity  to  unite  itself  wi;h  frail  humanity 
is  no  more  unsuitable,  derogvitory,  or  dishonour* 
able,  than  for  God  to  give  proofs  of  his  glory  in 
the  meanest  of  his  works,  to  connect  himself 
with  them,  and  in  and  through  them  to  exert  his 
power  and  agenc)'. 

(6)  Nor  could  the  human  nature  be  altered  in 
any  essential  respect  by  this  its  connexion  with 
the  divine;  for  Christ  would  tlien  have  ceased 
to  be  a  true  man.  If  one  should  say  therefore 
that  Christ  as  a  man  had,  from  the  beginning  of 
his  existence,  the  possession  and  use  of  all  divine 
attributes — that  as  a  man  he  was  almighty,  om- 
niscient, omnipresent — and  that,  as  many  theolo- 
gians suppose,  he  merely  forbore  the  exercise 
of  these  attributes  as  a  man,  he  would  thus,  in 
reality,  deify  the  human  natur3  of  Christ.  Vide 
s.  93,  IIL  2.  Besides,  the  passages  of  the 
Bible  which  speak  of  the  increase  of  his  know- 
ledge, Luke,  ii.  5-2— of  his  nut  knowini;,  Mark, 
xiii.  3'2,  &c.,  clearly  teach  the  contrary.  Foi 
these  representations  do  not  bear  the  explanation 
which  some  have  given  them,  that  he  merely 
pretended  that  he  did  not  know,)  simulahut  se 
ncscire,  as  Augustine  said,)  that  he  pretended  to 
increase  in  wisdom,  «S:c.  In  short,  tliose  who 
form  such  hypotheses  confess  with  the  mouth 
the  true  humanity  of  Christ,  while  in  fact  they 
deny  it,  and  allow  to  Christ  only  the  veil  of  a 
human  body  and  the  external  appearance  of 
humanity. 

(2)  The  connexion  of  the  two  natures  must 
rather  be  placed  in  the  two  following  points — 
viz.,  («)  in  a  close  and  constant  connexion  of  the 
deity  of  Christ  with  his  humanity  from  the  com- 
mencement of  his  existence  ;  (/y)  in  a  co-opera- 
tion of  the  two  natures  in  action,  where  it  was 
requisite  and  necessary,  and  as  far  as  the  nature 
and  attributes  of  each  admitted.  The  scriptural 
doctrine  is  this  :  '•  the  glory  (6o';a)  which  Christ, 
in  his  superior  nature,  had  with  th<'  Father  from 
eternity  (rt|)o  xardjoXr^  xoruov),  was  imparted 
to  his  human  nature,  ami  shar<d  with  it  when 
he  bi'came  UKin,  so  far  as  this  human  nature  wa8 
susceptible  of  his  glory;  and  was  manifested 
whenever  and  wherever  it  was  necessary  upon 
earth,*'  John,  xvii.  .),  Oi,  21  ;  chap,  xiv.,  coil. 
Phil.  ii.  9—11. 

By  the  followin-/  remarks  something  may  he 
done  to  elucidate  this  subject,  and  to  render  it  as 
inttlligible  as  the  limitation  of  our  conceptions 
will  permit. 

(«)  The  agency  of  God  is  not  always  exhibited 
with  eijital  clearness  in  hi'«  creatures.  His  in- 
rtuence  at  certain  times  and  in  certain  circum- 
stances appe.irs  more  strikingly  and  visibly  than 
at  others.  The  nature  of  God.  however,  remains 
unchanged,  amidst  all  these  changes  of  things 
which  are  extrinsic  to  himsnlf.  He  is  indeej 
equally  connected  and  united  with  all  nature,  3* 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       359 


all  times,  and  under  all  circumstances,  from  its 
first  orio:in.  In  a  similar  way  must  we  conceive 
of  the  relation  of  the  divine  to  the  human  in 
Christ.  In  the  stale  of  humiliation,  the  divine  in 
Clirist  supported  his  humanity,  wherever  and 
whenever  there  was  any  necessity  for  it;  espe- 
cially whenever  his  Messianic  offices  required. 
The  divine  nature,  however,  did  not  impart  to 
the  human  any  attributes  of  which  the  latter, 
especially  in  its  earthly  state  and  condition,  was 
incapable,  or  of  which  it  did  not  stand  in  need. 
Nor  did  the  divine  nature  in  itself  suffer  any 
alteration  by  the  fate  of  Jesus  while  he  was  upon 
earth,  his  sufferings,  death,  &c.  But  in  the 
state  of  exaltation  the  spliere  of  the  agency  of 
Jesus  was  infinitely  ennobled  and  enlarged. 
There  the  inlkiences  and  the  effects  of  his  divi- 
nity could  appear  more  visibly.  'J'here,  in  hea- 
ven, he  is  far  more  susceptible  of  its  co-opera- 
tion and  support,  in  the  governtnent  of  the  world 
and  of  the  cliurch,  than  in  his  humble  life  upon 
the  earth,  John,  xvii.  5,  22,  24.  Christ,  as  a 
man,  could  not  have  been  raised  to  such  a  de- 
gree of  dignity  and  glory  as  to  receive  supreme 
dominion  over  the  spiritual  and  material  world, 
if  his  nature  had  not  been  so  united  with  that 
of  the  Lord  of  the  universe,  that  the  boundless 
perfections  of  the  latter  became  also  the  perfec- 
tions of  his  nature.  The  Bible  always  regards 
the  subject  in  this  point  of  view;  as  John,  i., 
xvii.;  Phil.  ii.  9,  seq. ;  Heb.  i. ;  Ephes.  i.  20, 
6e(|. 

(i)  Writers  who  proceed  with  caution  upon 
this  subject  describe  the  mariner  of  the  con- 
nexion of  the  divine  and  human  natures  in 
Christ  rather  negatively  than  positively.  Many, 
however,  endeavour  to  explain  the  subject  by 
supposing  a  prxscntiam  arcliorem,  or  a  peculia- 
rnn  prxsentix  gradxim,  and  remark  that  a  prac- 
seittia  localis,  or  approximatio,  cannot  be  under- 
stood. The  subject  has  been  frequently  illus- 
trated, ever  since  the  fifth  century,  by  a  compa- 
rison of  the  union  between  soul  and  body,  and 
from  this  comparison  the  ideas  and  phraseology 
relative  to  this  subject  have  been  derived.  Ac- 
cording to  this  comparison,  the  human  nature 
of  ("hrist  was  the  instrument  and  organ  of  the 
divine  nature,  as  the  body  is  the  organ  of  the 
human  soul,  with  and  through  which  it  acts  and 
operates  upon  things  extrinsic  to  itself.  The 
body  could  not  act  without  the  co->operalion  of 
the  soul.  The  soul  has  a  deep  concern  in  every- 
thing which  affects  the  body,  and  the  reverse. 
And  yet  each  of  the  two  parts  remains,  as  to  its 
ess^  ntial  nature,  unaltered.  V'ide  Ernesti,  Progr. 
Dignitas  et  Veritas  incarnationis  Opusc.  Theol. 
p.  .S05,  seq. 

This  comparison  casts  some  light  upon  the 
subject,  but  is  not  entirely  applicable,  and  must 
not  be  extended  too  far.  In  the  union  of  soul 
and  body,  the  question  regards  the  state  and  ac- 


tions of  a  spirit  in  a  body.  But  in  Christ,  as  a 
man,  his  deity  does  not  act  upon  his  body  only, 
(as  Apollinaris  supposed,)  but  upon  the  human 
body  and  soul  both  ,•  and  indeed  upon  the  human 
body  principally  through  the  human  soul.  Here, 
then,  the  question  regards  the  union  and  co-ope- 
ration of  07ie  spirit  with  another. 

But  here  we  are  destitute  of  clear  conceptions 
and  definite  knowledge ;  as  we  know  not  even 
how  the  human  soul  acts  upon  the  body,  and  is 
united  with  it.  And  here  we  see  the  reason  at 
once,  why  this  subject  is  so  obscure  to  us  in  our 
present  condition,  and  U'hy  we  are  so  little  able 
to  explain  the  modus.  When  we  hear  of  the  pre 
sence  of  a  spirit,  if  we  avoid  considering  it  as  ma- 
terial, we  shall  obtain  only  this  definite  idea,  that 
the  spirit  is  present  with  us  and  acts  upon  usiy 
thought.  So  we  are  present  in  spirit  with  an 
absent  person  when  we  think  of  him.  Further 
than  this,  we  know  nothing.  Vide  s.  23,  1.  on 
the  omnipresence  of  God. 

After  these  observations,  we  can  form  this 
general  conclusion:  that  the  deity  of  Christ,  as 
deity,  is  indeed  everywhere  present — i.  e.,  acts 
in  everything;  but  that  it  is  present  with  the  hu- 
manity of  Jesus  in  a  peculiar  manner,  in  which 
it  is  not  present  with  any  other  man,  or  any 
other  created  being — that  is,  that  his  divinity 
acts  in  and  through  his  humanity,  so  far  as  the 
latter  is  susceptible  of  this  co-o|)frati(m,  in  such 
a  way  that  this  deity  and  humanity  united  in 
Christ  must  be  considered  as  one  person.  This 
union  is  represented  in  a  similar  manner  by 
Origen,  ITfpt  'Ap;^wv,  1.  2.  This  union  or  con- 
nexion of  the  humanity  of  Jesus  witii  God  is 
not  limited  and  temporary,  as  in  other  spirits 
with  whom  God  is  connected,  John,  v.  26. 
That  here  there  is  something  peculiar,  which 
does  not  take  place  with  respect  to  others,  is 
shewn  by  the  very  peculiar  expressions  which 
are  used  in  the  Bible  with  respect  to  this  union, 
and  which  are  never  used  with  respect  to  the 
union  of  Cod  with  his  creatures  in  general. 

(c)  These  thougiits  may  afford  us  some  con- 
ception of  the  union  of  tiie  two  natures ;  but  they 
are  very  insufficient  to  render  the  subject  entirely 
intelliaible,  or  to  explain  the  manner  of  this 
union  in  a  satisfactory  way.  Morus  ^ives  the 
right  view  of  this  subject,  p.  1^8,  s.  10.  The- 
ologians call  it,  viystirium  incarnationis,  and 
the  more  judicious  fathers  are  unwilling  to  give 
any  further  distinctions  respecting  the  modus 
(to  rtwj)  than  the  holy  scriptures  warrant.  Bui 
nothing  more  can  be  determined  with  certainty 
from  the  New  Testament  than  what  has  just 
been  remarked.  From  the  limitation  of  all  hu- 
man conceptions  we  cannot  believe  that  even 
the  apostles  or  first  Christians  understood  the 
subject  better  than  we  do.  But  they  did  not 
pretend  to  insist  upon  an  explanation  of  things 
beyond  the  reach  of  their  senses,  and  the  sphere 


iGO 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


of  human  knowledge  and  science.  They  did  not 
doubt  or  dt^ny  these  thintjs  because  they  could 
not  be  satisfiietorily  explained.  Cf.  1  Cor.  ii., 
iii.  Such  was  the  fact,  only  after  men  adopted 
the  oracular  decisions  of  an  arbitrary  metaphy- 
sical philosophy,  as  pronounced  first  by  the  Pla- 
tonists,  ilii'n  by  the  Aristotelians,  and  in  modern 
times  by  other  philosophical  schools.  They  now 
began  to  insist  upon  having  everything  demon- 
Birnted  ;  by  a  natural  consequence  they  refused 
to  believe  anything  which  could  not  be  demon- 
strated ;  ami  ilie  direct  consequence  of  this  was 
scepticism. 

The  union  of  soul  and  body  in  one  person  is 
as  inexplicable  to  philosophy  as  the  union  now 
under  consideration.  Indeed,  if  we  were  mere 
spirits,  and  did  not  know  from  experience  that  a 
spirit,  which  is  immortal,  and  which  belongs  en- 
tirely to  the  moral  and  spiritual  world,  is,  as  a 
mailer  of  fact,  united  with  an  animal  body,  which 
is  dust  and  earth,  into  one  personal  /,  we  should 
consider  it  as  highly  improbable,  and  indeed  con- 
tradictory ;  and  our  metaphysicians  would  per- 
haps make  bold  to  ilemi>iistrale  a  priori  its  impos- 
sibility from  principles  of  reason. 

Nole. — Some  have  questioned,  whether  the 
ideas  entertained  upon  this  point  might  not  be 
illustrated  by  a  comparison  of  the  religious  opi- 
nions of  other  nations.  We  find  that  many  na- 
tions not  only  worshipped  deities  who  had  been 
men,  and  had  lived  upon  the  earth,  but  believed 
that  certain  deities  had  assumed  bodies,  and  be- 
come incnrnntc.  This  is  true  especially  of  those 
nations  which  believed  in  the  transmigration  of 
the  soul,  and  were  extravagant  in  their  venera- 
tion for  the  foil  lukrs  of  tlieir  religions — e.  g.,  the 
Indians,  Mongoli, Tartars,  Druses,  and  Persians. 
IJut  these  nations  exhibit  a  rudeness  and  coarse- 
ness of  concepiion,  and  a  gross  anthropomorph- 
ism, from  which  Christ  is  far  removed,  and 
which  never  appear  among  the  first  Christians, 
n  ir  indeed  in  the  whole  age  in  which  they  lived. 
Whatever  distinct  conceptions  t/iei/  had  upon 
this  subject  were  evidently  more  refined  and 
suitable  lo  the  nature  of  God  than  those  of 
other  nations.  The  idea  held  by  the  Greeks  of 
an  attefidant  demon  or  genius,  who  constantly 
al)ode  in'meii,  is  also  entirely  dilTerent  from  the 
Christian  view. 

(rf)  Cnnsidtring.  then,  how  much  there  is  in 
this  subject  which  is  obscure  and  inexplicable, 
we  ought  neiiher  to  |)rescribe  any  universal  for- 
mulae respecting  all  the  more  minute  distinctions 
of  this  doctrine,  further  than  they  are  clearly 
founded  in  the  scriptures;  nor,  after  the  exam- 
ple of  Cyril  and  Leo  the  Great  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, to  condemn  those  who  are  unwilling  to 
assent  to  these  human  formula*.  One  particular 
view  may  be  very  important  to  us,  and  contri- 
bute greatly  to  our  satisfaction  and  conviction  ; 
but  we  ought  not  for  this  reason  to  force  it  upon 


all  other  Christians,  or  to  consider  them  as  less 
pious  and  de  roted  to  Christ,  because  they  dif- 
fer, on  some  points  of  this  doctrine,  from  our 
creed  and  our  phraseology.  In  fact,  the  subject 
lies  too  much  beyond  and  above  our  sphere.  The 
opinions  of  men,  therefore,  respecting  the  modus 
of  this  truth,  and  their  formulae  of  this  doctrine, 
will  always  continue  divided  and  various;  and 
and  the  hypotheses  of  the  learned  will  always 
be  dilfercntly  modified,  accordin?  lo  the  ditTer- 
ent  systems  of  philosophy  and  dilTerent  modes 
of  thinking  which  may  prevail. 

During  the  first  ages  of  the  church  nothing 
was  decided  upon  this  subject;  the  simple  doc- 
trine of  the  Bible  was  adopted;  and  the  more 
learned  Christians  were  left  at  liberty,  from  the 
second  century,  to  philosophize  upon  this  sub- 
ject at  pleasure.  So  it  continued  till  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century.  The  creeds  only  decided, 
Jcsum  esse  Dei  filiuin  c  Maria  urilum.  Even 
during  the  violent  controversies  which  began  to 
rage  in  the  fifth  century,  many  of  the  more  mo- 
derate concurred  with  the  views  just  expressed. 
.Melancthon  remarked,  justly  and  excellently, 
in  his  "  Loci  Theologici,"  that  it  is  not  worth 
while  to  bestow  much  laborious  diligence  on  the 
tnimite  development  of  this  subject;  that  t> 
know  Christ  is  to  know  the  salvation  which  he 
has  procured  for  us;  and  not  studiously  to  in- 
vestigate his  nature,  and  the  manner  of  his  in- 
carnation :  "  Christum — oportd  a/ioquorlum  modo 
Cdi^rtoscamus,  qunm  exhibent  scho/o.slici.^^  To 
scholars,  indeed,  the  historical  knowledge  of 
these  investigations  is  useful  and  necessary. 
But  all  these  subtile  inquiries  and  distinctions 
are  not  proper  for  the  instruction  of  the  common 
people  awd  of  the  young.  This  wise  counsel 
of  .Melancthon  was  very  much  disre<jarded  in 
the  Lutheran  church  at  the  very  period  in  which 
it  was  given;  in  the  Formula  of  Concord,  the 
theologians  prescribed  definite  forms  of  doctrine, 
upon  which  the  greatest  stress  was  laid.  Vide 
s.  102. 

(f)  The  instructions  of  the  holy  scriptures 
upon  this  subject,  (1)  are  intended  to  shew  thai 
this  exalted  dignity  of  the  person  of  (^hrist  con- 
fers a  very  high  value  upon  all  that  he  taught, 
performed,  and  suflTered  for  men; — that  we  are 
thus  bound,  according  to  his  precepts,  to  believe 
his  whole  doctrine  and  work,  and  to  apjtly  these 
to  our  own  benefit; — and  that  his  doctrines  are 
the  doctrines  of  God,  his  works  the  works  of 
God,  his  guidance  and  assistance,  those  of  God. 
Morns  gives  some  fine  views  to  enable  religious 
teachers  to  present  this  subject  in  a  truly  practi- 
cal manner,  p.  li^f),  seq.,  s.  lO,  13. 

(•2)  Hut  there  is  one  more  principal  circum- 
stance, to  which  the  scriptures  often  direct  the 
attention,  and  by  whieli  the  import  ince  of  this 
dnrtrine  in  a  practical  respect  is  still  more  illus* 
1  trated.     Almost  all  men  feel  the  necessity  of 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       3G1 


having  a  human  God  It  is  difficult  to  love  and 
heartily  confide  in  that  immeasurable,  invisfbie, 
inaccessible  God,  whom  we  learn  from  philo- 
sophy. But  Jesus  Christ  (the  Lo^os  become 
man)  is  njt  merely  the  immeasurable,  the  invi- 
sible, the  inaccessible  God  ;  he  is  a  true  man 
of  our  own  race,  and  we  are  his  brethren.  It  is 
therefore  easy  to  love  him,  and  heartily  to  con- 
.ide  in  him;  especially  considering  how  much, 
as  a  man,  he  deserves  of  the  human  race,  by  suf- 
fering and  dying  for  us.  Thus  our  love  to  him 
and  our  dependence  upon  him  rest  mostly  upon 
the  fact  that  he  is  7na;i,  and  indeed,  a  man 
r.nited  with  God,  in  such  sense  as  no  other  man 
ever  was.  Vide  1  Tim.  ii.  5;  Heb.  ii.  14 — 18; 
iv.  15;  (John,  xiv,  1 ;)  John,  v.  27. 

(/)  There  have  been  some  theologians  who 
have  maintained  that  the  interposition  of  a  di- 
vine person  was  necessary  for  the  recovery  of 
men  ;  that  men  could  not  have  been  delivered  in 
any  other  way.  Some  have  carried  this  so  far 
as  to  seem  to  set  limits  to  the  divine  freedom, 
and  to  force  from  God,  by  presumptuous  demon- 
stration, what  was  merely  a  free  gift.  Vide  s. 
88,  ad  finem.  It  were  enough  to  shew  the 
suitableness  oi  \,\\\5  means,  without  attempting  to 
prove  its  absolute  necessity.  This  plan  of  God 
is  wise,  and  fully  suited  to  the  wants  of  men; 
and  therefore  God  has  chosen  it.  The  Bible 
always  labours  to  exhibit  this  fact  as  the  great- 
est proof  of  the  free  and  unmerited  love  of  God, 
Jr.hn.  iii.  16.  How  opposite  to  this  is  the  at- 
tempt to  demonstrate  this  truth  a  priori!  So 
thought  Athanasius  ;  and  Augustine  calls  those 
stulkis,  who  undertake  to  demonstrate  metapliy- 
sically  that  God  could  not  have  saved  men  in 
another  way.  Still  we  find  this  mistaken  wish 
to  have  every  thing  demonstrated  even  among 
the  fathers.  Tertullian  said,  "  God  must  have 
become  man  in  order  to  unite  God  with  men  and 
men  with  God."  Anselmus  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury argues  thus: — "Without  sa(isfac(io7i,  men 
could  not  he  saved.  To  give  this  satisfaction 
to  God  was  the  duty  of  men,  but  the  duty  was 
too  hard  for  them.  None  but  God  was  able  to 
give  it.  But  to  him,  as  the  Judge  of  men,  it 
must  be  given.  Therefore  the  Son  of  God  must 
become  man,  in  order,  as  God-man,  to  afford  tliis 
satisfaction  to  God."  Vide  s,  114,  2.  Some 
theologians,  even  in  modern  times,  especially 
from  the  school  of  Wolf,  have  pretended  to  de- 
monstrate that  this  was  the  only  means  of  res- 
cuing man,  and  was  absolutely  necessary  for 
this  purpose. 

S\ich  demonstrations  are  entirely  unsuitable 
for  promiscuous  popular  instruction.  Christ 
commissioned  his  disciples  not  to  demonstrate 
this  truth  philosophically,  hut  to  exhibit  it  (I 
Cor.  i. — iii.);  to  teach  it,  from  their  own  con- 
viction and  experience,  with  plainness  and  sim- 
plicity, but  still  with  sincere  interest,  and  then 
46 


quietly  to  leave  the  consequences  tvilh  God.* 
This  was  surely  very  wise;  and  this  is  the 
course  which  we  should  pursue.  Besides,  in 
this  constant  vicissitude  of  philosophical  opi- 
nions and  schools,  there  is  this  evident  disad- 
vantage, that  the  truth  itself,  which  is  demon- 
strated by  the  help  of  the  philosophy  of  the 
schools,  is  either  doubted  or  rejected  as  soon  as 
the  school  goes  down. 

SECTION  CII. 

HISTORICAL  OBSERVATIONS  EXPLANATORY  CF  THE 
ORIGIN  AND  PROGRESSIVE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE 
ECCLESIASTICAL  SYSTEM,  RESPECTING  THE  PER- 
SON AND  THE  TWO  NATURES  OF  CHRIST,  UNTIL 
THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY. 

I.  Earliest  Opinions,  from  the  Second  to  the  Fourth 
Century. 

As  early  as  the  third  century  many  points  had 
been  established  by  the  catholic  councils  respect- 
ing both  the  divine  and  human  nature  of  Christ, 
separately  considered,  in  opposition  («)  to  those 
who  denied  that  Christ  had  a  real  human  body 
(the  Docetae),  or  {b)  to  those  who  either  main- 
tained that  he  was  a  mere  man,  or,  allowing  his 
higher  nature,  yet  denied  his  essential  divinity 
and  equality  with  the  Father.  From  that  pe- 
riod the  catholic  fathers  introduced  into  their 
authorized  symbols  such  distinctions  and  for- 
mula; as  were  calculated  to  oppose  the  above- 
named  errors. 

But  it  was  not  ULtil  the  fifth  century  that 
anything  definite  w-as  established  ra-pecting  the 
UNION  (f  these  two  natures  in  Christ ;  and  on  this 
subject  the  most  various  modes  of  thinking  and 
speaking  prevailed,  even  among  the  catholic 
fathers  themselves.  Those  difficult  points  in 
this  doctrine,  respecting  which  so  much  contro- 
versy existed  after  the  fourth  century,  do  not 
seem  to  have  occasioned  much  trouble  to  the 
earlier  Christians,  who  had  not  as  yet  learned 
to  apply  the  metaphysics  of  the  schools  to  the 
doctrines  of  religion.  And  it  is  found  to  be  pre 
cisely  so  with  common  unlearned  Christians  at 
the  present  day,  who  have  not  their  heads  filled 
with  those  metaphysical  systems,  in  cnuformity 
with  which,  as  their  models,  others  adjust  and 
square  all  their  opinions.  Hence  it  does  not 
appear  that  any  Christian  teacher  of  tlie  first  two 
centuries  made  any  attempt  to  elucidate  the 
mysteries  of  this  subject,  and  even  the  heretics 
of  this  period  passed  them  by  without  taking 
offence.  All  which  was  distinctly  conceived 
of  during  this  early  period  respecting  the  manner 
in  which  God  became  man,  was  simply  this, 
that  God,  or  the  divine  nature  of  Christ  became 
visible  in  a  true  human  body,  and  assumed  real 
human  flesh.  Hence  the  earliest  fathers  and 
symbols  are  satisfied  with  the  term,  u'japxwaiji 
2H 


3<5-3 


CHRISTIAN*  THEOLOGY. 


without  iroing  into  further  explanations  :  rtortitj 
6ij  Tcoi'  c-).-ou  (7a|)XwJ)t'i'Ttt.  >So  Justin  the  Mar- 
tyr, Ireiiaus,  Tertullian,  (Adv.  Prax.  c.  2,)  and 
even  Origen,  (rapi.  Ajjywj'.) 

[Tiie  general  truth  of  the  ahove  statement  of 
our  author,  that  llie  early  falliers  supposed  that 
the  LofTos  assumed  only  a  human  budy,  is  con- 
firmed by  the  ti'siiiuony  of  Muenscher,  Dogma- 
tic History  (Translation),  p.  G3  ;  of  Hahn,  Lehr- 
buch,  s.  15G;  of  Neander,  Al.  Kirchengesch,  b. 
i.  Ab.  iii.  s.  lOiiS.  But  there  is  one  exception 
to  this  statement  in  the  opinions  of  Justin,  which 
were  t'ormed  under  the  influence  of  the  Platonic 
philosopiiy.  Adopting  the  threefold  division  of 
man  into  boJt/,  xoul,  and  spirit,  which  was  so 
common  with  the  Platonic  fathers,  and  of  which 
a  fuller  account  has  been  given  in  the  first  vo- 
lume, (s.  51, 1.  1,  note,)  he  supposed  that  Christ 
consisted,  like  other  men,  of  those  three  parts, 
except  that,  in  place  of  the  erring  human  rcrmon, 
(tierm.  I'trnunft,  in  opposition  to  rastuml,  or 
Or.  rtvivutt  as  opposed  to  ■icvxr-i)  wliich  is  only 
•a  ray  of  the  divine  Logos,  he  had  this  Logos 
himself,  as  t!ie  hijiher  controlling  principle  of 
his  being.  In  these  speculations  with  regard  to 
the  manner  of  tlie  connexion  between  the  divine 
and  human  in  Christ,  Justin  went  before  the  age 
in  which  he  lived,  and  furnished  the  germ  of  the 
system  which  was  afterwards  further  developed 
by  ApoUinaris,  whose  doctrinal  predecessor 
Justin  may  therefore  rightly  be  considered.  Cf. 
Neander,  Allg.  Gesch.  der  chr.  Uel.  und  Kir., 
b.  i,  Abth.  iii.  s,  lOG.'L— Tr.] 

The  systems  of  religion  from  which  many  of 
the  earlier  Christians  were  converted,  appear  to 
have  contributed  something  towards  enal)ling 
them  to  receive  without  difficulty  the  doctrine 
of  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God.  They 
were  familiarized  from  their  youth,  in  the  midst 
of  heathenism,  with  the  idea  of  the  visible  ap- 
pearance of  the  Deity  in  human  forms;  and  al- 
though when  they  afterwards  became  Christians, 
they  considered  the  accounts  of  the  incarnations 
of  the  heathen  gods  as  fabulous,  still,  by  having 
been  familiar  with  such  accounts,  they  were 
prepared  to  receive  more  easily  the  fact  of  the 
incarnation  announced  in  Christianity;  they 
now  had  a  seemingr  analogy  for  it.  Ihit  on  this 
very  account,  many  of  them  conceived  of  the  in- 
ennKitiiiH  as  a  degradation  of  the  Deify.  Vide 
8.  1>.3.  'I'he  converts  from  Judaism  to  Christian- 
ity had  also  some  analogy  for  this  doctrine  in 
iheir  previous  system  of  belief,  which  very  much 
facilitated  their  n  ception  of  it,  since  tliey  were 
tau'jht  by  their  ancient  books,  even  by  those  of 
Moses,  til  believe  in  tiie  appearance  of  angels 
and  of  God  himself  in  human  form.  The  stu- 
dent may  find  many  interesting  views,  illustrat- 
ing the  relation  of  the  various  systems  of  hea- 
thenism to  Christianity,  in  Schlegel's  "  Philos. 


der  Gescbichte;"  also  in  Kreutzer's  "Svmbo* 
Ilk."— Tk.] 

But  while,  in  opposition  to  the  Doceta»,  the 
early  fathers  contended  zealously  for  the  real- 
ity of  the  human  body  of  (Christ;  none  in  either 
of  the  contending  parlies,  before  the  end  of  the 
second  century,  thougiit  it  necessary  to  prove 
particularly  that  he  had  also  a  true  human  suuL 
This  was  not  indeed  directly  denied,  [except 
by  Justin,  as  just  mentioned — Tit.,]  still  the 
necessity  of  proving  its  existence  was  not  at 
that  time  felt;  nor  indeed  was  the  essential  dis- 
tinction between  the  nature  of  the  soul  and  body 
at  all  so  obvious  at  that  time,  certainly  it  was 
not  used  in  common  prdctice,  as  it  has  since 
been. 

[Tertullian  was  the  first  who  distinctly  taught 
the  doctrine  of  a  proper  human  soul  in  Christ. 
In  his  anthropology  he  rejected  the  common 
division  of  man  into  body,  soul,  and  spirit,  and 
admitted  only  two  distinct  principles  in  all  ani- 
mated existences — viz.,  body  and  snul ;  the  lat- 
ter of  which,  however,  in  man  he  supposed  en- 
dowed with  higher  properties  than  in  the  infe- 
rior orders.  lie  had  not  therefore  tlie  convenient 
resort  of  the  Platonic  theologians,  of  interposing 
an  animal  ^.i';^^  between  the  Logos  and  the  body 
in  Christ;  but  must  either  connect  the  Logo3 
immediately  and  without  intervention  with  the 
body,  (which  would  be  to  attribute  at  once  to 
the  divine  Logos  the  pain  and  sorrow,  the  pro- 
gress in  knowledge,  the  ignorance,  and  all  the 
other  indications  of  an  imperfect  human  soul, 
which  appear  in  the  life  of  Christ;)  or  he  must 
ascribe  to  Christ  a  proper  and  entire  human 
soul.  With  this  necessity  in  view,  he  chose 
the  latter  part  of  the  alternative,  preferring  the 
mystery  and  complexity  attending  the  coimexion 
between  the  divine  and  human  to  the  absurdities 
resulting  from  the  former  theory,  ihouiih  com- 
mende<i  by  its  simplicity  to  the  speculative  rea- 
son. Cf.  Neander  Gescbichte,  b.  i.  Abth.  iii. 
s.  1001.— Tu.] 

Afier  the  third  century,  Origen  first  []]  gave 
importance  to  this  doctrine  of  the  human  soul 
of  Christ  in  his  Theology,  and  brought  it  dis- 
tinctly into  light,  though  not  on  the  same  grounds 
by  which  the  doctrine  is  now  supported.  [AU 
thouirh  Origen  agreed  with  Tertullian  in  main- 
taining an  entire  human  soul  in  Christ,  his 
views  respecting  the  mode  of  union  between 
the  two  natures,  dilfered  widely  from  those  of 
Tertullian,  and  took  their  colouring  from  his 
peculiar  philosophical  system.  The  union  of 
believers  with  (,'hrist  furnished  him  with  an 
analogy  for  the  connexion  between  the  Logos 
and  the  human  nature  in  Christ.  If  believers, 
be  argued,  are  one  spirit  with  their  Lord,  as  Paul 
affirms,  much  more  must  this  be  true  of  that 
soul  which  the  Logos  had  taken  into  insepara* 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       363 


ble  union  wiili  himself.  A3  the  rti'(vf.ia  in  be- 
lievers is  the  actuating  principle  from  vvhicii  all 
their  feelintrs  and  actions  spring,  much  more  is 
it  in  Christ,  the  forerunner  of  believers,  the  ac- 
tuating, controlling,  and  pervading  principle,  by 
which  his  entire  humanity  is  guided  and  filled. 
By  urging  this  analogy  he  drew  upon  himself 
the  objection  which  has  often  been  repeated 
against  the  same  view,  that  he  made  Christ  a 
mere  man,  distinguished  from  other  believers 
only  by  a  higlier  degree  of  the  same  participa- 
tion in  the  divine  nature  which  they  enjoyed. 
Whether  this  olijeclion  fairly  lies  against  the 
views  of  Origen  this  is  not  the  proper  place  to 
inquire. — Tr.] 

[But  the  theory  respecting  the  person  of 
Christ  advanced  by  'I'ertullian,  and  developed 
and  supported  by  Origen,  was  particularly  of- 
fensive to  Arius  and  Eunomius,  and  to  all  who 
contended  for  the  subordination  of  the  Logos  to 
the  Father.  According  to  the  earlier  doctrine 
of  the  church,  which  they  adopted,  and  which 
connected  the  Logos  immediately  with  the  body 
of  Christ,  they  had  been  able  to  allege  all  the 
appearances  of  limitation  and  natural  imperfec- 
tion which  he  exhibited  as  proofs  against  the 
doctrine  of  the  absolute  divinity  of  the  Logos, 
and  in  favour  of  their  own  views  of  his  subordi- 
nation. But  of  this  argument  they  were  de- 
prived when  a  human  soul,  of  which  all  these 
imperfections  could  be  predicated,  was  ascribed 
to  Christ,  and  his  higher  nature  was  allowed  in 
no  sense  to  infringe  upon  his  full  and  proper 
humanity.  On  the  theory  of  Origen,  it  was  no 
longer  possible  for  them  to  invalidate  the  proofs 
of  the  absolute  divinity  of  Christ  by  opposimjf 
the  numerous  evidences  of  subordination  ap- 
pearing in  his  life  and  words,  since  all  these 
must  of  course  be  understood  of  his  humanity, 
leaving  his  divine  nature,  though  intimately 
connected  with  the  human,  unimpaired  by  the 
limitations  of  the  latter.  Hence  Arius  and  his 
followers  strenuously  opposed  the  doctrine  of 
the  proper  humanity  of  Christ,  and  insisted 
upon  the  older,  indistinct,  and  undeveloped 
form  of  belief,  by  which  the  Logos  merely  ani- 
mated tiie  body  of  Christ.  Cf.  Neander,  Ges- 
chichte,  u.  s.  w.,  b.  ii.  Abth.  ii.  s.  904,  ff. — 

[While,  on  one  side,  the  Arians  at  this  pe- 
riod infringed  upon  the  human  nature  of  Christ, 
on  the  other  side,  Marcellus  and  I^hotinus,  of 
whom  we  have  before  spoken,  (s.  43,)  infringed 
U|>on  the  divine  nature  and  its  personal  union 
with  the  human.  Marcellus.  inclining,  as  he 
did,  to  Siibellianism,  supposed  there  was  a 
merely  outward  and  temporary  op<  ration  of  the 
Logos  upon  Christ,  though  still,  it  must  be  al- 
lowed, in  such  a  way  as  to  securi'  the  being  of 
God  ill  him.  Photinus  went  funtier,  and  giv- 
ing great  prominence  to  the  human  in  Christ, 


made  nothing  more  of  the  divine  in  him  than  the 
general  illuminating  influence  which  he  enjoyed 
in  common  with  the  prophets  and  oihei  ambas- 
sadors of  God,  though  in  a  higher  degree.  This 
doctrine  is  properly  called  Pholinianism. — Tr.] 

[Between  these  diverging  tendencies  of  opi- 
nion, Arianism  and  Photinianism,  tlie  catholic 
fathers  (e.  g.,  Gregory  of  Nazianz,  (iregory  of 
Nyssa,  and  others)  endeavoured  to  reconcile  the 
personal  union  of  two  natures  in  Christ  with  the 
completeness  of  tiie  human  nature.  We  have 
tlius  all  the  elements  of  that  violent  contro\-ersy 
respecting  the  person  of  Christ  which  shortly 
followed, — Tr.] 

Now,  after  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
Apollinaris  arose,  and  denied  the  existence  of  a 
human  soul  in  Christ,  or  at  least  of  the  higher 
power  of  the  soul.  Vide  s.  93,  II.  [His  theory 
was  in  general  the  same  as  that  of  .Tustin,  before 
mentioned,  only  more  systematically  developed. 
It  seems  to  have  resulted  in  a  great  measure  from 
I  he  speculative  interest  which  endeavoured  to 
conceive  clearly  and  to  explain  what  had  before 
been  indistinct.  And  it  has  certainlv  the  ad- 
vantage in  many  respects,  and  especially  in 
|i(iiiit  of  distinctness  and  consistency,  over  the 
older  indefinite  belief,  and  over  the  Arian  theory 
respecting  the  person  of  Christ,  with  which  in 
i/eneral  it  agreed.  It  also  sprung  from  the 
Christian  interest  to  see  in  Christ  the  full,  im- 
mediate, undisturbed  manifestation  of  the  Deity, 
which,  as  it  seemed  to  Apollinaris,  could  not  h% 
on  the  theory  of  Origen,  where  a  human  sou\ 
was  made  the  organ  of  the  divine  operations. 
The  controversy  against  Apollinaris  brought 
distinctly  into  view  the  necessit}',  in  order  to 
the  purposes  of  man's  redemption,  of  the  entire- 
ness  of  the  human  nature  of  our  Redeemer.— 
Tr.] 

After  this  period,  the  investigation  of  this 
|)oint  took  a  new  turn,  the  first  ground  of  which 
was  laid  in  the  Arian  controversies  of  the  same 
century.  The  endeavour  now  became  to  make 
everything  clear  and  determinate;  and  since  the 
meta|)hysics  of  the  schools  were  becoming  more 
and  more  common,  the  ancient  simplicity  was 
thought  to  be  no  longer  sufficient. 

II.  T/ie  (wo  opposing  systems,  having  their  origin 

in  the  Fourth  Century,  and  appearing  in  con* 

jlict  in  the  Fifth. 

The  foundation  of  both  of  these  was  laid  by 
the  Arian  and  Apollinarian  controversies. 

(1)  Some  of  the  Christians  of  the  East— 
e.  g,,  those  of  Syria.  [;>nd  in  general  the  disci- 
ples of  the  school  at  Antioch.]  always  made  the 
most  accurate  distinction  between  the  two  na- 
tures in  Christ,  and  in  all  their  discourses  used 
terms  which  indicated  this  distinction  between 
the  divine  and  human  in  his  person,  in  the  most 
definite  and  discrimina'ing  manner.     This  had 


9C4 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


been  before  done  by  ?ome  of  the  earlier  teach- 
ers— p.  ^.,  Tt-rtullinn,  (Adv.  Prax.  c.  27,)  still 
more  frequently  by  Oritjen,  ami  by  some  of  the 
earlier  councils.  But  after  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  c«ntury,  when  the  Apoliinarian  contro- 
versies commenced,  the  orthodox  teachers  in 
Syria  and  the  other  Oriental  provinces  became 
still  more  accurate  in  making  these  distinctions, 
and  especially  were  more  decidedly  opposed  to 
every  theory  which  look  from  the  humanity  of 
Christ  its  peculiar  properties.  These  were  the 
precursors  of  the  Nestorians. 

(•2)  Others  observeil  no  such  accuracy,  and 
often  employed  phraseology  which  appeared  to 
indicate  an  entire  mixture  of  the  two  natures, 
and  a  deification  of  the  hu'nan  nature.  This 
Was  occasioned  by  the  Arian  controversies ;  for 
many,  in  order  to  exalt  Christ  in  opposition  to 
the  Arians,  seemed  almost  to  forget  that  he  was 
also  a  true  man.*  This  tendency  exhibited  it- 
self more  particularly  in  Kgypt  and  in  the 
Western  church,  and  was  carried  out  into  fur- 
ther development  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  and 
commencement  of  the  fifth  century.  Those  who 
opposed  this  tendency  were  of  opinion  that  by 
phraseolujry  of  the  kind  which  the  Alexandrine 
theologians  used  the  doctrine  of  Apollinaris  was 
countenanced  ;  for  his  followers  often  used  terms 
like  the  f  dlnwing — viz.,  God  is  man,  is  horn. 
Buffered,  died,  &c. ;  IM;iry  is  the  mother  of  God, 
(J>fordxo5.)  But  the  Alexandrine  teachers  could 
plead  in  ihcir  justification  the  example  of  many 

•  There  is  reason  to  doubt  the  correctness  of  the 
reason  here  assigned  by  Dr.  Kniijip  for  tliis  tendcncv 
of  the  Alexandrine  school,  (lor  it  was  this  school 
which  olijccti'd  to  the  distinclion  of  natures  contend- 
ed for  by  the  schnni  of  Anliocb.)  The  Arians 
wholly  agreed  with  the  lollowrrs  of  Apolhnaris,  and 
Willi  the  (beuloi^ians  of  Alexandria,  in  objecting  to 
the  distiiictiun  of  natures  in  (Jhrist,  and  in  contend- 
inij  for  their  mixture  and  oneness,  and  the  transfer 
of  the  atlribulcs  lu'lonnincj  to  each.  And  it  is  easy 
to  sec  how  this  want  of  distinction  should  be  pnv 
motive  of  iluif  liclicf ;  since  it  enabled  tboin  to  trans- 
fer to  the  hi(;;lu!r  nature  of  (Christ  the  a[)|H'araiices 
of  limitation  in  liis  life,  and  thus  to  obtain  a  proof 
of  the  sulMinlination  of  the  Lottos,  of  which  they 
would  l)c  deprived  were  an  accurate  distinction  of 
natures  intr<xluced,  and  the  a|iplication  to  the  one 
of  the  predicates  iK-loniiinij  to  the  other  forbidden. 
It  is  a  IjcI  dcHcrvinn  of  particular  notice,  that  those 
who  have  contended  most  strenuously  lor  the  abso- 
lute divinity  of  Christ,  have  U-en  also  those  who 
have  insisted  most  upon  the  rights  of  bis  butnanitv, 
and  for  a  careful  distmction  In-tween  the  predicates 
of  the  two  natures;  while  those  who  have  held  that 
the  liogos  is  the  most  |>cr(ect  atnong  all  created  U-- 
ings,  hut  not  (tod  in  the  projier  pcnse.  have  opially 
infringed  upon  the  humanity  of  Christ,  and  have 
alwavs  opposed  the  distinclion  of  natures.  It  was 
not,  then,  in  op[H)Bilion  to  the  Arian,  i>ut  rather  to 
the  l*tiotinian  form  of  doctrine  with  regard  to  the 
person  of  ('lirisl  that  the  Alexandrine  tendency 
found  the  occaiiion  for  its  furlfier  development. — 
Tn.] 


of  the  older  fathers  who  had  used  similar  phrase 
ology.  Kven  Athanasius  had  spoken  of  a  deifi- 
cation of  the  body  of  Christ  after  the  resurrec- 
tion. Kusebius  of  Csesarea,  and  Oregnry  of 
Nyssa,  had  said  that  the  human  nature  of  Christ 
was  sivallowed  tip  by  the  divine,  &c.  Some- 
times even  Origen  had  used  similar  expressions. 
These  were  the  precursors  of  the  Munitphxffiira. 
In  reality,  however,  these  parties  were  more 
agreed  than  they  believed  themselves  to  be,  or 
than  they  seemed  to  be,  judging  from  their  dif- 
ferent terminologies.  Everything  was  now 
ready  and  prepared  for  the  controversy,  which 
finally  broke  out  in  the  fifth  century. 

[Xeander,  in  his  Church-Hisiory,  (b.  ii. 
Abth.  iii.  s.  91t),  IT.,)  traces  back  these  diverg- 
ing tendencies  to  the  fundamental  difl'iirence  be- 
tween the  Alexandrine  school  and  that  at  Anti- 
och,  as  to  the  relation  between  reason  and 
revelation.  The  Alexandrine  school,  in  follow- 
ing its  more  contemplative  and  mystical  direc- 
tion of  mind,  was  disposed  to  assert  the  unin- 
telligibleness of  the  union  of  the  two  natures, 
and  to  magnify  the  inystery  of  this  union,  and 
to  resist  all  attempts  at  definite  conception  and 
explanation.  The  school  at  Anliocb,  on  the 
contrary,  in  conformity  with  its  more  free  and 
speculative  bias,  while  it  did  not  assume  fully 
to  explain  the  tv-tfp  \6yov  of  this  union  of  na« 
tures,  still  undertook  to  discover  how  much  ia 
it  was  xatix  %6'/ov. — Tr.] 

in<  Theory  of  Nestoritis,  and  the  Coulroversy 
reliitin;^  to  it. 

Neslorius,  Patriarch  at  Constantinople,  being 
born  and  educated  in  Syria,  adopted  the  Syriao 
form  of  doctrine  witii  reg^ird  to  the  person  of 
Christ,  and  endeavoured  to  employ  terms  which 
would  aecurattdy  distinguish  between  his  divine 
and  human  natures.  This,  however,  had  never 
before  been  done  in  Constantinople.  After  ihe 
Arian  controversies,  the  term  ^foroxo;  had  been 
used  very  freijuently  in  applicaiion  to  Mary,  the 
mother  of  Christ,  which  was  also  a  favourite 
term  with  the  fllovvers  of  Apollinaris  in  Syria, 
Hilt  when,  in  the  year  4'28,  Neslorius  became 
patriarch  at  Constantinople,  he  was  much  sur- 
prised by  this  language.  He  objected  to  the 
term  i^fordxnj,  on  the  ground  that  it  Could  not  be 
said  that  God  was  born  or  died  ;  and  instead  of 
this  term  he  proposed  to  substitute  Xourordatoj. 
With  this  the  controversy  commenced. 

His  doctrine,  as  appears  from  his  homilies, 
was  this  :  »»  Christ  had  two  vrtoTruiMi,  a  divine 
and  human,  (meaning  by  ixoofo/rif,  as  many  of 
the  ancients  did,  nalurn,  fvotf,  or  as  Terluiliaa 
himself  etnployed  it,  siitixlantia,)  and  only  jrpo- 
ow.tor  ftotatfuxov,  one  person.  These  two  natures 
stood  in  the  closest  connexion  (^>jvrii<f>na).  whi'-h 
he  considered  as  consisting  prineipaliy  in  the 
agreement  of  will   and   action,   but  were   no* 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       36d 


mixed  or  fransformed.  Each  nature  still  re- 
tained its  peculiar  attributes,  as  is  the  case  in 
man,  who  consists  of  two  iirtosraatij,  soul  and 
body.  All  these  attributes  and  actions  were 
predicvible  of  one  person,  (npo'jurtov,)  but  not 
of  both  the  natures;  the  inftrior  were  predica- 
ble  onl)'of  the  human  nature;  the  superior  only 
of  the  divine  nature.  Accordingly,  the  terms, 
Dcus  iwnis,  inorltius  est,  Mater  Dti,  0f6j  ti"5apxoj, 
were  very  unsuitable  and  unscriptural.  These 
could  be  properly  predicated  only  of  Christ,  (the 
name  of  the  person.)" 

Hereupon  Nestorius  was  openly  attacked,  at 
first  in  Etrypt.  His  chief  opponent  was  Cyril, 
the  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who  maintained  his 
own  theory  in  opposition,  and  accused  Nestorius 
of  dividing  Christ  into  tivo  persons;  because 
4>v'7t5  was  the  word  used  at  Alexandria  for  what 
Nestorius  called  vftorsram^,  and  vnorsrami  for 
what  he  called  rtpoowrtoc.  They  disagreed, 
therefore,  more  in  words  than  in  reality.  At 
length,  in  the  year  431,  the  followers  of  Nesto- 
rius were  condemned  as  heretics  by  the  council 
at  Ephesus.  The  whole  party  separated  from 
the  catiiolic  church,  and  continues  in  the  East  to 
the  present  day.  [For  a  more  full  account  of 
the  doctrines  of  Nestorius,  with  the  original  pas- 
sages, cf.  Gieseler,  Lehrb.  d.  k.  Gesch.  b.  i.  s. 
85,  ^.  Neander,  Gesch.  b.  ii.  Abth.  iii.  s.  951. 
As  to  the  separate  community  of  the  Nestorians, 
cf.  Neander  in  his  Appendix  to  the  History  of 
rtiis  Doctrine,  b.  ii.  Abih.  iii.  s.  1171.  Also 
Mosheim  (Murdock's  Trans.),  vol.  i.  p.  431, 
note.  Whether  the  whole  dispute  between  Nes- 
torius and  Cyril  was  mere  logomachy  is  a  matter 
of  dispute. — Tr.] 

IV.  The  Doctrine  of  Eutyches,  and  the  Controversy 
respecting  it  in  the  Fifth  Century. 

Eutyches,  an  abbot,  and  presbyter  in  cloister 
at  Constantinople,  was  one  of  the  most  zealous 
op|)onenls  of  Nestorius.  In  order  to  oppose  his 
doctrine  more  successfully,  he  affirmed,  after  the 
year  4  IS,  that  Christ  h;id  only  oi\e  nature  (^I'a 
^ntc)  after  his  deity  and  humanity  were  united. 
He  called  this  nature,  4)1-315  orfaapxio^f  I'j;,  the  na- 
ture made  human.  In  this  way  he  supposed  he 
could  express  the  most  intimate  connexion  be- 
tween the  two  natures,  which,  in  his  opii>iiMi, 
were  too  widely  separated  by  Nestorius,  so  as  to 
make  two  persons  in  Christ.  He  meant,  in  fact, 
to  say  nothing  more  nor  less  than  that  there  was 
only  om  Christ.  The  whole  obscurity  consisted 
in  the  word  fiitj,  which  he  understood  to  mean 
person  ;  as  Athanasins  himself  did  in  the  fifth 
century,  and  also  Ephraem  the  Syrian.  This 
controversy,  therefore,  like  the  former,  was,  in 
fact,  mere  logomachy.*    Eutyches  appealed,  and 


•  [Thedoctrme  of  Eutyches  rpspecting  the  person 
of  (yhrisl  has  been  more  definitely  stated   by  other 


with  truth,  to  Athanasius,  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 
and  other  ancifnt,  and  especially  Egyptian, 
teachers,  who  appea  -"I  to  abolish  the  distinction 
of  the  two  natures.  I'.vtychianism  may  therefore 
be  truly  said  to  have  existed  before  Eutyches; 
to  prove  which  Salig  published  a  treatise  at 
Wolfenbiite],  17-24,  4to. 

Hence  arose  another  unhappy  division  in  the 
church-  The  patriarch  of  Constantinople  joined 
with  Pope  Leo  the  Great  in  opposing  Eutyches, 
and  accused  the  latter  of  reviving  the  heresy  of 
Apollinaris,  and  of  denying  the  true  humanity 
of  Christ.  He  protested  against  this  conclusinn; 
but  they  would  not  allow  that  his  words  admitted 
any  other  sense,  and  he  was  too  obstinate  to  alter 
his  terminology.  At  the  Council  at  Chalcedon  in 
the  year  451,  his  doctrine  was  condemned  as  he- 
retical. Here  arose  the  sect  of  the  Monophysites, 
which  continues  in  the  East  to  the  present  day. 

In  order  to  render  the  difference  between  them- 
selves and  the  catholics  and  Nestorians  clearly 
discernible,  some  of  these  Monophysites  em- 
ployed paradoxical  statements  and  phrases,  like 
the  following  : — viz.,  one  of  the  Trinity  suffered 
and  was  crucified  ;  the  deity  of  Christ  so  pene- 
trated his  humanity  as  to  render  his  bod}'  incoT' 
ruptibk,  (cLij-^opror.)  This,  however,  was  denied 
by  others,  because  it  favoured  the  Dnceta?.  Some 
also,  even  of  the  Monophysites,  believed  that 
the  divine  nature  was  omniscient,  but  not  the 
human  nature  connected  with  it,  (Mark,  xiii. 
32.)     These  were  called  Agncetse. 

\Note. — As  Photinianism  and  Apollinarianism 
were  the  opposite  extremes  of  this  doctrine  in 
the  former  period,  so  now  were  Nestorianism 
and  Eutvchianism.  Between  these  the  catholic 
fathers  took  a  middle  course,  and  condemned,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  swd^na  of  Nestorius,  as  indi- 
catinij  a  mere  external  and  moral  connexion  be- 
tween the  two  natures  in  Christ,  and,  on  the 
other,  the  avyj'vaij  or  ^jfTa'loXj;  of  Eutyches,  as 
indicating  such  an  entire  ii!terpenetratif)n  of  the 
two  natures  as  must  destroy  the  peculiarities  of 
each.  The  catholic  doctrine  in  opposition  to 
these  extremes  is  expressed  in  the  fnllowing 
symbol,  established  at  the  Council  at  Chalcedon, 
451,  under  Marcian. 


writers  on  doctrinal  history.  The  principal  peculi- 
arity of  it  is  placed  in  this  point:  while  Eutyches 
admitted  that  before  the  incarnation  (or,  which  was 
doubtless  his  meaninfj,  accvrdinix  to  conception,  and 
not  in  renlitji)  there  were  two  natures  in  Christ,  yet 
alter  this  they  did  not  remain  distinct,  but  consti- 
tuted oiie  nature,  not  merely  by  a  owaVitia,  as  Nesto- 
rius held,  but  by  a  real  oiyx-cii  or  itcra.8u>n,  so  that 
his  human  nature  could  no  longer  be  said  to  be  cr/W- 
suljstantlal  with  that  of  other  men.  Briefly,  it  is 
Eutychianism  to  say  that  Christ  is  constituted  of  or 
from  two  natures,  but  does  not  exist  in  two  natures, 
(«  cxo  ■•fiotm,  not  ri  iio  ./ii'fffTi.)  Cf.  Neander,  Gesch.. 
b.  ii.  Ah.  iii.  s.  1078.  Also  Murdock's  Mosheim. 
vol.  i.  p.  433,  Note. — Tit.] 

2  h2 


366 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


'Kfto/Kvoi  ■foivvv  Toij  ayioty  rto'^ijuiu',  iva  xai 
tov  avtov  ufioXoytiv  vtov  ruv  xiytov  jJ-uwk  'Ir^ijovv 
'X.pt'jToi'  avuipJjfuiiaTiavrii txbibaixoufv,  r  f  Xf  to  v 
rov  avTov  (V  ^tbffjrt  xai  riy.e(,ov  rov  avrov 
iv  av^pwrCorj^rti  Qiov  ttX>;?>u)j  xai  (tv^fu^nov 
aXr;^Zi  riv  ai-rbv  ix  ■^'V;^  ^5,  7.oy  i  z  jr  j  xai  Oio- 
(latoi,  of.iooi'jiov  r<^  rtaT^Jl  xara  tjji'  ^for>jra,  xai 
ofioovmov  rov  avTov  i;,"ti'  xaTtt  7 ^v  a: ^pwnorjjra, 
xara rtavra  ouotov  riixtv  AT^pij  ouopriaj'  rtpo  aiuirtov 
fitv  (x  Toil  rtarpoj  yfU'jjii'ira  xara.  r^v  i>for);'ra, 
IX'  t9;jfarwi'  6f  rwv  r^fpuiv  ror  ovroi',  8t'  ruaj  xai 
610  r^v  7;u(re^>a,v  auTrjpiav,  ix  Mopta;  r)jj  na^i^ii^v 
t  r,i  ^ I  or  ox  ov  xara  r»jy  aihpuiftorr^ra,  iva  xai 
TOV  avTov  Xpc'^roi',  vtbv,  xvptoi',  fxofoytvr;,  i  x  i  vo 
^iit  tiv  [e'*'  6vo  i}>v5f  7i].  aavyx^f^i  d  r  p  £  rt- 
fwj,  adtaipiru;,  d;);topKjrwj  yrupi^out- 
rov  ov5o,uoi)  r>jj  ruiv  ij)v(if wv  6iai})opuj  diTp);ut»'>;j 
8id  r^v  iKodtv,  uw^o/tt'i'^jj  St  juttX?y)c  rrf  i6i6rjj- 
TOj  fxarfpa^  ^uijfwj  xai  fij  iV  rt  p  d  5i.>  rto  f,  xai 
/i(a>'  vrto'itarsiv  ovvt^txoi'Jr^i.,  ovx  f ij  fivo  rtpo- 
awTta  /tfpt^ouf I'oc  j^  Siaipovufyor,  a7.\'  'na  xai  rov 
avrov  viov  xai  fioi'oycvr^,  ^sov  >.oyof,  xvpiov  Iriovv 
XpiTrov  xa^rtfp  avu'^fv  ot  rtpo^^rat  rt>pi  avroij 
xai  ovToj  ijuttj  o  xvptoj  I>j5oi)j  XptTtoj  f |f,-taJ6f vje, 
*a«  ro  rwc  rtartpwi/  Jjjuiv  rtapaSt'Swxf  (Tvu.3o?wOi'. 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  which  of 
the  two  reaiHngs,  fx  5vo  fvatuv,  or  iv  6vo  <j>vifac, 
ought  to  be  preferred.  The  whole  force  of  the 
symbol,  as  far  as  it  is  directed  against  Euty- 
chianisin,  lies  in  the  latter  reading,  since  Eiity- 
ches  would  allow  that  Christ  was  constituted 
ix  ivo  <})v"jfioi'.  The  reading  iv  6vo  fiii-'jt  is  sup- 
ported hy  good  authority,  probably  from  the 
whole  course  of  events  at  the  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon,  and  more  consistent  than  the  other  with 
the  context,  as  the  word  yitopi^dufioi-  is  of  diffi- 
cult ccmstruction  with  ix,  and,  on  the  contrary, 
reads  naturally  with  iv.  Cf.  Neander,  b.  ii. 
Ablh.  iii.  s.  IIIO— Tr.] 

V.  T7ic  Theory  and  Seel  of  the  Monothelitea. 

This  spct  arose  in  the  seventh  century,  from 
the  attempt  of  some,  who  were  rather  Inclined 
to  the  side  of  the  Monophysites,  to  unite  the 
Nestorians  and  Monophysites  with  the  catholic 
church.  They  persuaded  the  emjteror  Heraclius 
to  enact,  that  Christ,  after  tfie  union  of  his  two 
natures,  had  only  onf  vill  and  one  rietlnn  of  the 
wHI.  To  this  it  was  thought  all  parlies  might 
assent,  and  thus  become  united.  At  first,  many 
weif  incline<l  to  adopt  this  opinion,  and  among 
others,  the  patriarchs  at  Constantinople  and 
Rome.  But  a  number  of  councils  were  held 
upon  the  subject,  and  the  catholics  at  last  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  this  opinion  would  intro- 
duce only  a  different  form  of  the  doctrine  of 
Eutyches.  They  therefore  maintained  a  twnfthl 
will  in  Christ — i.  e.,  one  for  his  divine,  and  one 
for  his  human  nature;  hut  at  the  same  time  that 
these  were  never  opposed  and  always  agreed. 
The  other  party  maintained  that  there  was  but 


one  will ;  since  the  human  will  of  Christ  did  no! 
act  separ.itely,  but  was  subject  to  the  divine  will, 
and  governed  by  it.  Both  parties  were  right  in 
opinion,  and  only  misunderstood  each  other. 
The  latter,  however,  was  outvoted,  and  at  the 
third  Council  at  Constantinople,  in  the  year  G60, 
was  condemned  as  heretical ;  and  thus  the  sect 
of  the  Monothelites  arose  in  the  East.  [Cf. 
Hahn,  s.  46t.     Gieseler,  s.  162.] 

Note, — Another  controvertfd  point  was  the 
relation  of  Christ  to  the  Father,  in  the  union  of 
his  two  natures.  The  ancient  fathers  had  com* 
monly  used  the  appellation  Sunof  (iod,  as  a  name 
of  the  divine  nature  of  Clirist,  and  not  as  a  name 
of  his  person  and  office.  Thfy  found  some  texts 
of  scripture,  however,  in  which  the  human  nature 
of  Christ  is  also  plainly  designati'd  by  tliis  name: 
as  Luke,  i.  35.  In  order  to  relieve  themselves 
from  this  difficulty,  without  relinquishing  their 
position,  they  said,  "  Christ,  as  God,  was  the 
natural  Son  of  God,  (i.  e.,  he  was,  in  a  literal 
sense,  eternally  generated  by  the  Fathfr,  he  re- 
ceived his  deity  communicated  to  him  from  eter- 
nity, Ps.  ii.,)  but  as  man  he  was  the  Son  of 
God  hy  adoption — i.  e.,  by  the  communication 
of  the  divine  nature  at  the  time  of  his  concep- 
tion, he  was  raised  as  a  man  to  this  dignity. 
And  in  this  there  is  no  heresy.  But  as  these 
terms  and  representations  respecting  adoption 
were  frequently  employed  by  the  Nestorians, 
they  were  gradually  omitted  b)-  t!ie  catholics. 
This  doctrine  was,  however,  revived  in  Spain  in 
the  eighth  century,  7S3,  et  seq.,  by  Felix,  Bi- 
shop of  Urgel  (Crgelitanus),  and  was  approved 
by  many  in  the  West.  Others  regnrded  it  as  a 
revival  of  Ncstorianism ;  councils  were  held 
upon  the  subject  in  Italy  and  Germany  ;  and  at 
length  the  opinion  of  the  Adoptionists  was  con- 
demned as  heretical. 

Respecting  all  these  controversies,  vide 
Walch,  Keizergeschichte. 

These  unhappy  dissensions  should  serve  as  a 
warning  to  every  Christian  who  loves  peace,  not 
to  take  upon  himself  to  define  and  dcci'le  respect- 
ing subjects  which  the  holy  scriptures  have  left 
undecided;  as  Morus  truly  observes,  p.  138,  s. 
10,  coll.  8.  101. 

SECTION  CIIL 

HISTOKIPAI,  OBSERVATIONS  CONTIMEP  ;  THE  A!f- 
CIKNT  Erri.ESI  \STirAL  TERMINOI.OOV  RESPECT- 
IXG  THIS  DOCTRINE  EXPLAINED. 

I.  Terminology  of  the  Fathers. 

The  ecclesiastical  terminology'  on  this  subject 
came  gradually  into  use,  and  originated  partly 
before  the  controversies  of  the  fitlh  century, 
partly  at  the  time  of  these  controversies,  and  in 
consP(]uence  of  them.  Manv  ancient  terms  were 
differently   defined    and   understood   after   that 


STATE  L\TO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       367 


period.  This  indefiniteness  of  phraseology,  and 
the  various  use  of  terms,  were  the  principal  occa- 
sion of  these  controversies.  The  terms  employed 
ouo^ht.  first  of  all,  to  have  been  explained  and 
undiTstood. 

(1)  Sdhic  ancient  general  terms  respecting  the 
persoti  of  Christ,  and  the  relations  and  actions  of 
his  deity  and  humanity. 

(rt)  The  ancient  fathers  were  in  the  habit  of 
calling  the  mutual  relation  of  the  deity  and  hu- 
manity united  in  Christ,  oixovofiia.,  which  signi- 
fies arrangement,  institution,  regulation ;  also, 
the  fashion  and  manner  in  which  anything  is 
done  or  arranged.  So  it  is  used  by  Folybius, 
and  Cicero,  in  his  letters  to  Atticus,  and  by 
Paul,  Ephes.  i.  10.  In  the  same  way,  Tertul- 
lian  (Adv.  Prax.  2)  used  the  word  ccconomia, 
and  rendered  it  dispensatio. 

(i)  They  endeavoured  to  find  some  term 
which  should  appropriately  designate  the  whole 
person  of  Christ,  as  composed  of  deity  and  hu- 
manity. As  the  New  Testament  contains  no  sin- 
gle word  of  this  kind,  they  at  last  decided  upon 
the  word  ^tav5poj  or  ^fa'f^tortoj,  God-man  ,•  as 
Tertullian  had  been  accustomed  to  say,  Deus  et 
homo,  and  Origen  0f6j  xal  ai'>piortoj. 

(c)  They  called  the  power  which  the  deity 
and  humanity  of  Christ  had  of  working  in  com- 
mon, f ifpyfca  ^fai'6|Hx^,  vis,  sive  opcralio  deovi- 
rilis.  This  phrase  first  occurs  in  the  Pseudo- 
Dionysius  Areopagitus,  Epist.  4.  Theologians, 
therefore,  afterwards  called  the  particular  actions 
of  Christ,  as  God  and  man,  or  his  mediatorial 
works,  operationes  dcoviriles ;  also,  drtotf  Xt'a^ara. 
Vide  s.  105. 

(2)  Various  terms  were  originally  used  to  de- 
note the  two  subjects  (rtpay/<ara,  res,  as  Cyril 
of  Alexandria  calls  them)  connected  in  Christ. 
In  the  Latin  church  tlie  oldest  term  was  substan- 
tia. So  Tertullian,  "substanliae  duae, — cauo  et 
spiRiTus,"  Adv.  Prax.  27.  They  had  previous- 
ly been  contented  with  the  simple  formula : 
"Christum  esse  Deum  et  hominem  verum." 
The  word  substantia  was  still  used  in  this  sense 
by  the  Latin  church  in  the  fourth  century,  and 
sometimes  even  by  Leo  the  Great  in  the  fifth 
century.  It  signified,  as  they  used  it,  ens  sin- 
gulare,  or  individuum.  It  was,  however,  re- 
garded as  ambiguous,  since  it  also  signified  ex- 
istence itself  'AnA  that  which  really  is.  Th^  word 
rtatura  was  gradually  found  to  be  more  appro- 
priate and  definite.  It  had  been  early  used  by 
Ambrosius ;  but  after  the  Council  at  Chalcedon, 
In  the  fifth  century,  it  became,  by  means  of  Leo 
the  Great,  the  usual  and  characteristic  term  of 
the  catholic  fathers. 

In  the  Greek  church,  also,  many  terms  were 
originally  in  use.  (^a)  'Tnoorami.  This  word 
answers  exactly  to  the  Latin  substantia.  It  was 
used  by  Ncstorius,  and  before  him  by  many 
whose  orthodoxy  was  never  donbted.   (6)  <Jvoij. 


This  word  was  used  at  the  same  time  in  Egypt, 
and  was  one  cause  of  the  controversy  between 
Cyril  and  Nestorius.  Vide  s.  102,  iii.  (r)  Oviia. 
This  word  was  early  in  frequent  use;  but  through 
the  efforts  of  Cyril  and  the  Roman  bishop,  in  the 
fifth  century,  the  word  ^vatj  became  current  as 
orthodox. 

(3)  The  terms  used  to  denote  the  whole  Christ, 
as  consisting  of  two  natures. 

The  Latin  church  used  the  word  persona  for 
this  purpose;  and  this,  being  very  definite  and 
unambiguous,  has  been  retained.  Respecting 
its  definition,  &c.,  vide  s.  104.  But  the  Greek 
church  had  a  great  variety  of  terms  to  express 
the  same  thing,  which  occasioned  the  greate* 
confusion. 

(ff)  npddwrtov.  This  word  was,  in  fact,  the 
least  ambiguous,  and  answered  exactly  to  the 
lj?it\n  persona,  (a  suppositum  intelligens,  which 
has  its  own  proper  subsistence.)  In  man) 
churches  this  was  originally  the  most  common 
word.  It  was  so  even  among  the  Syrians,  who 
derived  their  word /jarso/M  from  it.  Accordingly, 
Nestorius  said,  rtpoffwrtov  tv  xal  hio  vrtoo- 
racTftj  (natures)  iv  Xptoro.  But  the  word 
was  uncommon  in  Constantinople,  Egypt,  and 
elsewhere.  In  these  places  they  used  instea(J 
the  word — 

(i)  Trtoaratjtj.  Among  the  Greeks  this  word 
means  the  actual  existence  (vrtapli^)  nf  a  thing, 
the  existing  thing ;  a]so,  an  individual.  It  was 
therefore  a  far  more  ambiguous  wrrd  than  the 
other.  Cyril  used  it  to  denote  the  wh'  le  Christ; 
but  Nestorius,  his  separate  natures.  Vide  s.  102, 
III.  Cyril  and  the  Roman  bishop  said  :  dj 
XptoToj,  jtiia  irtoaTacrt;,  bvo  ^vaftj  iv  Xpto- 
rcj.  This  party  prevailed,  and  introduced  inoa- 
rani^  as  the  common  word  by  which  the  orthodox 
were  distinguished.  Even  they,  hov\  ever,  some- 
times still  used  the  word  rtpdfri^nor.  The  word 
irtdaraTij  may  also  have  been  regarded  as  more 
scriptural,  from  Hebrews,  i.  2,  ^a(>axrrp  ino'jrd- 
(jfcoj;  but  here  the/>frso7»  is  not  the  subject  of 
discourse.  Vide  s.  100.  The  Nesifrians  still 
adhered  to  their  ftp6au>tiov  and  parsupa, 

(c)  *vrjij.  This  word  was  applied  to  the  per- 
son of  Christ  by  many  teachers  of  the  fourth 
century,  long  before  Eutyches.  Athanasius  and 
Ephraem  the  Syrian  had  affirmed,  without  being 
pronounced  heretics,  that  there  was  lua  fvrfii 
in  Christ.  Eutyches,  then,  in  the  fifth  century, 
thought  that  this  word,  already  authorized  by 
the  catholic  fathers,  was  the  best  adapted  to 
express  the  most  intimate  connexion  between 
the  deity  and  humanity,  in  opposition  to  Nesto- 
rius. Vide  s.  102,  iv.  His  opponents,  how- 
ever, understood  the  word  differently,  and  so 
made  heresy  out  of  it. 

(4)  The  words,  comparisons,  and  established 
distinctions  employed  to  illustrate  the  manner  of 
the  union  of  the  two  natures. 


368 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY, 


(a)  Tfie  most  ancient  words  used  by  the 
fathers  to  denote  the  union  of  the  two  natures 
cci.vey  the  idea  of  a  mixture  of  these  natures. 
Among  others  was  the  word  ^tyxpcwij,  CDinmixtio, 
and  miiccri,  which  is  used  by  Tertullian  (adv. 
Prax.)  and  by  Cyprian,  and  even  in  the  fourth 
and  lifth  centuries  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and 
Ephraem  the  Syrian.  Tiiis  word  occasionally 
escaped  even  from  Leo  the  Great,  the  zealous 
opponent  of  Eutyches.  Of  the  same  kind  were 
the  words  which  frequently  occur  in  the  writings 
of  the  Grecian,  and  more  especially  the  Egyp- 
tian, teachers  of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries — 
viz.,  /iiraJoXr;,  fiitartoi.r^'jii,  ;ufTauo'|)'|>wji{.  IJut 
the  word  uviurpfia  was  preferred  by  Nestorius 
and  some  others.  Bui  for  this  very  reason  it 
was  rarely  employed  by  his  opponents.  'I'he 
other  words  avyxpa-jij,  x.  r.  7..,  which  denote  a 
mixture  of  natures,  were  rejected  at  the  Council 
at  Chalcedon,  because  they  were  used  by  Euty- 
ches,  and  the  word  jcw^if,  unit),  was  there  esta- 
blished in  their  place. 

(6)  The  illustrations  of  the  manner  of  this 
union  employed  by  the  ancients. 

(a)  Comparisons  and  imrif^cs.  Some  of  these 
are  very  gross,  and  exhibit  very  imperfect  con- 
teptions.  Tertullian  said,  (Adv.  Prax.  27,) 
*Tlie  deity  and  humanity  in  Christ  were  mix- 
tura  quiEdam,  ut  ekclruin  ex  auro  el  argento.^^ 
Origen  and  Basilius  the  Great  compared  this 
union  to  iron  heated  in  the  fire,  (penetrated 
through  and  through  by  the  fire;)  Ephraem  the 
Syrian,  to  a  compounded  medicine;  Origen,  in 
another  pa>sage,  and  Theodorus  of  Mopsueslia, 
to  the  marriage  connexion  {Iwo,  one  Jlcs/i) — a 
comparison  of  a  more  moral  cast;  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria and  Leo  tlic  Great,  to  the  union  of  soul 
and  body,  which  comparison  they  particularly 
advocated. 

(.J)  Many  new  terminologies  were  invented 
after  the  controversies  connnenced,  in  order  to 
distinguish  one  sect  from  another,  and  to  obviate 
various  unscriptural  representations.  Thus,  the 
natures  in  Christ  were  said  to  be  connected 
o;^u)pi7fw5,  (xAiat,)trwj,  and  u6toX,vrw{ — i.  e.,  in- 
dissolulily  and  permanently,  and  not  merely  for 
a  season;  f'>r  the  (inostics  taught  that  the  yEon 
Christ  was  separated  from  the  man  Jesus  at  the 
time  of  the  death  of  the  latter;  and  .NLirceilus 
taught  tliat  the  Logos  would  at  some  future  time 
return  to  the  Father.  In  opposition  to  these 
and  similar  errors,  the  above  determinations 
were  therefore  a<lopted  by  the  Council  at  Chal- 
cedon. Thus,  too,  in  opposition  to  Eulyches, 
tliis  union  was  said  to  be  arivyxvri^i,  (such  that 
a  third  nature  had  not  arisen  from  the  union  of 
the  two  natures,  as  when  material  things  are  min- 
gled ;)  e  ich  nature  existed  by  itself,  unaltered  in 
its  kind,  (Irpj'rtTwj.  Christ,  it  was  said,  shouM 
be  one,  tv  rtpoiwrto*',  fiia  vrtoironij  ^faripwjtov. 
This  ivwaij  was  said  to  be  ovsiwiijj,  (not  ajipa- 


rent,  but  real ;)  irto^rartx);,  (such  that  the  tvro 
natures  remained  unchanged  as  to  their  kind, 
although  they  were  essentially  united — a  term 
used  by  Cyril;)  vrtf^ifvuxTi,  (supernatural,)  &c. 
After  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  the 
schoolmen  of  the  West  adopted  these  termint>- 
logies  into  their  systems.  The  orthodox  Greeks 
also  constantly  preserved  them,  in  opposition  to 
the  Monophysites,  Nestorians,  and  other  here- 
tics. 

II.  Later  Diatinctionx. 

During  the  sixteenth  century,  aftei  the  death 
of  Luther  and  Melancthon,  not  only  were  the 
old  subtillics  in  the  doctrine  respecting  the  na- 
ture and  person  of  Christ  revived  by  many  Lu- 
theran theologians,  but  many  new  onec  were  in- 
troduced. The  occasion  of  this  was,  the  contro 
versy  respecting  the  Lord's  Supper  between  tho 
zealous  adherents  of  Luther  and  the  Reformed 
theologians.  The  Reformed  doctrine  was  at  that 
time  approved  by  many  Lutheran  theologians. 
The  opposing  party,  therefore,  and  especially 
James  Andrea,  Chancellor  at  Tiihingen,  and 
-Mart.  Chemnitz,  endeavoured,  by  new  distinc- 
tions in  the  doctrine  resj)ecting  the  person  of 
Christ,  to  draw  the  line  of  distinction  between 
the  two  systems  as  finely  as  possible.  Eccle- 
siastical authority  was  given  to  these  distinc- 
tions by  the  "  Form  of  Concord."  Such  sub- 
tilties  as  these  do  not  appear  in  the  "  Loci  The- 
ologici"  of  Melancthon.  On  this  subject  the 
following  particulars  should  be  known — viz., 

(1)  Luther  affirmed  the  true  and  subatanliai 
presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  in  the 
Lord's  Supper.  But  in  the  sixteenth  century 
many  of  his  disciples  and  zealous  followers  went 
beyond  their  teacher  in  this  matter.  Some  of 
liiem  advocated  in  fact,  if  not  in  w  ords,  a  pfii/sienl 
presence  of  the  body  of  Christ.  Beza,  on  tiie 
other  hand,  and  other  Reformed  theologians, 
shewed,  as  Zwingli  had  done  before,  that  this 
could  not  be  supposed;  considering  that  the 
human  body  of  Christ  is  now  in  heaven,  and 
could  not,  as  a  real  human  body,  be  present  in 
more  than  one  place  at  the  same  time. 

(•2)  Against  these  objections  the  Lutherans 
m.iintaincd,  either  the  actual  coiiMant  omnipre- 
sence of  the  body  of  Christ,  as  Andreii  appears 
to  have  done,  or,  that  it  emild  be  present  every 
where  {ubiijuc),  whenever  and  wherever  he 
would,  and  the  case  re(]uired.  'i'his  was  the 
view  of  Luther,  Chemnitz,  HiiUemann,  and- 
many  others.  Hence  they  were  c.iUed  by  their 
oppr»nents  Vbiquilarinns,  and  there  was  mtich 
controversy  respecting  the  omnipresence  of  the 
body  of  Christ. 

(.T)  In  order  to  render  this  presence  of  the 
body  of  Christ  more  intelligible,  ascisiance  was 
sought  from  the  doctrine  f/t  cinnmuuirntiiine  idio- 
matuin  interna  et  rcali.     Here  Chemnitz  wa» 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THK  REDEMPTION.       369 


the  most  active.  They  proceeded  on  the  ground 
tnat  tne  human  nature  of  Christ  was  united  in 
the  most  intimate  manner  with  the  divine  nature, 
that  it  was  penetrated,  as  it  were,  by  the  divine 
nature,  and  received  all  divine  attributes  by  com- 
munication. They  invented  for  this  purpose 
the  ^^  genus  communicalionis  idiomatum  tnujcb- 
talicum.'''  At  length  they  displayed  tiiis  line 
web  of  subtilty  and  terminology  in  the  "  Form 
of  Concord." 

(4)  Hereupon  new  dissensions  and  schisms 
arose  in  the  Lutheran  church  in  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries.  For  the  theologians 
of  Brandenburg  rejected  the"  Form  of  Concord" 
altogether,  and  the  theologians  of  Helmstiidt  dis- 
approved and  rejected  particular  doctrines  con- 
tained in  it,  such  as  the  doctrine  of  the  omni- 
presence of  the  human  nature  of  Christ.  The 
controversy  which  thus  arose  did  great  injury 
to  the  Lutheran  church. 

SECTION  CIV. 

A  KRIEF  EXHIBITION  OF  THE  ECCLESIASTICAL  SYS- 
TEM UESPECTlxNG  THE  PERSON  AND  THE  TWO 
NATURES  OF  CHRIST;  AN  EXPLANATION  OF  THE 
ECCLESIASTICAL  PHRASEOLOGY  NOW  IN  USE  IN 
THE  DOCTRINE  •' DE  CO.MMUNICATIONE  IDIOMA- 
TUM ;"  AND  A  CRITICAL  JUDGMENT  UPON  THE 
SAME. 

From  s.  103,  103,  the  gradual  origin  and  in- 
crease of  the  learned  ecclesiastical  distinctions 
and  terminologies  is  clearly  seen.  The  most 
important  of  these  only  are  still  retained.  How 
many  of  tiiem  are  plainly  founded  in  the  holy 
scriptures  may  be  determined  by  s.  100,  101. 

I.  Esfablifhed  Form  ofDodriiiereKpeding  the  Person 
ofCkrist,  and  the  Union  of  Ids  Two  Natures. 

There  are  two  natures  in  Christ,  the  divine 
and  huntan.  The  Son  if  God  (i.  e.,  the  divine 
nature)  united  himself  so  closely  and  intimately 
with  the  human  nature,  that  one  person  is  made 
from  these  two  united  natures.  Person,  in  philo- 
sophical language,  is  a  ralional existence,  (beasts 
then  are  not  persons,)  which  has  its  being  and 
siibsislenec  in  itself,  (subjectum  intelligens,  vo- 
lens,  libere  agens.)  Thus  Boelhius  in  his  book, 
"  de  persona  et  natura,"  cap.  2.  The  abstract 
of  person,  or  the  existence  of  such  a^  being,  is 
called  personulitas.  Tliis  union,  therefore,  in 
being  per.-onal,  (unio  personalis,)  is  distin- 
guished from  the  other  kinds  of  uiiion  of  God 
with  his  creatures,  and  even  from  that  of  God 
(tlie  Father)  with  the  man  Jesus;  vide  s.  101. 
We  may  say  that  the  triune  God  is  in  some 
sense  united  with  Jesus.  But  neither  the  Fa- 
ther nor  the  Holy  Spirit  have  so  connected 
themselves  with  the  human  nature  of  Christ, 
that  we  cui  say  that  the  Father  or  the  Holy 
Spirit  becii.-jie  man.  This  can  be  said,  on  the 
47 


authority  of  the  Bible,  only  of  the  Son  of  God. 
The  condition  which  arises  from  this  union  is 
called  unio  (frwaij) ;  tiie  beginning  of  this 
union,  or  the  act  of  uniting,  unitio,  which  is 
therefore  synonymous  witii  incarnntiu,  (fvaapxw- 
(jtj.)  This  personal  union  is  a  real,  not  simply 
a  moral,  mystical,  or  figurative  union;  still  it  is 
a  supernatural  union,  such  that  one  nature  is,  as 
it  were,  penetrated  by  the  other  (permeala  ;)  al- 
though the  manner,  the  internal  modus,  of  this 
is  to  us  inexplicable,  and  such  that  the  most  in- 
timate coimexion  subsists  between  the  two  in 
their  mutual  actions.  Theologians  call  this 
union  of  one  nature  with  the^||her,  and  their 
mutual  relations,  rtfpi;^iop);5ij,^Bserving,  how- 
ever, that  no  mixture  (avyj^^^^'s)  ^'^  ''"^  two  na- 
tures takes  place,  and  also  that  this  union  is  in- 
separable and  indissoluble,  (tt;^iopi5Tu)5.)  Other 
distinctions  and  terminologies,  which  had  their 
rise  in  the  controversies  relating  to  this  subject, 
may  be  seen  in  s.  103. 

II.  Effects  of  this  Personal  Union  of  the  Two  Natures; 
and  the  Consequences  deduced  from  it. 

( 1 )  The  impersonality,  avvnoaTa'yia,  imperso- 
nalilas,  of  the  man  Jesus,  or  of  the  human  nature 
of  Christ.  Theologians  maintain  that  the  hu- 
man nature  of  Christ  does  not  subsi>t  in  itself,, 
but  in  the  person  of  the  Son  of  God,  or  that  in 
itself  it  is  divTO(jraroj,  and  that  it  has  avrtooTo- 
ola.v  in  him.  For,  if  personality  is  ascribed  to 
the  human  nature  of  Christ,  he  must  be  con- 
ceived as  composed  of  two  distinct  persons. 
This  distinction  was  directed  principally  against 
the  opinions  ascribed  to  the  Nestorians,  and 
also  against  the  opinions  of  the  ApoUinarians,. 
Monotheleta;  and  Agnoeta;.  If  we  would  form 
any  clear  idea  from  this  distinction,  we  must 
understand  it,  not  in  a  physical,  but  in  a  moral 
sense,  as  Ernesti  remarks  in  his  programm  "De 
incnrnatione."  All  that  is  intended  by  it  is  this,, 
that  the  man  Jesus  never  was  a  mere  mvin,  and 
never  acted  from  simple  human  power  (a^'  iav 
Tov),  in  any  such  way  as  to  be  separated  from 
the  Son  of  God,  and,  as  it  were,  independent  of 
him.  And  this  is  the  representation  of  the  New 
Testament.  When,  therefore,  Christ  says,  I  Aoy 
I  teach,  &c.,  he  speaks  of  the  whole  Christ,  in 
which  the  divine  is  the  superior  and  reigning^ 
nature,  by  which  the  inferior  or  human  nature  is- 
governed  and  used  as  an  instrument,  just  as  we,, 
when  we  speak  of  ourselves,  our  persons,  mear 
soul  and  body  together. 

Xote. — In  this  way,  and  in  this  way  only,  can' 
we  explain  the  fact  that  Christ  should  speak  of 
himself  in  the  very  same  discourse,  and  indeeo' 
in  the  very  same  sentence,  as  man,  and  again  io 
such  terms  as  the  eternal  and  immutable  God 
alone  uses  of  himself — e.  g.,  John,  xvii.  5, 
"Glorify  me  with  the  glory  which  1  had  with 
thee  before  the  world  was;'"  in  the  same  man- 


370 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ner  as,  when  we  speak  of  ourselves,  we  some- 
times employ  terms  which  are  applicable  only 
to  a  spiritual  nature,  and,  at  other  times,  terms 
which  are  applicable  only  to  a  corporeal  nature; 
the  former  in  relation  to  the  soul,  the  latter  in 
relation  to  the  body;  because  these  two  natures 
are  united  in  us  in  one  person. 

(2)  Another  consequence  deduced  from  this 
community  of  the  two  natures  is,  that  one  nature 
eomniunicale'i  its  own  attributes  to  the  other,  (ca/n- 
viunicarc  idionuila.') 

{ji)  If  by  this  statement  it  is  meant  that  the 
properties  of  each  of  the  two  natures  are  regarded 
as  belong'inj  ^Wie  whole  person,  it  is  unobjec- 
tionable. For  Wthe  very  same  way  we  ascribe 
to  man  the  attributes  of  soul  and  body,  though 
exceedinyfly  diverse.  Accordinirly,  the  New 
restament  and  the  discourses  of  Christ  himself 
represent  that  the  (^lory  which  Christ,  as  to  his 
divine  nature,  had  with  the  Father  from  eternity, 
belonjj^ed  also  to  his  human  nature,  and,  so  far  as 
this  nature  was  susceptible  of  this  glory,  was 
communicated  to  it,  and  became  particularly 
visible  from  the  commencement  of  his  state  of 
exaltation.  Vide  John,  xvii.  5;  Phil.  ii.  9 — 11. 
Cf.  s.  101. 

(/j)  There  is  great  objection,  however,  to  the 
opinion,  that  all  the  attributes  of  one  nature  are 
really  (interne  et  realttcr')  communicated  to  the 
other.  But  the  strict  Lutheran  theologians  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  especially  Chemnitz, were 
led  by  their  views  respecting  the  Lord's  supper 
to  insist  strongly  upon  this  opinion.  Vide  s. 
10.3,  II.  To  meet  the  objections  which  would 
be  brought  against  it,  they  made  the  following 
limitations — viz., 

(a)  Because  the  Deity  is  incapable  of  change, 
the  attributes  of  the  human  were  not  commu- 
nicated to  the  divine  nature,  but  only  the  attri- 
butes of  the  divine  to  the  human.  This  cum- 
niuniciitio  idiomutum  was  not,  then,  mutual  or 
rcciproail. 

(3)  .i//the  attributes  of  the  divine  nature  can- 
not be  communicated  to  the  human,  but  only  the 
attributa  operativa,  (tiiose  which  imply  action 
and  activity,)  e,  g,,  omnipotence,  goodness,  jus- 
tice, &c.  The  attriljuta  quicxeentia,  (those  which 
imply  re-it  and  inaction,)  e.  g.,  infinity,  eternity, 
&c.,  are  incommunicable.     Vide  s.  18,  III,  2. 

But  this  oj)inion,  after  all  these  fine  distinc- 
tions, is  not  founded  in  the  scriptures,  and  the 
texts  cited  in  its  behalf  do  not  prove  it.  Vide 
infra,  de  propositiimibus  idioinatieis.  IMoreover, 
it  is  liable  to  many  objections. 

(x)  Nothing  mor?  was  necessary  in  order  to 
tlie  action  of  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  than 
for  it  to  be  determined  and  impelled  by  the  di- 
vine nature  in  something  the  same  way  as  the 
human  body  is  impelled  by  the  soul ;  in  which 
case  each  part  retains  its  own  attributes,  and 
there  is  no  necessity  for  the  attributes  of  the 


soul  to  be  communicated  tj  the  body.  This  was 
the  view  of  many  of  thi-  most  ancient  and  or- 
thodox fathers  of  the  church. 

(3)  The  attributes  of  the  Deity  are  insepara- 
ble. Where  there  is  one,  there  are  all.  And  no 
conception,  certainly  no  clear  conception,  can  be 
formed  of  such  a  division.  The  divine  nature 
is  altogether  incapable  of  change.  And  if  the 
human  nature  were  changed  in  any  essential 
respect,  Christ  could  not  contir^ue  a  true  man. 

(j)  Christ  himself  said,  that  as  a  man  he  was 
unacquainted  with  many  things.  He  changed 
his  place  as  a  man.  He  learned,  and  increased 
in  wisdom.  How,  then,  can  I  say,  that  as  a 
man  he  was  omniscient,  omnipresent,  and  all- 
wise  ] 

It  is  far  better  to  be  content  with  the  more 
simple  and  more  scriptural  opinion,  that  each 
nature  ri^tained  its  peculiar  attributes,  and  that 
the  human  nature  was  supported,  guided,  and 
endowed  with  strength  and  wisdom  by  the  di- 
vine nature,  whenever  there  was  occasion.  Vide 
s,  100,  101.  And  many  good  Lutheran  theolo- 
gians, even  of  the  sixteenth  century,  acknow- 
ledged that  this  was  sufficient. 

(3)  Still  another  consequence  deduced  from 
the  personal  union  of  the  two  natures  is  the 
cominunio  operutionum — i.  e.,  all  the  actions 
done  by  either  of  the  two  natures  must  be  con- 
sidered as  the  actions  of  the  whole  person.  So 
whether  Christ  acts  from  the  impulsi'  of  the  di- 
vine nature,  or  as  man,  in  either  case  the  whole 
person  acts.  In  the  same  way  the  actions  of 
a  man,  whether  of  his  soul  or  his  body,  are 
ascribed,  without  hesitation,  to  the  whole  per- 
son. The  most  rational  and  intelligible  opinion 
on  this  subject,  however,  is  this,  tliat  tiie  hu- 
manity of  Christ  is  the  instrument  by  which  his 
deity  acts;  though  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
peculiar  attributes  and  properties  of  his  humani- 
ty are  not  set  aside.  In  all  those  artir.ns,  there- 
fore, where  the  humanity  of  Christ  had  occasion 
fur  instruction,  support,  and  guidance,  it  re- 
ceived the  same  from  his  divinity.  Such  actions 
(and  all  which  belong  to  his  mediatorial  work 
are  such)  are  called  by  theologians,  operationea 
deni'iriles.     Vide  s.  103,  I.  1. 

The  ancients  expressed  the  same  thing  by 
saying  that  tiicre  was  one  will  in  Chri^t,  and 
that  his  humanity  assented  to  the  will  of  his  di- 
vinity, and  acted  according  to  it.  So  .N'estoriua, 
and  even  the  orthodox  of  that  aire.  But  after 
the  controversy  of  the  catholics  with  the  .Mono- 
thelette,  the  former  advocated  two  wills  in 
Christ,  the  latter  only  one.     Vi,de  s.  102,  V, 

(1)  From  the  theory  of  the  personal  union, 
and  the  communication  (f  attributes,  various  foi^ 
inula;  and  modes  of  speech  have  been  derived. 
Only  a  part  of  them  occur  in  the  srri()tures. 
The  rest,  which  should  have  been  omitted,  were 
occasioned  by  theological  controversies.     They 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       371 


Ve  cnWed  priijwsiUontg,  and  are  divided  into  two 
principal  classes.  Respectin|»-  all  the  minutite 
of  this  subject,  vide  Baumgarten,  Glaubens- 
lehre,  where  they  are  treated  at  length.  [Of. 
also  Hahn,  s.  94,  s.  445.] 

I.  "  Pnipositiones  Pfrsunales  sive  Ht/postaiiae" — i. 
e.,  such  as  are  derived  from  the  notion  of  the  Per- 
sonal Union  itself  of  the  Titx)  Natures  in  Christ. 
These  are  again  divided  into  two  classes. 

(1)  Propositions  in  which  the  peculiar  proper- 
ties of  either  of  the  two  natures  are  ascribed  to 
the  whole  person,  or  in  which  the  concrete  if  the 
person  is  connected  with  the  concrete  if  cither  if 
Uie  two  natures — e.  g.,  Christ  is  man,  the  son  of 
man,  the  son  of  David,  where  the  concrete  of  the 
person  is  connected  witii  the  concrete  of  the 
human  nature ;  or,  Christ  is  God,  the  only  begot- 
ten Son  of  God  (in  the  theological  sentee),  where 
the  concrete  of  the  person  is  connected  with  the 
concrete  of  the  divine  nature.  Such  propositions 
occur  in  the  Bible  and  occasion  no  mistake. 

(2)  Propositions  in  which  the  concrete  of  one 
nature  is  predicated  of  the  other  nature  {concrcta 
twturarum  de  se  invicem  prxdicantur) — e.  g., 
God  is  man,  the  man  Jesus  is  God,  the  son  of 
Mary,  or  of  David,  is  Cod.  Theologians  observe 
here,  that  the  case  is  not  the  same  with  the  ah- 
siructa  naturarum.  Thus  it  would  be  improper 
to  say,  the  humanity  (of  Christ)  is  the  dtily  (of 
Christ.)  Anciently,  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies, such  propositions  were  frequently  em- 
ployed, vide  s.  102;  but  they  were  objected  to 
by  Nestorius.  They  are  indeed  capable  of  a 
proper  explanation,  but  they  easily  occasion 
mistake.  Besides,  they  have  no  analogy;  as 
nobody  says,  animus  est  corpus,  corpus  est  ani- 
mus,  &c.  The  texts  which  are  appealed  to 
(Rom.  i.  3;  Luke,  i.  35;  Matt.  xvi.  13,  16)  are 
not  in  point.  For  the  appellation,  So7i  of  God, 
in  these  texts,  may  be  the  name  of  person  and 
of  office,  and  is  not  necessarily  the  name  of  na- 
ture. In  the  text,  1  Cor.  xv.  47,  "the  second 
Adam  is  the  Lord  from  heaven,"  xvptoj  also  is 
the  name  of  person,  and  not  of  nature. 

II.  "  Propositiones  Idiimatica:,  sive  de  Communica- 
tione  Idiomatum  ;"  such  as  denote  the  Communi- 
cation of  Attributes,  ('•  Jdiamata,  Proprietates, 
Affectiones.")  These,  again,  are  divu^ed  into  two 
principal  classes. 

(1)  Propositions  in  which  the  attributes  of  one 
nature  are  ascribed  to  the  whole  person  (named 
from  one  of  the  two  natures),  or  in  which  the 
fuhject  is  either  a  concrete  of  person  or  a  con- 
crete of  nature,  but  the  predicate  is  an  idioma  of 
thfc  divine  or  human  nature.  These  are  divided 
into  three  classes — viz., 

(A)  Propositions  in  which  the  attributes  and 
actions  of  one  nature  or  the  other  are  ascribed 
to  the  whole  person;  or,  where  the  subject  is  a 


concretum  personam,  httt  the  predicate  an  idioma 
alterutrius  naturx.  A  proposition  of  this  kind 
is  called  idinmatica,  or,  am^oTixr,  (dirtSoatj^ 
retributio.)  This  has  analogy  in  its  faviiur— 
e.  g.,  man  (^the  soul)  thinks;  man  {the  body)  tuts. 
In  this  case,  both  of  these  actions  are  predicated 
of  the  whole  person.  Such  propositions  fre- 
quently occur  in  the  scriptures — e.  g.,  Chrjst 
suffered,  rose  from  the  dead,  wrought  miracles  by 
his  own  power,  is  mortal,  is  omnipotent.  Thus 
in  John,  xvi.  51,  "  /  (the  whole  person  speaks) 
came  from  heaven,  (the  divine  nature;")  John, 
X.  12,  '^  I  lay  down  my  life  (the  human  nature) 
for  the  sheep  ;''^  diixd  in  many  ether  texts.  Vide 
Morns,  p.  143,  s.  4. 

(B)  Propositions  in  which  the  attributes  pecu- 
liar to  each  nature  are  predicated  of  the  name,  or 
in  which  the  subject  is  a  concrete  of  one  nature, 
and  the  predicate  an  idioma  of  the  same  nature ; 
as  when  we  say,  the  soul  is  immortal,  th-e  body  is 
mortal.  Thus  Matt.  ii.  1,  Jesus  was  born  ,•  Acts, 
ii.  22,  23,  Jesus  was  crucijied;  or,  making  the 
subject  a  concrete  of  the  divine  nature,  the  only 
begotten  Son  of  God,  (if  this  name  is  given  to  the 
divine  nature,)  was  from  the  beginning,  created 
the  world,  is  omnipotent,  &c.  This  language  is 
very  common  in  the  Bible;  and  the  nature 
which  is  the  subject  of  discourse  is  often  ex- 
pressly mentioned — e.  g.,  Christ  xara  oapxa. 
Vide  Morus,  p.  142,  s.  1,  n.  1. 

(C)  Propositions  in  which  the  peculiar  attri- 
butes of  one  nature  are  predicated  of  the  other. 
These  propositions  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
corresponding  to  the  two  natures  in  Christ. 

(a)  Propositions  in  which  the  attributes  of 
the  human  nature  are  predicated  of  the  divine 
nature,  or  where  the  subject  is  a  concreium  di- 
vinx  naturx,  but  the  predicate  an  idioma  naturx 
htimanx.  This  is  called  tStortoojtjij,  because 
the  divine  nature  appropriates  to  itself  what  be- 
longs to  the  human  nature.  The  texts  cited  as 
examples  are  the  following: — viz..  Gal.  iv.  4, 
"  God  sent  his  Son,  born  of  a  woman;"  Rom. 
v.  10,  "We  are  reconciled  with  God,  through 
the  death  of  his  Son;"  Acts,  iii.  15,  "The  prince 
(auctor)  of  life  was  slain ;"  1  Cor.  ii.  8,  "  Ye 
have  crucified  the  Lord  of  glory  ;"  but  especially 
Acts,  XX.  28,  "  God  bought  the  church  with  his 
blood."  But  the  reading  in  the  last  passage  is 
very  uncertain.  Vide  s.  37.  And  though  some 
of  these  and  other  texts  may  possibly  be  exam- 
ples in  point,  they  are  not  distinctly  so.  For 
the  appellation  Son,  Son  of  God,  in  these  pas- 
sages, may  be  the  name  of  the  whole  person  of 
the  God-man  (Messiah),  and  is  not  necessarily 
the  name  of  the  divine  nature. 

(6)  Propositions  in  which  the  attributes  of 
the  divine  nature  are  predicated  of  the  human 
nature;  or  in  which  the  subject  is  a  concrete  of 
the  human  nature,  but  the  predicate  an  attribute 
of  the  divine  nature.     This  is  called,  xotnuvio 


373 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


Twv  ^Huv,  SC.  t,6u>udruiv,  /xftdioijii,  vrtfpu4w5tj, 
Qixruonii,  genus  avxr^iarixoi',  sivp  mnjcstalicuin, 
because  divine  attributes  are  communicated  to 
the  man  Jesus — e.  g,,  Jesus,  or  the  Son  of  innn, 
is  almighty,  nninipresen.',  omniscient,  &c.  The 
most  probable  texts  are  John,  iii.  13;  vi.  62, 
"Tlie  Son  of  man  will  return  to  heaven,  where 
lie  was  before."  Hut  these  do  not  teach  that 
divine  atfributes  are  communicated  to  Vhe  human 
nature  of  Christ;  and,  in  truth,  the  phrase  Ttoj 
ot'?>,)u)rtov  here  denotes  the  whole  person,  the 
Messiah,  aithoujrh  the  appellation  is  taken  from 
his  humanity.  'I'he  texts,  Matt,  xxviii.  18,  20, 
♦'  All  power  is  given  to  me  in  heaven  and  in 
earth,"  and  "  I  am  with  you,"  6cc.,  (from  which 
the  communication  of  omuipolmce  and  omnipre- 
sence to  the  humanity  of  Christ  has  been  con- 
cluded,) are  irrelevant  to  this  point;  for  they 
treat  of  the  state  of  exaltation,  and  the  who/: 
Christ  speaks  of  himself,  and  not  merely  his 
humanity.  For  other  texts,  vide  .Morus,  p. 
144,  n.  3. 

Aole. — This  whole  third  class  of  propositions 
was  disapproved  even  by  many  of  the  ancient 
fathers,  who  were  of  the  opinion  that  it  should 
be  entirely  discarded,  because  it  has  no  clear 
authority  from  scripture.  So  Origen  and  many 
others.  But  Cyril  and  Leo  the  Great,  in  the 
fifth  century,  advocated  these  propositions  in 
opposition  to  Nestorius.  And  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  Chemnitz  and  the  "Form  of 
Concord"  brought  them  again  into  vogue;  and 
especially  the  genus  propos.  auchematieum,  on 
accotmt  of  their  bearing  on  the  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  supper,  Morus,  1,  1.  n.  2. 

They  ought  to  be  discarded  for  the  following 
reasons — viz.,  (1)  They  have  no  clear  support 
from  scripture;  vide  supra.  (2)  They  are  con- 
tradictory to  all  the  analogies  to  which  we  can 
appeal  in  other  cases.  Who  would  say,  the 
snul  dies;  the  mind  eats,  diirests;  the  body 
thinks,  philosophizes  1  although,  indeed,  the 
eonrretum  naturx,  man,  is  used  in  such  cases. 
They  give  rise  to  propositions  which,  though 
cap  ible  of  a  reasonable  explanation,  are  very 
oflVnsive  in  their  form,  ami  the  occasion  of  ridi- 
cul-'  from  the  thoughtless.  Such  are  the  fol- 
lowing: God  died,  and  was  buried;  the  man 
Jesus  is  eternal;  Mary  was  the  mother  if  God ; 
one  of  the  Trinity  was  crucified,  &c.  All  the 
offensiveneas  of  these  propositions  is  removed 
by  using  the  name  of  the  person,  Christ.  (3) 
Such  expressions  lead  the  great  mass  of  men 
into  gross  and  material  conceptions  of  God,  and 
confirm  them  in  such  conceptions,  which  they 
are  always  inclined  to  form.  For  this  reason 
they  were  discarded  by  Nestorius,  though  even 
he  admitted  tliat  they  might  be  explained  in 
*uch  a  way  as  to  give  a  true  sense,  ('f.  Morus, 
p.  lir),  n.  2. 

(8)  'i'he  second  class  o^  propositionts  idioma- 


ticae  comprises  those  propositions  in  which  tk« 
works  belonging  to  the  mediatorial  office  cl 
Christ  are  ascribed  to  the  person,  named  from 
either  of  the  two  natures,  or  from  both  united. 
This  class  is  called  genus  proposilionum  d?(o 
rj>.fiuaTixo»',  from  dnoriyAnuara,,  (Jfcclus  sive 
opus,  sc.  mcdiaturium.  This  is  thus  described 
in  the  language  of  the  schools  :  <■•■  .Iputeksmatu, 
sive  actiones  ad  irpus  mediaturium  pertiitentrs 
tribuunlur  suhjectu,  vel  ah  hunianu,  vtl  a  divina, 
vcl  ah  utraque  natura  denuminatoy  This  cor- 
responds with  analogy;  because  these  actions 
were  performed  through  the  union  of  the  two 
natures.  Such  propositions  frequently  occur  in 
the  scriptures,  and  are  founded  upon  the  com- 
munio  operationum  ulriusque  naturw.  Thus  I 
can  say,  Christ  raises  the  dead,  redeems  ami 
judges  men.  But  I  can  also  say,  either  that  ///' 
Son  of  Gud,  (in  the  theological  sense,)  or  tha' 
Jesus,  the  Son  of  man,  does  the  same  thinu;s. 
Luke,  ix.  56;  Gal.  iii.  13;  1  John,  iii.  8;  Heb 
i.  3  ;  vi.  20. 

This  genus  apoteksmaticum  is  made  very  pro 
minent  in  the  "  Form  of  Concord,"  on  accour> 
of  the  controversy  in  the  sixteenth  century  be 
tween  Osiander  and  Stancarus,  theologians  ot 
Konigsberg.  Osiander  taught  that  Christ  atoned 
for  the  sins  of  men  only  as  God,  and  not  as  man 
Stancarus,  on  the  other  hand,  taught  that  th* 
human  nature  only,  and  not  the  divine,  was 
concerned  in  the  mediatorial  work.  The  othe) 
theologians  decided  justly  that  both  natures 
were  here  concerned.  These  two  theologians, 
indeed,  expressed  themselves  inaptly,  but  ap- 
pear not  to  have  been  so  iinscriptural  in  tiieir 
opinions  as  many  supposed  them  to  be.  Osian- 
der only  designed  by  his  declarations  to  exhibit, 
in  a  clear  light,  the  high  worth  of  the  merits  of 
Christ;  and  Stancarus  only  wished  to  obviate 
the  mistake  that  Christ  endured  sulferings  and 
death  as  God,  As  for  the  rest,  vide  Morus,  p. 
I4C,  last  note. 


CIIAI'TKR    IV. 

THE  WOKK   OF  rillllST,  AND  WHAT  IIA.^   BEEN 
EFFECTED  BY  IT. 


SECTION    CV. 

SCRIPTURAL  NAMES  AND  DESCRIPTIONS  OK  THE 
WORKS  OF  CHRIST,  AND  THEIR  SAI.ITAKV  EF* 
FKCTS;  ALSO,  THE  NAMES  OF  CHRIST  AS  TH» 
SAVIOlR  OF   THE  WORLD. 

I.  General  Names  of  the  Works  uf  Chriit  far  titt 
good  of  Men. 
(1)  'F.p-/o>'  is  frequently  used  in  the  New  Tea- 
tament  in  the  discourses  of  Christ  himself,  Joho* 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       37S 


i*" .  34  ;  xvii.  4.  It  signifies  the  business,  works, 
wliich  he  had  undertaken.  In  the  passages 
cited,  his  business  is  called  tpyov  rov  narpoj,  or 
Tov  Ttin-^avtoi ;  because  it  is  considered  as  a 
commission  given  him  by  the  Father.  It  is 
also  called  ivro\r^,  niandatum,  commission,  John, 
X.  18;  xii.  49. 

(2)  ^lany  ecclesiastical  terms  were  afterwards 
adopted  in  addition  to  these  scriptural  terms. 
Among  these  is  the  word  munus,  which  is  very 
appropriate,  as  it  means  business,  work;  and 
thus  answers  to  tpyor.  The  word  officium  was 
used  in  the  same  sense,  and  became  the  most 
common  name  for  the  work  of  Christ  in  the 
Latin  church.  Tertullian  says  (con.  .Marc.  iii. 
IG),  respecting  Christ,  ^^  Officium  propheta", 
nuntiantis  divinam  voluntatem."  Hilariiis,  of 
Poictiers,  in  the  fourth  century,  says,  "  Officium 
Christi  proprium  cognitionem  Dei  afferre,"  and 
"  Officium  Chrisli  pcenale."  These  terms  were 
retained  in  the  prolestant  church,  and  vfficium 
and  officia  were  the  most  common  terms  with 
Melancthon,  Chemnitz,  and  others.  But  be- 
cause, in  Germany,  munus  and  officium  were 
commonly  rendered  by  words  which  denoted 
offices,  posts  of  honour,  (Germ.  Jmt,  Ehrcnamt,') 
they  were  so  rendered  here,  and  in  this  way 
occasion  was  given  to  associate  several  incor- 
rect ideas  with  this  subject.  So  they  spoke  of 
the  mediatorial  office  of  Christ,  instead  of  his 
mediatorial  work;  and  of  the  three  offices  of 
Christ,  instead  of  his  threefold  work,  or  the 
three  parts  of  his  mediatorial  work.  On  ac- 
count of  this  ambiguity  of  the  words  officium 
and  munus,  Ernesti  preferred  to  say,  "  De  opcre 
Christi  salutari." 

II.  General  Description  of  the  Objects  of  the  Mission 
of  Christ,  and  of  the  Benefits  flowing  to  Men 
through  him. 

(1)  In  some  passages  the  object  of  his  advent 
to  the  earth  is  stated  in  general  terms  to  be  to 
rescue  men  from  their  unhappy  condition,  and 
to  transfer  them  into  a  more  happy  situation — 
e.  g.,  .lohn,  iii.  IG,  "Those  who  believe  in  him 
shall  not  be  miserable,  {uri  anoWvn^ai ,)  but 
shall  become  happy,  (^cojji/  "ixuv.)''^  Also,  Heb. 
ix.  15,  where  artoXvrpuoij  means  liberatio  ab  in- 
firiunio,  and  scXrpoio^ia,  possessio  bcatilatis. 
Cf.  Luke,  xix.  10;  1  Tim.  i.  15.  Christ  is 
said  to  have  come,  1  John,  iii.  5,  9>,  auapria* 
otpf'.r  and  Xvfir  tpya  roO  5ta,3dxov,  peccala.  The 
word  (jw^ftv  which  occurs  frequently  in  these 
passages,  like  the  Hebrew  j:'r\-i,  involves  the 
two  ideas  of  freeing  from  misery  and  translat- 
ing into  a  happy  condition.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  word  ciorrp/a. 

(2)  In  other  passages  the  benefits  which 
Christ  has  bestowed,  and  his  desert  of  the  hu- 
man race,  are  comprised  in  a  shorter  descrip- 
tion, and  only  particular  parts  of  his  work  are 


mentioned — e.  g.,  John,  i.  17,  which  treats  of 
the  great  advantages  which  Christianity  has 
over  the  Mosaic  doctrine  and  institute,  (vofioi.) 
Christianity  bestows  the  greatest  blessings, 
Xupuxai  dxr^^iia — assurance  of  the  most  sincere 
love  of  God,  or  of  his  free,  immerited  grace,  and 
of  his  truth.  John,  xiv.  6,  "I  am  the  way,  the 
truth,  and  the  life'"' — i.  e.,  I  am  he  through 
whom  you  come  to  God,  who  qualifies  you  to 
enter  the  abodes  of  the  blessed ;  and  this  my 
promise  is  true;  you  may  safely  confide  in  it; 
I  am  the  author  and  giver  of  life — i.  e.,  of  hap- 
piness. Heb.  ii.  14,  "  By  his  death  he  deprived 
the  devil,  the  author  of  all  injury  and  wretched- 
ness, of  his  power  to  harm  ;  he  freed  us  from  the 
fear  (f  death,  and  procured  us  the  pardon  uf  our 
sins."  The  passage,  1  Cor.  i.  .'JO,  should  be 
cited  in  this  connexion:  "Tiirough  him  God 
has  bestowed  upon  us  true  wisdom — has  esta- 
blished a  dispensation  which  truly  deserves  the 
name  of  a  wise  dispensation,  (in  opposition  to 
the  pretended  wisdom  of  men,  ver.  21  ;)  he  is 
the  cause  o(  oui  forgiveness — God  pardons  us 
on  his  account;  he  sanctifies  us  through  him, 
(after  forgiveness  has  been  bestowed  ;j  to  him 
we  owe  deliverance  from  the  power,  dominion, 
and  punishment  of  sin." 

III.  Scriptural  Titles  which  are  given  to  Christ  as 
the  Saviour  of  the  World. 

The  names,  Messiah,  Christ,  A'ing,  Lord, 
which  denote  the  elevation  and  dignity  of 
Christ,  have  also  a  reference  to  the  benefits 
which  he  bestowed  upon  us,  and  to  the  works 
which  he  performed  fur  the  good  of  men.  For 
he  is  Messiah,  King,  Lord,  for  the  very  purpose 
of  delivering  us  from  misery,  and  of  bestowing 
blessings  upon  us.  These  titles  have  been  con- 
sidered, s.  89,  98.  Their  doctrinal  meaning, 
then,  as  applied  to  this  subject,  is  2u.r>jp,  {xo6- 
Hov,)  Saviour,  Benefactor  of  men.  The  follow- 
ing titles  imply  more  directly  the  idea  of  his 
being  the  Benefaciin-  of  our  race. 

(1)  'I>;oovj.  This  is  indeed  the  name  by 
which  he  is  more  properly  distinguished  as 
man;  but  at  the  same  time  it  may  have  been 
given  to  him  as  a  significant  name,  denotinsj  his 
future  works  and  destination,  according  to  the 
custom  in  giving  nam'js,  common  in  the  East. 
Indeed,  the  New  Testament  expressly  declares 
that  he  received  this  name  by  divine  appoint- 
ment, on  the  command  of  the  angel :  Swofi  Xoov 
airov  d^to  duapriwf.  Matt.  i.  21 ;  Luke,  i.  31  ; 
ii.  21.  This  name  was  con)mon  among  the 
Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ,  and  is  the  name  of 
the  Jewish  leader,  JosAr/c/,  which  is  accordinerly 
rendered  Ir^oovi  by  the  LXX.,  and  lleb.  iv,  P 
The  Hebrew  name  v^r-  or  >ir\T'  is  derived  from 
';z'\  Hiph.  r"''n,  which  answers  to  aJj^fiv.  (as 
ffior>;pia  does  to  vk'n)  and  signifies,  according  to 
Hebrew  and  Greek  usage,  n.t  merely  a  dek- 
21 


874 


CHRISTIAN  THKOLOOY. 


vertr,  hut  in  general,  a  hcmfdclor,  one  ivho  be- 
ttoWi  blessings. 

(■i)  ScjT»;p.  Tliis  word  agrees  in  siornification 
Willi  Irtoi'j,  and  answers  to  the  old  German 
word,  lleihind,  (Saviour.)  For  nuixiy  denotes 
one  who  has  not  only  saved  a  person  from  ex- 
treiiiitv  and  wretchedness,  but  translated  him 
into  a  hujtpy  conditinti,  Cicero  says,  (in  Verr. 
ii.  t;3,)  "  Is  est  Suler,  qui  sahilem  dedil,^^  and 
reiiKirks  that  it  is  "  ila  ma^niim,  ut  latino  uwi 
veriio  exprimi  lum  poasit.  \'ide  Ernesti,  CI.  Cic. 
in  li.  V.  In  this  sense  the  Greeks  ap|»lied  it  to 
their  ^ods — e.  <i.,  to  .lupiter,  (so  also  it  is  applied 
to  God,  Luke,  i.  -17 ;)  also  to  their  rulers — e.  jr., 
Aiiiiochus,  Ftoleniy  Sotcr.  So  Philo  names  the 
emperor.  The  LXX.  orive  this  name  to  Moses 
and  other  Jewish  leaders.  Christ  now  is  called 
in  the  New  Testament,  by  way  of  eminence, 
2wrj;p  Toi)  xciiuov,  the  Sariaur  if  the  world,  the 
B.nij':tctnr  of  the  human  race,  Luke,  ii.  II  ;  John 
iv.  42.  So  when  the  word  au^Cfiv  is  spoken  of 
Christ,  it  signifies  to  bless;  and  mJ^oufvoi,  the 
bl.ssed,  is  a  name  given  to  pious  Christians,  -2 
Cor.  ii.  15;  and  niotr^^io,  sigrnifies  all  the  bless- 
edness which  (christians  receive  from  Christ,  not 
only  in  the  life  which  is  to  come,  but  in  that 
which  now  is,  1  Pet.  i.  10,  seq. 

(.T)  Mfjirj^j.  This  word  was  used  in  various 
senses  by  the  ancients.  Among  the  Greeks  it 
meant  conciliator,  (a  negotiator,  or  peace-maker 
between  CDUtending  parties,)  sponsor,  arbiter. 
When  this  term  is  applied  to  Christ  in  the  New 
Testament,  it  is  taken  from  Moses,  and  implies 
a  c  mparison  of  Moses  with  Christ.  Moses  is 
calkd  by  Thilo  (de  v.  Mos.),  and  by  Paul ;  Gal. 
iii.  10,  uratrr?,  in  the  sense  of  mediator,, ambas- 
sador, negotiator  (inlcrnunlius,  interpretes),  as 
mediator  bet ivecn  God  and  the  Israelites,-  because 
he  spoke  and  acted  in  the  name  of  the  Israelites 
with  (Jod,  and  in  the  name  of  (Jod  with  the 
Israt'litps.  The  passage,  Deut.  v.  5,  where 
Mosf'S  describes  himself  as  standing  ava.  /xtnnv 
Kv)Hov  xai,  yuov,  alfords  the  origin  of  this  appel- 
lation. With  this  the  works  of  Christ  were  com- 
pared ;  be  WHS  called,  1  Timothy,  ii.  5.  ufoiVr^ 
0foy  xai  iii^^nLrinv,  partly  inasmuch  as  he  treats 
with  God  in  the  name  of  men,  and  does  with 
God  everything  which  is  possible  for  our  good; 
and  p'irlli/  hecaitse  he  treats  with  men  in  the 
name  of  (»od,  and,  as  his  ambassador,  founds  a 
new  institute,  and  assures  to  men  the  compla- 
cency and  favour  of  (Jod.  In  this  respect  he  is 
called,  Ht-h.  viii.  (>,  ^f^trrj  xpf  c'rrovoj  bta^r;- 
xr.f  ix.  14.  xati-rf  AntJrxrj.  the  f  under  of  a 
new  and  more  excellent  dispensntinn  than  the 
ancif-nl  Mf'sair  di>*pfn-<ali'm.     Cf.  xii.  21. 

(4)  O  rt,)o<J»;r»;j,  t<'3:,  the  prophrt,  an  anciont 
Jowish  appj-llation  of  thi*  Missiah,  since  he  was 
concf>ivf'd  t>  be  the  greatest  <»f  all  the  messen- 
Ifers  an<l  ti-achf-rs  sent  from  God,  This  tprm  is 
derived    priiicij)ally    ftvm    the    passage,    Deut, 


xviii.  15,  which  is  referred  to  Jesus  by  Peter, 
Acts,  iii.  22,  seq. ;  and  by  Stephen,  Acts,  vii. 
37.     Vide  8.1)1. 

(5)  'O  a.-toiroXoj.  This  appellation  occurs 
Heb.  V.  1,  d.'to'sroXoj — rrj  ofioyjy/iaf  r^uuiv — i.  e., 
the  messenger,  ambassador  of  God,  whom  we 
(Christians)  profess.  Christ  frequently,  espe* 
cially  in  John,  applies  to  himself  the  phrase  u» 
(irtt'jrftXfi'  (i  Qfoj,  John,  xvii. 

The  various  other  titles  which  were  given  to 
Christ,  from  the  particular  benefits  which  he 
conferred  upon  men,  including  the  figurative 
names,  a));^U|iri'j.  auro'j,  o.uno.oi,  ^iya,  will  be 
noticed  in  their  proj)er  places. 

SECTION  CVI. 

WHAT  IS  CONSIDERED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES  AS  PRO- 
PKRLY  BELONGING  To  THK  WORK  WHICH  CHRIST 
PKRFORMED  KOR  THE  GOOD  OK  MEN;  EXPLANA- 
TION OK  THE  WORD  "  REDEMPTION,"  AS  USED  IN 
THE  BIBLE  ;  AND  WHAT  IS  THE  MOST  CONVE- 
NIENT AND  NATURAL  ORDER  AND  CONNEXION 
FOR  EXHIBITING  THE  DOCTRINE  OK  THE  ENTIRE 
MERITS  OK  CHRIST. 

I.    What  belongs  to  the  Work  of  Christ,  or  to 
Redemption, 

(1)  The  declaration  of  his  doctrine,  and  in- 
struction respecting  it.  To  this  many  of  the 
titles  applied  to  him  refer :  as  o  n^>o^r^rr^i,  d  drtcii- 
ro>.o5,  (s.  105,)  hiha'ixiOj)^,  X,  T.  X.  Respecting 
the  discharge  of  his  ofiice  as  teacher,  vide  s.  0\, 
It  needs  only  to  be  remarked  here,  that  instruc- 
tion in  this  divine  doctrine  is  by  no  means  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament  as  the  only  object 
of  the  advent  of  Christ;  still  it  is  represented  as 
a  great  object,  and  as  an  essential  part  of  his  w  ork 
upon  the  earth,  or  of  the  work  of  redemption. 
So  he  himself  represents  it.  In  John,  xvii.  3,  1, 
he  expressly  mentions  instruction  in  the  true 
religion  ("that  they  should  acknowledge  thee 
as  the  true  (lod")  as  helonijing  to  the  tpyov 
which  was  given  him  by  the  Father  to  do;  and 
in  John,  xviii.  37,  he  says,  that  he  was  b>.rn 
and  had  come  into  the  world  in  order  to  pr<>|)a- 
gate  the  true  religion,  ((ix>;>Kai.)  He  every- 
where taught  that  hn  was  lawgiver  and  king 
so  far  as  he  was  a  true,  an  infallible  teach- r; 
that  he  reigned  over  the  minds  of  men,  not  by 
extt^rnal  power  nnd  constraint,  (like  the  kings 
of  the  earth,)  but  by  the  internal  power  of  the 
truth  which  he  preached.  Cf.  John,  iii.  31* 
xii.  \9.  50. 

(2)  The  suffer inisSAUil  d  n'h  which  lie  endured 
f>r  the  good  i>f  nten.  'I'liis,  mo,  (-hrist  hinself 
always  mentions  as  an  essential  part ')f  this  work 
— e,  g.,  John.  iii.  11.  seq.  In  the  allegory, 
John,  vi.  51,  where  he  compares  himself  with 
the  manna,  he  means  by  the  bread  of  hcnv.-n  the 
•loctrine  respectinir  his  person,  and  especially  re* 
specting  the  sacrifice  of  bis  body  for  the  giwi 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  DROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      37» 


of  men,  (vrtip  Cujjj  rov  xoanov  ;)  which  he  incul- 
cates as  a  doctrine  of  the  first  importance.  In 
John,  xii.  27,  he  says,  "For  this  purpose  (to 
die  for  the  good  of  men,  vide  ver.  21)  God  had 
brought  him  into  such  distress,  and  tlierefore  he 
would  readily  and  cheerfully  endure  it."  Cf. 
John,  xiv.  31.  The  institution  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  designated  to  commemorate  "his 
blood  shed  for  the  remission  of  sins;"  Matt. 
XX vi.  28.  That  Christ  died  for  the  good  of  all 
men  is  the  universal  doctrine  of  all  the  apostles ; 
Heb.  ii.  I).  Paul  calls  this  suffering  of  Jesus 
inaxor;;  Rom.  v.  19,  coll.  Phil.  ii.  8;  Heb.  v. 
8  ;  because  he  endured  it  in  obedience  to  the 
will  of  God.  He  contrasts  it  with  the  rtapaxor; 
of  Adam,  and  says  that  by  it  we  have  obtained 
forgiveness  and  the  remission  of  sins.  If,  then, 
we  would  adhere  to  the  declarations  of  the 
scriptures,  we  shall  not  separate  this  part  from 
the  other  ;  but  consider  them  both,  one  as  much 
as  the  other,  as  belonging  to  the  work  of  Christ. 

Many  indeed  maintain  that  the  annunciation 
and  diffusion  of  his  doctrine  was  the  only  object 
of  the  life  of  Christ  upon  earth,  and  that  his 
death  is  to  be  considered  merely  as  a  martyr- 
dom, bjf  which  he  gave  an  example  and  pattern 
of  steadfastness  and  devotion  to  the  will  of  God, 
and  a  confirmation  of  the  truth  of  his  doctrine. 
But, 

(r/)  The  assertion  that  this  was  the  o??/y  object 
of  his  life  is  inconsistent  with  the  declarations 
of  scripture.  We  do  not  find  that  the  scriptures 
particularly  mention  his  death  as  an  example  of 
steadfastness;  at  least,  they  do  not  dwell  upon 
this  view,  or  regard  it  as  the  principal  point. 
liemission  (f  sins  and  eternal  life  are  mentioned 
by  Christ  himself  as  the  principal  object  which 
he  had  in  view,  John,  iii.  IG;  Matt.  xxvi. 

(6)  As  to  the  other  assertion,  that  his  doctrine 
was  pruvtd  and  confirmed  by  his  deatii,  we  find 
nor  a  single  passage  among  all  that  speak  of  his 
death  and  the  object  of  it  which  give  us  to  un- 
derstand that  the  truth  and  divinity  of  his  reli- 
gion was  proved  and  confirmed  by  this  means, 
although  tliey  were  so  by  his  resurrection  and 
ascension.  The  passage,  Heb.  ii.  10,  canrrot  l)e 
appealed  to  in  proof  of  this  assertion;  for  6ia. 
na^rfiUTuv  means,  after  sufferings  and  death  had 
been  endured,  and  refers  to  Christ.  Nor  can  the 
passage,  John,  xvii.  19,  be  appealed  to,  "  I  have 
sanc'ified  (according  to  some,  sacrificed^)  myself, 
that  they  also  migiit  be  sanctified  by  the  truth." 
The  meaning  of  this  passage  is  :  "  I  have  entirely 
consecrated  (as  ver.  17)  myself  to  this  service,  in 
order  to  give  them  an  example  which  they  should 
fellow  in  the  proclamation  of  the  true  religion; 
tha  they  also  may  deny  themselves,  take  up 
my  cross,  renounce  all  worldly  prospects,  and 
live  solely  for  me  and  my  cause."  Thus  we 
see  that  oti  this  subject  the  opinions  of  Christ 
and  of  the  first  Christians  were  entirely  differ- 


ent from  those  above  mentioned  ;  and  we  ought 
not  to  ascribe  to  those  times  and  writers  the 
ideas  which  are  now  current  among  so  many. 
But,  in  not  considering  the  death  of  Christ  aa 
designed  to  confirm  the  truth  of  his  doctrines, 
the  scriptures  are  entirely  right.  And  if  they 
had  so  considered  it,  they  would  [ilainly  have 
been  wrong.  It  is  strange  that  those  who  ad- 
vocate this  point  should  have  overlooked  this. 
For, 

(c)  The  steadfast  death  of  a  martyr  can  never 
prove  the  truth  of  liie  doctrine  for  which  he  dies  ; 
for  almost  all  religions  can  point  to  their  heroic 
martyrs.  His  oivn  firm  belief  of  the  truth  for 
ivhich  ht  diedls  all  that  can  be_  concluded  from 
the  death  of  a  martyr.  The  religion  of  Jesus, 
therefore,  would  have  a  very  uncertain  ground 
if  it  rested  upon  this  fact,  and  depended  foi 
proof  upon  this  argument.  Besides,  althongh 
Jesus  died  with  great  firmness  and  magnani- 
mity, it  is  still  certain  that  he  did  not  endure 
death*ith  that  tranquillity  and  joy  which  have 
been  admired  in  so  many  martyrs  of  the  Chris- 
tian and  the  other  religions.  Consider  his 
agony  in  Gethsemane,  Luke,  xxii.,  and  previ- 
ously,  John,  xii.  27.  If  this,  then,  were  all, 
Jesus  has  been  surpassed  by  many  n)artyrs. 
Vide  s.  95,  II. 

((/)  During  the  short  continuance  of  his  office 
as  teacher,  Jesus  did  nolexhi'nit  the  whole  com- 
pass of  the  doctrines  of  his  religion,  even  to  his 
apostles,  because  he  was  with  them  but  a  short 
time,  and  the  trutlis  to  be  taught  were  many,  and 
the  disciples  were  as  yet  incapable  of  receiving 
most  of  them;  John,  xvi.  12.  It  was  not  till 
after  his  death  that  these  doctrines,  in  all  their 
extent,  were  exhibited,  developed,  and  applied 
by  the  apostles,  and  were  at  the  same  time  in- 
creased by  the  addition  of  many  others  about 
which  Jesus  had  said  nothing  clearly.  He  de- 
signed to  prepare  the  ground,  and  to  begin  to 
sow,  but  they  were  to  enter  into  the  full  harvest; 
John,  iv.  If,  then,  as  is  frequently  said,  he  de- 
signed to  seal  or  confirm  his  doctrine  by  his 
death,  he  could  only  confiitn  so  much  of  it  as  he 
himself  had  already  taught,  leaving  us  in  uncer- 
tainty respecting  the  rest,  and  respecting  its 
whole  later  develo})ment. 

(e)  If  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  be- 
lieved that  Jesus  lived  upon  the  earth  tnerely  foi 
the  purpose  of  teaching,  it  is  hard  to  see  why 
they  should  ascribe  such  distinguished  excel 
lences  to  his  person ;  and  why  the  D^ity  should 
be  united  with  him  in  a  manner  in  which  it  nevei 
was  with  any  other  man,  or  any  otiier  created 
being.  As  a  mere  man,  he  might  have  been 
taught  by  God,  and  have  preached  a  doctrine 
revealed  to  him  by  God,  and  have  founded  a 
new  religion  and  religious  institutions,  as  Moses 
and  the  prophets  did,  and  afterwards  the  apos- 
tles themselves.    He  himself  delivered  only  the 


?76 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Bmallei5t  part  of  his  doctrines ;  nor  did  he  widely 
disseminate  even  these..  He  taught  only  three 
years,  in  a  few  provinces,  within  the  small  cir- 
cuit of  Judea  and  Galilee;  and  he  saw  but  little 
fruit  of  his  labours.  The  apostles,  on  the  other 
liand,  lived  liiroiigh  a  long  course  of  years,  added 
to  the  number  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
religion,  and  widened  their  scope,  disseminated 
them  through  many  countries,  and  saw  the  hap- 
piest results  of  their  labours.  In  short,  they  did, 
as  Christ  himself  predicted,  greater  things  than 
he  himself  accomplished  ;  John,  xiv.  12.  Were 
Christ,  then,  a  mere  teacher,  he  must  in  many 
respects  give  place  to  his  apostles,  and  rank  as 
inferior  to  them.  On  this  supposition,  he  would 
only  have  the  preference  of  originating,  founding, 
and  giving  the  tone  to  his  religion;  while,  on 
the  contrary,  according  to  the  representations  of 
the  apostles,  and  before  them  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, he  had  an  infinite  superiority  over  them, 
and  over  all  the  teachers  who  had  preceded  or 
would  follow  them.  These  had  done  and  could 
do  nothing  which  could  bear  any  comparison 
with  what  he  had  done  for  the  human  race;  for 
to  him  alone  are  men  indebted  for  their  entire 
happiness  here  and  hereafter.  Even  John  the 
Bajitist,  whom  Christ  described  as  the  greatest 
of  all  prophets,  esteemed  himself  unworthy  to 
offer  him  the  most  menial  service;  John,  i.  and 
iii.  28 — 2C.  "  Whosoever  believes  in  him  has 
eternal  life."  Where  was  this  ever  said  of  a 
prophet  or  apostle  1  Where  is  it  said  that  who- 
ever believes  on  Moses  or  Paul  has  eternal  life? 
The  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  then,  must 
have  supposed,  if  they  do  not  speak  and  judge 
quite  inconsistently,  that  the  design  of  God,  in 
the  mission  and  death  of  Christ,  extended  to 
souiething  more  than  mere  instruetiim  and  ex- 
aniple.  They  must  have  believed  that  he  was 
a  far  more  exalted  person  than  any  human 
teacher  who  preceded  or  would  follow  him. 

(/)  ^^  here  is  it  said,  respecting  James,  Ste- 
phen, or  any  other  martyr,  that  he  died  for  men? 
But  this  would  have  been  said  of  them  if  this 
language  had  meant  nothing  more  than  giving 
an  exain])le  and  furnishing  confirmation  to  a 
coetrine.  Paul  himself  protests  against  this 
•dea,  as  dero(r.;'ory  to  Christ,  and  abhorrent  to 
the  feelings  of  Christians,  1  Cor.  i.  13. 

II.  Explanation  of  the  word  anoXirptMit  or  Xirpuion, 
(^Uedeiiiptiim,)  and  a  dtvelupment  of  the  idea 
contained  in  it. 

(1)  The  primary  and  literal  signification  of 
».vr,)ouj  is,  to  rcdf.eni  hy  the  payment  of  a  ransom 
of  money  or  something  else.  For  Xvr|)oi'  is  j)re- 
liuin  redemptionis,  and  is  used  by  the  I. XX.  to 
translate  the  Hebrew  -«c3,  Kxodus,  xxx.  12. 
sof}.  Thus  it  is  used,  p.  g.,  when  speaking  of 
redemption  from  captivity  or  slavery,  which  is 
«lTected  by  the  payment  of  a  ransom,  or  when 


speaking  of  a  person's  property  which  is  in  the 
hands  of  another,  and  which  he  then  redeems. 
In  this  sense  Xvrfio^  frequently  corresponds  to 
the  Hebrew  words  ■'nj  and  m?,  and  >.vT|>ui5ij  to 
the  substantives  derived  from  them — e.  g.,  Lev. 
XXV.  25,  30,  48,  -19.     But, 

(2)  Avrpovv  and  Xvri^witj  frequently  convey 
the  general  idea  of  any  reneue  and  deliverance 
from  an  unhappy  situation,  as  from  slavery;  or 
deliverance  from  any  other,  even  moral  evil, 
without  either  the  literal  payment  of  a  ransom^ 
or  anything  like  it;  precisely  like  n-r  and  "?sji. 
Slavery  and  captivity  so  often  befel  the  Hebrews 
that  they  were  in  the  habit  of  comparing  every 
species  of  wretchedness  with  this  severe  cala- 
mity. Captivity  stood  with  them  for  great  ca- 
lamity ;  as  Job,  xlii.  10,  God  freed  Job  from 
captivity  when  he  restored  him  to  health  and 
prosperity.  Captured  people,  Ps.  liii.  7,  signi- 
fies unhappy  people.  Every  deliverance  from 
misfortune,  even  where  no  ransom,  in  the  literal 
sense,  was  paid,  was  with  them  Xvrixostj;  the 
deliverer,  y.vrpwr?;?;  the  means  of  deliverance, 
"KvT^tov,  as  Morus  properly  translates  it.  Ii  ia 
not  said  merely  of  deliverance  from  bodily  evil, 
but  is  transferred  to  spiritual  evil.  According- 
ly, the  LXX.  frequently  translate  m:'  and  *?.sj  by 
ndi^ew.  Job,  xxxiii.  29  ;  and  by  ,jt)fa>tu.  Is.  1.  2; 
which  are  then  synonymous  with  >.vr|)ovi'. 

(3)  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  follow 
this  IIel)rew  and  Hebrew-Greek  usage,  and  em- 
ploy these  words  to  denote  any  pr-eservation  and 
deliverance,  even  in  cases  where  no  ransom,  ia 
the  proper  sense,  is  paid — e.  g.,  rui^ia  dnoXvrpii- 
rfiuii,  Eph.  iv.  30;  eyyi^tt  drtoXvrpucitj,  Luke, 
xxi.  28;  and  drtoXvrpio^ii  rov  auiuaro;,  Kom. 
viii.  23;  and  Moses  is  called.  Acts,  vii.  35,  the 
Xvr))wr>;j  of  the  Israelites,  although  he  paid  no 
ransom  for  them.  In  this  sense  is  d.toxvrpio^ij 
applied  by  Jews  and  Christians  to  the  .Messiah, 
ami  denotes,  when  spoken  of  him,  the  rescue  and 
deliverance  which  he  has  procured  for  us. 

In  all  the  variety  of  their  opinions  respecting 
the  !\Iessiah  and  his  designs,  the  Jews  dithered 
also  in  opinion  respecting  this  deliverance  which 
they  were  expecting  from  him. 

(a)  Many  Jews,  who  supposed  the  Messiah 
would  be  a  temporal  ruler,  placed  this  XvTpwjt< 
Xoov,  principally,  at  least,  in  a  temporal  deliver* 
anco  of  their  nation  from  its  enemies  and  op* 
pressors.  Cf.  x.vrpovi'  IsparX  spoken  of  the 
Messiah.  Luke,  xxiv.  21  ;  wliich  is  expressed 
by  anoxaSnardi'M  fJa-jiViai'  to  'Itpa>;>.,  .4cts,  i.  6. 

(/»)  But  those  of  the  Jews  who  were  better 
instructed  understooil  this  drtnXvTpw-itj  which 
was  ascribed  to  the  Messiah  in  a  spiritual  and 
moral  sense  only.  In  this  sense  Christ  hiinsf  If 
and  his  apostles  always  understood  it.  Now  it 
was  conimon  to  conceive  of  Sin  as  having  a 
power  and  dominion  which  it  exercised  over 
sinners,  (vide  s.  85,  I.,)  and  to  cchoeive  of  the 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       3T 


author  of  sin  (the  deceiver  of  our  first  parents) 
in  the  same  way  ;  and  so  of  Death,  (the  conse- 
quence and  punishment  of  sin,)  which  is  de- 
scribed as  a  tyrant,  wlio  has  men  in  his  power. 
One  who  perishes,  or  becomes  miserable,  is  his 
captive  and  slave.  But,  according  to  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  New  Testament,  Christ  frees  us 
(a)  from  the  power  and  dominion  of  sin  by  means 
of  instruction  and  counsel  received  by  us  in  faith. 

*.  t.  7..,  John,  viii.  3-2 — 36.  He  accomplishes 
this  deliverance  by  means  of  his  dadrine  and 
example.  But  (;3)  he  frees  us  also  from  the  pu- 
nishment of  sin,  or  procures  us  forgiveness,  by 
his  death,  (atonement.)  We  cannot  experience 
the  good  resulting  from  the  first  part  of  this 
redemption,  and  have  no  true  capacity  for  it, 
before  we  are  made  sure  of  the  second. 

This  twofold  deliverance  is  expressed  by  va- 
rious phrases,  which  sometimes  denote  the  one 
kind,  sometimes  the  other,  and  sometimes  the 
two  together.  Among  these  phrases  are  the  fol- 
lowing:— acj^fti'  ttrto  d^apriuJi',  Matthew,  i.  21 ; 
xa^opt^fti/  ano  aftap-rtaj,  John,  i.  7,  9,  &c.  So 
also  y.t'rpdto  and  Xvrpiostj  are  used  sometimes  to 
express  the  one  kind  of  deliverance  or  the  other, 
and  sometimes  both  together,  Heb.  ix.  12;  1 
Pet.  i.  18  ;  Rom.  iii.  24.  What  is  expressed 
b)f  the  phrase  %vt\>ovv  drto  a^txiaj,  Titus,  ii.  11, 
is  expressed  by  i^(u\i(lv.  Gal.  i.  4;  and  Christ 
himself  says  he  gave  his  life  "Kvtfov  avri  rtox- 
Xwv — i.  e.,  he  died  for  the  delivery  and  rescue 
of  men,  Matt.  xx.  28.  In  the  same  way,  the 
other  words  of  buying  and  redeeming  are  used 
mostly  for  every  kind  of  rescue  and  deliverance, 
and  in  this  sense  are  transferred  to  Christ;  as, 
dyopd^fti;,  i^ayopd^cLv,  1  Cor.  vii.  23.  "The 
Lord  that  bought  them,"  2  Pet.  ii.  1 ;  Gal.  iii. 
13;  Rev.  v.  0.^ 

III.  The  Order  and  Connexion  in  which  the  parti- 
cular topics  belonging  to  the  Article  respecting  the 
Merits  of  Christ  may  be  most  conveniently  and 
naturally  treated. 

It  is  most  natural  here  to  have  respect  to  the 
twofold  object  of  the  mission  of  Christ;  (a)  to 
free  men  from  the  unhappy  condition  into  whicli 
they  are  brought  by  sin,  "that  they  may  not 
perish,"  John,  iii.  16;  and  (i)  to  procure  for 
them  true  happiness  in  the  present  and  the  fu- 
ture world,  "that  they  should  haye  eternal 
life,"  John,  iibi  supra.  Hence  appears  the  pro- 
priety, in  the  systematic  treatment  of  theology, 
of  separating  the  doctrine  respecting  the  work 
(opus)  of  Christ,  from  the  doctrine  respectino- 
the  go-jd,  or  the  hemfits  themselves,  which  Christ 
has  procured  for  us  by  his  work,  {benficia 
Christi.)  The  first  part  exhibits  th6  means 
which  God  en)ploys  to  recover  the  human  race 
through  Christ;  the  s?cflnd  part,  the  results  of 
what  Christ  did.  This  same  distinction  is  made 
48 


in  the  holy  scriptures  in  other  places  besides 
John,  iii. ;  as  Rom.  v.  9,  10,  5)diaroj  is  the  opus 
Christi  ;  xataJ.Xayr:  is  the  result,  or  the  blessing 
which  Christ  bestows;  2  Tim.  i.  10,  "through 
the  gospel  {opus  Christi)  he  has  brougiit  life  and 
immortality  to  light,  {beneficia.y  According  to 
the  example  of  the  Bible,  therefore,  the  whole 
subject  may  be  arranged  in  the  follow -ng  man- 
ner— viz., 

I.  Of  the  work  of  Christ,  or  the  redemption 
which  he  has  effected, — his  mediatorial  work, 
(redemptio.)     This  comprises, 

(1)  Deliverance  or  redemption  from  the  pu- 
nishment of  sin,  which  is  effected  by  his  death 
or  his  blood,  together  with  the  doctrine  of  the 
justifiicntion  or  forgiveness  of  men,  the  fruit  of 
this  redemption.     S.  108 — 115,  incl. 

(2)  Deliverance  from  the  power  and  dominion 
of  sin,  which  is  effected,  through  divine  assist- 
ance, by  the  instruction  which  Christ  gives  by 
his  doctrine  and  example.     S.  IIG,  117. 

Each  of  these  kinds  of  deliverance  belongs 
equally  to  this  urtoXvrptofft;,  or  redemption.  Only 
we  must  have  the  forgiveness  of  our  past  sins, 
and  assurance  of  the  same,  before  we  can  avail 
ourselves  of  what  is  contained  in  the  second 
part.  Hence  we  have  adopted  this  order.  And 
so  the  Bible  teaches;  we  are  first  pardoned^ 
then  sanctified.  The  first  is  effected  by  the  death 
of  Christ,  the  second,  with  divine  assistance,  by 
the  instructions  of  Christ,  when  received  and 
obeyed  in  faith. 

II.  On  the  result  of  all  these  works  under- 
taken for  the  good  of  men,  or  the  blessedness  to 
which  men  attain  in  this  life  and  the  life  to 
come,  in  consequence  of  these  works,  (benefi- 
cia  Christi.)     S.  118—120,  incl. 

But  before  we  enter  upon  this  plan,  we  must 
say  a  few  words  respecting  the  method  com- 
monly pursued,  especially  in  former  times,  ia 
discussing  the  doctrine  of  the  mediatorial  work 
of  Christ;  s.  107. 

SECTION  CVII. 

OF  THE  METHOD  FORMERLY  ADOPTED  OF  CONSI- 
DERING THE  WORK  OF  CHRIST,  AS  CONSISTING 
OF  THE  PROPHETIC,  PRIESTLY,  AND  KINGLT 
OFFICES. 

It  has  been  for  a  long  lime  the  custom  in  the 
protestant,  and  especially  in  the  Lutheran 
church,  to  consider  the  mediatorial  work  of 
Christ  as  consisting  of  three  offices,  {munera, 
officia.  Germ.  JEmtern) — viz.,  the  prophetic, 
priestly,  and  kingly.  This  method  was  not 
universal  among  the  Lutheran  theologians, 
though  it  was  the  most  general  from  the  se- 
venteenth century  down  to  the  lime  of  Ernesli. 
In  1768 — 69  he  wrote  two  Programnw,  "De 
officio  Christi  triplici,"  which  are  found  in  hi» 
"Ppusc.  Theolog.,"  p.  411,  seq.,  and  in  whicU 
2  i2 


178 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


he  objects  to  this  method,  for  many  reasons. 
Most  of  his  reasons  (for  they  are  not  all  of 
equal  validity)  have  so  much  weight,  that 
Zdchariii,  Diiderlein,  and  many  other  protest- 
ant  theoloirians  since  his  time,  have  pursued  an 
entirely  ditTerent  method.  Seiier,  Less,  in  his 
"  Prakt.  Dogmat."  and  others,  adhered  to  the 
old  method,  and  endeavoured  to  defend  it.  Also 
Dresde,  whose  "  Obss.  in  tripartiiam  divisionem 
uuneris  mediatorii;"  Vitel.  1778,  Ito  ;  contain 
many  excellent  historical  remarks.  We  shall 
speakyJcs/  of  the  origin  and  history  of  this  me- 
thod, and  then  of  the  reasons  why  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  proper  in  the  systematic  treatment 
of  theology. 

L  Origin  and  History  of  this  Division. 

The  lille  nr^,  Xptjroj,  Uridus,  gave  rise  to 
this  division.  In  its  common  use,  it  properly 
signifies  a  kins;.  But  it  was  considered  accord- 
ing 10  lis  etymology,  and  thus  new  significa- 
tions were  formed.  The  question  was,  "  Who, 
in  the  Old  Testament,  was  anointed,  or  conse- 
crated to  office,  by  unction?''''  This  was  found 
to  have  been  the  custom  most  frequently  with 
respect  to  kiny;s  and  priests.  Accordingly, 
Ambrosius,  RutFinus,  and  other  ecclesiastical 
fathers,  declared  that  pi'u'd  denoted  the  kim^ly 
dind  priest ly  oiTice.  But  it  was  found  ihdl  pro- 
phets also  were  sometimes  anointed.  And  so 
(Element  of  Alexandria  and  others  declared  that 
Christ  was  called  n'U'o  because  he  was  a  pro- 
p/ut.  Vide  Dresde,  s.  5.  Now  when  they  saw 
that  Christ  was  actually  called  kini^, priest,  and 
j/rophet  in  the  scriptures,  they  put  these  two 
things  together,  and  declared  that  the  whole 
mediatorial  work  of  Jesus  consisted  in  these 
three  kinds  of  works.  Eusebius,  in  the  fourth 
century,  in  his  Cliurch  History,  and  also  in  iiis 
"Demonstratio  Kvangelica,"  (iv.  15,)  is  the 
first  who  appears  to  have  distinctly  connected 
these  three  parts,  and  to  have  considered  ihein 
as  belonging  to  the  mediatorial  work. 

This  division,  then,  is  not  so  modern  as  Er- 
nesti  appears  to  suppose.  Indeed,  it  may  have 
been  originally  derive<l  by  the  Christians  from 
the  Jcw.i.  l*'or  the  Kabbins  and  Cabalisis  as- 
cribe to  the  Messiah  a  thrc fold  dignity  (crown) 
— viz.,  thi  crown  of  the  hiw,  if  the  priesthood, 
atui  of  the  kin^iloin.  Vide  Schoettgen,  in  his 
work  on  the  Mps^iah,  8.  107,  2U8.  At  least  both 
of  tiiem  formed  the  division  in  the  same  way. 
But  among  Christians  it  was  never  the  general 
rule  of  faith,  but  only  employed  as  a  figurative 
mode  of  representing  ihe  doctrine.  Anciently  it 
was  most  common  in  the  Greek  church.  Cbry- 
Bostoin,  Tbeodoret,  and  others,  shew  traces  of  it. 
It  was  therefore  seen  in  the  Confession  of  F.iith 
of  the  inndern  (Jreek  church  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  it  is  still  common  in  the  liiissi.m 
church.     Anciently  in  the  Latin  church  it  was 


sometimes,  though  seldom  used.  But  the  school 
men  never  used  it  in  their  acroamatical  instruc- 
tions; for  wiiich  reason  the  theologians  of  the 
Romish  church  in  after  times  used  it  but  seldom, 
although  Bellarmin  and  many  others  do  not  dis- 
card it.  For  the  same  reason,  Luther  and  M^ 
lancthon,  and  other  early  Lutheran  theologians 
who  separated  from  the  Romish  church,  do  not 
make  use  of  this  method  in  treating  of  tlie  doctrine 
of  the  mediatorial  work  of  Christ.  But  after  the 
seventeenth  century  it  was  gradually  introduced 
into  the  systems.  It  appears  to  have  been  first 
introduced  by  Job.  Gerhard,  in  his  "  Loci  Theo- 
logici."  At  least  it  is  not  found  in  Ciiemniiz. 
It  was  afterwards  employed  in  popular  religious 
instruction,  and  was  admitted  by  Spener  into  his 
Catechism;  until  at  last  it  became  universal  to 
treat  of  the  doctrine  respecting  the  mediatorial 
work  of  Christ  according  to  this  division  and 
under  these  heads.  In  the  reformed  church  it 
was  adopted  by  Calvin,  who  was  followed  by 
many  others.  It  is  also  adopted  by  many  Ar- 
minian  and  Socinian  writers. 

II.  A  Critical  Judgment  respecting  tliia  Method. 

Morus,  indeed,  acknowledges  that  nothing 
depends  upon  exhibiting  the  doctrine  in  this 
particular  form,  and  that  the  truths  themselves 
may  be  expressed  in  other  words,  and  with- 
out this  figurative  phraseology.  At  the  same 
lime  he  undertakes  to  defend  it,  though  not  ia 
a  very  satisfactory  manner.  The  f  )llowing  rea- 
sons seem  to  render  it  unadvis.ible  for  theolo- 
gians to  make  use  of  this  form  in  the  scientifia 
treatment  of  this  doctrine. 

(1)  It  appears  from  No.  I.  that  this  manner 
of  presenting  the  subject  arose  entirely  from  aa 
etymological  explanation  of  the  word  n-:;::,  and 
from  an  allegorical  sense  of  this  title  founded 
upon  its  etymology.  For,  acciirding  to  the  true 
use  of  the  word  in  the  Bible,  Messiah  signifies 
only  king.  Many  were  anointed,  but  king*, 
were  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  anointed. 

(■2)  All  these  words,  when  applied  to  Chrisi, 
are  figurative.  Such  figurative  expressions  are, 
indeed,  very  good  and  instructive  in  themselves, 
and  must  be  suitably  explained  in  the  acruama 
tical  and  popular  treatment  of  theology.  But  it  ia 
more  convenient  to  express  the  ideas  themselves 
in  the  first  instance  by  literal  language,  and  not 
to  make  figurative  expressions,  although  they 
may  be  scriptural,  the  ground  of  our  divisions. 
And  so  indeed  we  proceed  with  respect  to  the 
other  figurative  terms  applied  to  Christ  in  the 
Bible,  as  himh,  physician,  shejihird,  door,  vine^ 
And  why  should  we  proceed  dilferently  here? 
Thus  we  can  consider  Christ  as  kina,  and  as 
a  divinely  authorized  teacher  (prophet),  in  both 
his  slates;  and  especially  as  making  atonement 
(High  Priest);  and  then  we  can  explain  Ihe 
figurative  terms,  and  shew  the  mebning  of  the 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       37S 


words  sacrifice,  uj^ercede,  and  bleas,  when  spoken 
0^  Christ. 

(3)  When  theologians  attempt  to  determine 
definitely  which  of  the  works  of  Christ  are  de- 
noted hy  each  of  these  titles,  they  themselves 
differ  widely  from  one  another;  because  these 
titles  are  fijriirative,  and  so  admit  of  various  sig- 
niticatioiis,  accordintj  as  they  are  understood  in 
a  more  limited  or  a  wider  sense.  On  this  ac- 
count, it  is  inconvenient  to  make  this  division 
the  basis  of  our  treatment  of  this  subject.  It 
may  easily  occasion  confusion  of  ideas.  Some 
(No.  I.)  admit  only  two  offices,  the  royal  and 
prieally,  and  comprise  the  7);op//e/jc  offict;  in  the 
priestly,  because  the  priests  were  employed  in 
teaching;.  But  even  those  who  admit  three  of- 
fices are  not  united.  The  opinion  which  Baier 
formerly  held,  and  which  Seller  follows,  is  one 
of  the  most  current  in  the  Lutheran  church — 
viz.,  ihe  prophetic  office  comprehends  the  works 
of  Christ  as  divine  teacher,  in  order  to  free  men 
from  ignorance  and  to  point  out  to  them  the  way 
to  happiness  (o^/«/?o  amissse  salutis);  the  prie^l- 
It/  otTice  comprehends  the  whole  work  of  atone- 
ment, or  deliverance  from  guilt  and  the  punish- 
ment of  bio  {acquisitio  amissaj  salulis);  tlie 
kinijrly  office  comprehends  the  labours  of  Christ 
for  the  ffood  of  his  followers  and  of  his  church, 
and  for  the  more  general  diffusion  of  trulli  over 
the  earth,  {collatio  amissaR  salutis.)  But  others 
again  define  and  divide  differently. 

(4)  The  advocates  of  this  division  appeal  to 
the  Bible,  where  these  figurative  titles,  king, 
prophet,  high  priest,  frequently  occur  in  appli- 
cation to  Christ,  But  the  sacred  writers  do  not 
mean  to  designate  by  these  titles  the  very  works 
of  Christ,  as  Redeemer,  which  theologians  un- 
derstand hy  them.  The  sacred  writers  mean 
frequently  to  describe  by  these  titles  the  whole 
object  of  the  mission  of  Christ  and  his  whole 
work.  These  titles  were  derived  from  the  an- 
cient .lewish  constitution,  and  were  used  by  the 
apostles,  for  the  most  part,  in  their  instructions 
to  .Tews  and  converts  from  Judaism,  to  whom 
the  sense  concealed  under  these  figures  was  at 
once  intelligible.  At  first  the  Jewish  institute 
was  administered  by  prophets  and  priests  only, 
and  if  tliis  state  of  things  had  continued,  and 
the  Israelites  had  never  been  governed  by  kings, 
Christ  would  not  have  received  the  name  of 
Av"/iir,  and  would  not  have  been  compared  to  a 
kins.  But  since  the  royal  dignity  was  the 
hicrhest  among  the  Israelites,  the  dignity  of 
Christ  was  compared  with  it,  and  so  he  was 
called  a  king. 

The  following  remarks  may  shew  the  idea 
which  is  attached  to  these  names  'n  the  scrip- 
tires,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  there 
used. 

(a)  Prophet.  This  name  was  fjven  to  Christ 
not  merely  because  he  was  a  te  ic'ier,  but  also 


because  he  was  a  messenger  or  ambassador  of 
God,  according  to  the  original  signification  of 
the  word.  He  performed  all  his  works,  suffer- 
ing and  dying,  as  well  as  teaching,  as  pro' 
phet — i.  e.,  as  the  messenger  of  God.  He  is 
called  a  prophet  especially  in  comparison  with 
Moses,  according  to  the  text,  Deut.  xviii.  15 
coll.  Acts,  iii.  22.  Vide  s.  91,  I.  But  Mosea, 
besides  being  a  teacher  and  the  founder  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  perfornjed  also  the  works  of  z 
ruler  and  priest,  and  did  not  transfer,  till  after- 
wards, one  part  of  his  duties,  the  priesthood,  to 
Aaron.  Moses,  therefore,  enacted  laws,  instruct- 
ed, ruled,  sacrificed — all  as  prophet — i.  e.,  si 
commissioned  by  God. 

(i)  King.  Here  the  case  is  the  same  as 
above.  This  name  is  given  to  Christ,  not  merely 
because  he  rules,  guides,  and  protects  his  fol- 
lowers and  church,  but  also  because  he  is  a 
teacher  of  the  truth;  as  he  himself  declares, 
John,  xviii.  37,  that  his  kingdom  consists  in 
announcing,  promoting,  and  diffusing  the  truth. 
Vide  s.  lOG,  I.  1.  Now  according  to  the  com- 
mon explanation,  and  the  minute  disiinction 
which  is  here  introduced,  this  would  intrude 
upon  the  ]rrophtlic  office. 

(c)  Frie.il.  In  the  Epistle  to  th^  Hebrews, 
from  tlie  fifth  chapter  and  onward,  Christ  is 
often  compared  with  priests,  and  especially  with 
the  Jewish  high  priest.  But  this  comparison  is 
derived  from  the  text,  Ps.  ex.  4,  which  Christ 
refers  to  himself,  and  to  which  Paul  apjieals  ii. 
the  abovenamed  epistle.  The  reason  why  such 
frequent  use  was  made  of  this  comjiarison  in  this 
epistle  is,  that  it  was  written  principally  to 
converted  Jews,  who,  however,  were  inclined  to 
apostatize  from  Christianity,  and  who  looked 
upon  the  origin  of  the  Mosaic  religion  and  the 
whole  Jewish  ritual  as  far  more  elevated,  splen- 
did, and  magnificent,  than  the  Christian.  In 
comparison  with  this,  the  origin  and  rites  of 
Christianity  appeared  poor  and  insignificant. 
Un  this  account,  Paul  compares  Christ,  in  the 
first  place,  with  Moses ;  and  then,  from  the  fifth 
chapter  and  onward,  with  the  Israelitish  priests. 
He  shews  his  resemblance  to  them,  and  at  the 
same  time,  his  great  superiority  over  them. 
These  figures  and  comparisons  are  not,  there- 
fore, so  intelligible  to  Christians,  who  are  unac- 
quiiinted  with  the  Levitical  ritual  and  priesthood. 
To  such,  then,  all  this  must  be  ex])lained  before 
they  can  properly  understand  these  comparisons. 
Is  it  not,  therefore,  more  suitable  arJ  judicious, 
first  to  exhibit  the  truth  iiself  in  plain  and  literal 
language,  as  Christ  and  the  apostles  so  frequent- 
ly do  on  this  subject;  and  then,  to  shew  by 
what  figures  and  comparisons  this  truth  is  re- 
presented in  the  scriptures,  and  to  explain  the 
meaning  of  these  figures  and  comparisons? 
We  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  these  figurative 
,  terms    are   in    themselves    objectionable,   and 


380 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


should  not  be  used  in  the  more  popular  Chris- 
tian instruction.  We  only  mean,  that  in  the 
first  place  the  truth  should  be  taught  without 
figures:  that  then  the  figurative  terms  contained 
in  the  Bible  should  be  explained;  and  that  after- 
wards literal  and  figurative  language  should  be 
used  nllernately.  And  for  this  we  have  the  ex- 
ample of  the  scriptures  themselves.  These  figu- 
rative terms  are  by  no  means  in  themselves  ob- 
jectionable; for,  according  to  the  principles  of 
the  human  mind,  they  exert  a  more  powerful 
influence,  illustrate  truth  more  clearly,  and  im- 
press it  more  deeply  upon  the  heart,  than  can  be 
done  by  literal  terms.  Only  they  must  be  pro- 
perly explained. 

[The  ancient  method  of  considering  the  work 
of  Chri.st  under  the  form  of  a  threefold  office  has 
been  revived  of  late,  and  is  adopted  in  the  sys- 
tems of  I)e  Wette,  ISchleierinacher,  and  Tho- 
luck.— Tr.] 

We  now  enter  upon  the  plan  marked  out  at 
the  close  of  s.  lOG. 


PART  I.  OF  CHAPTER  IV. 

0\  REDEMPTION  FROM  THE  PUNISHMENT  OF 
SIX;  OR,  ON  THE  ATONEMENT  OF  CHRIST, 
AND  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  MEN  BEFORE  GOD 
—THE  CONSEQUENCE  OF  THE  ATONEMENT. 

8.  108—115. 


SECTION  CVIII. 

OF  THE  VARIOUS  OPINIONS  RESPECTl.NT,  THE  FOR- 
GIVE.VESS  OF  SIN  BY  GOD,  AND  THE  CO.NDITIONS 
ON  WHICH  FOROIVENESS  MAY  BE  GRANTED;  AND 
AN  APPLICATION  OF  THIS  TO  THE  SCRIPTURAL 
DOCTRINE  OF  THE  ATONEMENT. 

I.  The  "Forgiveness  of  Sin ;"  Vartmis  Opinions  re- 
specting it,  especially  in  regard  to  the  Conditions 
of  it. 

It  is  the  nniform  doctrine  of  all  religions,  that 
transgression  of  the  divine  law  incurs  inevitable 
punishiufMit;  but  that  no  sins  are  altogether  ir- 
remissible;  that,  on  the  contrary,  God  is  in- 
clined to  remit  the  punishment  of  sin,  on  certain 
conditions.  For  the  object  of  religion  is  not 
only  to  point  out  to  men  their  destination,  but 
also  to  impart  to  them  peace  and  composure  of 
mind  with  regard  to  ibeir  destiny  here  and  be- 
yond the  grave.  The  opinions  of  men  respect- 
ing the  conditions  on  which  the  pardon  of  sin 
depends,  may  be  divided  into  several  classes. 
Some  have  united  many  of  these  conditions  to- 
gether, as  requisite  to  pardon ;  others  have  de- 
pended wholly  on  some  particular  one. 

(I)  Sact  ifice,  and  otfiT  reHi^idus  riles  and  ce- 
remonies. 


(«)  We  observe  thiv  sacrifice  is  universal 
among  all  nations  as  soon  as  they  rise  above 
the  first  brutal  condition.  The  Uible  places  h 
in  the  very  first  period  of  the  world ;  Gen.  iv  , 
viii.  20,  21.  Many  ancient  and  modern  philo- 
sophers have  greatly  wondered  how  an  idea  iu 
itself,  as  it  seemed  to  them,  so  unworthy  of  God, 
could  have  occurred  to  men,  or  could  have  pre- 
vailed so  universally  among  them.  IJut  there 
is  a  feeling  lying  deep  in  our  nature  which  com- 
pels men  to  look  around  for  some  means  of  con- 
ciliating the  favour  of  the  Deity,  and  of  averting 
the  deserved  punishment  of  sin.  Vide  infra, 
No.  II.,  and  s.  88,  I.  2.  Why  sacrijice  was  the 
means  selected  for  this  purpose,  and  why  ac- 
cordingly it  was  sanctioned  by  divine  appoint- 
ment among  the  Israelites  and  their  ancestors, 
may  appear  from  the  following  considerations. 

]Men  conceived  of  the  Deity  as  corporeal  and 
like  themselves.  Vide  s.  19.  Hence  arose  the 
idea  of  sacrifice.  They  hoped  to  conciliate  the 
favour  of  God  by  the  same  means  by  which 
they  endeavoured  to  gain  the  favour  of  men, 
supposing  that  what  was  pleasing  to  men  would 
be  so  to  (Jod.  The  thought  that  internal  good- 
ness and  integrity  of  heart  are  alone  pleasing  to 
God,  however  plain  this  may  appear  to  us,  was 
entirely  beyond  the  comprehension  of  rude  and 
uncultivated  man.  But  even  allowing  him  to 
have  some  idea  of  this,  ho  would  still  feel,  as 
we  must,  that  his  holiness  was  very  imperfect, 
and  afforded  a  very  doubtful  pretension  to  the 
approbation  of  God.  Besides,  he  would  be  dis- 
quieted by  the  fear  that  \\\s  past  transgressions 
might  not  be  cancelled,  or  be  undone,  by  any 
succeeding  holiness,  and  that  punishment  there- 
fore was  still  to  be  apprehended.  He  accord- 
ingly brougiit  gifts  and  jjrcsenis  to  his  gods,  to 
render  himself  acceptable  to  them.  And  so,  in 
the  ancient  languages,  the  words  which  mean 
gifts,  presents,  also  signify  sncrificc.  It  was 
supposed  in  the  earliest  times  that  the  gods 
were  personally,  though  invixilih/,  present  at  the 
otToring  of  these  gifts,  and  when  the  ofVerings 
consisted  of  food,  as  was  commonly  the  case, 
that  they  themselves  partook,  and  enjoyed  the 
.sivect  savour,  (the  sweet  smell  of  the  flesh  of  the 
olTerings,  xi^oa,  Ilom.  U.  iv.  -19  ;  xxiv.  6S, 
seq.)  Hence  offerings  were  called  ihe food  and 
drink  of  the  gods.  Homer  describes  .lupiler 
and  the  rest  of  the  gods  as  going  from  Olympus 
to  a  festal  sacrifice  which  the  Ethiopians  pre- 
sented to  him,  and  which  lasted  twelve  days; 
II.  i.  423,  seq.;  xxiii.  20r,,  207.  It  was  the 
object  of  these  gifts  to  expr:»ss  gratitude  to  the 
gods  for  blessings  received,  to  obtain  future 
benefits,  and  to  avert  the  evils  which  ihcy  wer^ 
supposed  to  ordain  or  to  inflict  in  anger. 

The  opinion  of  Ernesli,  Doederlien.  and 
many  others,  that  sacrifices  were  originally  only 
Ihanl.-nffirings,  and  that  the  expiatory  yicrifict 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       381 


was  first  introduced  by  Moses,  is  without  proof. 
The  three  kinds  of  sacrifice  above  named  are 
found  to  exist  together  in  all  nations.  Even  the 
sacrifices  of  Abe4  and  Noah,  Gen.  iv.  and  viii., 
were  designed  to  obtain  good  from  God,  and 
to  avert  evil,  (the  anger  of  God.)  Homer 
gives,  II.  ix.  495,  the  great  principle  on  which 
all  nations  who  have  sacrificed  have  uniform- 
ly proceeded,  "that  meat  and  drink  otferings 
couciliato  the  gods  with  men  when  they  err 
and  sin,"  Even  men  were  sacrificed  to  the 
gods  when  it  was  thought  that  the  common 
flesh  of  beasts  was  insufficient  to  appease  their 
auger,  or  to  avert  their  displeasure.  This  was 
the  case  principally  in  the  ages  of  the  greatest 
rudeness  and  barbarity,  when  men  imagined 
th^^ir  gods  to  be  as  wild,  revengeful,  and  blood- 
thirsty as  themselves.  But  such  sacrifices  were 
resorted  to  even  b}'  the  cultivated  Greeks  and 
Romans,  in  case  of  plague  or  any  great  calami- 
ty; and,  notwithstanding  the  strictness  with 
which  they  were  forbidden  by  the  laws  of 
Moses,  they  were  frequently  practised  even  by 
the  Jews. 

Respecting  the  origin  of  sacrifices,  vide 
Sykes,  Vom  Ursprunge  der  Opfer,  with  Notes 
by  Semler;  Halle,  1778,  8vo;  and  Wolf,  Vom 
lirsprunge  der  Opfer,  in  his  Vermischten 
Schriften. 

(i)  As  some  of  these  nations  became  gradu- 
ally more  civilized,  many  among  them  perceived 
that  such  a  use  of  sacrifices  was  inconsistent 
with  just  ideas  respecting  God  and  his  attri- 
butes, and  that  men  could  never  obtain  from  the 
Deity  by  sacrifices  even  those  things  which  they 
hoped  to  obtain  by  them.  Ti)e  use  of  them, 
however,  could  not  be  done  away  immediately 
by  legishitors  and  the  institutors  of  religion,  be- 
cause nothing  could  be  substituted  for  them; 
they  were  thus,  of  necessity,  continued  as  a  part 
of  the  external  worship  of  God.  All  that  the 
more  enlightened  could  do  was  to  prevent  them 
from  becoming  injurious,  and,  if  possible,  ren- 
der them  promotive  of  higher  objects.  To  the 
ancient  usage  they  must  affix  nobler  ends,  and 
employ  sacrifices  as  sensible  representations  for 
teaching  virtue,  and  improving  the  moral  con- 
dition of  the  people.  Such  attemj)ts  were  made 
in  many  cultivated  nations.  The  ancient  r.rms 
were  preserved,  while  a  more  elevated  and  bet- 
ter sense  was  affixed  to  them.  But  the  results 
of  this  course  were  not  equally  happy  in  every 
case.  The  ordinances  which  Moses  was  re- 
quired to  make  by  divine  commandment  are 
distinguished  in  this  respect  above  all  that  we 
find  among  the  ancient  heathen  nations.  Moses 
WHS  fully  convinced  that. offerings  in  themselves 
eoiild  never  secure  the  actua'l  forgiveness  of  sin 
from  God.  He  did  not  therefore  ordain  them 
fur  this  purpose.  He  proceeded  on  the  princi- 
ple which  Piul  declares,  Heb.  x.  1.     All  the 


prophets  who  succeeded  Moses  held  the  same 
views,  Ps.  1.  8 ;  li. ;  Is.  i.  1 1  ;  Jer.  vi.  -20 ;  Amos, 
V.  22,  &c.  But  it  was  necessary  that  sacrifices 
should  be  preserved  ;  otherwise,  that  gross  and 
uncultivated  people  would  soon  have  deserted 
the  worship  of  God.  Moses  therefore  ordained 
sacrifices,  as  Paul  justly  says,  Heb.  ix.  13,  for 
external  purification  simply.  For  this  reason 
no  sacrifices  were  appointed  by  God  in  the  Mo- 
saic institute  for  such  offences  as  murder,  adul- 
tery, &c. ;  not  because  such  ofl'ences  could  not 
be  forgiven  by  God,  but  because  the  civil  wel- 
fare required  that  the  punishment  of  them  should 
not  be  remitted.  For  it  was  the  object  of  God 
in  appointing  these  sacrifices, 

(a)  That  they  should  release  from  the  civil 
punishment  of  certaiVi  crimes.  The  commission 
of  a  crime  rendered  one  unworthy  of  the  com- 
munity of  the  holy  people,  and  ixchtdcd  him 
from  it.  The  offering  of  sacrifice  w  as  the  means 
by  which  he  was  externul'y  readmitted  to  the 
Jewish  community,  and  rendered  externally 
pure;  although  he  did  not,  on  this  account,  ob- 
tain the  pardon  of  his  sin  from  God.  It  was 
designed  that  all  who  offered  sacrifice  should, 
by  this  act,  both  make  a  public  confession  of 
their  sins,  and  at  the  same  time  see  before  them, 
in  the  sacrifice,  the  punishment  which  they  had 
deserved,  and  to  which  they  acknowledged 
themselves  exposed.  Hence  sins  were  said  to 
be  laid  upon  the  victim,  and  home  away  by  it 
when  it  was  sacrificed.  This  transaction  mani 
festly  had  its  ground  in  the  idea  of  substitution. 
"  What  thou  deservedst  to  suffer,  (death,  pu- 
nishment,) this  beast  now  suffers."  Therefore 
the  design  of  tiie  sacrificial  code  of  Moses  waa 
not  to  provide  atonement  for  sins,  but  to  repre 
sent  sin  as  great  and  deserving  of  punishment; 
in  a  word,  "to  lead  to  the  knowledge  of  sin;" 
Gal.  iii.  19. 

(3)  Another  end  of  the  sacrifices  appointed 
by  Moses  was,  as  we  are  taught  in  the  New 
Testament,  to  point  the  Israelites  to  the  future, 
and  to  prefigure  by  types  the  greater  divine  pro- 
vision for  the  recovery  of  the  human  race,  and 
to  excite  in  the  Israelites  a  feeling  of  their  need 
of  such  a  provision.  Vide  Gal.  iii.  and  iv.,also 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  On  this  subject, 
cf.  s.  90,  III.  9. 

Old  and  cultivated  nations,  like  the  present 
nations  of  Europe,  now  for  a  long  time  unaccus- 
tomed to  sacrifices,  would  not  be  so  favourably 
affected  by  seeing  death  inflicted  as  a  punish- 
ment upon  a  victim,  as  by  having  the  truth  re- 
presented by  this  rite  stated  simply  and  impres- 
sively. But  a  gross  people,  still  in  the  infancy 
of  its  iiTiproveinent,  would  be  more  moved  and 
influenced  by  such  a  transaction.  They  have 
more  sympathy  with  beasts  than  we  have;  as 
is  shewn  by  the  great  influence  of  the  fables  of 
-Esop.    And  hence  many  heathen  nations  begaji 


S32 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


to  neglect,  and  sometimes  even  to  despise  sa- 
crifices, as  they  gradually  advanced  in  cultiva- 
tion. The  case  was  the  same  with  the  Jews, 
and  especially  with  the  more  cultivalpd  Grecian 
Jews.  Bui  at  the  time  of  Christ  there  were  still 
some  Jews  zealously  devoted  to  the  service  of 
the  altar,  who  committed  the  frequent  and  very 
general  mistake,  thai  God  would  forgive  their 
sins  on  account  of  tkcir  sacrifices,  notwithstand- 
ing the  decided  testimony  which  their  ancient 
prophets  had  borne  against  this  opinion.  Paul, 
therefore,  argues  against  it  in  some  of  his  ej)is- 
tles. 

iWc— Many  suppose  that  sacrifices  were  ap- 
pointed in  the  very  earliest  times  by  an  express 
command  from  God  himself.  This  supposition 
is  rendered  probable  by  the  consideration  that 
the  Bible  always  regards  sacrifices  as  rites  well- 
pleasing  in  the  sight  of  God.  They  are  repre- 
sented as  acceptable  to  him,  and  approved  by 
him  from  the  time  of  the  flood,  and  even  before ; 
Gen.  iv.  and  viii.  If  sacrifices  were  actually 
commanded  by  God,  we  must  suppose  that  God 
instructed  the  first  race  of  men  on  this  subject, 
after  the  manner  above  described;  but  that  his 
instructions  were  gradually  forgotten  and  passed 
out  of  mind.  The  fact,  however,  of  the  original 
divine  appointment  of  sacrifices  is  not  clear  from 
the  Mosaic  records.  And  as  the  results  of  the 
investigation  are  the  same,  whether  the  suppo- 
sition be  true  or  false,  we  have  had  no  reference 
to  it  in  the  prt^vious  remarks  upon  sacrifices. 

(•2)  Self-indicted  penances,  and  ariiitrary  suf- 
ferings which  the  sinner  lays  upon  himself, 
in  order  to  obtain  from  God  the  remission  of 
punishment. 

This  is  a  foolish  error.  We  should  think  a 
human  legislator  very  irrational  who  should 
permit  the  criminal  to  select  a  punishment  at 
pleasure,  in  place  of  the  one  threatened  in  the 
law.  This  error,  however,  is  very  widely 
spread,  especially  among  the  Indians,  and  na- 
tions who  inhabit  southern  climates,  whose  re- 
ligious require  of  them  self-inflictions  which 
are  incredibly  severe.  They  frequently  go  so 
far  as  to  believe  that  an  innocent  man  may  un- 
dertake such  sulTerings  for  othirs ;  and  thus  ob- 
tain for  them  forgiveness  frotn  God.  This  error 
is  founded  upon  the  mistaken  opinion  that  God, 
like  man,  will  be  touched  with  ciimpn,ss{im  at 
the  sight  of  these  self-inflicted  sulferings,  and 
thus  be  inclined  to  renut  those  which  are  due. 
F(i!<tin<:  was  also  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  self- 
infliction,  by  which  the  forgiveness  of  sin  might 
be  procured.  The  great  niass  even  of  the  Jews 
practised  all  these  penances,  with  the  grossest 
conceptions  of  their  nature  and  elficacy.  Vide 
1  Kings,  xviii.  28.  The  prophets,  therefore, 
frequently  reprove  them  for  this  erroneous  opi- 
nion, and  teach  them  the  truth  ;  Is.  Iviii.  seq. 
Cultivated  nations  frequently  entertain  the  same 


false  religious  views,  which  are  cxtrrmely  inja 
rious  to  morality.  Even  Christians  are  not  en- 
tirely freed  from  them,  after  all  that  the  New 
Testament  contains  to  the  contrary. 

(3)  Good  works,  so  called,  on  condition  and 
account  of  which  God  is  supposed  to  remit  sin. 

It  was  supposed  (a)  that  one  who  had  re- 
formed miglit  atone  and  make  satisfaction  for 
his  past  sins  by  some  works  of  distinguished 
virtue;  or  (/*)  that  even  one  who  had  not  re- 
formed entirely,  but  was  still  addicted  to  certain 
sins,  might  be  pardoned  by  God  for  these  sins, 
on  account  of  some  great,  difficult,  and  useful 
labours  which  he  might  perform — su|)positions, 
to  be  sure,  both  false  and  unphiios"pliical  ! 
They  h  ive  their  ground,  however,  in  the  fact 
that  good  works  are  sometimes  the  means  and 
motives  with  men,  in  bestowing  pardon.  An 
injured  man  sometimes  forgives  the  offender  on 
account  of  some  favour  which  he  may  have  re- 
ceived from  him.  A  government  sonietimes 
forgives  one  oflTence  in  a  person,  who  in  other 
respects  has  deserved  well  of  the  rulers  as  in- 
diviJuals,  or  of  the  state;  on  account,  ^there- 
fore, of  their  own  interest,  which  he  has  pro- 
moted. This  circumstance,  that  in  these  caNCS 
men  forgive  olTences  on  account  of  their  own  ad' 
vantage,  which  has  been  promoted  by  important 
services,  is  overlooked  when  they  are  compared 
with  the  conduct  of  God.  We  are  not  able  to 
confer  any  good  or  benefit  upon  God  by  our 
best  works.  By  these  works  we  serve  and  be- 
nefit only  ourselves,  and  we  cannot  demand  or 
deserve  a  reward  from  God  fur  actions  for  the 
very  performance  of  which  we  are  indebted  to 
him,  Luke,  xvii.  10.  It  would  be  as  foolish  for 
us  to  require  recompence  from  God  for  these 
services  as  for  one  who  has  been  rescued  from 
danger  to  demand  reward  from  his  deliverer  in- 
stead of  giving  him  his  thanks,  or  for  a  patient 
to  demand  reward  from  his  physician  instead 
of  paying  him  his  fee,  on  the  ground  that  by  fol- 
lowing his  directions  he  had  escaped  from  dan> 
ger  or  sickness. 

This  opinion  has  taken  such  deep  root  in  the 
minds  of  men  of  all  classes,  and  has  spread  so 
widely,,  that  it  cannot  be  entirely  eradicated 
even  from  the  minds  of  Christians.  It  prevail- 
ed among  the  ancient  heathen,  and  especially 
among  the  Jews.  The  latter  held  the  foolish 
opinion  (which  has  been  revived  in  another  form 
among  Christians)  that  the  worth  and  met  its 
of  their  pious  ancestors,  particularly  of  Abra- 
ham, would  he  imputed  to  them,  and  that  thus, 
through  their  substituted  righteousness,  they 
themselves  might  be  freed  from  the  strict  observ- 
ance of  the  law.  Against  this  mistake,  John  the 
Baptist,  Christ,  and  the  apostles,  zealously  la- 
boured. Vide  Matt,  iii.9;  Rom.  iii.5.  The  Jews 
believed  that  Go«l  was  bound  in  justice  to  for- 
give and  save  them,  on  account  of  ihr  promise 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  TS  BROI'GHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       3S3 


TVhich  he  had  made  to  Abraham.  Vide  Rom. 
'.X. — xi.,  coll.  s.  125. 

(1)  Reptntance  and  reformation. 

Thif?  condition  of  forgiveness  has  always 
Hppearpd  liie  best  and  most  rational  to  the  more 
improved  and  relleciing  part  of  mankind,  lo 
whom  the  former  conditions  must  have  appeared 
unsatisfactory.  Even  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments are  full  of  passages  which  assure  us  that 
God  forgives  sins  after  deep  repentance,  and 
the  moral  reformation  consequent  upon  it;  Ps. 
xxxii.  3 — 5;  li.  8,  12,  17;  Luke,  xviii.  13,  seq. 
The  writings  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  philo- 
sophers also  are  full  of  passages  which  mention 
this  as  the  only  acceptable  condition.  Seneca 
says,  "  Quern  pwnilet  peccasse,  est  innucens.^^ 
But  even  after  recognising  this  condition,  very 
disquieting  doubts  must  remain,  respecting 
which,  vide  No.  II.  A  satisfactory  assurance 
respecting  the  forgiveness  of  past  sins  would 
still  be  wanting.  This  leads  us  to  the  second 
part. 

II.  Application  of  these  Remarks  to  the  Scriptural 
Doctrine  concerning  the  Atonement  of  Christ. 

(1)  The  condition  mentioned  No.  I.  4,  how- 
ever reasonable  and  obvious  it  may  be  in  itself, 
appears  from  experience  and  the  history  of  all 
times,  to  be  unsatisfactory  to  the  great  body  of 
men.  They  never  have  received  nor  can  receive 
from  it  a  quieting  assurance  of  the  forgiveness 
of  sins,  and  especially  of  those  committed  before 
their  reformation.  All  nations  hope,  indeed,  that 
God  is  disposed  to  forgive  sins  when  they  are  for- 
saken ;  but  men  need  something  more  than  this. 
They  must  have  something  external  and  setisibk, 
to  give  them  assurance  and  conviction  that  their 
sinb'  have  actually  been  forgiven.  This  assurance 
they  endeavoured  to  obtain  by  sacrifices.  Vide 
No.  I.  They  believed  universally  that  besides 
the  moral  improvement  of  the  heart,  some  addi- 
tional means  were  necessary  to  conciliate  the 
favour  of  God,  and  to  avert  the  punishment  of 
sin.  Cf.  Horn.  II.  ix.  493— 508.  This  opinion 
is  so  deeply  wrought  into  the  human  soul,  and 
arises  from  such  an  universal  sense  of  necessity, 
that  any  attempt  to  obliterate  it  or  to  reason  it 
away  would  be  in  vain.  To  deprive  men  of  this 
opinion,  that  the  favour  of  God  may  be  concili- 
ated and  the  positive  assurance  of  pardon  ob- 
tained, would  be  to  tear  away  the  props  upon 
which  their  composure  and  confidence  rest,  with- 
out being  able  to  substitute  for  them  anything  so 
clear  and  satisfactory  ;  and  thus  would  be  an  act 
of  injury  and  cruelty. 

(2)  But  what  is  the  origin  or  ground  of  the 
feeling  that  reformation  alone  is  insufficient,  and 
that  something  else  is  necessary  to  avert  the 
judgments  of  God  from  the  sinner,  and  to  in- 
spire him  with  confidence  that  they  are  or  will 
be  averted  1    This  feeling  is  founded  in  the  mo- 


ral nature  of  man,  or  in  the  voice  of  cnnsciev.ce. 
Vide  s.  88,  I.  2.     For, 

(a)  However  far  a  man  may  advance  in  holi- 
ness, his  conscience  still  declares  to  him  that.his 
holiness  is  very  defective,  and  that  he  frequently 
commits  sin.  and  that  his  sin  deserves  punish- 
ment. And  the  more- upright  ami  virtuous  the 
man  is,  the  more  tender  and  strong  will  this 
feeling  be.  How,  then,  can  he  hope  by  a  holi- 
ness so  imperfect,  polluted,  and  stained  with 
sin,  to  secure  the  favour  and  approbation  of 
God,  and  to  escape  unpunished  ]  To  one  who 
feels  thus,  how  desirable  and  welcome  must  be 
the  assurance  that,  notwithstanding  his  imper- 
fect holiness,  God  will  still  be  gracious  to  him 
on  certain  conditions  ! — the  more  desirable  and 
welcome,  the  more  he  sees  that  he  can  never  at- 
tain this  assurance  on  any  of  the  conditions 
above  mentioned.  No.  I.,  1,  2,  3.  This  assur- 
ance it  is  the  object  of  the  Christian  doctrine 
o{ atiinetncnt  to  impart. 

(i)  Although  a  man  were  thoroughly  reformed, 
and  should  commit  no  more  intentional  sins,  he 
would  still  remain  in  an  anxious  uncertainty  with 
respect  to  his  past  sins ;  for  there  is  no  ground  to 
believe  that  071  account  of  one's  impronment  God 
will  remit  the  punishment  of  sins  committed 
before  this  improvement  commenced.  Indeed, 
without  an  express  assurance  from  God  to  the 
contrary,  there  are  many  reasons  to  fear  that  he 
will  punish  the  former  sins  even  of  the  penitent. 
This  assurance  to  the  contrary  c?.n  be  found 
alone  in  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  atonement 
of  Christ. 

This  feeling  of  necessity,  therefore,  this  appre- 
hension and  belief  that  besides  improvement  we 
need  and  must  find  some  other  means  of  obtain- 
ing assurance  from  God  that  the  punishment  of 
sin  will  be  averted  from  us;  this  feeling  lies 
deep  in  the  sonl  of  man,  and  is  founded  in  his 
moral  nature,  in  the  voice  of  conscience.  Let 
no  one  say  that  all  men  do  not  have  this  feeling, 
and  that  he  himself  neither  has  it  now  nor  ever 
has  had  it.  This  feeling  may  be  suppressed  for 
a  time  by  levity,  or  the  tumult  of  pasf-ion,  or  by 
cold  and  heartless  speculation,  or  by  both  oi 
these  causes  united  ;  but  it  commonly  revives 
in  due  time,  especially  in  the  hour  of  affliction, 
on  the  approach  of  death,  or  on  other  occasions 
which  compel  men  to  serious  reflection.  It  then 
demands  from  them,  as  it  were,  its  rights,  and 
frequently  to  their  great  confusion;  it  excites 
anxious  doubt  and  solicitude,  and  spreads  out  a 
dark  futurity  to  view.  This  is  a  situation  of 
frequent  occurrence,  but  one  in  which  no  person 
would  wish  to  be.  Kant  therefore,  refers  to  thii 
feeling  in  his  philosophical  theory  of  religion. 
On  occasions  like  these  such  disquieting  doubts 
and  fearful  apprehensions  will  often  rise  irre- 
sistibly, even  in  the  minds  of  those  who  ara 
above  superstitious  weakness,  and,  indeed,  of 


384 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


speculiilive  philosophers  themselves,  whose 
feelmgs  had  been  the  most  suppressed  and 
deadened.  From  these  feelinjfs  no  one  is  se- 
cure, however  firmly  established  in  his  theory  ; 
for  tlie  philosophy  of  tiie  death-bed  is  adilTt-rent 
thing  from  the  philosophy  of  ihe  study  and  of 
the  school. 

A  religion,  therefore,  coming  with  credentials 
from  Heaven,  which,  on  divine  authority,  gives 
to  man  satisfaction  upon  ihia  subject ;  which 
<>hews  him  a  means,  elsewhere  sought  in  vain, 
by  which  he  can  obtain  composure  and  assur- 
ance against  anxious  doubts,  and  which  teaches 
liim  to  look  forward  with  joy  into  the  future 
world;  such  a  religion  may  well  claim  to  be 
considered  a  religion  of  high  and  universal  utili- 
ty. Those  who  rob  the  Christian  religion  of 
tliis  doctrine  rob  it  of  that  which  more  tlian  any- 
tiiing  else  makes  it  a  blessing  to  man. 

(3)  There  is  still  another  view  of  this  subject. 
The  great  mass  of  mankind  in  all  ages  have  no 
correct  ideas  respecting  virtue  and  vice,  or  re- 
specting God  and  divine  things.  It  is  not  strange 
therefore  that  they  should  have  always  and  al- 
most universally  believed  that  God  might  be 
conciliated  by  the  most  insignificant  actions 
which  they  might  perform  without  sincere  re- 
formation, and  which,  indeed,  they  sometimes 
supj)03ed  might  take  the  place  of  reformation. 
This  was  their  idea  of  sacrifices,  ceremonies, 
penances,  fasls,  &c.  They  made  but  little  ac- 
count of  moral  purity  and  holiness  of  life.  To 
relieve  themselves  of  the  trouble  of  caring  for 
their  own  virtue  they  supposed  that  the  virtue 
of  others  might  be  imputed  to  them.  Vide  No. 
I.  and  .Memers,  Geschichte  der  Keligionem,  s. 
125,  f. 

At  the  time  of  Christ  and  the  apostles  these 
common  mist;d<es  prevailed,  though  in  diflerent 
forms,  tiirougliout  tlie  .levvish  ami  heathen  world. 
Now  in  the  establishment  of  a  universal  reliijion, 
such  as  the  Christian  was  intended  to  be,  this 
fact  dem;inded  special  attention;  (and  not  merely 
on  account  of  that  particular  age,  but  on  account 
of  all  following  ages;  because  these  same  mis- 
takes prevail  among  men  in  different  forms  at 
all  times;)  for  the  moral  improvement  of  men, 
and  the  sincere  and  pure  worship  of  God  must 
be  the  great  objects  of  this  religion.  But  while 
it  has  these  high  and  spiritual  oiijects  in  view, 
and  should  make  it  possible  for  men  to  attain 
them,  it  must  also  be  unii'crml,  designed  for 
every  indlcitUutJ,  It  must  reg.ird  the  necessities 
of  all  men,  and  not  merely  of  the  few  wiio  ac- 
count tluMnselves  wise,  and  esteem  themselves 
philoso|)hers.  Sacrifices,  on  account  of  their 
imperfections  and  perversion,  were  to  be  for 
ever  abolished.  The  other  conditions  of  for- 
giveness were  no  longer  to  be  tolerated,  being 
false  and  injuri>>us  to  morality.  Sincere  nfornin- 
tion  was  lite  only  condition  left,  and  this  waa 


I  accompanied  with  the  anxious  solicitude  before 
I  mentioned.     This  internal  reformation  and  hoiU 
j  ness  was  made  by  Jesus  the  indispensable  con- 
I  dition  of  forgiveness,  though  not  ihe  pmcuriag 
cause  of  it;  since,  owing  to  the  imptrftcliun  of 
I  our  holiness,  we  could  then  never  hav«  obtained 
I  forgiveness.     Now,  in  order  to  relieve  lite  mind 
from  the  solicitude  still  accompanying  this  con- 
dition, and  to  satisfy  tliis  feeling  of  need,  sorntv 
thins   exlcrnnl   must  be   added,  which    should 
powerfully  affect  tiie  senses,  not   only  of  the 
Jews  of  that  age,  but  of  the  heathen  and  of  men 
in   general.     This   must   be   someiliing  which 
would  be  obvious  to  every  one,  and  not  merely 
to   a   few ;   something,  too,  which    would   not 
hinder  or  weaken  the  personal  exercise  of  vir- 
tue and  holiness  of  lile,  but  rather  promote  and 
I  strengthen  them. 

I  Such  is  the  doctrine  of  tiie  atonement  of  Christ, 
This  can  never  lead  to  security  in  sin  or  indif- 
ference with  regard  to  it,  (as  it  has  often  been 
supposed  to  do,)  because  personal  rifomtutinn 
and  holiness  (usrarota,  ayia^^o^)  are  connected 
with  it  as  an  indispensable  duty,  as  candilio  sine 
qua  nnn.  Christ  died  for  men  once  for  all,  and 
suffered  the  punishment  which  they  would  have 
endured  for  their  sins,  and  which  their  con- 
sciences tell  them  they  could  not  have  escaped, 
even  after  their  reformation.  And  thus  the  ne- 
cessity of  continuing  to  sacrifice  was  removed, 
!  and  the  injurious  consequences  which  attended 
sacrifices  were  obviated.  "/?y  Christ,  and  his 
sacrifice,  men  obtain  from  God  (as  Paul  declares, 
:  Acts,  xiii.  38)  the  forgiveness  of  all  their  sins; 
!  and  consequently,  even  of  those  which,  according 
to  the  law  of  Moses,  mere  unpardonable — i.  c., 
I  would  be  irremediai)ly  punished,"  (for  which 
reason  sacrifices  were  now  no  longer  necessary. 
No.  I.) 

On  one  side,  the  infiiction  upon  ('hrist  of  the 

penalty  wiiich  we  deserved  places  the  authority 

[  and  sanctity  of  the  divine  law  in  the  clearest 

I  light,  and  shews  the  certainty  of  the  execution 

1  of  the  divine  punishment  upon  sin  in  a  manner 

I  at  once  striking  and  in  the  highest  degree  alarm 

inij.     Cf.   liomans,  iii.   -G,  EZiat  avroi'  (©(bf) 

fitxaiov.     'I'his  doctrine  thus  guanls  against  in- 

ditlerence  to  sin,  and,  as  experience  teaches,  ex- 

,  erls  a  powerful  influence  in  reforming  and  en- 

j  nobling  the  moral  character  of  every  one  who 

I  believes  it  from  the  heart. 

j      On  the   other   side,  this  doctrine  awakens  in 
those  who  heartily  receive  it,  lore  to  (iod,  who 
has  made   use   of  so   great  and  extraordinary 
means  fur  their  forgiveness.    It  also  excites  gra- 
titude to  God  and  to  Christ.    Vide  the  passages 
of  the  New  Testament  cited  by  Morus,  p.  153, 
I  8.  G.    One  who  really  believes  this  doctrine,  and 
I  does  not  feel  the  most  lively  love  and  gratiluda 
to  God  and  to  t'hrist,  and  does  not  sympaihrze 
I  with  all  which  the  New  'J'estameut  says  upon 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       385 


this  suliject,  (1  John,  iv.  10,  11 ;  John,  iii.  16; 
Rom.  V.  8;  viii.  32,)  must  be  destitute  of  every 
tender  sensibility  and  of  every  human  feeling. 
The  proof  that  this  doctrine  does  actually  excite 
this  feeling  and  is  adapted  to  the  necessity  of 
man,  may  be  seen  not  only  in  the  joyful  recep- 
tion with  which  it  met  from  the  better  part  of 
the  Jews  at  the  time  of  the  apostles,  but  also  in 
the  approbation  of  it  in  succeeding  ages,  which 
has  been,  and  is  still,  expressed  by  so  many  men 
of  all  nations ;  and  also  in  the  astonishing  effects 
which  it  has  produced. 

God,  therefore,  as  the  scriptures  represent, 
(Rom.  iii.  •25,)  has  set  forth  Jesus  as  a  Fropi- 
liator,  to  assure  men  of  his  gracious  disposition 
towards  them;  in  order,  by  this  means,  both  to 
lead  thein  from  a  merely  external  service  of  him 
to  a  s/j«V?7w«/ worship,  and  also  to  convince  them 
in  an  affecting  manner,  as  well  of  his  holiness 
and  justice  as  of  his  compassionate  goodness 
and  grace;  and  so,  by  the  alarming  apprehen- 
sions and  thankful  feelings  which  flow  from  such 
considerations,  to  influence  them  to  exercise  pure 
virtue,  sincere  piety,  and  devotion  to  God,  to 
cherish  and  exhibit  love  to  hirn  who  first  loved 
them.  This  representation,  which  is  founded 
on  the  holy  scriptures,  contains  nothing  irra- 
tional, and  is  entirely  suited  to  the  moral  nature 
of  man. 

SECTION  CIX. 

SCRIPTURAL    DOCTRINE    RESPECTING    THE    NECES- 
-    SITV    OF    THE    FORGIVENESS    OF    SIN;    WHAT    IS 
MEANT    BV    FORGIVENESS,    PARDON,  JUSTIFICA- 
TION;   AND  THE  SCRIPTURAL  TERMS  BY  WHICH 
THEY  ARE  DESIGNATED. 

The  Necessity  cmd  Indispensableness  of  Forgiveness. 

As  sin  is  justly  represented  in  the  holy  scrip- 
tures as  a  very  great  evil,  from  which  no  one  is 
free,  so,  on  the  other  hand,  the  forgiveness  of 
sins  is  described  as  one  of  the  greatest  benefits, 
which  no  one  can  do  without.  It  is  very  im- 
portant for  the  religious  teacher  to  lead  those 
committed  to  his  charge  to  consider  this  subject 
as  it  is  exhibited  in  the  scriptures;  for  almost 
innumerable  mistakes  are  made  respecting  it  by 
men  in  every  rank  and  of  every  character,  the 
high  and  the  low,  the  enlightened  and  the  igno- 
rant. Many  make  but  little  account  of  sin, 
and,  through  levity  or  erroneous  speculation, 
overlook  its  consequences,  and  of  course  make 
light  of  forgiveness.  Others  believe  that  they 
can  easily  obtain  forgiveness,  and  rely  on  the 
mercy  of  God,  or  on  the  merits  of  Christ,  with- 
out on  their  part  performing  the  conditions  upon 
which  their  trust  in  these  merits  and  their  ex- 
perience of  them  must  depend. 

These  injurious  mistakes  are  opposed  in 
many  passages  of  the  Bible. 


(1)  In  such  as  describe  the  ruinous  conse- 
quences of  sin,  and  which  present  the  judg- 
ments of  God  in  a  fearful  anil  terrific  light,  as 
severe  and  intolerable — e.  g.,  Heb.  x.  31 ;  Pa. 
xc.  11;  cxxx.  3.  To  the  s-.une  purpose  eire 
many  of  the  examples  given  in  the  scriptures, 
especially  in  tlie  history  of  the  Israelites. 

(2)  In  such  as  describe  the  judgmtnts  of  hea- 
ven upon  those  who  do  not  fuilii  the  conditions 
prescribed,  and  are  destitute  of  faitli  in  Jesus 
Christ,  as  certain  and  intvilable — e.  g.,  Heb.  iii. 
12,  13;  Rom.  ii.  1—3,  coll.  i.  32. 

(3)  In  such  as  shew  that  no  one  can  enjoy 
tranquillity  and  happiness  who  has  no  assur- 
ance that  his  sins  are  forgiven — e.  g.,  Heb.  x, 
2('),  27.  The  example  of  David  and  other  saints, 
who  have  been  deeply  troubled  on  account  of 
their  sins,  and  anxious  for  the  consequences  of 
them,  contain  much  instruction  upon  this  sub- 
ject, Psalm  li.,  cxxx.,  &c. 

II.  Scriptural  Terms  and  Phrases  denoting  Fot^ 
giveriess. 

The  pardon  or  forgiveness  of  sin  which  men 
obtain  from  God  is  expressly  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament  as  the  effect  and  consequence 
of  the  atonement  or  redemption  (drtoXiirpwoij) 
of  Christ.  In  Eph.  i.  7,  the  arpKjii  napartrw^o- 
ru)v  is  represented  as  belonging  to  the  drtoXiJ- 
rpioni^  6id  atuaroj  Xptaror,  and  as  a  consequence 
of  it.  Cf.  Col.  i.  H;  Hob.  ix.  15;  "Christ 
died  f t{  drtoT.vTpucjU'  til>v  STti  riy  TipiLfrj  6ta^*;*j 
rtapaoddfcoi'."  Romans,  iii.  21,  "  We  are  par- 
doned, bixaioiixfvoi,  hta  drtoXrrpu/iftdj  trji  «» 
Xptsrcj,"  &c.  The  principal  terms  are  the  fol- 
lowing— viz., 

(1)  KaroXXay/J,  reconciliation,  (Germ.  ?^er- 
soh?mng,")  and  xaraXKdooojj.ai.  Cf.  Morus,  pages 
113 — ItJG,  s.  9 — 11.  This  phraseology  was 
primarily  used  with  respect  to  enemies  who 
were  reconciled,  or  who  became  friends  again; 
I  Cor.  vii.  1 1 ;  Malt.  v.  24.  Then  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  God.  The  first  origin  of  this  phraseo- 
logy with  respect  to  him  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  men  had  gross  conceptions  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  supposed  the  manner  of  the  divine 
conduct  to  be  like  that  of  men.  Whoever  trans- 
gressed the  law  of  God  provoked  him  to  anger — 
i.  e.,  to  displeasure  and  to  a  strong  expression 
of  it.  (Hence  the  judgments  of  God  are  called 
6py?j,  .ix^ixrioi.i  ©fou.)  God  must  now  be  ap- 
peased, and  the  transgressor  must  endeavour  to 
make  God  again  his  friend.  Such  was  the 
common  and  popular  language  on  this  subject — 
language  which  was  universally  intelligible, 
and  which  is  always  used  in  the  holy  scriptures 
in  a  sense  worthy  of  God.  Vide  s.  86.  Thus 
when  it  is  said  in  the  New  Testament,  ©toj 
riulv  xaraXxdrrtraL,  the  meaning  is,  that  througii 
Christ  he  withholds  the  exjjression  of  his  dis- 
pleasure, the  punibhment  of  siu.  Thus  Paul 
2  K 


386 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


uies  this  phraseology,  2  Cor.  v.  lf>,  and  ex- I 
plains  it  hy  the  addition  ^r;  >^/i^o;tf  loj  rtapartTo)- 
^la/Ta-  like  the  Hebrew  p?  jun,  Psalm  xxxii.  1, 
2.  In  Horn.  v.  11,  he  uses  the  phrase  xarax- 
\a/-/r;i  <xa.3o_uf  v,  in  the  same  sense — i.  e.,  we  ob- 
tain from  God  the  forgiveness  of  sin.  The  lat- 
ter passage  shews  clearly  that  xoroXXoy*;  does 
not  denote  the  moral  impruveinent  of  men,  as 
Eburhard,  Gruner,  and  others  explain  it.  On 
the  contrary,  the  term  always  implies  the  idea 
of  the  mulual  reconciliation  of  two  parties,  by 
which  two  or  more  who  were  not  previously  on 
good  terms  become  friends  again.  KaraX?.ay>;, 
then,  as  Morus  remarks,  (p.  1G5,  ad  finem.) 
means,  the  restoration  of  friend.fhip,  and  the 
means  if  (ffictin;^  this,  throug/i  Christ  ,■  and  xa- 
xaXyA'imiv  is,  to  brinfi;  about,  or  restore  harmony  ; 
and  friendship.  This  harmony  does  not  sub-  ' 
eist  between  God  and  men  as  long  as  men  are 
considered  as  transgressors,  and  God  is  com-  ' 
peiled  to  punish  them  as  such.  They  do  not 
love  God  as  their  father,  and  he  cannot  love 
them  as  his  children.  That  they  learn  how  to 
love  him,  and  that  he  is  able  to  love  them,  they 
owe  to  Christ.  He  therefore  is  the  peace-ma/ca; 
the  restorer  of  friendship,  o  xaraX'Kd'j'jutv. 

(2)  'AfffTt;  uaaprtwv,  a^itrai,  and  the  similar 
phrases  xa^apii^iiv,  ;taf>i?f9«>a*  aua^iTiai,  rtaptsij, 
*.  r.  X. 

(a)  E.rplanation  of  these  terms  and  of  the  sen- 
timent contained  in  them.  ''A(J>f9ij  and  a^uva.i, 
are  used  literally  to  denote  release,  as  from  cap- 
tivity, Luke,  iv.  18  ;  also  remission  of  debt  (de- 
biti),  Matt,  vi.  12.  Now  sin  was  very  fre- 
quently compared  both  with  captivity  and  with 
debt;  and  hence,  probably,  this  term  was  first 
used  by  the  LXX.  as  correspondent  with  ]•'•;  sr:. 
This  phrase  was  always  opposed  to  the  itijiietinf^ 
of  punishment,  or  the  wrath  if  God,  and  denotes 
remis.iion,  forhearini^  to  injlict  pnnishment  i  Kx. 
xxxiv.  7.  In  Mark,  iii.  29,  tjt"*"  «'}>'<"*'  '^  con- 
trasted with  XvoyJ)i  iijTiv  xpcjfwj.  To  take  atvay 
$in,  and  take  aivay  punishment,  were  thus  one  i 
and  the  same  thing  with  the  Hebrews,  Is.  liii. 
And  80  it  comes  to  pass  that  the  words  which 
stand  for  sin  also  stand  for  punishment.  Thus 
to  fir  f;ive  sin,  and  to  heal  sickness  (piirui  peeeati), 
Wire  frequently  the  same,  Matt.  ix.  2,  5,  6, 
coll.  Ps.  eiii.  3. 

Similar  to  thfse  are  the  other  popular  terms: 
as,  tta^fiii,  which  is,  the  act  if  ovcrloohini;,  Rom. 
iii.  25.  (iod  do*>8  not  look  upon  sins,  lie firs^els 
them,  does  not  think  of  them;  in  opposition  to 
thinkintx  of  them,  placing  them  Ijrfire  his  eonnte- 
fuince  (Psalm  xc.  H) — i.  e., punishing  ihem,  &c. 
Also,  ;taftC"'i>a*  rtapo?trw^ara.  Col.  ii.  13, 
apoken  of  the  remission  if  guilt;  i^aXiiftiv 
ofia^rioi.  Acts,  iii.  10,  answering  tn  the  Hebrew 
tt:,  Is.  xliii.  25;  used  also  by  Lysias.  The 
figure  in  this  case  is  taken  from  an  account  honk, 
IE  v^hich  the  name  of  the  debtor  is  obliterated 


when  he  has  paid  his  debt,  or  when  it  is  remit- 
ted to  him. 

The  phrases,  xa'^Hipi.^ie^aui  d<}>'  ofiaptiuv^  par- 
ril^ni^ai.,  X.  t.  X.,  to  he  purified,  washed,  to  I'urlfy 
oneself,  occur  very  frequently.  They  were  de- 
rived from  the  very  common  comparison  of  sin 
with  stains  and  impurities.  Hence  !Moses  or- 
dained purifications  and  washings  as  significant 
or  symbolical  riles.  These  phrases  were  used, 
first,  in  respect  to  men,  and  denoted  self-puriti- 
cation  (zob'  tavTor.) — i.  e.,  moral  refurmaii-m, 
1  John,  iii.  3;  2  Cor.  vii.  1;  Heb.  x.  22;  which 
however  could  not  be  done  indej/end'-.nlli/  of 
God,  but  by  his  assistance;  secondly,  in  respect 
to  God.  He  is  said  lo  purify  men  from  sin-^i. 
e.,  to  consider  them  as  pure,  innocent — not  to 
punish  them.  So  Ps.  li.  4,  "  JIV/.-/;  me  from 
mine  iniquities;''''   I   .lohn,  i.   9;    2    Pet.   i.   9, 

(/>)  Some  are  not  content  with  making  the 
forgiveness  of  sins  to  consist  in  the  removal  of 
the  punishment  of  sin,  but  would  have  it  ext<>nd 
to  the  removal  both  of  the  guilt  (jculpa)  and  pu- 
nishment of  sin,  since  both  belong  to  the  impit- 
talionifsin.  This  statement,  understood  in  a 
popular  sense,  is  not  objectionable  ;  but  strictly 
understood,  it  is.  The  established  theory  re- 
specting the  remission  of  sin  has  been  transmit- 
ted from  the  time  of  Anselinus  (s.  101.  ad  fin.), 
who  brought  the  whole  doctrine  of  jiistificaiion 
into  a  judicial  form,  and  arranged  it  like  a  legal 
process.  Thus,  when  a  thief  has  stolen,  he 
must  both  restore  the  property  stolen  and  suffer 
punishment.  The  guilt,  in  this  ca>e,  is  not  re- 
moved by  the  punishment.  The  a<lvncate9  of 
this  opinion,  therefore,  comprehended  under 
justification  a  special  acquittal  if  guilt,  dilTerent 
from  the  acquittal  of  punishment.  This  a<-<|uit- 
tal  of  guilt  they  considered  as  the  imptitation  of 
the  righteousness  if  Christ  imputed  to  rnen  by 
God,  in  the, same  way  as  if  it  had  b»-en  wrought 
by  them.  In  this  way,  as  they  th.  ughl.  was 
the  guilt  of  sin  removed.     Vide  s.  115.     But, 

First,  This  distinction  between  thw  (juilt  and 
punishment  of  sin  is  never  distinctly  made  in 

j  the  Bible  when  the  forgiveness  of  sins  is  spoken 

I  of.  Some  have  considered  this  distinction  as 
implied  in  the  passages  which  speak  of  the/)u- 

'  rification  or  washing  away  of  sins,  or  in  which 
sins  are  compared  with  debts;  but  without  suf- 
ficient reason.  The  Bible  makes  justification 
the  mere  forgiveness  of  sins — i.  e.,  removal  of 
the  punishment  of  them  ;  witlioiit  any  special 

'  acquittal  if  guilt  connected  with  it;  as  Rom.  vi. 
7,  seq.  Vide  s.  110,  "  De  obedirniia  Clirisli 
activa,"  from  which  the  doctrine  *' De  obedien- 
tia  Christi    passiva"    must   not    be   separated. 

i  The  obedience  of  Christ  shewn  in  acting  and 
suffering  is  one  and  the  same.  The  fruits  of 
this  obedience  we  enjoy,  as  will  he  seen  from 

,  the  texts  cited  below.     The  Bible  docs  not  se- 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      387 


parate  one  kind  of  ohedience  from  the  other; 
neither  slioulvl  we.     Vide  s.  115. 

Seeornlfy.  The  remission  of  the  gviilt  of  sin  is 
not  essential,  and  does  not  contribute  to  the  real 
tranquillity  of  the  sinner.  The  guilt  of  a  sin 
once  committed  cannot  be  effaced.  The  con- 
science of  the  transtrressor  can  never  be  made  to 
pronounce  him  innocent,  but  will  always  regjard 
him  as  havinor  sinned.  It  is  enongh  to  compose 
his  mind,  to  know  and  be  convinced  that  the 
punishment  of  sin  has  been  remitted.  But  how 
can  he  be  made  to  believe,  and  be  happy  in  be- 
lieving, that  he  is  innocent,  when,  according  to 
the  testimony  of  his  own  conscience,  he  is 
guilty. 

Thirdly.  The  theory  which  teaches  that  the 
guilt  of  sin -is  removed  is  founded  upon  a  com- 
parison of  the  conduct  of  God  towards  men  with 
the  conduct  of  men  among  themselves,  which  is 
here  entirely  inapplicable.  A  criminal  (e.  g.,  a 
thief)  who  sins  against  his  fellow  men  does 
them  an  injury.  He  must  therefore  make  good 
their  loss,  besides  suffering  punishment.  But 
men,  by  sinning,  do  not  injure  or  rob  God. 
They  wrong  unly  Ihctnsclves.  Now  if  men  fulfil 
the  prescribed  conditions  of  obtaining  pardon, 
God  remits  the  punishment  of  sin;  but  God 
himself  cannot  remove  the  i^uilt  of  sin,  in  its 
proper  sense.  For  God  cannot  err,  and  consi- 
der an  action  which  is  actually  wrong,  and  con- 
sequently involves  guilt,  as  rii^hf  in  itself.  He, 
however,  can  forgive  us,  or  remit  the  punish- 
ment which  we  deserve.  He  can  regard  and 
treat  us,  on  certain  conditions,  as  if  we  were  in- 
nocent. 

(3)  Atxai.'u)5t-f,  ?txatO(3vi'>j  and  Sixatova^at,  7.0- 
ytCsa^ai  lii  bixaiorsvi'rv,  x.  r .  X. 

These  terms  of  the  Grecian  Jews  can  be  ex- 
plained only  from  the  Hebrew  usage,  piv,  in 
Hebrew  and  Arabic,  in  its  primary  and  physical 
sense,  means,  rectus,  ftrmns,  rigidusfuit;  then, 
in  a  moral  sense,  rcciii-ifuif,  in  various  modifi- 
cations, degrees,  and  relations^-e.  g.,  verus  et 
verax  ftiit,  bomix,  sc.  benigntts  ftiit ;  severus, 
.Tc/i/j/.s,  ji'STUS,  iNNOCENs/tnV,  right,  such  as  one 
should  be,-  Ps.  cxiiii.  2,  "  No  man  is  right  in 
the  sisjht  of  God."  Hence  we  can  explain  the 
significations  of  p^ivn,  Sixouovv,  faccre  ju^tum  ; 
and  ofdixaiovijtfai,Jicrijustum.  A  man  may  be 
justified  in  two  ways — viz., 

(fir)  By  perfect  holitiess,  virtue,  or  uprightness 
of  conduct;  by  being  actually  just,  or  such  as 
one  should  be.  Hence  the  phrase /oyHs/fy^,  or 
to  consider,  pronounce,  treat,  reward  one,  as  right, 
according  to  the  above-mentioned  sense.  In 
this  sense  it  is  used  by  the  LXX.,  Ps.  cxiiii.  2, 
ov  SixaiiJ^r^ritrai  ivilirtiov  aov  rfaj  ^wr,  and  Ezek. 
xvi.  51,  52.  This  is  caWed  justijicatio  interna. 
In  this  sense  it  is  understood,  in  the  important 
passage  respecting  justification,  Rom.  v.,  both 
by  Socinians,  who  reject  the  doctrine  of  satis- 


faction, and  by  those  of  the  Romish  church  wlio 
advocate  good  works  as  the  procuring  cause  of 
salvation.  But  this  interpretation  does  the 
greatest  violence  to  the  words  in  this  passage. 

In  connexion  with  this  meaning,  Stjtatot* 
sometimes  signifies  cinendare,  prubum  rtddtre. 
Psalm  Ixxiii.  13  (in  the  Sepiuagini),  and  Rev. 
xxii.  11,  seq.  Some  of  the  schoolmen  call  this 
justificdtio  physiccu 

{I))  One  who  is  guilty  is  said  to  be  justified 
when  he  is  declared  and  treated  as  exempt f rum 
punishment,  or  innocent,  or  when  the  punisiinient 
of  his  sins  is  remitted  to  him.  This  is  called 
justificatio  externa.  The  terms  justifica'iot^ 
pardon,  accounting  righteous,  occur  in  the  Bible 
much  more  frequently  in  this  sense  than  in  any 
other,  and  so  are  synonymous  wilhf orgireniss 
(f  sin.  This  sense  is  founded  on  the  judicial 
meaning  of  the  word  ,">nxn,  to  pardon,  acqtiit,  pro- 
nounce innocent,  spoken  of  the  Judge  (p''-i'  inno- 
cens)  ;  and  of  the  opposite,  prvi,  damnere,  frro 
reo  dcclarere  (yuT,  reus) — e.  g.,  Ex.  xxiii.  7; 
Prov.  xvii.  15,  seq.  This  is  transferred  to  God, 
who  is  conceived  as  the  judge  of  the  actions  of 
men.  Here,  however,  we  must  be  careful  not 
to  carry  the  comparison  too  far,  and  must  ab- 
stract from  our  conceptions  all  the  imperfections 
which  belong  to  human  conduct.  He  condemns, 
or  judges, — i.  e.,  he  punishes; — anticedens  (the 
part  of  human  judges) — pro  conscquente.  Tlie 
opposite  of  this,  to  acquit,  pardon  (^bixaiovv),  is 
then  to  remove  punishment.  'I'his  is  done,  how- 
ever, as  the  Bible  everywhere  teaches,  not. prop- 
ter justitiani  internam  hominis,  as  at  human  tri- 
bunals; for  no  one  is  innocent  and  pure  from 
sin;  Rom.  iii.  19,  seq.  According  to  the  gos- 
pel, God  bestows  favour  upon  men  gratuitously, 
on  account  of  faith  in  Christ,  on  condition  of 
holiness  and  of  persevering  in  Christian  confi- 
dence. 

The  principal  texts  which  support  this  doc- 
trine, and  in  which  ^ixatuaij  and  Stxatoovn; 
stand  in  this  sense,  are  Rom.  iii.,  iv.,  v.,  in  op- 
position to  the  Jewish  doctrine  of  the  desert  of 
works.  These  passages  will  be  examined  in 
the  following  sections.  In  Romans,  iv.,  the 
term  hixaiovv  is  used  ver.  5;  Xoyt^faJ^at  6txaio- 
oiiT^v,  (Jo  pardon,  the  opposite  of  Xo^^fojjcu 
apa^riav,  to  punish,)  ver.  G  ;  and  a^tf lai  duafi- 
tiav,  ver.  7.  In  Rom.  v.  9,  11,  Sizaiovajmt  and 
xaraXT.drrea^ai  are  interchanged  in  the  same 
way;  and  bixaioaiit^  is  explained  by  sXfvJ^ffiifli 
ano — a/LtOifiTiai  xai  ^aiurov.  The  words  iixaiovv, 
bixaioaiir;,  are  also  opposed  to  ooyr)  &fov,  Rom. 
i.  17,  18;  to  xoraxpiatj,  Rom.  v.  IG,  13;  to 
iyxaXiti',  Rom.  viii.  33.  Cf.  Storr,  "De  signi- 
ficatione  vocis  Sixaioi  in  Nov.  Test."  Opusc. 
Academica,  t.  i. 

Note. — The  writings  of  theologians  present 
great  diversity  and  ditTiculty  in  determining  the 
idea  of  iixatuoij  and  Scxotovf.     Most  of  the  an* 


333 


CHUISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


cient  Lutheran  thenlogians,  with  whom  Doder- 
lein  and  Seller  agiee,  consider  justification  as 
being  merely  the  removal  of  punishment ;  while 
Koppe,  Zacliaria.,  Less,  Uanov,  and  others,  com- 
prise in  this  idea  the  whole  purpose  of  God  to 
bless  and  save  men,  of  which  the  removal  of 
punishment  is  only  the  coinmencement.  These 
theologians  mainlain  that  justification  is  the 
same  ?l9  predestination,  only  tiiat  justification  is 
the  less  definite  word  of  the  two.  Vide  Zacha- 
ria,  Bibl.  Theol.  iv.  s.  518,  seq.,and  especially 
D.uiov,  Drey  Abhandlungen  von  der  Kechtfer- 
tigung;  Jena,  1777;  in  answer  to  which  .Seller 
wrote,  "  Ueber  den  Unterschied  der  Itechtfer- 
tlgung  und  Pradestlnation;"  Erlangen,  1777, 
8vo. 

Those  who  hold  the  former  opinion  consider 
the  conferring  of  good  as  a  consequence  of  jus- 
tification, and  appeal  to  the  obvious  texts,  Rom. 
T.  1,  18,  21;  Gal.  Hi.  11.  They  remark,  that 
exemption  from  punishment  and  bestowinent  of 
blessing  are  not  one  and  the  same  thing,  since 
one  who  is  acquitted  in  court  is  not,  of  course, 
promoted  and  rewarded.  Those  who  hold  the 
latter  opinion  mention  the  fact  that  pis  fre- 
quently means,  benefit,  bkssim^,  recompcnce,  and 
construe  the  phrase  np-is'?  2'^'n,  Xoyii^cn^ai,  fij 
btxaio'jvvtjv,  which  is  first  spoken  of  the  faith 
of  Abraham,  Gen.  xv.  6,  to  mean,  to  reckon  as  a 
merit,  to  reward;  in  the  same  way,  Psalm  cvi. 
31,  and  Romans,  Iv.  1,  where  Paul  himself  ex- 
plains ,1-is  by  ^iiJ>oy.  The  declaring  Abraham 
risrhteous  did  not  consist  in  the  simple  forgive- 
ness of  his  sins,  but  in  the  bestowment  of  bless- 
ing and  reward.     Cf.  James,  11.  21. 

The  following  considerations  may  help  to  set- 
tle the  controversy : — 

( 1 )  The  purposes  of  God  to  forgive  the  trans- 
gressor his  sins,  and  to  make  him  happy,  are 
on>'  and  the  same;  but  they  may  be  distinguish- 
ed In  our  conceptions  of  them,  and  then  his  be- 
stowing reward  is  the  immediate  consequence 
of  his  granting  forgiveness.  For  when  God 
forixives  one  his  sins,  the  bestowment  of  the 
promised  good  immediately  succeeds.  And 
when  God  sees  one  incapable  of  this  good,  he 
does  not  forgive  his  sins. 

(2)  The  sacred  writers  do  not,  in  their  terms, 
80  carefully  distinguish  and  so  logically  tlivide 
thr'se  two  ideas,  which  are  so  nearly  related,  as 
we  do  in  scientific  discussion.  This  is  the  less 
strange,  as  the  words  Jixouovf  and  Sixoiwiti  have 
Very  many  and  varintis  senses,  one  of  which  fre- 
quently runs  into  the  other.  The  words  are 
Sofnelimes  used  in  the  Hihlc  rxcluHire,  beyond  a 
doubt,  of  the  idea  of  bles.iin<;,  and  sometimes 
■ilsi)  Inclusive  of  it. 

(3)  Hut  this  should  not  hinder  us  from  dis- 
linguishing  these  ideas,  and  considering  them 
separately,  tor  the  sake  of  (clearness  in  scientific 
discQSsion.     Here,  however,  as  in  respect  to  all 


'  the  divine  purposes,  we  must  guard  against  ths 
idea  of  succeision  ;  and  also  against  mist.ike  fronk 
a  comparison  with  human  tribunals,  wliere  one 
may  be  entirely  acquitted,  without,  however, 
receiving  reward,  or  any  further  provision  for 
his  welfare.  The  accused  is  absolved,  and  then 
left  to  seek  his  fortune  where  he  pleases.  But 
this  is  not  the  manner  of  God.  Upon  every  one 
whom  he  forgives,  or  whom  he  counts  right- 
eous, God  immediately  bestows,  on  the  ground 
of  faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  all  the  good  and  bless- 
ing which  the  subject  of  his  grace  is  capable  of 
enjoying.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  sacred 
writers  frequently  connect  these  two  ideas  in 
the  same  word.  Cf.  Noesselt,  Pfingstprogramm, 
I)e  CO  quid  sit,  Deum  condonnare  hoininibus  pec- 
cata,  pirnasque  remittere?  Halte,  1792,  (in  his 
Exercilt.) 

Morus  (p.  151,  s.  5)  has  therefore  well  de- 
fined and  explained  the  scriptural  idea  of  the 
forgiveness  of  sins  in  the  wide  sense  in  which  it 
frequently  occurs  in  the  Bible,  as  including 
(1)  exemption  by  God  from  the  fital  conse- 
quences of  sin — 1.  e.,  from  fear  of  the  sulfering 
or  punishment  consequent  upon  sin,  and  from 
this  surlerlng  and  punishment  itself,  (u^  d.to'Xfo- 
J>ai,  John,  ill. ;)  (2)  the  bestowment  of  bless- 
ing's, (C'^^v  t;}r"»'0  instead  of  this  deserved  pu- 
nishment. F'or  both  we  are  indebted  to  Christ. 
The  ground  and  motive,  however,  of  the  forgive- 
ness of  sin  on  the  part  of  God  is  his  unmerited 
goodness  and  benevolence.  This  is  the  uniform 
representation  of  the  holy  scriptures,  John,  Hi 
16,  seq.     Morus,  p.  152,  s.  G. 

SECTION  ex. 

ILLUSTRATION  OK  THE  SCRIPTLRAL  STATtTMENT 
THAT  MK.\  OWK  IT  TO  CHRIST  ALONK  THAT  GOD 
JUST1KIE3  THEM,  OR  FORGIVES  THEIR  SINS. 

Since  sin  consists  in  transgression  of  the 
divine  law,  it  is  the  prerogative  of  God  alone  to 
forgive  sin.  So  the  Bible  everywhere  teaches; 
Ps.  li.;  James,  iv.  12,  coil.  Luke,  v.  21.  The 
gospel  teaches  that  we  are  indebted  for  this  for- 
giveness to  Christ  alone, — that  God  forgives  on 
account  of  Christ.  It  everywhere  magnifies  this 
as  one  of  the  greatest  divine  favours,  and  as  the 
foundation  of  all  our  blessedness;  John,  ill.  IG; 
vi.;  Meb.  ix.  15;  Rom.  v.  1.  Accordingly,  the 
doctrine  of  forgiveness  through  Christ  is  always 
enumerated  by  the  apostles  among  the  principal 
doctrines  and  elementary  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity, which  were  never  to  he  withheld  in  reli- 
gious instruction.  Vide  I  Thess.  i.  10,  Irjfioif 
o  I'/voufvoj  J^MfiJ  o.:to  rri  ^^yr,i  ii^X^f^f*'f;it  et  alibi. 
The  Acts  of  the  apostles  and  their  epistles  shew 
that  they  always  commenced  with  this  doctrine, 
ami  referred  evervthing  to  it,  both  with  Jews 
and  (ientiles,  enlightened  and  ignorant;  becauM 
it  is  equally  essential  to  all. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       38» 


The  following  classes  comprise  the  principal 
proof-texts  relating  to  this  point: — 

(1)  The  texts  which  declare  that  Christ  has 
atoned  for  us  ;  and  that  to  procure  the  remission 
of  sins  was  the  great  object  of  his  advent  to  the 
world;  and  that  he  accomplished  this  object; 
1  John,  ii.  1,2;  Heb.  i.  3,  Ai'  tavtov  xa^apcriixov 
jtui^nauii'Oi  tCjv  a^apriwr  r/iuiv.  Heb.  ix.  26, 
"  He  has  appeared  before  God  (rtt<f>orf'pwT'a(.,  ver. 
24)  with  his  offering,  (6ia  ^"5ia^  avtov,)  to  take 
away  sin,  (ftj  o^frj^mr  a/^apnaj,)" — i.  e.,  he 
sacrificed  himself  for  us,  he  died  for  us,  to  free 
us  from  the  punishment  of  sin,  (vide  ver.  14.) 

(2)  The  texts  which  require  from  us  an  un- 
limited confidence  (rtiWtj)  in  Christ,  for  the  rea- 
son that  we  are  indebted  to  him  and  to  his  per- 
son for  our  spiritual  w'elfare  and  our  acceptance 
with  God.  Acts,  xxvi.  18,  %af3eiv  afs/jiv  auap- 
Tiwe — Ttiatei  f  ^  f  15  (fie.  ii.  38;  Rom.  v.  I, 
Ai.xaiui^tvrfi  ix  rttarfwj,  lipr^vr^v  t%ofifv  rtpoj 
&f6v  (the  favour  of  God  and  peace  of  mind)  6ia 
Xptarotj,  (which  we  owe  to  Christ.)  Eph.  i.  7, 
'Ei'  9  (Xpt^ro)  txoijKv  drtoXvrpcoau'  8ta  ai^uaroj 
avTOv — 1.  e.,  Tr^v  a(J)f criv  Tia^o.^tttjuufuv. 

(3)  The  texts  which  teach  that  there  is  no 
other  way  besides  this  in  which  the  forgiveness 
of  sin  can  be  obtained.  Heb.  x.  2C,  "  For  those 
who  apostatize,  contrary  to  their  better  convic- 
tions respecting  Christ  (ixovntu)^  auapravovrcov, 
ver.  23;  iii.  12,  13),  there  remains  no  atoning 
sacrifice  C^vjia  rtfpi  auaprtwj')" — i.  e.,  there  is 
no  way  for  them  to  obtain  the  forgiveness  of 
their  sins,  since  this  is  the  only  way,  and  this 
way  they  despise.  Cf.  Heb.  vi.  4,  seq.  The 
discourse  of  Peter,  Acts,  iv.  12,  Oix  intiv  iv 
(ixx&j  cftoT?jp/a,  X.  T.  %.  S<dr>;pia,  in  this  pas- 
sage, is  good,  kappimsf!,  here  and  hereafter. 
This  happiness  can  be  obtained  through  no  other 
person.  The  name  (person)  of  no  other  man 
under  heaven  is  given  to  us  for  this  object. 
'Oi'oaa  here  is  connected  iv  di'^pqjrtotj,  no  name 
among  men.  The  meaning  is,  "  We  are  direct- 
ed by  God  to  no  other  man,  however  holy, 
through  whom  to  obtain  safety  and  happiness, 
besides  Jesus  Christ." 

(4)  The  texts  which  teach  clearly  and  ex-  i 
pressly  that  God  forgives  men  their  sins,  or  jus-  | 
tifies  them,  and  frees  them  from  the  punishment  | 
of  sin,  solely  on  account  of  Christ.  Ads,  x.  ' 
43,  "To  him  gave  all  the  prophets  witness,  , 
that  whoever  believes  in  him  should  through  j 
him  (Sia  oiouaro^  avrov)  receive  remission  of  | 
sins."  (Cf.  Ps.  xxii.,  xl.,  ex. ;  Is.  liii.)  Acts,  j 
xiii.  38,  "  Aia  Tovfov  vixtv  aifitotf  atKxpriwv  i 
xarayytT-X^rai,  even  of  those  from  which  you  j 
could  not  be  justified  according  to  the  law  of  | 
looses."  1  John,  ii.  12,  'A<J)f'wrr(u  iuiv  at  ' 
aaaprttu  5ia  f  6  orouo  avroii,  propter  Christum.  \ 
R  'im.  V.  10.  Y.a.rrX>Myr^u.fv  rcj  0fcj  5ia  ror  iiaid-  j 
r^  rou  Tiov  (vtTov,  c«.>ll.  ver.  18,  and  1  Thess.  ' 
^    10;  2  Cor.  v.  21,  "  God  treated  him,  who  had  j 


'  never  sinned,  as  a  sinner,  in  our  stead,  that  we 
might  he  forgiven  by  God  ;  ytvuifit^  hLxaA,oavvri 
0fov  (i.  e.,  hi,xat,oi  ivJirtvov  ©tov)  iv  0^*9,"  (M 
his  account,  ver.  19. 

But  the  passage  which  exhibits  the  mind  o^ 
Christ  and  the  apostles  most  fully  and  clearly 
is  Romans,  iii.  21 — 28.  Cf.  Noesselt,  Abhan.d- 
Inng,  Opusc.  t.  ii.  Paul  here  opposes  the  pre- 
vailing mistake  respecting  the  merit  of  good 
works,  and  of  the  observance  of  the  law,  and 
the  opinion  that  God  loved  the  Jews  alone,  and 
comparatively  disregarded  every  other  people. 
Paul  shews  that,  on  the  contrary,  God  feels  a 
paternal  interest  in  u/i  men,  and  is  willing  to 
forgive  all.  since  all,  as  sirmers,  need  forgive- 
ness ;  but  that  men  can  never  obtain  a  title  to 
this  forgiveness  by  their  ov\  n  iinju-rrrct  obedi- 
ence to  the  law,  but  only  by  faith  in  Christ,  to 
whom  they  are  indebted  for  this  favour,  and  in 
a  way  exclusive  of  all  personal  desert.  "Now 
(in  the  times  of  the  New  Testament)  we  are 
made  acquainted,  by  the  Christian  doctrine, 
with  the  purpose  of  God  to  forgive  us  (6txato- 
cvi'*;  0SOD,  ver.  22,  24,)  without  respect  to  the 
observance  of  the  law  as  anything  meritorious, 
{%upii  vufiov;")  of  which  pur])ose  frequent  indi- 
cations apjiear  even  in  the  Old  Testament. 
This  is  God's  purpose  to  forgive  men,  on  ac- 
count of  their  faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  without 
their  own  desert.  This  forgiveness  is  extended 
to  all  (Jews  and  Gentiles)  who  believe  in 
Christ.  Jll  are  sinners,  unworthy  of  the  di- 
vine favour,  and  deserving  of  punishment.  But 
God,  in  the  exercise  of  his  impartial,  paternal 
love,  desires  to  make  all  men  happy,  and  ac- 
cordingly intends  this  to  be  the  means  of  the 
happiness  of  all.  But  this  forgiveness  is  be- 
stowed upon  them  without  their  deserving  it, 
(6wpfdi',)  from  the  mere  mcrey  (;^dpi5)  of  God, 
through  the  atonement  of  Christ.  God  hath 
appointed  Christ  to  be  an  atoning  sacrifice, 
(I'Ka.'iTr-pi.av,')  or  a  propitiator  through  faith  in 
his  blood,  (i.  e.,  God  forgives  us  on  his  account, 
if  we  place  our  whole  reliance  upon  his  death, 
endured  for  our  good.)  He  now  indulgently 
forgives  us  our  past  sins,  (committed  before  our 
conversion  to  Christ;  cf.  Heb.  ix.  15.)  He  now 
shews  (in  these  limes  of  the  New  Testament) 
how  merciful  he  is  to  all  men,  by  forgiving 
(J^Lxaiovvta)  every  one  (Jew  or  Gentile)  who 
believes  in  Jesus  Christ,  (tox  ix  rtiarjuj.)" 

The  question  arises,  how  and  by  what  meat%9 
has  Christ  procured  for  us  pardon  from  God,  or 
the  forgiveness  of  sins? 

We  find  many  clear  declarations  upon  this 
point  in  the  discourses  of  Jesus  himself,  espe- 
cially in  the  Gospel  of  John,  where  he  frequent- 
ly speaks  of  his  death,  and  of  the  worth  and  ad- 
vantasres  of  it;  John,  iii.  14;  Matt.  xxvi.  We 
find  passages  of  the  same  kind  even  in  the  dis- 
courses of  John  the  Baptist,  John,  i.  29;  and  in 
2  k2 


390 


CHRISTIAN  'HTEOLOGY. 


the  pnphccips  to  which  Christ  appeals  as  re- 
ferring to  himself;  Ps.  xxii.,  xi.;  Is.  liii.  But 
this  doctrine  is  more  clearly  explained,  deve- 
lijjed,  and  applied  in  the  instructions  of  the 
apostles.  While  Christ  was  visibly  upon  the 
eirih,  he  laid  the  foundation  for  this  doctrine, 
bill  left  it  for  his  disciples  to  make  a  more  full 
development  and  application  of  this,  as  well  as 
of  many  other  doctrines,  after  his  sufferings  and 
de  ith  should  have  bt^come  facts  which  had  al- 
PM'ly  taken  place.  That  the  views  which  they 
givr-  upon  this  subject  did  not  originate  merely 
in  the  conceptions  then  prevalent  among  the 
Jv.vs  and  heithen,  but  are  exactly  suited  to  the 
universal  necessities  of  man,  is  clear  from  s. 
lo-i. 

Hut  there  have  always  been  some  in  the 
Christian  church,  and  many  in  modern  times,  to 
whom  this  doctrine,  so  clearly  taught  in  the 
New  Tf^siament,  has  been  offensive,  as  it  was 
foruierly  to  many  Jews  and  heathen;  1  Cor.  i. 
2.  And  so  they  endeavour  to  give  a  different 
view  from  that  given  in  the  New  Testament  of 
the  nature  of  the  benefits  which  Christ  has  oon- 
ffTTfd  upon  the  human  race,  confining  them  to 
his  ilvclrine,  and  the  results  of  it.  So  Socinus, 
and  many  of  the  same  opinion  in  other  parties. 
Sometimes  they  endeavour  to  deduce  their  opi- 
nions by  a  forced  interpretation  froin  the  IJible. 
Sometimes  they  hold  that  the  subject  should 
not  be  definitely  stated,  at  least  in  popular  dis- 
course,— that  it  is  sufficient  to  say,  in  general, 
v:c  obtain  forrriveness  if  sin  thrmtir/i  Christ,  or 
ihrout^h faith  in  Christ,  leaving  every  one  to  un- 
derstand this  statement  in  his  own  way.  But 
the  meaning  of  this  indefinite  phraseology  must 
certainly  be  explained  in  theological  instruction. 
Should  it,  then,  be  withheld  from  the  people?  and 
is  it  honest  to  refer  the  common  people  and  the 
young  to  the  holy  scriptures  by  the  language 
employed,  and  at  the  same  time  to  teach  them  i 
something  widely  ilifferent  from  what  is  con- 
tained in  the  Bible  1  If  the  conscience  of  any  I 
one  does  not  pronounce  such  conduct  inexcusa- 
blf.  he  should  renounce  the  idea  of  being  a 
Christian  teacher.  The  question  here  is  not, 
how  the  doctrine  may  be  understood  by  learned 
111  n,  judging  independently  of  the  authoritv  of 
lifvelitidn,  but  how  the  doctrine  is  taught  in 
the  New  Testament  1  Since  this  book  lies  at 
llie  foundation  ol  religitms  knowledge,  the  doc- 
trines anil  ideas  which  it  contiins  should  be  ex- 
plained, and  in  a  way  which  will  be  intelli>ri- 
ble  to  those  who  hear.  And  considering  hnw 
a'iipieil  to  the  wants  of  man  the  scriptural  doc- 
trine of  fornfiveness  is,  what  a  |>i)werful  ioflu- 
eiice  it  exerts,  how  much  it  does  to  tramiuillize 
the  mind,  to  purifv  and  elevate  Uie  ch'traeier,  it 
would  be  an  act  of  rashness  and  cruelty  to  de- 
Btroy  the  faiih  of  men  in  it,  and  to  rob  them  of 
a  belief  in  place  uf  which  nothing  can  bo  sub- 


stituted at  once  so  plain  to  the  reason,  so  bene* 
ficial  to  the  character,  and  so  consolinT  to  the 
heart. 

'i'he  Bible  ascribes  the  forgiveness  which  is 
procured  for  us  by  Christ  principally  to  the  fol- 
lowing points — via.,  (1)  his  sufferings  and  vio- 
lent Jta/A;  which  is  often  called,  according  to  the 
Hebrew  idiom,  o«ua  Xim-jtov  and  «rovpoj.  This 
is  the  principal  thing.  In  connexion  with  this  it 
places  ('2)  his  resurrection,  and  (3)  his  intercea- 
sion.  On  these  grounds  God  justifies  or  fir- 
gives  men.  These  three  parts  will  therefore  be 
Separately  considered.     8.  Ill,  1  H. 

Xote. — We  should  not  stop  with  one  of  these 
particulars,  and  overlook  the  rest.  The  resur- 
rection of  Christ,  according  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, assures  us  of  the  validity  of  his  atone- 
ment; and  his  intercession  imparts  a  deep  con- 
viction that,  although  he  has  ascended  into  the 
heavens,  he  is  still  mindful  of  us,  and  cares  for 
our  welfare,  'i'hese  three  points  together  com- 
pose the  entire  meritum  Chrinii,  Persons  are  said 
mereri,  or,  bene  mee  i  de  alifjun,  when  they  as- 
sist another  to  obtain  possession  of  any  advan- 
taje.  Sometimes  these  advantages  themselves, 
which  are  obtained  by  the  assistance  of  a  bene- 
factor, are  called  merila.  But  the  custom  of  the 
schools,  ever  since  the  time  of  the  schoolmen, 
has  been,  to  call  the  death  of  Christ,  so  far  as 
we  are  indebted  to  it  for  pardon  and  eternal  hap- 
piness, the  meritum  Chrisli,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence;  meaning  that  we  owe  these  spiritual 
blessings  to  the  death  of  Christ,  without  deny- 
ing that  he  has  deserved  well  of  the  human  race 
in  other  ways.  Considerinir  that  this  phraseo- 
lotry  has  now  become  established  in  systema- 
tic theology.  Moms  (p.  171,  17"2,  s.  5)  justly 
thinks  that  it  should  bo  preserved,  as  a  devia- 
tion from  it  might  produce  confusion. 

SECTION  CXI. 

OF  THE  Sl'KFEKlNOS  AND  DEATH  OF  CHRIST;  HOW 
FAR  WE  ARE  INDEBTED  TO  THEM  FOB  Ol'R  JUS- 
TIFICATION OR  pardon;  TOOETHER  with  OB- 
SERVATIONS OX  SOME  OF  THE  PRIMIPAl.  AT- 
TRIBUTES (aFFECTIONES)  of  the  death  OK 
CHRIST. 

We  shall  adhere,  in  this  place,  simply  to  the 
doctrine  and  representations  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  hereafter  (s.  Ill)  treat  of  the  various 
explanations  which  have  been  given  in  later 
times  of  this  doctrine,  and  of  the  various  eccle- 
siastical opinions  de  satisfactione. 

I.  Tlie  Sufferings  and  Driif/i  of  Chrint ;  and  hntt 
far  men  are  indrhled  In  than  fur  their  Justificii* 
lion  or  Furi^irenetiS, 

By  the  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ,  accord- 
in'T  to  t'e  scriptures,  many  objects  an>l  enda 
which  God  had  in  Tiew  were  attained, and  thej 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       391 


may  therefore  be  considered  in  various  lights, 
all  of  which  are  important  and  full  of  instruc- 
tion. Thus  the  death  of  Christ  furnishes  a  proof 
of  the  great  love  of  God  and  of  Christ  to  us.  It 
is  an  example  of  the  greatest  steadfastness,  con- 
fidence in  God,  and  patience,  &c.  And  these 
views  of  it  are  often  presented  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, but  by  no  means  the  most  frequently. 
The  suQ'erings  and  death  of  Christ  arc  mainly 
coniidt.red  as  tiie  gruund  or  procuring-cause  of 
our  forgiveness  and  of  our  spiritual  welfare. 
"  All  men  are  sinners,  and  consequently  deserv- 
ing of  punishment.  The  ground  on  which  God 
pardons  them,  or  forgives  their  sin,  is  the  siif- 
feringg  and  death  of  Christ,  or  his  bloud  shed 
for  them.  He  endured  the  misery  which  we 
should  have  endured  as  the  penalty  of  sin,  in 
order  that  we  might  be  saved  from  deserved 
punishment."  Such  is  the  uniform  doctrine  of 
the  Bible,  the  reason  and  object  of  it  are  plain 
from  what  was  remarked  in  s.  108.  Without 
this  doctrine  the  Bible  is  not  consistent.  Our 
forgiveness,  then,  does  not  depend  upon  our  re- 
fornittliiin  and  holiness,  by  which  we  deserve  no- 
thing from  (iod,  (Gal.  ii,  21 ;)  but  upon  the 
death  if  Christ,  of  which  our  holiness  is  the  re- 
sult. The  death  of  C-hrist  is  the  antcetdtnt,  our 
holiness  the  consccjuerit. 

This  doctrine  is  brielly  and  summarily  taught 
in  the  following  passages,  part  of  which  have 
been  already  explained,  and  the  remainder  of 
which  will  be  hereafter;  viz..  Matt.  xxvi.  28; 
Uom.  ill.  25;  v.  8,  9 ;  Eph.  i.  7;  Heb.  ix.  12, 
15,  28;  1  John,  i.  7. 

The  death  of  Christ,  however,  is  not  here 
mentioned,  exclusively  of  his  other  sufferings. 
Vide  s.  95.  All  together  constitute  that  which 
Paul  calls  the  vrtaxori  of  Christ,  Rom.  v.  19, 
because  lie  endured  them  from  obedience  to  God, 
Phil.  ii.  8.  Theologians  call  them  all  ohcdientia 
passii'a.  But  death,  especially  a  violent  death, 
most  deeply  moves  our  sensibilities,  and  com- 
prises, as  we  regard  it,  the  sum  and  substance 
of  all  other  sufferings  and  punishments.  For 
this  reason  the  New  Testament  makes  more  fre- 
quent mention  of  the  death,  bloud,  and  cross  of 
Christ. 

The  following  passages  clearly  and  distinctly 
teach  that  Christ  has  effected  the  deliverance 
of  man  from  the  deserved  punishment  of  sin,  by 
means  of  his  sufferings  and  violent  death — viz., 
(1)  The  texts  which  teach  that  Christ  suf- 
fered or  died /or  all  sinners,  or  for  all  the  sins 
of  men;  bia  {na^anroj^ara),  rtf  pi  (rtoXXwi'), 
but  more  commonly  vnep  (a^uaprwXwi'  or  nav- 
<w»'  or  afia^ittCj}/  iruiliv),  Hebrew,  '^p.  E.  g., 
Mati.  xxvi.  2S,  "The  blood  shed/»r  many,  for 
<he  remission  of  sins."  Rom.  iv,  25  ;  v.  6;  1 
Cor.  XV.  3;  2  Cor.  v.  14,  15;  1  Pet.  iii.  18;  Is. 
lii-.  5,  seq. 

It  ha3  been  objected  against  this  proof,  that 


to  do  a  thing  vfth  rivoi,  sometimes  means  sim- 
ply to  do  it  for  the  good  of  any  one,  to  instruct 
iiim,  improve  him,  or  to  give  liim  an  example. 
So  Col.  i.  24,  where  Paul  speaks  of  his  sufferings 
fur  the  good  of  (irtep)  the  Colossians  and  of  the 
whole  Christian  church,  because  he  was  perse- 
cuted by  his  enemies,  and  then  imprisoned  at 
Rome.  But  the  sense  even  here  is,  "he  con- 
gratulates himself  that  he  can  undergo  in  his 
own  person  what  would  otherwise  have  befallen 
the  whole  church;  while  the  general  hatred 
lights  upon  him,  others  escaped."  When  now 
this  phraseology  is  used  in  the  New  Testament 
with  reference  to  Christ,  it  never  means  that  he 
died  to  teach  men,  &c. ;  but  always,  instead,  in 
the  place  of  men,  to  deliver  them.  He  suffered 
what  we  should  have  suffered ;  endured  the 
penally  of  the  law,  which  we  should  have  en- 
dured. Tills  is  confirmed  by  the  passage  Is. 
liii.,  from  which  these  terms  are  so  frequently 
borrowed  in  the  New  Testament.  And  this  i8 
decisively  proved  by  the  passage  Rom.  v.  ('., 
where  it  is  said  that  Christ  died  for  (vntp)  sin- 
ners. This  cannot  mean  that  by  his  death  he 
gave  men  an  example  of  firmness,  or  sought  to 
reform  them.  For  in  ver.  7,  we  read,  "There 
are  but  few  instances  among  men  (like  that  of 
Damon  and  Pyiliias)  of  one  dying  for  an  inno- 
c.7i/ friend;  and  indeed  the  examples  are  rare 
of  one  dyin!£  (as  Peter  was  willimr  to  do  intp 
Xpt^rov,  .John,  xiii.  37)  even  for  a  bemfaclor 
((iyai^dj.)  But  there  is  no  example  of  one  dying 
for  rebels  and  criminals,  to  rescue  them  from 
the  death  which  they  deserved,  and  yet  so  did 
(Christ  die  for  us."  Paul  could  not  have  ex- 
pressed his  meaning  more  clearly.  According- 
ly, he  says,  2  Cor.  v.  14,  "Did  one  ((^hrist) 
die  for  all,  then  were  all  dead." 

Further;  if  this  phraseology  meant  nothing 
more  than  is  contended  for  by  the  objector,  it 
might  be  used  with  reference  to  the  death  of  the 
apostles  and  other  martyrs.  Bui  this  is  nevei 
the  case  in  the  New  Testament.  No  one  of 
them  is  ever  said  to  have  died  for  the  world, 
for  sinners,  or  sin.  It  is  said  respectinir  Christ 
exclusively,  ori — f  Ij  vrdp  rtdvtutv  dni^arf ,  2 
Cor.  V.  14,  15,  coll.  1  Cor.  i.  13,  "  Was  Paul 
crucified  for  (vrttp)  you  ]" 

'I'he  meaning,  then,  of  the  phraseology 
"Christ  suffered/or  us,  or  tnot/?-/>/«ce,"  is  this* 
"  Since  Christ  suffered  for  our  sins,  we  ourselves 
are  freed  from  the  necessity  of  enduring  the  pu- 
nishment which  they  deserved.  It  is  the  same  as 
if  wp  had  ourselves  endured  this  punishment; 
and  therefore  it  need  no  longer  he  feared."  The 
epistles  to  the  Romans,  Corinthians,  Galatians, 
and  Hebrews,  are  full  of  texts  of  this  import. 
Cf.  Morus,  p.  151,  and  Siorr,  Doctrina  Christ, 
p.  254. 

fX)  The  texts  whi'^n  tpach  that  Christ  was 
treated  jis  a  sinner ;  and  this  in  our  stead,  thai 


392 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


we  mi^ht  *e  considered  as  fnroriven  by  God. 
2  C(ir.  V.  21,  where  ajuofna  or  autt|3ru.?.ov  noinv, 
is,  to  treat  one  as  n  sinner,  to  punish  him ;  as  the 
opposite  blxaiov  Ttoitlv  or  bixaioiv  is  to  treat  as 
innocent,  tufaririve.  Jesus  was  treated  in  this 
way  vTtip  ripLuv,  which  is  explained  by  what 
follows,  "that  we,  on  Christ's  account,  mijrht 
be  treated  by  God  as  just  or  innocent" — i.  e., 
might  be  saved  from  deserved  punishment; 
yivilifit^a,  bixau.oijvi'Tj  &fov — i.  e.,  dixaioi,  ti'iliTCiov 
Qtii.  So  also  HaI.  iii.  13,  "Christ  hath  re- 
deemed us  (who  as  sinners  must  fear  the  threat- 
eninrrs  of  the  law)  from  the  threatened  punish- 
ment of  the  law  (xara'pa  vouov),  yivo^evoi 
irttp  rjfiCiv  xar  opa,"  forfrttxarajjaroj,  (as  in 
ver.  10 ;) — i.  e.,  by  enduring  for  us  a  cruel  capi- 
tal punishment,  (to  which,  according  to  the 
law  of  Moses,  only  the  grossest  offenders  were 
liable.)  Cf.  Isaiah,  liii.  4 — G,  from  which  the 
apostles  frequently  borrow  these  and  similar 
expressions. 

(3)  With  the  passages  already  cited  belong 
those  which  teach  that  Christ  took  upon  himself 
and  b(rre  the  sins  of  men — i.  e.,  endured  the  pu- 
nishment which  men  would  have  endured  for 
their  sins.  In  Hebrew  the  phrase  is  pjj  nu'j,  or 
Sao;  in  the  Septuagint  and  the  New  Testament, 
^spfiK  or  cupfiv  auapnaj.  It  occurs  in  the  text. 
Is.  liii.  4,  which  is  always  referred  by  the  New 
Testament  to  Christ.  Also  John,  i.  29;  iPet.ii. 
24  ;  Heb.  ix.  28,  &c.  Some  would  render  <j)f'|)fic 
or  (upfi)/  afxa^itCav  by  auferre  peccatum,  to  make 
men  virlitoits,  to  reform  them  in  a  moral  rcptcl. 
The  only  passage  in  the  New  Testament  in 
in  which  the  phrase  will  bear  this  interpretation 
is  1  John,  iii,  5,  where  it  is  equally  capable  of 
the  other  rendering.  The  phrase  commonly 
has  the  meaning  first  given,  and  a  different  in- 
terpretation does  the  greatest  violence  to  the 
passag(!s  in  which  it  occurs;  the  comparison 
being  so  clearly  derived  from  sacrifices. 

But  what  is  the  orii^in  if  this  sii^nificalion  of 
the  term?  In  the  Old  'i'estampiit,  sin  is  fre- 
quently compared  with  a  burden  which  o/yprcsses 
any  one,  and  which  he  is  com|>elled  to  carry, 
when  he  feels  the  unpleasant  consequences  of 
sin,  or  is  punished.  So  in  Arabic,  to  bear  one's 
own  or  aiiolher^s  burden.  Hence  the  phrase  was 
used  in  reference  (a)  to  the  victim,  which  was 
sacrificed  for  the  atonement  of  sin.  The  victim 
was  8up|)08ed  to  have  the  sin  or  punishment 
laid  upon  it;  Levi  xvi.  21,  22.  (//)  In  reference 
to  men;  and  first,  to  such  as  were  punished  for 
their  own  sins,  Lev.  xx.  19;  xxiv.  15;  and,  se- 
cotul/i/.  to  such  as  were  punished  on  account  of 
the  sins  if  others.  Lam.  v.  7,  "  V\'e  must  hear 
the  sins  of  our  fathers."  Ezek.  xviii.  20  ;  also. 
Is.  liii.,  "  The  punishment  lies  on  hitn  ;  he  bears 
our  sins."  'I'his  sense  holds  in  the  passages 
cited  from  the  New  Testament.  John,  i.  29. 
"  Behold   the   (sacrificial)  lamb   acceptable   to 


God,  which  bears  the  sins  of  the  world!" — a 
comparison  drawn  from  sacrifices.  This  com- 
parison is  inapplicable,  according  to  the  other 
interpretation — the  Lamb  which  makes  us  pious 
and  virtuous.  In  Heb.  ix.,  the  figure  implied 
in  Ttfyo/jsvtx'-^iii  is  taken  from  sacrifices.  In  1 
Pet.  ii.  24,  the  two  ideas  are  distinguished; 
first,  "he  bore  our  sins  on  the  cross,"  (i.  e., 
suffered  on  the  cross  the  punishment  of  our 
sins ;)  then,  "  that  we  might  die  to  sin  (spiritu- 
ally), and  live  wholly  to  holiness,  (Atzato«jv»>;.)" 

(4)  The  passages  which  teach  that  the  death 
of  Christ  was  a  ransom  for  us,  (xxTpov,  avrC- 
Xiifpoc,)  1  Tim.  ii.  6,  and  even  in  the  discourse 
of  Christ,  Matt.  xx.  28.  The  term  y.it^yov  de- 
notes anything  by  which  one  \s  freed,  delivered. 
Vide  s.  100,  II.  The  meaning  of  the  proposition, 
then,  is  this:  The  death  of  Christ  was  the  means 
of  delivering  and  rescuing  us  from  the  greatest 
misery,  from  the  punishment  of  sin;  or,  accord- 
ing to  Heb.  ix.  12,  "  Christ,  otwriav  XvTpu,^t» 
fipaufvoj,  effected  our  eternal  liberation  from 
misery  and  punishment;"  Is,  xliii,  3,  4, 

(5)  All  the  texts  which  compare  the  death  of 
Christ  with  the  sacrifices  and  Leviiical  ordi- 
nances of  the  Old  Testament;  also  the  texts 
which  teach  that  the  death  of  Christ  obtained, 
once  for  all,  and  in  a  far  more  perfect  manner, 
the  advantages  which  men  had  hoped  to  obtain 
from  their  sacrifices  and  expiatory  rites.  This 
doctrine  was  indeed  founded  in  the  ideas  preva- 
lent at  that  period,  and  was  particularly  evident 
and  convincing  to  the  Jews  then  living,  and  to 
such  of  the  heathen  nations  as  were  accustomed 
to  the  rites  of  sacrifice.  But  it  was  by  no  means 
intended  for  such  exclusively;  since  it  is  also 
founded  in  a  feeling  which  is  universal  among 
men,  that  some  means  of  atonement  are  neces- 
sary ;  s,  108.  The  apostles,  therefore,  in  their 
instructions  to  Jews,  heathen,  and  Christians,  de- 
rive their  expressions  and  comparisons  from  sa- 
crifkes,  and  only  in  their  instructions  to  Jews, 
from  the  particular  services  of  the  Mosaic  ritual. 

The  idea  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  this 
comparison  is  this  :  "  Christ  by  his  death  liberated 
us  from  death''^  (punishment  of  sin),  which  we 
should  have  suffered  ;  and  we  should  see  in  him 
(rt)  what  dreadful  consequences  our  sins  incur, 
aud  (J))  how  gracious  God  is,  in  forgiving  us  for 
the  sake  of  Christ."  Kphes.  v.  2,  na^-,ibiixtw 
tavtov  irtep  i^uCiv  0fu  rtpofiipopav,  ^vaiav, 
oiujji'  (vui6iaf,  Romans,  iii,  2;>,  (ixair^,itoi',} 
Ileh.  ix,  7,  11— 28;x,  1—14;  Acts,  xiii.  38.  &c, 
Hence  the  term  altm  (cwdes  cruentit),  which  80 
frequently  stands  fir  the  death  of  l-iirist,  is  to  be 
understood  in  its  full  sense.  Il  fretjuently  stands 
in  such  a  connexion  as  shews  that  the  figure  is 
dt-rived  from  the  blood  of  the  sacrificial  victim, 
and  from  the  qualities  ascribed  to  it— e,  g,,  Heb. 
IX,  13,  II,  alua  raVpiJi'  xai  rpaytov,  in  opposition 
to  alfto  XpwjTov — xajjoftft.     1  John,  i,  7,  "The 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       353 


blood  of  Christ  cleanses"  &c.  1  Pet.  i.  19, 
"The  hlood  of  Christ,  a  lamb  without  spot  or 
bleniixh.^^ 

Taking  all  these  texts  tooether,  there  is  no 
room  to  doubt  that  the  apostles  entertained  tlie 
opinions  respecting  the  death  of  Christ,  and  its 
effect,  which  were  ascribed  to  them  at  the  com- 
mencement of  this  section.  These  opinions  have 
been  shewn  (s.  10b),  not  only  to  correspond  with 
the  particular  circle  of  ideas  with  which  they 
were  familiar  at  that  period,  but  to  meet  a  uni- 
versal necessity  of  man.  This  is  a  necessity, 
indeed,  which  is  but  little  felt  by  the  learned, 
and  least  of  all  by  the  merely  speculative  scho- 
lar.    Vide  1  Cor.  i. — iii. 

II.  Universality,  and  Perfect  and  Perpetual  Validity 
of  the  Atonement. 

(1)  Its  universality.  Two  points  must  here 
be  noticed. 

First.  According  to  the  clear  testimony  of 
the  Bible,  Christ  endured  death  for  the  whole 
human  race;  2  Cor.  v.  11,  15,  rrtip  rtdvtuv  drtf- 
^fr;.  Ver.  19,  "  God  reconciled  the  world  to 
himself  through  Christ."  1  Tim.  ii.  6,  5oi)j 
lauToj'  avt^'Kvtpov  vrtip  rtdvtuiv.  1  John,  11.  2, 
"  He  is  the  propitiator,  not  only  for  our  sins,  (i. 
e.,  those  of  Christians,)  but  also  for  the  sins 
6?iov  fov  xon/.iov,'"  &c.  But  the  passages  which 
are  most  explicit  upon  this  subject  are  found  in 
the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  where  Paul  contro- 
verts the  mistaken  opinion  of  the  Jews  that  the 
blessings  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom  belong  ex- 
clusively to  the  posterity  of  Ahraliam.  He 
shews,  Romans,  v.  12 — 19,  that  as  one  man  was 
the  author  of  sin  in  the  world,  and  of  the  conse- 
quent punishment  which  all  now  endure,  so  one 
man  is  the  author  of  salvation  and  forgiveness 
for  all.  In  Romans,  iii.  9,  22,  he  shews  that  as 
the  moral  disease  is  universal  among  men,  the 
remedy  must  needs  be  universal;  and,  in  ver. 
29,  that  the  benevolence  of  God  is  not  confined 
to  a  small  portion,  but  embraces  the  whole  fa- 
mily of  man. 

In  such  passages  of  the  New  Testament,  the 
term  rcoXXoi,  or  ol  rtoXXol  frequently  stands  for 
Tidvtfi.  E.  g.,  Rom.  V.  19,  ot  TtoXKoi  stands  for 
all  men  who  are  obnoxious  to  punishment  and 
need  forgiveness;  as  it  reads  ver.  12,  18.  The 
same  in  ver.  15.  Cf.  Matt.  xx.  28;  xxvi.  28; 
1  Cor.  X.  33,  &c.  The  Hebrews  used  .the  word 
c^ai  in  the  same  way,  Is.  liii.  12.  .W  involves 
the  idea  of  nuivy.  and  hence  in  the  ancient  lan- 
guages the  words  which  signify  many  are  often 
used  to  denote  universality — so  many!  such  a 
multitude!  This  was  the  case  especially  where 
only  one  was  pointed  out  in  contrast  to  the  many ; 
one  for  so  many  .' 

Xofe. — The  question  has  been  asked,  whether 
Christ  died  fur  the  uni^ndly.  The  strict  particu- 
.arisls  and  predestinarians  answered  this  ques- 
50 


'  tion  in  the   negative,  on  the  ground   that  the 
death  of  Christ  does  not  actually  secure  the  sat 
I  vation  of  the  wicked,  and  is  of  no  advantage  to 
;  them.     But  because  some,  by  their  own  fault, 
\  derive  no  advantage  from  the  death  of  Christ, 
I  we  cannot  say  that  the  death  of  Christ  does  not 
'  concern  them,  and  that  Christ  did  not  die  for 
them,  any  more  than  we  can  say  that  divine  in- 
I  struction  has  no  power  in  itself  to  reform  man- 
kind, because  many  will  not  allow  tliemselves 
to  be  reformed  by  it.     Moreover,  this  opinion  ia 
inconsistent  with  the  New  Testament.    In  2  Pet. 
ii.  1,  the  false  teachers  and  deceivers,  whom  a 
dreadful  destruction  awaited,  are  said  expressly 
tn  deny  the  Lord  who  bou'^ht  (redeemed)  them. 
Misunderstanding  and  logomachy  may  be  obvi- 
ated by  attending   to   the  just   remark   of  the 
schoolmen,  that  the  desi<^n  of  the  death  of  Christ, 
and  the  «c/(u//results  of  it,  should  be  distinguish- 
ed,    .fictu  prima,  Christ  died  for  all   men;  but 
actu  secundo,  not  for  all   men,  but  only  for  be- 
lievers— i.  e.,  according  to  the  purpose  of  God, 
all    might   be  exempted  from   punishment  and 
rendered  happy  by  the  death  of  Christ;  but  all 
do  not  suffer  this  pur|)ose  actually  to  take  effect 
with  regard  to  themselves;  and  only  believers 
actually  attain  to  this  blessedness. 

Secondly.  Christ  removed  the  whole  punish- 
ment of  sin;  his  death  atoned  for  f///sins.  So 
the  apostles  declare.  1  John,  i.  7,  "'i'he  blood 
of  Christ  cleanses  from  all  sin."  Romans,  v. 
1(5 ;  viii.  1,  ov&sv  xatdx(>Lua,  rotj  iv  Xpnroj,  Acts, 
xiii.  38,  &c.  But  an  apparent  difficulty  is  here 
suggested,  which  must  be  answered  from  the 
discussion  respecting  punishments,  (s.  86,67,) 
and  can  therefore  only  be  touched  here. 

Now  there  are  two  kinds  of  punishments — 
viz.,  nainral,  such  as  flow  from  the  nature  and 
character  of  the  moral  action  itself,  (e.  g.,  debi- 
lity and  disease  from  luxurious  excess;)  and 
posiiire,  such  as  do  not  result  directly  from  the 
nature  and  character  of  the  moral  action,  but  are 
connected  with  it  by  the  free  will  of  the  law- 
giver. God  actually  threatens  to  inflict  such 
positive  punishments  upon  the  wicked,  espe- 
cially in  the  future  world  ;  just  as  he  promises, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  bestow  positive  rewards  in 
the  future  world  upon  the  righteo\is,  s.  87. 
Again;  the  natural  punishments  of  sin  are  of 
two  kinds — viz.,  (rr)  physical,  as  sickness  in 
consequence  of  immoderation;  and  (&)  moral 
(by  far  the  worst!),  such  as  disquiet  of  mind, 
remorse  of  conscience,  and  dread  of  God  ;  s.  86, 
II.  2. 

Now,  has  Christ  redeemed  us  from  all  these 
punishments  ]  Those  who  mean  to  speak  strictly 
and  logically  reply,  770/  Christ  has  redeemed 
us,  properly  speaking,  only  {v^m  posit ive  divine 
punishments  in  the  future  worhl.  and  from  that 
kind  ofjirt/i/rr// punishments  which  may  be  called 
moral,  or  the  evil  results  of  sin  in  a  moral  respect. 


394 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Even  the  man  who  is  reformed  still  retains  the 
consciousnHss  of  the  sins  wliich  he  has  cominit- 
UA,  and  reflects  upon  them  with  sorrow,  shame, 
and  reijrpt.  But  the  pardoned  sinner  knows 
that  God,  fir  Christ's  sake,  has  forgiven  his 
eins ;  and  so  is  no  longer  suhject  to  tliat  disquiet 
of  mind,  pain  of  conscience,  dread  of  God  and 
despair — t!ie/jrnn  mnralis  of  sin,  which  render 
tlie  wicked  miserahle. 

The  phifsical  part  of  natural  punishment  in- 
deed reMMiiis,  even  after  the  transgressor  is  re- 
formed. If  any  one,  by  his  extravagance,  has 
made  himself  sick  and  poor,  he  will  not,  in  con- 
sequence of  being  pardoned  and  renewed, become 
well  ani^  prosperous.  The  physical  conse- 
quences of  sin  continue,  not  only  through  the 
present  life,  but  probably  through  the  life  to 
come.  They  can  be  obviated  only  by  a  miracu- 
lous interference  of  God,  which  is  nowhere  pro- 
mised. Hut  these  very  physical  consequences 
of  sin,  whose  evil  is  so  lasting,  are  like  a  bitter 
medicine;  they  have  a  good  effect,  and  secure 
us  from  turning  again  from  the  right  path.  Al- 
though one  who  is  pardoned  has  therefore  no 
right  to  expect  that  the  physical  evils  resulting 
from  his  transgression  will  be  counteracted  by 
liis  being  subsequently  forgiven,  yet  he  may 
hope,  both  from  what  has  now  been  said  and 
from  common  experience,  that  these  evils  will 
be  very  much  diminished,  will  lose  the  terror 
of  punishment,  and  contribute  to  his  good.  Such 
is  the  case  exactly  with  bodily  death. 

The  same  truth  is  taught  in  the  Bible,  not 
indeed  in  a  scientific  manner,  which  would  be 
unintelliirible  to  men  at  large,  but  in  the  popular 
^lanner,  in  which  it  should  always  be  taught. 
1)  The  nible  neversays  that  Christ  has  entirely 
removed  the  physical  evils  which  naturally  re- 
sult from  sin.  (2)  When  the  sacred  writers  say 
that  Christ  siiffired  iiunis/iinentfor  us,  they  mean 
principally  the  positive  punisbcnent,  from  which 
lie  has  lib.  rated  us  by  his  sulferings  and  death. 
Vide  s,  87,  No.  2.  They  also  teach,  (3)  That 
one  who  trusts  in  Christ  can  take  courage,  can 
love  (tod  anil  confide  in  him  without  dreading 
his  anger,  and  without  distressing  himself  in 
view  of  his  past  guilt,  which  is  now  forgiven 
him  for  tlie  sake  of  Christ.  l"he  remission  of 
the  nmral  punishments  which  naturally  flow 
from  sin  is  thus  set  forth  in  a  manner  which 
ou<rht  to  be  fdlowod  by  the  public  teacher. 
Vide  3.  10!),  ad  finem.  (1)  But  the  terms  pnr- 
(lon  ?int\f<>r!riveness  of  sin  are  frequently  used  in 
the  New  Testament  in  a  wider  sense,  compre- 
hending all  the  divine  favours  which  the  par- 
doned receive  from  God;  they  denote  the  whole 
amount  of  the  btesaediifss — the  sulvntion — wliich 
the  pard.iued  enjoy.  Vide  s.  10I>,  Note.  If, 
therefore,  (f))  the  natural  physical  consequences 
of  past  sins  are  not  removed,  they  still  lose  their 
fceverity  ;  they  are  rendered  mild  and  in  many 


respects  beneficial ;  they  are  vastly  overbalanced 
by  the  varinis  blessinas  bestoweii,  and  thug 
cease,  in  tiieir  actual  etlects,  to  be  [lUiiishmenls. 
The  holy  scriptures,  therefore,  declare  wi».h 
truth,  that  the  blood  of  Christ  atones  for  all  sina. 
Cf.  the  programm  of  Noessult,  above  cited. 

Note. — Theologians  have  been  divided  on  the 
question,  whether  the  apostles  held  that  the  sina 
committed  before  Christ,  or  during  the  01d-Te«- 
tament  dispensation,  were  forgiven  by  God  oa 
account  of  the  atonement  to  be  afterwards  made. 
Doederlein  and  others  take  the  negative  side. 
They  say  that  the  at^ini^  Ti\ioyfyovori~jv  auoprjjua- 
rioi',  Jiom.  iii.  25,  may  denote  the  remission  of 
the  sins  which  tlie  Jews  and  Gentiles  of  that 
age  had  committed  before  their  conversion  to 
Cliristianity.  The  rta^)a3u<jftj  ini  r?  rtpwrj 
bia^r^xrj,  Heb.  ix.  15,  may  he  understood  in  the 
same  way,  or  may  denote  the  sins  which  were 
irremissible  during  the  01d-Testiuif-nt  dispensa- 
tion. Vide  ver.  9.  But  the  context  of  this  pas- 
sage is  more  favourable  to  the  common  interpre- 
tation. 

Besides,  the  aflirmalive  of  this  question  ia 
sujiported,  (1)  By  tiie  whole  analo^ry  of  scrip- 
ture. The  Jews  of  that  age  agree  with  Christ 
and  the  apostles  in  teaching  that  men  of  the 
earliest  times  hoped  for  the  Messiah — that  the 
divine  ordinances  of  the  former  dispensation  re- 
ferred to  him,  and  pointed  him  out — and  tliat  all 
the  pious  of  antiquity  confided  in  him.  Vide 
John,  viii.  5G;  Luke,  x.  24;  1  Pet,  i.  10,  11. 
Cf.  s.  90.  (2)  By  the  passage,  lleb.  ix.  26. 
where  this  doctrine  is  plainly  implied.  »»  (iod 
appointed  that  Christ  should  suffer  and  die  for 
fl//sins,  and  once  fur  all.  Otherwise,  it  would 
have  been  necessary  that  he  should  sufl'er  more 
than  once  (rtoxxaxtj)  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world;  since  there  were  always  sinners  in  the 
world."  This  plainly  involves  the  sentiment 
that  Christ  died  for  the  men  who  lived  before 
him.  The  opinion  of  Lffifiler  and  other  modern 
writers,  that  pardon  through  the  death  of  Christ 
related  only  to  the  new  converjs  from  Judaism 
and  heathenism  is  entirely  false  and  contradic- 
tory to  the  New  Testament.  Viile  Gal.  iii.  21, 
seq.;  Romans,  i.  Irt,  scq.,  coll.  1  Thess.  i.  10; 
John,  iii.  13 — 16;  Romans,  v.  18,  19;  and 
especially  1  John,  ii.  1,  2. 

(2)  The  other  attribute  of  the  atoning  death 
of  {/hrisl  is,  its  permanent  and  perfect  validity, 
(^pcrenuitas,  p'rennis  valor  meriti  Cliristi.) 

This  doctrine  is  held  in  opposition  to  those 
who  believe  that  the  expiatory  sacrifice  of 
Christ  is  not  valid  and  suflicient  for  the  atont 
ment  of  some  particular  sins,  and  who  therefore 
seek  for  other  means  of  obtaining  pardon,  such 
as  penances  and  sitisfaciions.  This  opinion 
has  not  only  prevailed  in  modern  times,  espe- 
cially since  the  middle  ages,  thionirlmut  the 
,  whole  body  of  the  Romish  church,  but  foraier- 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       395 


ly,  though  in  different  forms,  even  in  the  times  I 
of  the  apostles,  among  Jews  and  Gentiles.  Vide 
B.  108,  No.  I.  Paul  therefore  shews,  especially  I 
in  his  epistle  to  the  Hehrews,  that  Christ  had  , 
sacrificed  himself  oticefi/r  all  (arta^)  for  all  sins, 
and  that  now  no  more  sacrifices,  penances,  and 
expiations  are  necessary  for  men.  Heb.  vii. 
27,  ToOro  inoir^rsiv  i^artat,  tavrov  anviyxa^, 
Ileb.  ix.  25,  26 — 28,  "  He  appeared  at  the  close 
of  this  age,  arfa§  r ij  a^irr^'ji.v  ajuaprtaj-  and  then 
anu^  rtfMiJ£iiX^fi-i  f'S  To  no'KT^cijv  avei'iyxiiv  a,u(xp- 
Tittj.  8o  also,  X,  14,  juta  7tpo'5'J)Oj)a  riTiXfitJXfv 
sij  TO  btrjvtxi^  tovj  ayta^ojutVovj.  Accord- 
ingly, Christ  is  said,  ix.  11,  by  his  once  enter- 
ing into  the  heavens,  to  have  procured  eternal 
tedemjj'ioti,  (atcoii.'ai'  Xirpwoii'.) 

SECTION  CXII 

OF  THE  INFLUENCE  WHICH  THE  RESURRECTION  OF 
CHRIST,  AND  HIS  SUBSEQUENT  EXALTATION  AND 
INTKRCESSION,  HAVE  UPON  OUR  FORGIVENESS  OR 
JUSTIFICATION. 

It  was  observed  (s.  110,  ad  fine m')  that  the 
New  Testament  points  to  three  particulars  in 
the  jiislification  procured  for  us  by  Christ.  The 
first  of  these,  the  death  of  Christ,  was  consider- 
ed, s.  111.  We  come  now  to  treat  of  the  two 
remaining-  particulars. 

I  The  Injluence  of  the  Resurrection  and  Exaltation 
of  Christ  upon  our  Justification. 

We  have  before  examined  (s.  37)  what  is 
nnifornily  taught  in  the  Bible  respecting  the  re- 
surrection of  Christ,  and  the  great  imporlanee 
of  this  event,  and  all  this  is  here  presupposed. 
The  resurrection  of  Christ  is  mentioned,  in  con- 
nexion with  our  justification,  with  the  most  dis- 
tinctness in  the  two  following  texts — viz.,  2  Cor. 
v.  15,  "  Christians  should  not  live  for  their  own 
pleasure  (tavro  C^v),  hut  for  the  honour  of 
Christ,  and  according  to  his  will,  rtj -irtip  avr^i' 
dno^aroiTt  xai  tyfp^f rn"  (sc.  irttp  avTwi-)  ;  and 
Rum.  iv.  25,  "  He  died  (according  to  the  divine 
purpose)  §10,  rd  napanrajxara  j;jUwv,  jfytp^*; 
iia   trv   b  I  X  a  t  oiy  V  vt;  V  r^jxav.^^ 

What  is  meant  by  his  being  raised  for  our 
justification  must  be  gathered  from  other  pas- 
sages. 1  Pet.  i.  3,  "  God  has  made  us,  by 
means  of  Christianity,  reformed  men  (^l)orn 
Oira-w).  that  we  might  cherish  a  firm  hope  (t ij 
tXrti'Sa  ^wcav,  sc.  of  future  happiness,  ver.  4), 
throuirh  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  1  Pet.  i.  21, 
'>  (Tdd  has  raided  Christ  and  rewarded  him  with 
plirrt/  (the  state  of  exaltation  in  the  heavens), 
that  he — the  risen  and  glorified  (^lirist — might 
be  your  confidence  and  hope  in  God'' — i.  e.,  that 
you  should  consider  him  as  the  pi  rson  to  whom 
al  >ne  you  are  indebted  for  the  coi^dence  which 
yu  now  are  enabled  to  repose  in  <«od.  1  Cor. 
XT.  17,  "If  Christ  were  not  risen,  then  the  con- 


fidence (rti'fjrij)  which  you  feel  in  him  would 
be  vain  ;  tri  iari:  iv  auapTi'aij  vuciv" — i.  e.,  you 
could  not  be  certain  of  that  forgiveness  which 
you  now  hope  to  obtain  from  God  through 
Christ.     Cf.  Rom.  viii.  34. 

From  these  passages  taken  together  we  can 
easily  gather  the  relation  and  connexion  in 
which  the  resurrection  and  exaltation  of  Christ 
stand  to  our  justification  and  forgiveness.  The 
resurrection  of  Christ,  then,  cannot  be  consider- 
ed to  have  any  desert  in  itself  cilmie,  nor  can  it 
be  supposed*,  Ar/)a>7//e/i/  considered,  to  have  freed 
us  fron>  the  punishiiienl  of  sin.  But,  according 
to  the  Bible,  the  resurrection  of  Christ  and  his 
subsequent  reward  in  heaven  give  attestation 
and  confirmation  to  all  that  he  taui^ht  and  suf- 
fered.  For  since  Cod  raised  and  rewarded 
Christ,  we  must  conclude  that  He  fully  ap- 
proved of  everything  which  Jesus  taught  and 
performed — and  that  Christ  must  have  accom- 
plished His  designs.  Did  Christ  suffer  and 
die  with  the  intention  of  liberating  us  from  the 
punishment  of  sin,  we  may  be  sure,  since  his 
resurrection  and  exaltation,  that  he  fully  attain- 
ed this  object,  and  that  we  can  now  through  him 
lay  claim  to  reward  and  eternal  happiness.  This 
is  what  Peler  means  by  rtLr,rt.i  xai.  sXnij  r;fiuv. 
In  the  passage  cited  from  1  Cor.,  Paul  means  to 
say,  that  if  Christ  were  not  risen,  we  might  be 
led  to  s\ispect  that  he  had  not  performed  what 
he  promised  alfl  undertook  to  perform. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  understand  the  mean- 
ing of  the  declaration  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans, »i^yfp^  f tj  bixaionvvr^v  ruuiv — viz.,  in  order 
to  afford  us  certainty  of  our  forgiveness,  of  which 
we  could. have  no  certainly  if  Christ  had  re- 
mained in  the  grave.  Vide  Acts,  xiii,  37,  38. 
Accordingly,  the  resurrection  and  exaltation 
(66?a,  as  Peter  has  it),  of  Christ  are  the  con- 
frniation  and  assurance  of  our  justification, 
while  the  sutferings  and  death  of  Christ  are  pro- 
perly the  procuring  cause  of  it. 

II.  The  Influence  (f  the  Intercession  of  Christ  upon 
our  Justification. 

(1)  Sketch  if  the  history  of  this  doctrine. 

Many  theologians,  and  some  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical fathers,  represent  intercession  as  a  conti- 
nued external  action  of  Christ,  different  from 
his  atonement,  bj'  which  blessings  are  not  only 
imparted  to  us,  but  likewise  procured  for  us. 
Among  the  fathers  who  held  this  opinion  were 
Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  Gregory  the  Great, 
Paulus  of  Aquilia,  and  others;  among  modern 
theoloirians,  C;ilvin,and  of  the  Lutheran  church, 
Chemnitz.  Baumgarten,  and  others.  These 
writers  regard  the  intercession  of  Christ  as  a 
distinct  work  performed  by  hi.Ti  in  his  state  ol 
exaltation  in  heaven.  They  have  very  different 
conceptions,  however,  respeftingr  the  manner  of 
this  work,  some  of  which  are  very  gross.   Manj 


490 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


of  them  contended  for  an  infertesslo  verbalis — 
e.  g.,  Cyprivin  and  Augustine;  and  tlu-ir  opi- 
nion was  adopted  in  the  Romish  church.  Ac- 
cordingly, Luther  renders  firv-/;^aifi,  Heb.  vii. 
25,  "/iV  hittd  filr  si'c,^^  (^/le  prays  for  them.)  So 
^etavius,  Hollaz,  Quenstedt,  and  many  others, 
»nion^  the  Lutherans.  They  also  differ  widely 
'"rom  one  another  respecting  tlie  nature,  object, 
and  continuance  of  this  intercession.  Some 
consider  it  as  belonging  to  the  sacerdotal  office, 
in  which  case  the  comparison  is  drawn  from 
the  J(?wish  high  priest  in  the  Epistl'e  to  the  He- 
brews. Nothing  definite  upon  the  subject  ap- 
pears in  the  symbols,  except  in  the  Augsburg 
Confession ;  and  even  there  no  distinct  expla- 
nation is  given. 

Another  theory,  which  entirely  divests  the 
Buhject  of  its  material  dress,  and  which  has 
therefore  been  more  generally  approved  in  mo- 
dern times,  was  first  distinctly  stated  by  Philip 
Limborch,  the  Arminian  theologian,  and  by 
Musaius  in  the  seventeenth  century.  They 
consider  the  intercession  of  ('lirist  to  be  merely 
the  relation  in  which  he,  in  his  state  of  exalta- 
tion, stands  to  sinners,  as  their  Redeemer,  and 
not  as  a  continued  action,  by  which  he  still  pro- 
motes the  welfare  of  men,  ana  by  whicli  salva- 
tion is  still /)roc«rfrf  for  them.  The  same  opi- 
nion is  found  in  B.iUhorn's  dissertation,  l)e  in- 
terecisinne  C/iristi  sacerdutali,  (among  Walch's 
Vorsitze;)  Giiltingen,  177 1.  ^his  opinion, 
however,  docs  not  exactly  correspond  with  the 
Joctrine  of  the  Hible. 

(•J)  Kxp'dnalion  of  the  tiTlx  rehilins;  to  this 
lu'iject,  and  an  elucidulion  af  the  ideas  contained 
in  them.     These  texts  are — 

(«)  1  John,  ii.  1.  "When  a  Christian  has 
committed  sin,  (let  him  not  despair  of  pardon, 
but  encourage  himself  with  the  thought,  that) 
we  have  na.^tdx'Kr^t  ov  rt^wi  r'ov  Ttarcpa,  in 
Jesus,  the  righteous."  Here  rtapaxXj^roj  is,  pa- 
tronus,  advocate,  defender,  {Fiimprtcher,  Luther.) 
Phis  name  is  given  by  Fhilo  to  the  ministers 
and  favourit-'S  at  court,  who  promise  to  any  one 
the  favour  of  the  king;  and  also  to  the  high 
priest,  the  expiator  of  the  people.  Vide  Pro- 
gram m,  l)e  Christo  el  Spiritu  Sancln  pnraclcti.i, 
in  "Seripta  varii  argumenti,"  Num.  iv.  In 
this  respect  it  is  ihtt  Christ  is  called  ria^iuxXtj- 
roi.  He  is  f)ur  expiator,  ixaiuoj  7if\ii  rtutt,)riuii', 
ver.  2.  Accordingly,  the  menning  of  this  pas- 
sage is,  that  since  Christ  is  exalted  to  heaven, 
anti  while  he  continues  there,  we  may  be  firmly  | 
convinced  that  (Jod  will  be  gracious  to  us,  and  ' 
for  Christ's  sake  will  remit  the  punishment  of 
our  sins;  and  that  fUirist,  in  his  state  of  exalta- 
tion, continues  witiiout  intermission  his  cares  | 
for  the  welfare  of  men.  | 

(J))  Rom.  viii.  31.    Here  Paul  says,  »•  No  one  \ 
can  condemn  (zarax(>iifti)  the  friends  of  Cod, 
(Christians.)     They  are  exempt  from  punish-  , 


\  ment.    Christ  died  for  ihem ;  And  indued,  (what 
'  might  add  to  their  comfort.)  had   risen  again, 
,  was  seated  on  the  right  hand  of  Crd,  ij  xot  iv 
'■  rvyxuvfi,  vrtf()  ruuif,  (^verlritt  uns,  Luther.)      Ev 
rty;^a»fii',  joined  with  the  dative,  means  occur- 
\  rere  ulicui ;  then,  adire,  convenire  aliquem.  Acts, 
'  XXV.  2i ;  joined    with   xara   (^ri.vo(),  aecusare, 
Itom.  xi.  2;  with  v?tfp  (rn-oj),  midium  se  alte- 
rius  causa  inlerponere,  to  interpose  in  bishaif  of 
I  one,  to  intercede  fur  him ;   as   here,    iniercedcre 
[  pro    alifjuo,    deprecari,    causam    alicujus   Uirere. 
From  this  text  it  does  not  appear  that  this  in- 
tercession was  i)erformed  by  wordn.     The  prin- 
j  cipal  idea  is,  "  Christ  is  now.  as  it  were,  our 
I  patron  with  God;  his  being  vviih  God  in  hea- 
ven  gives   us   the    consoling    assurance    that 
through  him  we  are  for  ever  reconciled  with 
God  and  freed  from  the  punishment  of  sin;  and 
that,  as  the  advocate  and  patron  of  the  pious, 
Christ  still  prosecutes  in  heaven  his  labours  for  , 
their  welfare." 

(c)  Heb.  vii.  25,  seq.  Here  the  case  is  the 
same.  "Chri>t  (being  an  eternal  high  priest) 
can  for  ever  bless  (iw^fiv  *ij  to  na-vrtxi^)  all 
those  who  seek  the  favour  of  God  through  his 
mediation,  since  he  ever  lives  fi^  to  ivrvyx^' 
ifif" — i.  e.,  since  Christ  ever  lives  with  l»od 
in  heaven  we  can  always  be  sure  of  forgiveness 
and  of  every  divine  blessing;  for  he  is  not  in 
heaven  in  vain,  but  even  there  continues  to  be 
engaged  for  our  welfare.  The  phrase  interctssic 
saccrdota/is  is  taken  from  this  passage;  fjr  the 
figure  here,  as  in  the  whole  chapter,  is  borrowed 
from  the  .lewish  high  priest,  who  on  the  great 
day  of  atonement  entered  into  the  most  holy 
place  and  made  expiation  for  the  sins  of  the 
people,  {pro  pirpuhi  inlerccdebat  apud  Dcain.^ 
He  did  not  do  this,  however,  by  words  (he  spake 
no  word,  vide  Ex.  xxviii,  and  Lev.  xvii.),  but 
by  action — namely,  by  offering  the  blood  of  the 
victim.  The  object  of  this  comparison,  then, 
is  to  shew  that  Christ  performs  with  God  in 
the  heavenly  world  what  the  Jewish  high  priest 
did  yearly  for  the  people  upon  the  earth.  It  re- 
fers, then,  both  to  the  permanent  validity  of  the 
atonement  of  (ybrist,  and  to  his  continued  la- 
bours in  heaven  for  the  salvation  of  men.  Re- 
specting this  figure,  cf.  Morus,  p.  155,  seq. 

((i)  Heb.  ix.  21 — a  parallel  passage,  which 
confirms  the  above  explanation.  "  Christ  did 
not  enter  into  an  earthly  temple,  like  the  Jewish 
high  priest,  hut  into  heaven  itself,  ivr  i  ^^ai  i9' 
'^r^vai  rCt  rfpo-jiortco  ©foO  vrtip  ;JuiJv" — the  very 
phrase  applied  to  the  high  priest  when  he  pre- 
sented to  God,  in  the  temple,  the  blood  of  atone- 
ment for  the  people.  It  means,  therefore,  "in 
order  to  procure  for  us  a  firm  assurance  of  being 
ex|)iated,  or  of  f  TiTiveness  of  our  sins,  and  of 
the  enjoyment  of  all  the  spiritual  blessings  C(m- 
nected  with  forgiveness." 

The  intercession  of  Christ  before  God  jn  the 


STATE  /{NTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       397 


heavenly  world  denotes,  then,  both  the  lasting; 
and  perfect  validity  and  efficacy  of  his  atone- 
ment, of  which  we  obtain  consoling  assurance  by 
1, is  abiding  with  God  in  his  slate  of  exaltation, 
and  also  the  continued  wakeful  care  which  Jesus 
Christ  exercises  in  heaven  over  his  followers  on 
the  earth.  In  short,  the  intercession  of  Christ 
is  one  of  the  chief  employments  which  Christ 
prosecutes  in  heaven  in  his  state  of  exaltation, 
as  the  King  and  Patron  of  men,  and  especially 
of  the  Christian  church,  and  its  individual  mem- 
bers; s.  98.  He  is  our  Paracletus  and  Patron, 
therefore,  not  merely  in  respect  to  what  he  for- 
merly did  for  men  while  upon  the  earth,  but  also 
in  respect  to  the  efforts  which  he  still  continues 
to  make  for  our  welfare. 

'Vhf  Bible  nowhere  teaches  that  this  interces- 
sion consists  in  words.  But  considering  that 
Christ  must  still  be  regarded  as  a  man,  though 
in  heaven,  there  is  no  objection  to  representing 
the  thing  under  the  figure  of  actual  intercession. 
In  brief,  Christ  does  for  us  all  and  more  tiian 
could  be  done  among  men  through  verbal  inter- 
cession, or  other  kinds  of  interposition,  by  a 
powerful  human  advocate.  The  passage,  Heb. 
xii.  24,  may  here  be  compared:  "Tiie  blood  of 
Christ  speaks  better  (for  us)  than  the  blood  of 
Abel."  The  blood  of  Abel  cried  to  God  for 
vengeance  upon  Cain.  The  death  of  Christ 
moves  God,  not  to  punish,  but  to  bless  and  for- 
give. 

SECTION  cxin. 

T-flE  SCRIPTURE  DOCTRINE  OF  PARDON  OR  JUSTIFI- 
CATION THROUGH  CHRIST,  AS  AN  UNIVERSAL  AND 
UNJIKRITED  FAVOUR  OF  GOD. 

\  I.  The-  Universality  of  this  Benejit. 

It  is  universal  as  the  atonement  itself.  Vide 
8.  Ill,  II.  If  the  atonement  extends  to  the 
whole  human  race,  justification  must  also  be 
universal — i.  e.,  all  must  be  able  to  obtain  the 
actual  forgiveness  of  their  s'p.s  and  blessedness 
on  account  of  the  atonement  of  Christ.  But  in 
order  to  obviate  mistakes,  some  points  may  re- 
quire explanation.  Justification,  then,  is  uni- 
versal, 

(I)  In  respect  to  the  persons  to  be  pardoned. 

All  inv.n,  according  to  the  Bible,  may  p;irtake 
of  ttiis  benefit.  It  was  designed  for  all.  Vide 
especially  Rom.  iii.  23;  v.  15;  s^lll,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Jewish  exclusiveness.  It  is  bestowed, 
however,  cnndilionally  ;  certain  conditions  are 
prescribed  which  are  indispensable.  Those  who 
do  not  comply  with  these  conditions  are  excluded 
from  the  enjoyment  of  the  benefit.  Justification 
and  forgiveness  are  not,  therefore,  universal  in 
effect  (ac/i/),  and  this  solely  through  the  fault  of 
men.* 


Another  conclusion  from  the  universality  of 
justification  is,  that  every  one  may  be  sure  of 
his  forgiveness.  This  certainty,  however,  n:\itt 
not  be  founded  upon  inward  fctlinics,  which  are 
frequently  deceptive,  but  upon  an  actual  com- 
pliance with  the  conditions  oja  which  God  will 
forgive  sins.  If  any  one  finds  in  himself  the 
signs  of  true  faith,  of  sincere  love  to  God  ana 
Christ,  of  a  renewed  heart,  and  of  a  virtuous, 
Christian  disposition,  he  is  justified.  Romans, 
viii.  16,  "The  holy.  Christian  temper  (nv*v//a) 
wrought  in  us  by  God  gives  us  the  clearest  and 
surest  proof  that  we  are  the  children  of  God." 
1  John,  iii.  7  ;  2  Peter,  i.  9,  10.  This  certainty 
is  in  the  highest  degree  necessary  to  our  tran- 
quillity and  happiness;  1  Tim.  i.  16;  1  Cor.  vi. 
11;  1  John,  V.  18—20. 

(2)  In  respect  to  sins  and  the  punishment  of 
sin. 

(a)  As  to  sins ;  the  position  that  all  sins  with- 
out exception  are  forgiven  for  Christ's  sake  is 
proved  partly  from  the  power  and  efficacy  of 
the  atonement  of  Christ,  which  is  extended  to 
all  sins,  (vide  s.  Ill,  and  the  texts  there  cited ;) 
and  partly  from  the  texts  which  promise  forgive- 
ness of  all  sins,  even  the  greatest  and  blackest, 
to  those  who  comply  with  the  prescribed  condi- 
tions of  pardon;  Ezekiel,  xviii.  21,  22;  Psalm, 
ciii.  3;  1  Cor.  vi.  11  ;  Ephes.  ii.  5  ;  1  Tim.  i. 
15.  The  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost  cannot  be 
regarded  as  an  exception.     Vide  s.  81. 

(6)  As  to  the  punishment  of  sin,  the  answer 
to  the  question,  whether  the  pardoned  are 
exempt  from  all  the  punishments  of  sin,  whe- 
ther, therefore,  justification  is  plena  el  perfccta, 
may  be  learned  from  s.  Ill,  II.  The  natural  and 
physical  evils  which  result  from  past  sins,  in- 
deed, remain,  but  they  are  mitigated  and  render- 
ed more  tolerable,  and  are  divested  of  the  ttTror 
of  punishment  by  the  cessation  of  the  moral 
evils  which  result  from  sin,  which  takes  place 
in  consequence  of  the  entirely  different  relation 
in  which  men  stand  to  God  after  they  are  once 
pardoned.  The  positive  punishments  of  sin  are 
entirely  removed,  and  man  receives  even  here 
the  expectation  oi  positive  dWxne  rewards,  and 
of  the  full  enjoyment  of  them  in  the  life  to  come. 

(c)  In  respect  to  /j'we  and  lasting  continuance. 

First. — The  scriptures  uniformly  teach  that 
forgiveness  extends  through  the  whole  life  of 
man.  He  may  receive  pardon  at  any  time, 
while  life  continues,  so  soon  as  he  fulfils  the  re- 
quisite conditions  of  forgiveness.  This  last 
clause  should  be  carefully  and  expressly  annex- 
ed, in  order  to  preserve  men  from  security  and 


terms  objective  and  subjective  justification.  Objec- 
tive justification  is  the  act  of  God,  by  which  he  prof- 
fers pardon  to  all  through  Christ ;  subjective  is  the 
act  of  man.  bv  which  he  accepts  the  pardon  freely 

— — j  offered  in  the  gospel.     The  fonner  is  universal,  the 

[This  is  very  conveniently    expressed  by    the    latter  not. — Tr.I 

2L 


399 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


carelessness  in  sin.  Foimerly  many  teachers, 
especially  in  the  Lutheran  church,  were  incau- 
tious in  the  use  of  lan^uatje  on  this  subject. 
They  used  the  general  phrases,  the  doitr  of  mercy 
$tfint/s  ever  open ;  mrin  can  obtain  ai'our  (for- 
giveneits)  in  (he  last  moment  if  life,  without  suit- 
able explanation  and  cautious  limitation.  Hut 
while  it  is  important,  on  the  one  hand,  to  shew 
that  God  is  indeed  ever  ready  to  fortrive,  it 
outrht,  on  the  other  hand,  to  be  observed,  that 
man  is  not  always  capable  of  forgiveness;  that 
forjjiveness  is  necessarily  connected  with  repent- 
ance, as  an  indispensable  condition,  (not  imply- 
infT,  by  any  means,  that  repentance  is  the  pro- 
curinj-cause  of  forgiveness;)  that  repentance 
and  holiness  are  important  things,  which  cannot 
be  accomplished  in  a  few  moments,  and  that 
therefore  it  is  extremely  dangerous  to  delay 
them  to  the  end  of  life,  especially  considering 
that  we  do  not  know  that  we  shall  then  have 
our  reason,  or  that  we  shall  not  die  suddenly. 
Tlie  sincere  Christian  teacher  will  render  such 
considerations  as  impressive  as  possible,  in 
order  to  disturb  scntrili/  in  sin.  He  should 
^uard,  however,  with  equal  caution,  against  the 
mistake  of  those  who  represent  repentance  and 
noliness  as  the  meritorious  ground  of  forgiveness. 

The  frequent  perversion  of  the  doctrine  of 
justification  gave  rise,  at  the  end  of  the  seven- 
leenth  and  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  to  the  termitiislic  eoulroversy.  .lob. 
(Jo.  Rose,  a  deacon  at  Sorau,  in  endeavouring 
to  avoid  one  extreme  fell  into  another.  He  held 
that  (iod  did  not  continue  to  forgive,  even  to 
the  last,  such  persons  as  he  foresaw  would 
harden  themselves  in  impenitence,  but  that  he 
established  a  limit  if  grace,  (^lerminum  gratiic 
sire  salutis  peremptorium,)  to  which,  and  no  fur- 
ther, he  would  afford  them  grace  for  repentance. 
He  appealed  to  the  texts  which  speak  of  (Jod 
as  hurikniuir  or  rrjecting  men,  some  of  which 
have  no  reference  to  conversion  and  forgiveness, 
and  some  of  which  are  erroneously  ex|)lained  by 
him.  Vides.  H5.  Ad  Rerhenberg,  at  Leipsic, 
and  others,  assented  to  this  opinion,  though 
with  the  best  intentions.  Rut  lltig,  Fecht, 
Neumarm,  and  many  others,  o|)pospd  this  opi- 
nion, and  wrote  agiinst  the  work  of  Hose, 
"Terminus  peremptorius  salutis  humanir,"  and 
a'jainst  Rechenberg.  They  were  in  the  ri-gbt. 
This  opinion  is  not  taugiit  in  the  holy  scriptures, 
and  is  calculated  to  lead  the  doubling  and  anx- 
ious to  dcopnir,  and  to  place  them,  as  many  sor- 
rowful examples  teach,  in  the  most  perilo\is 
condition,  both  as  to  soul  and  body,  especially 
on  the  bed  of  death. 

The  doctrine  that  repnntance  and  holiness  are 
the  mcritoriinm  ground  of  salvation  woubMiavp 
equally  terrible  consequences.  According  to 
this  doctrine,  we  should  be  compelled  to  deny 
all  hope  of  salvation  to  one  who  had  lived  an 


impenitent  sinner  till  the  last  part  of  his  life; 
which  the  Bible  never  does,  and  wh  ch  is  in 
itself  cruel.  The  conscience  even  of  the  good 
man  must  say  to  him  on  his  death-bed,  ihat  his 

i  imperfect  virtues  are  insuflicienl  to  merit  heaven. 

I  In  neither  of  these  instances,  then,  would  there 
be  any  consolation  ;  but  despair  would  be  the  re- 
sult of  this  doctrine  in  both. 

Secondly.  If  one  who  has  obtained  the  forgive- 
ness of  his  sins  is  guilty  of  new  transgressions, 
he  forfeits  the  blessing  of  forgiveness,  and  all 
its  salutary  consequences;  and  by  new  ofl'ences 
incurs  new  punishments,  which,  after  his  fall, 
are  justly  more  severe  and  intolerable  than  he- 
fore.  Still  it  cannot  be  said,  as  it  has  been  said 
by  some,  that  in  case  of  apostasy  God  considers 
the  sins  once  forgiven  at  the  time  of  repent- 
ance as  not  forgiven,  and  that  he  still  imputes 
them  to  the  transgressor.  There  is  no  reason  for 
this  supposition  ;  and  such  is  not  the  case  in  hu- 
man courts.  The  Hible  uses  the  terms,  nins  are 
blotted  out,  no  more  remembered,  Kzekiel,  xviii. 
22;  xxxiii.  lU;  Psulm  ciii.  11,  12.  So  Paul 
says,  (Rom.  xi.  29,)  that  God  will  never  recal 
or  take  back  the  gifts  which  he  has  promised 
and  bestowed,  (ciufToutXj^ro  ^a^ii'^uaTa.)  Vide 
Wernsdorf 's  Dissertation  on  tliis  subject  in  Coll. 
Dissertat.  t.  i.  p.  607,  seq. 

Thirdly.  Even  those  who  after  their  reforma- 
tion and  tiiebestowrnentof  forcrivencss  fall  away 
and  transgress  anew,  may  again  obtain  the  for- 
giveness of  their  sins  as  soon  as  they  repent 
and  believe  in  Christ.  So  the  Hible  everywhere 
teaches,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament; 
Ezek.  xxxiii.  11;  1  Thess.  v.  9.  Christ  com- 
mands us  to  be  forgiving  to  our  neighbour  who 
has  wronged  us,  since  in  this  we  shall  resemble 
God,  who  is  easily  reconciled,  and  who  willingly 
forgives  sin.  Therefore  the  precept,  Matthew, 
xviii.  21,  22,  is  applicable  to  God.  This  posi- 
tion is  confirmed  by  the  examples  of  many 
apostates  in  the  Hible,  who,  after  the  commis- 
sion of  great  olTences,  were  again  received  into 
favour — e.  g.,  David,  2  Samuel,  xii.;  Peter, 
Matt,  xxvi.,  &c.  The  condition  of  repentance 
and  faith,  however,  is  indispensable.  Vide  Ps. 
li. ;   Morus,  p.  211,  seq. 

Hut  from  the  earliest  ages  Christians  have  en- 
tertained various  erroneous  opinions  upon  tbiti 
subject.  The  opinion  prevailed,  even  during  the 
earliest  ages,  that  great  sins  committed  alter  bap- 

I  tisni  (by  which  ordinance  the  Christian  was  sup- 

I  posed  to  receive  the  remission  of  sin)  could  not 
he  pardoned  without  great  ditliculty,  il  indeed  at 

I  all,  on  which  account  many  delayed  baptism  till 

I  the  enil  of  life. 

The  cTcommunicalinn  of  great  offenders  had 
been  common  among  Christians  from  the  time  of 
the  apostles,  (as  it  was  among  the  Jews,  which 
indeed  at  that  time  was  neci>ssary.)      Hut  now, 

I  in  the  second  and  third   centuries,  Montanus, 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAX  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      399 


Novatian,  and  many  others,  be^n  to  exercise 
this  prerogative  very  severely,  and  in  order  to 
invest  it  with  more  terror,  insisted  that  the  ex- 
communicated should  never  be  restored,  in  op- 
position U)  tiiosp  who  were  too  lenient  in  re-ad- 
miiiiiig  them.  Montanus,  however,  decliireJ 
expressly  that  they  might  still  obtain  forgiveness 
from  God,  (TertuUian,)  and  even  Novalian  was 
willing  to  leave  it  undetermined  how  God  would 
deal  with  them. 

But  afterwards,  some  particular  teachers  and 
some  whole  sects  maintained  that  one  who  is 
excluded  from  the  Christian  church  is  excluded 
from  the  (avour  of  God  and  placed  beyond  the 
reach  of  pardon.  This  opinion  prevailed  exten- 
sively in  the  Romish  church.  It  was  based  on 
the  principle.  Extra  ecclesiam  nulla  salus.  In  op- 
position to  this  error,  the  ancient  creeds  pre- 
scribed the  declaration  Credo  retnissionem  pecca- 
torum.  This  same  error  is  controverted  in  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  Art.  13.  The  ancient 
apostolic  church  was  f^ir  removed  from  such  an 
opinion.  In  the  second  epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, Paul  advises  that  the  incestuous  person 
whom  he  had  required  to  be  excommunicated 
in  his  first  epistle  should  now  be  restored,  since 
he  had  repented  of  his  crime,  and  had  put  away 
his  offence.  And  even  there,  where  he  advises 
his  excommunication,  and  even  undertakes  to 
punish  him,  1  Cor.  v.  5,  he  will  by  no  means 
have  him  excluded  on  this  account  from  the  fa- 
vour of  God,  but  declares,  on  the  contrary,  that 
he  inflicts  punishment  with  the  very  intention 
of  saving  his  soul,  i'la  rivivfia.  uw^^  iv  i;(Jii\><^ 
xvpiou. 

II.  Justification  or  Forgiveness  is  an  unmerited 
Divine  Favour. 

That  man  can  merit  the  divine  fiivour  and 
forgiveness  by  good  works  or  virtues  is  an  old 
mistake,  which  continues  to  be  widely  preva- 
lent, and  is  ever  appearing  again  in  some  new 
form.  Against  this  mistake,  which  prevailed 
among  the  Jews  and  the  Christian  converts 
from  Judaism,  the  apostles  laboured  incessantly, 
in  entire  accordance  with  that  reasonable  decla- 
ration of  Jesus,  Luke,  xvii.  10,  "  When  we  have 
done  everything  which  we  are  bound  to  do,  (al- 
though no  one  can  ever  pretend  that  he  has,)  we 
are  still  servants  who  have  deserved  nothing, 
((i;tpftoi,)  for  we  have  done  only  our  duty."  All 
our  good  works  do  not  confer  favour  upon  God, 
or  lay  him  under  obligation.  The  observance 
of  his  laws  is  our  duty,  and  tends  to  our  own 
good  merelj'. 

In  Rom.  iii.  Paul  particularly  illustrates  this 
doctrine.  Ver.  24,  he  says,  "through  Christ 
we  are  justified,  buptav,  r^  ;t°p'^'  0fov" — i.  e., 
from  mere  free  grace,  which  we  have  not  de- 
served,  and  which  we  cannot  repay.  Vide 
Matt.  X.  *^.     Paul   therefore  calls  justification, 


I  SCjpov  &tov,  Ephes.  ii.  8.    But  the  Jews  and  the 

:  Christian  converts  from  Judaism  in  that  age 
were  particularly  inclined  to  the  opinion  thai 
the  external  observance  of  the  divine  law,  espe- 
cially of  the  Mosaic  ceremonial  law,  the  most 
perfect  of  any,  was  meritorious,  and  more  than 

I  anything  else  procured  forgiveness  from  (jod. 

I  This  mistake  is  controverted  by  P.'.ul  in  his 
Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Galalians.  He 
shews  that  man  is  justified  by  God,  otx  f|  tpyuc 

j  vouov,  or  X'^pii  tpywv  vofiov,  (not  because  he  ob- 

I  serves  the  law,  Tit.  iii.  5;  2  Tim.  i.  9;)  Rom. 

'  iii.  20,  21,  28,  ch.  vi.;  Gal.  ii.  IG— 21,  seq. 
Xo,uoj  has  frequently  indeed  in  these  chapters  a 
special   reference  to  the  divine  law  given  by 

'  Moses,  because  this  was  regarded  by  the  Jews 
as  the  most  perfect.     But  it  is  by  no  means  to 

I  be  limited  to  this  sense.  Paul  affirms  the  same 
in  respect  to  obedience  to  all  the  divine  precepts, 
since  this  obedience  is  always  imperfect,  Rom. 
iii.  28,  vi.  14;  Gal.  iii.  17,  29,  23;  and  ol  v,-t6 
vojuov  are  not  merely  the  Jews,  but  all  who  sub- 
ject themselves  to  the  divine  laws,  thinking  to 
merit  the  favour  of  God  by  obedience.  The 
Jews  considered  their  observance  of  the  law  as 
meritorious,  and  many  Christians  hoped  to  be 
justified  on  the  same  ground.  Paul  opposes 
this  opinion,  and  proves  that  Christians  cannot 
consider  obedience  as  the  meritorious  ground 
of  justification,  for  which  they  are  indebted  to 
Christ  alone.  But  what  Paul  says  respecting 
works,  applies  equally,  in  his  opinion,  to  obe- 
dience to  all  laws,  to  works  in  general,  even  to 
Christian  works.  He  does  not  sjjeak  *xclusi7e- 
ly  of  the  law  given  by  Moses;  his  positions  are 
general,  applying  equally  to  all  the  laws  of 

j  God,  whether  given  by  Moses,  by  Christ,  or  in 

'  any  other  manner.  Vide  Progr.  ad  Rom.  vii. 
21,  in  Scripta  Varii  argumenti,  No.  xii.  Our 
obedience  to  the  divine  law  is  not,  and  cannot 
be,  in  itself  meritorious.  That  this  is  a  general 
doctrine  is  perfectly  clear  from  Rom.  iv, — e.  g., 
ver.  4,  "  He  that  works  tor  hire  (fpyaCff^ou,  1 
Thess.  ii.  9,  seq.)  receives  his  wages,  not 
through  the  grace  of  him  for  whom  he  labours, 
(as  we  all  receive  pardon  from  God.)  but  from 
the  obligation  of  his  employer  to  recompense 
him."  Now  if  we  receive  the  reward  through 
grace,  our  works  contribute  nothing  to  this  end, 
— they  are  not  the  meritorious  ground  of  our 
pardon. 

!  Paul  also  employs  the  argument,  that  if  we 
by  our  obedience  to  the  law  could  merit  pardon, 
the  atonement  of  Christ  would  be  entirely  in 
vain.  The  fact  that  we  do  not  obtain  forgive- 
ness in  this  way  renders  the  atonement  neces 
sary.  Gal.  ii.  21. 

I       But  why  is  this  doctrine  taught  in  the  holy 

!  scriptures?  If  God  made  our  works  of  legal 
obedience  the  measure  by  which  he  bestowed 
pardon  and  reward,  we  ^tiould  have  but  a  uoor 


400 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


prospect.  For  how  imperfect  is  our  obedience, 
especially  during  the  early  stages  of  the  (.'hris- 
tian  life  !  How  defective  is  it,  even  in  the  best 
and  most  advanced  Christians!  The  greater 
advances  a  man  makes  in  holiness  and  in  Chris- 
tianity, the  more  he  sees  and  feels  his  imperfec- 
tion. What  feeble  hope  would  the  good  man 
then  have,  if  his  own  works  (which  his  con- 
science pronounces  very  imperfect)  should  be 
the  procuring  cause  of  his  pardon  !  The  Chris- 
tian teacher  who  inculcates  such  an  opinion 
knows  not  what  he  does.  Melancthon  ex- 
pressed this  very  well  in  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession, Art.  4. 

For  a  further  consideration  of  this  subject, 
and  an  account  of  the  controversies  respecting 
it  with  the  Romish  church,  vide  infra,  s.  1*24, 
125. 

SECTION  CXIV. 

OF  Tlir  VARIOtS  THEORIES  RESPECTING  THE  NA- 
TIRE  AND  aUNNER  OF  THE  ATONEMENT  OF 
CHRIST;  ANO  A  NOTICE  OF  SOME  OF  THE  MOST 
IMPORTANT  WORKS  ON  ATONEMENT  AND  JUSTI- 
FICATION. 

The  comm.in  word  authorized  by  ecclesiasti- 
cal usage  for  denoting  the  atonement  is  mlisfac- 
tio  (Germ.  Genu^thuun'r.)  This  word  is  not 
indeed  found  in  the  Hible,  but  is  in  itself  unob- 
jectionable, taken  in  the  large  sense  in  which 
it  was  formerly  understood  in  the  church,  and 
freed  from  the  fiilse  opinions  sometimes  con- 
nected with  it  in  later  times.  This  word  was 
originally  a  judicial  term,  and  was  applied  for 
the  first  lime  (with  many  more  of  a  similar  na- 
ture) by  'I'ertullian,  who  was  himself  a  jurist, 
to  the  atonement  of  Christ.  <■'■  Christ ui,  peccain 
hoininuin,  umiii  satiskactionis  habilti  expiavil,^^ 
De  patientia,  c.  10.  It  has  since  been  retained 
in  the  Latin  church,  though  it  occurs  hut  seldom 
in  the  Latin  fathers,  and  did  not  become  gene- 
ral until  the  time  of  the  schoolmen,  and  espe- 
cially of  Anselmiis. 

The  wiinis  snli-facere  and  sntisfaclio  relate 
originally  lo  mailer.^  i>f  ililit, — the  pai/ineut  of 
(ifitt,  (Itliili  .vh'utio.  They  are  then  applied yi;^M- 
rativeltf  to  othf-r  things,  which  have,  or  are  sup- 
posed to  have,  some  resemblani-e  to  debt.  Hence 
we  find  them  used  in  the  fr)lh)wing  senses — 
viz.,  til  disehiirt^e  a  drhtfur  any  one  (^natiyfucire 
pro  alifjuo  dtlnture),  to  mukt  him  content.  In  cmn- 
pli/  with  his  winhen,  to  fulfil  hi.i  dciirr,  to  do  xrhnt 
he  wa^  hound  to  perform,  to  hr^  him  njf  and  oil' 
tain  hit  pardon.  H'-nctr  the  phrases  satisfaccre 
■)ffirio,  muneri,  rrfKctalionitpromisnia  ;  aatisfacere 
vipulo  (to  comply  with  its  wishes),  Ixaruv 
rtoiflv,  Mark,  xv.  J5;  ueciprre  sniisfaclionem, 
(to  accept  the  payment  or  apology  offered,  or 
the  request  for  pardon.)  Satisfaccre  often  de- 
notes not  nn'rely  payment  w'tb  mon»>y,  (ilioui^h 


this  is  the  ground  of  this  usage,)  but  every  otK^r 
mode  of  discharging  debt  or  obligation. 

Now  when  TertuUian  and  other  ancient 
writers  found  the  words  Jivrpov  and  avriXvr^iov 
applied  in  the  Bible  to  the  atonement  of  Christ, 
(s.  lOG,)  they  were  very  naturally  led  to  adopt 
the  word  sati.fuclio.  The  two  former  words 
properly  denote  a  ransom,  prelium  redemptionis. 
These  writers  retained  the  figure,  and  compared 
the  unhappy,  sinful  condition  of  man,  sometimes 
with  ciiptiviti/,  sometimes  with  deld,  both  of 
which  comparisons  are  scriptural.  Sins  are  fre- 
quently called  in  the  Bible  6^iiXr,u.a.ra.  From 
these  Christ  freed  men  by  his  death.  This  death 
of  Christ  was  therefore  compared  with  the  sum 
which  is  paid  as  ransom  for  captives  or  debtors, 
to  liberate  them  from  captivity  or  release  them 
from  debt.  At  first  this  was  considered  only 
as  a  figurative  mode  of  speech,  denoting  that 
God  was  by  this  means  salified  or  appealed. 
But  afterwards  this  phraseology  came  to  be  un- 
derstood literally,  and  many  hypotheses  disho- 
nourable to  God  were  suggested  in  explanation 
of  this  idea. 

But,  as  Morus  has  justly  observed,  there  is 
no  injury  to  be  apprehended  from  retaining  this 
word,  which  is  now  authorized  by  ecclesiastical 
usage,  if  it  is  only  so  explained  as  to  convey  the 
same  meaning  as  Xiirpoi',  drtoXvrpwjij,  and  simi- 
lar scriptural  terms.  The  phrase,  Christ  hoi 
made  satiff action  for  us,  should  therefore  be  ex- 
plained to  mean,  that  Christ  by  his  death  has 
procured  for  us  from  God  perfect  forgiveness 
and  the  remission  of  sins;  so  that  now  we  havs 
no  punishment  to  fear,  but  rather  blessings  t« 
expect. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  me 
thods  of  explaining  this  subject,  and  the  eccle 
siastical  theories  respecting  it. 

( 1 )  During  the  first  two  centuries  most  of  ihi' 
ecclesiastical  fathers  adhered,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, to  the  simplicity  of  the  scriptural  repre- 
sentation of  this  subject,  and  attempted  no  deh 
nite  explanation  of  the  manrier  of  the  atoncmen. 
beyond  what  is  given  in  the  scriptures,  and  in 
doing  this,  made  use  for  the  most  part  of  scri|>» 
tural  phraseology.  They  represented  the  death 
of  .lesus  as  a  I'aerijice. 

But  a  theory,  some  traces  of  which  had  ap- 
peared even  during  the  second  century,  became 
prominent  during  the  third  and  fourth  centuries, 
and  continued  a  longtime  the  prevailing  theory 
among  the  learned  in  the  CJreek  and  Latin 
churches.  The  advocates  of  this  theory  took 
the  word  Xvrpow  in  its  primary  and  literal  sense, 
denoting  release  from  captivity  or  slavery  by 
the  payment  of  a  ransom,  (xvT))oi',  8.  10().) 
Wiih  this  they  associated  the  idea  of  the  powei 
and  dominion  of  Satan  over  the  whole  hunjtn 
race,  in  a  sense  not  warranted  by  the  Bililf 
riii-y  reli-rred  to  the  texts  affirming  that  Christ 


STATE  L\TO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       40» 


fieed  us  from  the  power  of  the  devil.  Thus 
originated  tlie  following  theory  : — Ever  aft tr  the 
fall  the  devil  had  the  whole  human  race  in  his 
power  ,•  he  ruled  over  men  like  a  tyrant  over  his 
vassxls,  and  employed  them  for  his  own  purposes. 
Tlius  far  they  had  the  support  of  the  Bible.  But 
here  they  began  to  philosophize  beyond  what 
is  written.  From  this  captivity  God  might  in- 
deed have  rescued  men  by  the  exercise  of  his  om- 
nipotence;  but  he  was  restrained  by  his  justice 
from  doing  this  with  violence.  He  therefore 
offered  Satan  a  ransom,  in  consideration  of  which 
he  should  release  mankind.  This  ransom  was 
the  death  of  Chhist,  (as  a  divine  being.)  In 
accordance  with  this  theory,  Origen  interpreted 
the  text,  Matt,  xx.28,  "  He  gave  his  life  a  ransom 
for  men,"  as  denoting  the  ransom  paid  to  the 
devil,  not  to  God.  Satan  had  consented  to  the 
compact ;  but  he  wished  fraudulently  to  retain 
Jesus,  whom  he  considered  only  as  the  best  and 
most  pious  man  under  his  own  power,  and  so  sletv 
this  innocent  being.  He  was  noiv,  therefore, 
justly  COMPELLED  to  liberate  the  human  race. 

Tills  theory  was  first  adopted  by  the  Grecian 
church,  and  especially  by  Origen,  (Comm.  in 
Matt.  XX.  et  alibi,)  through  whose  influence  it 
became  prevalent,  and  was  adopted  at  length 
by  Basilius,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Gregory  of 
Nazianzen,  Nestorius,  and  others.  P'rom  the 
Greeks  it  was  communicated  to  the  Latins, 
among  whom  it  was  first  distinctly  held  by  Am- 
brosias, and  afterwards  by  Augustine,  through 
whose  influence  it  was  rendered  almost  univer- 
sal in  the  Latin  church.  In  this  church  they 
endeavoured  to  perfect  the  theory.  Satan,  they 
added,  was  deceived  in  the  transaction;  for 
taking  Jesus  to  be  a  mere  man,  and  not  Ivnow- 
ing  that  he  was  also  the  Son  of  God,  he  was  not 
able  to  retain  even  him,  after  he  had  slain  him. 
And  it  was  necessary  for  Christ  to  assume  a 
human  body  in  .>rder  to  deceive  the  devil,  as 
fishes  are  caught  by  baits.  This  view  occurs 
frequently  in  the  writings  of  Leo  the  Great,  in 
the  fifth  century.  Cf.  Semler,  Geschichte  der 
Glaubenslehre,  prefixed  to  Baumgarten's  "  Po- 
lemik ;"  Doederlein,  Diss,  de  redemptione  a  po- 
testate  diaboli,  in  his  "Opuscula;"  and  Cotta, 
Hist,  doctrinal  de  redemptione  sanguine  Christi 
facta,  in  his  edition  of  Gerhard's  "Loci  Theo- 
logici,"  prefixed  to  th.  4. 

So  prevalent  was  this  theory- in  the  Latin 
church  before  the  twelfth  century,  that  Abelard 
declares,  "  Omnes  doctorcs  7wstri  post  apostolus, 
in  hoc  eonveniunt  "  and  Berniiard  of  Clairvaux 
was  so  firmly  persuaded  of  its  truth  as  to  de- 
clare that  Abelard,  who  held  that  the  devil  never 
possessed,  in  a  literal  sense,  such  power  as  was 
ascribed  to  him,  ought  rather  to  be  chastised 
with  rods  than  reasoned  with. 

But  after  the  twelfth  century  this  theory  gra- 
dually lost  ground,  through  the  influence,  prin- 
51 


cipaily,  of  the  schoolmen  w^o  lived  after  the  age 
of  Anselmus  and  Aiielard  ;  and  anoilier  theory 
was  substituted  in  its  place.  Vide  No.  2. 
Peter  of  Lombardy,  however,  still  continued 
more  inclined  to  the  ancient  theory.  In  the 
Greek  church,  too,  this  hypothesis  was  gradu- 
ally abandoned,  and  was  opposed  even  earlier 
than  in  the  Latin  church,  .lohn  of  Damascus 
attacked  it  as  early  as  the  eighth  century,  and 
maintained  (De  fid.  Orthod.  1.  3)  that  Christ 
brought  his  blood,  which  was  shed  as  a  ransom, 
not  to  the  devil,  but  to  God,  in  ordi^r  to  deliver 
men  from  the  divine  punishments.  So  the  scrip- 
tures, '•  He  offered  himself  to  God  for  us,  a  spct- 
less  victim."  This  is  implied  in  the  whole 
scriptural  idea  of  sacrifices,  which  were  oflertd 
only  to  God. 

("2)  The  other  theory,  of  which  also  some 
traces  appear  in  the  early  ages,  is  the  fiilowing. 
Proceeding  on  the  idea  of  debt,  the  authors  of 
this  theory  maintained  that  the  relation  of  all 
sinful  men  to  God  is  the  same  as  that  of  a  debtor 
to  his  creditors.  We  find  it  distinctly  said,  as 
early  as  the  fourth  century,  that  Christ  paid 
what  we  should  have  paid,  or  what  we  owed. 
The  idea  of  sacrifice  and  of  his  oticring  u|)  him- 
self was  still  associated  with  this.  The  learned 
now  began  to  carry  out  the  former  idea,  at  first, 
indeed,  in  a  manner  not  inconsistent  with  the 
scriptures.  The  debt  was  sin,  and  could  not  be' 
cancelled,  or  the  punishment  remitted,  unless 
satisfaction  or  payment  were  made.  Since  men 
were  unable  to  do  this  of  themselves,  Christ 
did  it  for  them ;  and  God  accepted  the  ransom,, 
(the  death  of  Christ,)  and  forgave  men,  as  if 
they  themselves  had  made  satisfaction. 

We  find  very  clear  traces  of  this  theory  at 
early  as  the  fourth  century  in  the  writings  of 
Athanasius,  of  the  Grecian  church;  and  sliP 
more  clear,  in  the  writings  of  John  of  Damas- 
cus, who  expressly  rejected  the  theory  stated  ia 
No.  1.  At  the  same  period,  in  the  Latin  church,- 
we  find  indications  of  the  same  theory  in  the 
writings  of  Hilarius  of  Poictiers,  (Com.  in  Ps 
liii.)  But  the  schoolmen  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  gave  this  theory  a  greater  cur- 
rency than  it  had  had  before,  and  spun  it  out  to- 
a  finer  subtilly.  They  attempted  to  determine 
the  idea  of  atonement  with  philosophical  and 
dialectical  accuracy.  But  they  could  not  da 
this  if  they  confined  themselves  to  the  plain  and 
popular  phraseology  of  the  Bible;  they  there- 
fore selected  the  judicial  word  satif actio,  which 
had  been  already  used  by  the  older  writers. 
The  idea  on  wiiich  they  began,  in  this  case  as- 
in  others,  was  itself  scriptural ;  hut  by  philoso- 
phizing upon  it  they  gradually  declined  from 
the  simple  doctrine  of  ths  Bible.  This  was  the 
case  particularly  with  Anselmus,  whose  system 
has  been  generally  adopted,  even  by  Lutheran 
theologiane.  He  defined  satisfactio  to  be  debili 
2l2 


40i 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


iolutin.  His  system  is  exhibited  most  fully  in 
his  work,  Cur  Deus  Homo?  He  m.iinlained  the 
absolute  necessity  of  satisfaction,  in  the  meta- 
physical sense.  His  whole  theory  is  derived 
from  t/if.  civil  proecsn  r(s])cctinii  debt  among  men, 
transferred  to  the  tribunal  of  God.  But  such  is 
not  the  representation  of  the  Bible,  where  the 
compassion  and  undeserved  love  of  God  is  made 
the  frround  of  this  transaction,  and  not  any  ju- 
dicial notions  of  this  nature.  God  is  compared 
with  a  ruler  who  forgives  from  his  forbearance 
and  his  compassionate  love,  and  does  not  pro- 
ceed according  to  st^rn  justice;  Malt,  xviii. 
26,  -27. 

The  following  is  the  system  of  Anselmus: — 
Man  owes  reverence  to  the  character  of  God, 
and  obedience  to  his  laws.  Whoever  withholds 
this  reverence  and  obedience  due  to  God,  robs 
God  of  what  belongs  to  him,  and  must  not  only 
restore  that  which  he  withheld,  but  pay  an  ad- 
ditional amount,  as  amends  for  the  dishonour 
brought  upon  God.  Thus  it  stands  with  sin- 
ners. The  payment  of  this  debt  is  the  satisfnc- 
liun  which  every  sinner  must  make  to  God,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  his  offence.  For  God 
cannot  in  justice  remit  the  debt  (or  punishment) 
unless  satisfaction  is  made.  This  man  could 
never  do,  nor  indeed  any  other  than  God  him- 
self. And  yet  to  him,  as  Judge,  must  this  sa- 
tisfaction be  made.  The  exp'^dient  was  then 
derised  for  the  Son  of  God,  as  God-man,  by  his 
death  to  make  this  satisfaction.  He  was  able 
to  make  this  satisfaction  only  as  God  ;  but  as 
man,  he  was  also  able  to  be  surety  for  men,  and 
then  himself  actually  to  pay  the  debt,  or  make 
satisfaction  for  them.     Cf.  s.  101,  ad  finem. 

This  fine-spun  juridico-philosophical  theory 
was  exactly  in  the  spirit  of  that  age,  and  was 
almost  universally  adopted  by  the  schoolmen, 
though  with  various  modifications — e.  g.,  by 
Alexander  of  Hales,  Thomas  Aquinas,  Duns 
■Scotus,  CJabr.  Biel,  and  others.  Among  these, 
however,  a  controversy  arose  respecting  the 
value  of  the  blood  of  Christ  in  cancelling  the 
debt  of  the  human  race.  Thomas  A(|uinas 
maintained  that  the  value  and  worth  (i'«/(»r)  of 
the  blood  of  Christ  were  in  themselves  infinite, 
on  account  of  the  infinite  dignity  of  the  person 
of  Christ;  and  that  this  ransom  not  only  ba- 
lanced but  outu'iitihed  all  the  sins  of  all  men. 
He  was  followed  by  the  Dominicans.  This 
appears,  too,  to  have  been  the  opinion  of  Ansel- 
mus. Duns  Scotus,  on  the  other  hand,  main- 
tained that  (Jod  was  sati^Jl'd  with  this  ransom, 
although  it  had  not  in  itself  any  infinite  value 
or  worth.  God,  however,  accepted  it  as  suffi- 
cient and  equivalent.  He  thus  endeavoured  to 
approximate  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible,  which 
always  represents  justification  as  a  free  gift,  and 
a  proof  of  the  entirely  unmerited  love  of  (Jod. 
He  was  followed  by  the  Franciscans.    But  even 


this  statement  was  fo-nded  upon  the  judicial 
doctrine  of  aceeptilatio,  when  anything  insufii- 
cjent  is  accepted  as  valid  and  equivalent.  Cf. 
Ziegler's  Essay,  Historia  dogmatis  de  redemp- 
tione  inde  ab  ecclesise  primordiis  usque  ad  Lu- 
theri  tempora;  Gottingen,  1791,  4to. 

(3)  On  the  theories  and  explanations  of  this 
doctrine  which  have  prevailed  since  the  six- 
teenth century. 

(«)  The  system  of  Anselmus  had  been  ex- 
tending through  the  Romish  church  ever  since 
the  twelfth  century,  through  the  inlluence  of  the 
schoolmen,  who  added  to  it  various  new  subtle- 
ties, distinctions,  and  terminologies.  This  same 
system  was  adopted,  in  main,  though  with  the 
slight  alteration  of  some  terms  and  representa- 
tions, by  a  considerable  number  of  proiestant 
theologians.  Luther,  Melancthon,  and  the  other 
early  reformers,  adhered  to  the  sin)plicity  of  the 
Bible,  and  avoided  these  subtleties.  But  after 
the  death  of  Luther,  the  theolt)gians  of  the  Lu- 
theran church  took  sides  in  great  numbers  with 
Anselmus  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  They  now 
introduced  many  of  the  unscrijitural  hyj'otlieses 
and  distinctions  established  by  the  schoolmen, 
and  thus  deformed  the  doctrine  and  rendered  its 
truth  doubtful  in  the  minds  of  many.  Their 
great  error  consisted  in  representing  this  subject 
too  much  after  the  manner  of  men,  and,  of 
course,  unworthily  of  (Jod.  The  symbolical 
books  of  the  protcstants  have,  in  the  meantime, 
adhered  to  the  simple  Biblical  representation; 
and  these  exaggerated  opinions  have  been  held 
rather  by  particular  teachers  and  schools  than 
by  the  protestant  church  generally. 

The  following  are  examples  of  these  faulty 
representations  and  expressions: — God,  it  is 
said,  icas  actually  injired  by  the  sins  of  men  ; 
he  tcaA  ANGERED  and  E.VRAOEn!  in  the  strict 
sense  ;  it  was  necessary  that  he  shmild  he  propiti- 
ated, and  that  his  ROBIIED  honour  should  be  re- 
stored ;  that  he  could  not  be  moved  to  Ciimpassion 
till  he  saw  bbiodjlow.  These  figurative  expres- 
sions ought  either  to  be  wholly  avoided  in  the 
scientific  statement  of  the  theory,  or  to  he  justly 
and  scripturally  explained.  God  cannot  be  in- 
jured in  the  literal  sense;  his  honour  cannot  be 
destroyed  or  diminished.  But  those  who  used 
these  inconvenient  expressions  did  not  mean  by 
them  what  they  really  imply.  The  proper  idea 
which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  such  phraseology 
is  this:  that  the  laws  of  (lod  must  be  kept  holv 
and  inviolate;  that  God  does  and  must  strongly 
express  his  displeasure  at  the  trans'jression  of 
his  wholesome  laws;  and  that  therefore  punish- 
ments are  necessary  for  their  maintcni»nce. 

Again;  many  held  that  the  mnh  of  sin  is  in- 
finite, (infinitum  dehitum,  8.  81,  ad  finem.)  and 
that,  consequently,  ('hrist  endured  infinite  pu- 
nishments, the  pains  if  hell  ilsilf,  (Morns,  p.  1  (Jf) 
No.  1,)  to  the  same  amount  as  all  sinners  taKen 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       403 


together  would  have  been  compelled  to  suffer; 
that  the  satisfaction  of  Christ  was  absolutely 
necessary,  and  the  only  possible  way  for  the 
restoration  of  the  human  race;  tliat  some  parti- 
cular sins  were  atoned  for  by  each  part  of  the 
sufferings  of  Christ;  that  the  blood  of  Christ 
had  a  physical  efficacy,  &c.  &c. 

(i)  These  false  representations,  and  others 
like  them,  which  are  so  dishonourable  to  God, 
gave  rise  to  various  controversies.  Reflecting 
persons  rejected  much  of  this  phraseology  and 
this  mode  of  representation  as  contrary  to  rea- 
son and  scripture.  Many  also  disapproved  of 
the  harmless  term  sati^aelio,  and  of  all  the  figu- 
rative expressions  relative  to  debt  and  the  judi- 
cial prucases  respecting  it  which  had  been  intro- 
duced by  Anselmus,  because  they  were  so  often 
perverted.  At  the  same  time,  they  did  not  deny 
any  essential  part  of  the  doctrine  itself,  but  only 
■wished  to  simplify  the  subject,  and  to  adhere 
closely  both  to  the  principles  and  words  of  the 
Bible.  This  scholastic  system  and  this  tech- 
nical phraseology  were,  on  the  contrary,  de- 
fended with  great  zeal. 

(c)  But  since  the  sixteenth  century  there  have 
not  been  wanting  persons  who  not  only  disliked 
and  rejected  the  ecclesiastical  form  and  phrase- 
ology of  this  doctrine,  but  who  opposed  the 
doctrine  itself  on  philosophical  and  theological 
grounds.  Among  these  were  Lalius  Socinus 
and  Faustus  Socinus  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  their  numerous  avowed  or  secret  adherents 
in  the  same  and  the  following  centuries.  They 
made  the  desert  of  Christ  to  consist  merely  in 
his  doctrine  and  instruct iotu  By  his  death  he 
only  confirmed  his  doctrine,  and  gave  an  exam- 
ple of  patience,  firmness  in  suffering,  and  obe- 
dience to  God.  The  followers  of  Socinus  en- 
deavoured to  shew  that  there  are  no  positive  di- 
vine punis/iments ;  since  if  this  were  true,  the 
atonement,  which  principally  relates  to  the  re- 
moval of  these,  would  fall  away  of  itself,  (s. 
Ill,  II.)  These  views  were  embraced  by  many 
of  the  Arminian  and  F3nglish  theologians  and 
philosophers,  who  were  followed,  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  by  great  numbers  of  German 
protestants.  Vide  the  Essays  on  this  subject 
in  Eberhard,  Apologie  des  Socrates;  and  Stein- 
bart.  System  der  Gluckseligkeitslehre,  &c. 

Philosophers  are  at  liberty  to  speculate  upon 
this  subject,  according  to  their  own  views  and 
their  favourite  theories,  variable  and  transient 
as  they  are.  If  they  please,  they  may  investi- 
gate the  subject  independently  of  the  Bible,  and 
propose  the  results  of  their  investigation  for  the 
examination  of  the  learned.  They  ought,  how- 
ever, to  avoid  the  error,  so  frequently  committed 
ever  since  the  time  of  Socinus,  of  thinking  that 
the  Bible  must  necessarily  contain  the  doctrines 
approved  as  true  on  the  philosophical  principles 
«( their  own  particular  schools — tae  fault  of  in- 


terpreting the  Bible,  not  according  to  its  own 
spirit,  and  the  spirit  of  the  age  in  which  it  was 
written,  but  according  to  the  views  of  particular 
sects  of  philosophers  in  their  own  times — a  fault 
which  has  been  often  repeated  of  late  by  the 
adherents  of  Kant  and  his  successor?;.  Let  any 
one  consider  the  various  and  contradictory  the- 
ories of  the  different  philosophical  schools  in 
our  own  age.  Now  each  of  these  schools  at- 
tempts to  support  its  own  theory  by  the  author- 
ity of  the  holy  scriptures.  But  all  of  these  the-, 
ories  cannot  possibly  be  founded  in  the  Bible; 
and  who  can  say  which  of  thern  all  is  sot 

What  is  essential '\n  the  common  ecclesiastical 
system  respecting  the  atonement  is  clearly  re- 
vealed in  the  scriptures,  and  is  entirely  adapted 
to  the  spirit  of  the  sacred  writers  and  their 
whole  mode  of  thinking,  to  the  wants  of  the 
age  in  which  they  wrote,  and  to  the  wants  of 
mankind  at  large.  Vide  s.  108,  seq.  Morus 
has  briefly  exhibited  the  essentials  of  this  doc- 
trine, p.  150 — 155,  s.  4 — 6. 

(4)  Many  protestant  theologians  began  as 
early  as  the  seventeenth  century  to  depart  by 
degrees  from  the  theory  of  Anselmus,  which 
presents  so  many  difficulties,  and  is  liable  to  so 
many  weighty  objections,  and  to  bring  back 
this  doctrine  to  the  simplicity  of  the  Bible.  The 
book  of  Grntius,  "  De  satisfactione  Christi," 
(Leiden,  1617;  Halae,  1730,  ed.  Joach.  Lange,) 
was  the  first  thing  done  towards  undermining 
the  system  of  Anselmus.  Grot*  us  indeed  made 
the  ecclesiastical  system  the  ground  of  iTis 
work,  but  he  deduced  the  necessity  of  satisfac- 
tion, not  so  much  from  the  injury  done  to  God 
as  from  the  holiness  and  inviolableness  of  the 
divine  laws,  which  render  punishments  neces- 
sary for  the  good  of  men.  In  this  he  exactly 
accorded  with  the  Bible.  He  shewed  that  there 
was  no  internal  and  absolute  necessity  for  this 
satisfaction,  but  that  the  necessity  was  only 
moral  or  relative.  These  and  other  views  of  this 
scholar  became  gradually  more  current  among 
theologians,  who  sought  both  to  bring  them  into 
a  still  nearer  agreement  with  the  Bible  and  also 
to  reconcile  them  with  the  established  system 
of  the  chureh. 

Some  protestant  theologians  have  made  use 
of  the  new  systems  of  p+iilosophy  which  have 
become  successively  prevalent  in  modern  times, 
to  illustrate  and  defend  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible 
and  of  the  church.  Thus  Carpzov,  Baumgarten, 
and  others,  made  use  of  the  Leibnitz-Wolfian 
philosophy.  Vide  also  Reinbeck,  Tract.  Theol. 
de  redemptione  per  lytron;  Halle,  1710,  8vo; 
Theod.  le  Blanc,  Erweis  der  Genugthuung  Jesu 
Christi,  with  the  preface  of  Rambach  ;  Giessen, 
1733,  8vo ;— one  of  the  best  of  the  older  works, 
Staudlin  and  others  have  made  the  same  use  of 
the  philosophy  of  Kant,  as  Kant  himself  has 
done  in  his  "Religion  innerhalb  der  Grenzen 


404 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


der  blossen  Vernunft."    But  others,  with  equal 
zeal,  have  employed  these  very  same  pliiloso- 
phlcal  systiTiis  in  opposition  to  this  doctrine  of 
the  Hihle.     One  of  the  most  zealous  opponents 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  in  modern  times 
is   Dr.  Liifller,  in  his  work,  •' Ueher  die  kiroh- 
liiMieCienugthuungslehre;  ZuUichau,  1796, 8vo. 
(j)  The  frequent  attacks  made  in  our  own 
aire  holh  upon  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  system 
and  upon  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible  itself  have 
made  it  necessary  to  state  this  doctrine  more 
accurately  than  was  formerly  done.    Many  mo- 
derate iheolorfiaiis  have  endeavoured  so  to  ex- 
hibit this  doctrine  that  it  should  agree  both  with 
the  decisions   of  Hevelation  and   with   the  ac- 
kiiowledijed   principles  of  sound   reason,  thus 
renderincr  it  intelligible,  and  obviating  the  most 
imp  irtant  objections  against  it.    Since  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century  many  have  laboured 
t'l  elfect  this  object,  though  not  with  equal  suc- 
cess.  Among  these  are  Ernesti,  Tullner,  Danov, 
iN>esselt,  (Vom  Werth  der  .Moral.)  Less,  Gries- 
bach,  (Praktische  Dogmatik,)  Doderlein,  (Dog- 
inatik,)  Michaelis,  (Gedanken  von  der  Siinde 
und  Genugthuung;  Gottingen,  1779,  8vo,)  and 
Seller,  (Ueber  den  Versuhnungstod  Jesu,  with 
some  essays,  &c.,  2nd  ed. ;  Erlangen,  1782,  gr. 
8vo;  in  connexion  with  which  the  doctrine  of 
justification   is    treated.)     The    lastmentioned 
writer  endeavours  to  refute  the  objections  of 
Eiierhard    and   Steinbart.     Among    the    latest 
v-riters  on  this  subject  is  Dr.  Gottlob  Christ. 
St.irr,  (Pauli  Brief  an  die  Hebraer  erlautert; 
Tubingen,   1789,  8vo;    2nd  Ausg.  Tubingen, 
Ir^nH.  Second  part,  Uiber  dtn  eii^enllichen  Zwcck 
(Us    Toihs  Jesu,  8.  3G3— 602.)'    He  holds  that  I 
till  object  of  the  death  of  Christ  is  not  directly 
the  rfJoriiKitinn  of  men,  and  that  their  exemption 
from  punishment  is  not  the  elfect  of  their  re- 
formation; hut  that  the  direct  and   immediate 
object  of  his  death  is,  to  procure  the  fiir<riveness 
of  Mil,  and  to  make  alorfmenl.     Another  writer 
is    Schwarze,   (in  Gurlitz,)   "Ueber   den  Tod 
Jt>ii,  als  ein  wesenlliches  .Stuck  seines  Wohlt- 
li'iiigen  Plans  zur  Beglfickung  der  Menschen; 
Leipzig,   1795,  Hvo.     The  discourse  delivered 
by    Dr.   Heinhard,  at  the  Iteformatiimsfesle,  on 
the  text,  Rom.  iii.  23,  seq.,  containing  a  brief 
and  practical  statement  of  the  scripture  doctrine 
of  the  atonement,  excited  much  attention,  espe- 
cially from  the  unusual  manner  of  its  publica- 
tinn.  and  led  to  many  writings  for  and  against 
tlie  doctrine   of  the    Bible.     Among  these  the 
following  work  is  in  many  respects  favoural)ly 
distinguished  : — "  Der  Widirstreitder  Vernunft 
niit  sich  selbst  in  der  VersOhnungslehre.  d.irge- 
stelit   und   aufgelost,   von    Krug;"   Zullichau, 
ls02,  8vo. 

The  essential  points  in  the  theory  adopted  by 
the  moderatetheologi  insof  the  protestant  ch\irch 
may  be  thus  stated  : — God  had  a  twof  dd  object 


in  view — viz.,  (</)  to  preserve  inviolate  the  a.i. 
thority  of  his  law  given  for  the  good  of  man. 
How  could  this  be  effected  otherwise  than  by 
the  punishment  of  transgression,  threatened  and 
actually  indicted  ?     (i)  But  as  a  slavish  fear  of 
God  is  utterly  inconsistent  with  pure  religion. 
(fo3»j   fx3ax>^i   Tr;v   u/ya.Ttirt',    1   John,  iv.    18.) 
some  means  must  be  chosen  to  free  men  from 
their  reasonable /ear  nf  punishment,  and  to  o-ive 
them  a  certain  assurance  that  God  would  forgive 
them,  be    gracious   to    them,   and    count   them 
worthy  of  his  favour,  in  such  a  way,  however, 
as  not  to  occasion  indifference  with  regard  to 
sin.     Both  of  these  objects  were  attained  by  the 
sulTerings  and  death  of  Christ;  ihe  first  by  the 
proof  given,  through  the  sufferings  of  Jesus,  that 
God  abhors  sin  and  will  not  leave  it  unpunished  ; 
the  second,  by  the  declaration  of  God  that  Christ 
had  suffered  these  punishments  for  our  good,  in 
our  stead,  and  on  our  behalf.    Death  is  the  con- 
siquence  of  sin,  and  is  in  itself  a  great  evil.    W  e 
must  regard  it  as  the  sum  of  all  evils  and  terrors. 
(Hence  in  the  Bible  death  stands  for  evert/  kind 
of  misery.)     Especially  is  this  the  case  with  a 
violent  and  excruciating  death,  which  is  the  pu- 
nishment  of  the   greatest  criminals.     Such   a 
death  did  God  himself  inflict  upon  Christ,  who 
was  himself  entirely  guiltless,  (oiyiojxai  iixouo^.) 
God,  however,  could  not  be  so  unjust  and  cruel 
as  to  inflict  such  a  punishment  upon  an  innocent 
person  without  object  or  design.    Hence  we  may 
conclude  that  Christ  endured  his  sulTerings  and 
death  for  men  who  should  ppiperlv  have  endured 
these  punishments,  in  order  to  inspire  them  with 
confidence  in  (Jod,  with  gratitude  and  love  to 
him,  and  to  banish  all  fear  of  the  divine  punish- 
ments from  their  hearts.     It  all    comes    back, 
therefore,  at  last,  to  this,  that  God  chose  this 
extraordinary  means  from  the  impulse   of  his 
own  sincere  love  and  benevolence  to  n)en.   Thus 
the  scriptures  always  represent  it,  and  on  this 
view  we  should  always  proceed  in  our  religious 
instructions.     Vide  .Morns,  p.  152.  seq.,  s.  6. 
But  if  men  would  be  certain  that  they  have  in 
this  way  obtained  the  forgiveness  of  their  sins, 
they    must   |)lace   their   entire   dependence   on 
Christ;  they  must  repent  of  their  sins;  by  the 
help  of  God  lead  a  holy  life,  ami  punctually  ob- 
serve all  the  divine  laws.     This  is  an  indispen- 
sable duty  and  an  essential  condition  of  salva- 
tion through  Christ;  and  to  one  who  has  sincere 
love  to  God  and  to  Christ,  this  will  not  he  difl*. 
cult.    Obedience  to  God,  being  prompted  by  lov« 
and  gratitude,  will  be  yielded  with  cheerl'ulnesn. 
\o  one,  however,  must  consider  his  repentance 
"irhrdiness  as  the  m'rilnrious  ground  of  forgive- 
ness.    For  forgiveness  is  not  the  efl'ect  and  con- 
sequence of  our  holiness,  l)ut  flows  from    the 
death  of  Christ. 

Tliis  doctrin*'  thus  exhibited  caimot  be  injuri 
ous  lo  morality  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  produces  thd 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       405 


raost  beneficial  effects  upon  those  who  believe 
It  from  tlie  heart,  (s.  108,  II.)  So  experience 
teaches.  We  see  the  most  convincing'  proofs  of 
the  beneficial  tendencies  of  this  doctrine  in  those 
Christian  communiues,  both  of  ancient  and  mo- 
dern times,  where  it  has  been  faithfully  laught 
and  cordially  believed.  [Cf.  Tholuck,  Lehre 
von  der  Siinde  und  vom  Versohner,  s.  104,  fi". 
Hahn,  Lehrbuch,  s.  475 — 500.  Brctschneider, 
Dogmatik,  b.  ii.  s.  245 — 355.  Neander,  b.  i. 
Abth.  ii.  s,  70 — 78.  Flatt's  Magazine,  b.  i.  s. 
1 — GT,  Ueber  die  Moglichkeit  der  Siinden-V'er- 
gebung. — Tr.] 

SECTION  CXV. 

OP  THE  ACTIVE  OBEDIENCE  OF  CHRIST. 

I.  WIlut  is  meant  by  Active  Obedience ;  and  a  His- 
tory of  this  Doctrine. 
Christ's  cheerful  discharge  of  the  commis- 
sion given  him  by  God  is  called  his  obedience 
(iirtaxo/j)  ;  according  to  the  example  of  the 
Pible — B.  g.,  Phil.  iii.  9  ;  Rom.  v.  19 ;  Moras,  p. 
ini,  s.  7.  Morns  justly  defines  the  obedience 
of  Christ  to  be,  peructio  eorum,  qux  peratrere  df- 
buit,  ef  in  peragendo  sunimu  virtus.  Christ  ex- 
hibited this  obedience  in  two  ways — viz.,  («) 
by  acting  (^agendo'^ — i.  e.,  by  keeping  and  ob- 
serving the  divine  laws;  (/()  by  suffering;,  (pa- 
ticndo) — i.  e.,  by  cheerfully  undertaking  and 
eiiduring  suffering  fur  the  good  of  men,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  divine  determination.  Cf.  s. 
93,  III.,  and  s.  95,  ad  finem.  The  former  way 
is  called  obedicntin  activa,  (not  active  in  the 
sense  of  busy,  which  would  be  actuosa,  but  in 
the  sense  of  acting,  Germ,  thuendcr  ,•)  the  latter, 
obcdicntia  passiva.  These  two  ways  may  be 
thus  distinguished  in  ahxtrado.  But  they  ought 
not  to  have  been  separated  from  each  other. 
Christ's  active  obedience  is  not  properly  differ- 
ent from  his  passive  obedience.  His  obedience 
is  one  and  the  same  in  all  cases.  Suffering,  in 
itself  considered,  so  far  as  it  consists  in  unplea- 
sant sensations,  is  not  obedience.  A  person  may 
suffer  and  not  be  obedient,  but  impatient,  dis- 
obedient, and  refractory.  But  for  one  to  suffer 
obediently,  or  to  shew  obedience  in  suffering, 
this  is  an  acting,  a  fulfilment  of  duty,  or  that  vir- 
tue which  is  called  patience,  one  of  the  greatest 
and  most  diffi>-ult  of  virtues!  But  how  can  a 
virtue,  which  consists  entirely  in  acting,  be  called 
paisive  ?  In  truth,  then,  the  obedience  of  Christ 
is  one  and  the  same  thing,  consisting  always  in 
acting.  It  is  that  virtue  by  which  Christ  ful- 
filled not  only  the  moral  laws  of  God,  but  also 
the  positive  divine  commands  which  were  laid 
up'in  him,  to  suffer,  to  die,  &c.  Obedience  is 
never  wholly  passive,  and  what  is  simply  passive 
is  not  ohedienf  e.  But  a  person  shews  obedience 
by  acting  in  suffering. 


Theologians  commonly  hold  that  the  active 
obedience  of  Christ  was  as  much  a  part  of  his 
atonement  or  satisfaction  as  his  passive  obe- 
dience. This  opinion  might  be  more  clearly  and 
definitively  expressed  as  follows : — The  satisfac- 
tion which  Christ  has  made  consists  both  in  his 
enduring  the  punishments  incurred  by  men  and 
in  his  yielding  a  perfect  obedience  to  the  divina 
laws.  This  is  what  is  meant  by  theologians. 
This  opinion  is  derived  from  the  twofold  obliga- 
tion of  men  («)  to  keep  the  divine  laws,  and  [h) 
when  they  have  failed,  to  suiFer  punishment  tor 
their  sin.  In  this  way  the  satisfaction  of  (-Wrist 
came  to  be  considered  as  consisting  of  two  parts, 
active  and  passive.  This  view  was  then  con- 
nected with  the  theory  of  Anselmus,  respecting 
the  removal  of  the  guilt  and  jicia.'.'y  ./!'  sin.  The 
suffering  of  Christ  removes  \he  penalty,  and  his 
active  obedience  the  guilt  of  sin;  and  the  per- 
fect righteousness  of  Christ,  or  his  fulfilment  of 
the  law,  is  imputed  to  us,  in  the  same  way  as 
if  we  ourselves  had  fulfilled  the  law,  and  thus 
our  defective  obedience  is  made  good.  Respect- 
ing this  doctrine  de  remissinne  culpx  et  pinnae. 
Vide  s.  109,  II.  2.  This  is  in  brief  the  common 
theory,  which'  will  be  more  particularly  exa- 
mined. No.  II. 

We  subjoin  a  brief  history  of  this  doctrine. 
Good  materials  for  this  history  may  be  found  in 
Walch's  Inaugural  Disputation,  de  obedientia 
Christi  activa;  Gottingen,  1754,  4to. 

Passages  are  found  even  among  the  ancient 
fathers,  which  teach  that  the  fulfilment  of  the 
divine  law  by  Christ  i?  to  be  considered  as  if 
done  by  us.  Vide  the  passages  cited  by  Walch. 
Many  of  these  passages,  however,  appear  very 
doubtful  and  indefinite,  and  this  doctrine  was 
by  no  means  universally  established  in  the  early 
church.  Even  Anselmus,  who  built  up  such  an 
artificial  system,  did  not  make  this  application 
of  the  twofold  obedience  of  Christ.  This,  how- 
ever, was  the  tendency  of  his  theory,  especially 
of  the  doctrine,  de  remissiane  culpx  et  pcenas. 
But  after  his  time,  this  ex])lanation  of  the  satis- 
faction made  by  Christ  by  means  of  his  twofold 
obedience  was  adopted  by  several  schoolmen, 
who  now  looked  up  texts  for  its  support.  But 
it  was  never  very  generally  adopted  by  theolo- 
gians of  the  Romish  church.  In  the  protestant 
church,  on  the  contrary,  it  has  been  almost  uni- 
versally taught  by  our  theologians  since  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  even  introduced  into  the 
"Form  of  Concord,"  (Morus,  p.  1(59,  n.  5,) 
which,  however,  never  received  an  universal 
symbolical  authority  in  the  Lutheran  church. 
This  explanation  is  not  found  in  the  other  sym- 
bols. One  reason,  perhaps,  of  the  reception  of 
this  explanation  in  the  protestant  church,  is  the 
supposition  that  the  theory  de  obedientia  activa 
could  be  used  to  advantage  against  the  catholio 
tenet  of  the  value  of  one's  own  good  works 


406 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


Another  reason  is,  that  the  imputation  of  the 
active  obediiMice  of  Christ  w.is  denied  by  the 
Sociiiians  and  Arminians.  For  these  reasons, 
rno't  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  theoloijians 
iicc  Hinted  this  doctrine  essenlial  to  sound  ortho- 
doxy. But  doubtinir  whether  the  active  obe- 
dience of  Christ  constitutes  a  part  of  his  satis- 
faction, h;js  no  influence  upon  the  plan  of  salva- 
li-)n  throujrh  repentance,  faith,  and  gfodliness. 
BrtUiug^arten  and  Krnesti  have  therefore  justly 
enii.iierati'd  thisdis|)uie  ainonjf  those  of  second- 
ary nnportance.  And,  in  fact,  the  difference 
Kill mir  ilie.iloijians  upi^n  this  subject  has  often 
been  more  apparent  than  real.  There  were,  in- 
de.>,i,  some  protestant  theulojrians,  even  in  the 
former  century,  who  denied  the  desert  of  the 
active  obedience  of  Christ — e.  a.,  the  Lutheran 
theoiog-ian  Karjr,  or  Pitrsinumiun ;  also  the  Re- 
formed th'-oloaian  John  Piscator,  who  had  many 
followers;  more  lately,  Jo.  la  Placette,  and 
others.  The  same  was  done  by  many  of  the 
Kiiirlish  tlieoiogrians,  who  in  g-eneral  adopted 
the  Arminian  views.  But  from  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  eijjhteenth  cen- 
tury the  opinion  was  by  far  the  most  prevalent 
in  th.'  Lutheran  church  that  the  active  obedience 
ot  Christ  is  of  the  nature  of  satisfaction,  or  vi- 
carl  lilts.  This  opinion  is  defended  even  by 
^^  alch  in  the  place  just  referred  to. 

But  since  the  time  of  Tiillner  the  subject  has 
been  presented  in  a  different  li<rht.  He  pub- 
lish-d  a  w.)rk  entitled,  "  Dor  thiiticre  Gehorsain 
Ciiristi;"  Breslau,  176S^8vo.  In  this  he  de- 
nied that  the  active  obedience  of  Christ  is  of  the 
nature  of  s.uisfaction.  Upon  this  a  violent  con- 
troversy co;iiinenced.  Schubert,  Wichiiiann, 
and  others,  wrote  aijainst  him,  and  he,  in  reply, 
published  his  "  Zi/^aVzc  ,"  Berlin,  1770.  The 
best  criti<|ue  of  this  matter  is  that  of  Ernesti, 
Theol.  Bibl.  b.  ix.  s.  nil,  f.  For  the  history 
of  the  whole  controversy  vide  Walch,  Neeuste 
Reliirionscreschichte,  th.  iii.  s.  31 1,  f.  The  sub- 
ject is  considered  als-i  in  Kherhard,  Apoloaje 
des  Socratos,  th.  ii.  s.  310,  f.  Of  late  years',  a 
great  numbe  of  protestanl  theoloirians  have  de- 
clared themselves  in  behalf  of  the  opinion  that 
the  active  obedience  of  (Christ  is  properly  no 
part  of  his  satisfaction,  which  is  the  effect  solely 
of  his  passive  ohedienne.  Amontr  tiie3e  are 
Z.ich.irii,  Griesbach,  Doderlein. 

IL   The  u-orfh  aud  urm  of  the  Adht  Ohedirnce  nf 

Christ. 

That  Christ  did  render  tiiis  perfect  obedience 

is  clear,  both  from  the  fact  of  his  beinif  Ki'n/enii, 

(s.  93,  iii.)  and   from   the  express  declarations 

of  tile  Bible,  Matt.  v.  17;  John,  iv.  3 1.  viii. -JD  ; 

Phil.  ii.  1=1,     Cf.  likewise  the  texts  Pa.  xl.  7, 

cited  by  Paul,  Heb.  x.  5.     Tiiis  perfect  ohedi- 

i;nce  is  useful  to  us  in  the  followinj  respects  : — 

(1)  This  obedience  of  Christ  stands  in  the 


most  close  and  intimate  connexion  with  hw 
whole  worlf  for  the  good  of  mankind.  His  suf- 
ferinirs  and  death  could  not  possibly  have  the 
worth  and  the  salutary  consequences  ascribed  to 
them  in  the  scriptures,  if  Christ  had  endured 
them  otherwise  than  as  innocent  and  perfectly 
holy.  His  innocence  and  perftct  virtue  are  there- 
fire  frequently  mentioned  by  the  apostles, -when 
they  speak  of  the  worth  of  his  sufTerinirs  and 
death,  Heb.  ix.  II;  1  Pet.  i.  19;  iii.  18.  In 
Heb.  vii^i;7,  Paul  siiews  that  the  death  of  Christ 
was  so  infinitely  superior  to  all  Jewish  sacri- 
fices, because  Christ  was  sinless,  and  was  not 
coiiipelled,  like  the  Jewish  priests,  first  to  purify 
himself  by  offering  sacrifice  for  his  own  sins. 

(•2)  Christ's  obedience  to  the  divine  laws  is 
useful  and  instructive  to  us,  in  furnishing  us 
with  a  perfect  example  of  holiness  and  spotless 
virtue.  Christ  explained  the  divine  laws  not 
merely  by  instruction,  but  by  action.  His 
whole  conduct  was  a  living  recommendation  of 
the  jiurostand  most  perfect  morality,  and  power- 
I'lilly  plead  in  behalf  of  virtue.  To  this  the  New 
T.-stamenl  frecpienlly  alludes,  1  John,  iii.  3  ; 
1  Pet.  ii.  21 ;  H,b.  xii.  2. 

(3)  But  besides  this,  the  active  obedience  of 
i'hrist,  taken  by  itself,  is  considered  by  many 
a  separate  part  of  his  satisfaction,  as  well  as  his 
passive  obedience.  Vide  No.  1.  They  sup- 
pose it  to  be  vicarious,  in  itself  considered,  or 
that  it  will  be  imputed  to  us — i.  e.,  that  merely 
•  •n  account  of  the  perfect  obedience  yielded  by 
Christ  to  the  divine  law  we  shall  be  reganled 
and  treated  by  God  as  if  we  ourselves  had  per- 
fectly obeyed.  Accordingly,  they  sup|>ose  that 
Christ,  in  our  stead,  has  supplied  or  made  good 
our  imperfect  obedience  to  the  divine  law.  To 
this  view  there  are  the  following  objections — 
viz., 

(a)  Christ  never  spoke  of  an  impuiaiion  of 
his  obedience  and  virtue,  as  he  fre(|uenlly  did 
of  his  sufferings  and  death.  'Hie  same  is  true 
of  the  apostles.  Christ  frefjuentlv  speaks  in 
general  of  his  doing  the  will  of  his  Father  for 
the  good  of  men,  and  teaches  that  this  obedi- 
ence will  he  for  the  good  of  those  who  bt  lieve 
on  him.  He  does  so  very  frecjuently  in  the 
Gospel  of  John,  iii.  iv.,  vi.,  xiii.,  secj.  17.  But 
here  he  refers  to  his  whole  obedience  both  in 
acting  and  suffering,  and  does  not  separate  one 
from  the  other.  Indeed,  there  are  passages 
where  tlie  apostles  must  nerf»ssarily  have  spoken 
of  the  active  obedience  of  Christ  as  viciri-'ii.t, 
if  they  had  held  any  such  tioctrine.  K.  <f., 
Rom.  vii.,  viii.,  wl»ere  I'anI  laments  the  weak- 
ness and  imperfecliim  of  human  nature,  by 
which  man  is  unable,  even  with  the  best  iiiteu. 
tions,  perfectly  to  fulfil  the  divine  commands. 
In  this  connexion,  nolbinir  would  have  been 
more  consoljnir  thiin  the  menti-.n  of  the  vicaii- 
0U8  obedience  of  Christ,  by  wiiich  our  impel* 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION'        407 


feet  obedience  is  made  good.  But  nothing  of 
all  this!  For  the  consolation  of  the  pious,  he 
mentions  only  the  death,  resurrection,  and  inter- 
cession of  Christ,  Rom.  viii.  33,  34. 

The  active  obedience  of  Christ,  however,  is 
not  excluded.  In  Rom.  v.  19,  the  apostle  makes 
mention  of  it.  In  this  passage,  which  is  cited 
as  one  of  the  most  important  proof-texts,  we 
read,  "As  through  the  disobedience  of  Adam 
many  became  sinners,  so  tlirough  the  obedience 
of  Christ  many  are  made  righteous,"  or  are  par- 
doned. In  ver.  18,  the  ttapdrtrti^a  'A&uft.  and 
6(.xai'w^a  XptaroO  are  contrasted.  Now,  accord- 
ing to  the  uniform  scriptural  usage,  this  obe- 
dience of  Clirist  does  not  refer  simply  and  ex- 
clusively to  his  active  obedience,  hut  principally 
to  his  obedience  to  the  divine  command  to  suffer 
and  die  for  us,  Phil.  ii.  8;  Heb.  v.  8,  9.  But 
in  the  passage  cited,  the  apostle  clearly  com- 
prises under  the  word  irtaxor;  the  whole  obedi- 
dience  of  Christ,  and  teaches  that  this,  especial- 
ly as  shewn  in  suffering  for  us,  is  for  our  good. 
Cf.  Rom.  X.  4.  On  the  whole,  then,  our  position, 
that  the  perfect  obedience  of  Christ  to  the  divine 
commaiuis,  separately  considered,  (i-  e.,  discon- 
nected from  his  dealh,)  is  never  nientioned  in  the 
Bible  as  meritorious,  is  confirmed.  The  scrij)- 
tures  declare  that  the  whole  obedience  of  Christ, 
exhibited  both  in  acting  and  suffering,  is  for  our 
good.  But  they  never  divide  this  obedience,  as 
theologians  have  frequently  done.  The  whole 
obedience  of  Christ  is  useful  to  us  principally 
on  account  of  his  obedience  shewn  in  suffering. 
(i)  The  perfect  obedience  of  Christ,  it  is  as- 
serted, must  needs  be  imputed  to  us,  in  order  to 
make  good  our  defective  obedience  to  the  law, 
since  the  justice  of  God  demands  perfect  obe- 
dience. But  to  this  it  may  be  answered,  («) 
That  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  this  is  necessary ; 
for  our  imperfect  obedience  to  the  divine  law  is 
e'llheT  guiltless  on  our  part, — in  which  case  there 
is  no  imputation  of  guilt,  and  consequently  no 
reason  why  another's  righteousness  should  be 
imputed  to  us, — or  it  is  guilty  and  deserving  of 
punishment.  But  this  punishment  is  already 
removed  by  the  sufferings  and  death  (the  pas- 
sive obedience)  of  Christ.  But  that  the  guilt 
as  well  as  punishment  of  sin  is  and  must  be 
removed  by  Christ,  cannot  be  proved.  Vide  s. 
109,  II.  2.  (3)  It  is  inconsistent  with  many 
otiier  principles  and  declarations  of'lhe  Bible — 
e.  g.,  with  the  principle  that  man  will  be  re- 
warded or  punished,  xara  ra  tpya  a  vr  o  v,  Rom. 
ii.  6.  Here  tlie  im|)utation  of  the  merit  of  «»- 
other^s  works  is  entirely  excluded.  The  ancient 
prophets,  and  all  the  teachers  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament from  the  time  of  John  the  Baptist,  con- 
tended strenuously  against  the  opinion  of  the 
Jews  respecting  the  imputation  of  the  vicarious 
righteousness  of  Abraham.  Vide  s.  IDS,  I.  3. 
W>  should  not  therefore  expect  such  a  doctrine 


as  this  from  them;  but  the  scripture  doctrme  of 
the  merit  of  the  whole  obediehce  of  Christ  is 
fully  secured  against  perversion  by  the  frequent 
inculcation  of  diligence  in  holiness.  Vide  s. 
114,  ad  fin.  It  has  as  little  resemblance  to  the 
Jewish  doctrine  of  the  merit  of  the  good  works 
of  Abraham,  as  it  has  to  that  of  the  Romish 
church,  respecting  the  desert  of  the  good  works 
of  the  saints. 

(c)  Many  questionable  conclusions  may  be 
deduced  from  this  doctrine,  which  would  indeed 
be  rejected  by  its  advocates,  but  which  cannot 
be  easily  avoided. 

(a)  We  might  conclude  from  the  doctrine 
that  the  obedience  of  Christ  is  imputed  to  us, 
and  that  on  account  of  it  we  are  rewarded  by 
God,  that  the  long-continued  and  high  virtue  of 
a  confirmed  Christian  is  of  no  greater  value  in 
the  sight  of  God,  and  will  receive  no  greater 
reward,  than  the  imperfect  virtue  of  a  beginner; 
for  the  deficiencies  of  the  latter  in  personal  ho- 
liness will,  according  to  this  doctrine,  be  made 
up  by  the  perfect  obedience  of  Christ  imputed 
to  him — i.  e.,  considered  as  his  own  obedience. 
But  this  is  contrary  to  the  I'undamenlal  princi- 
|)les  both  of  reason  and  revelation. 

(j3)  However  much  this  doctrine  may  be 
guarded  against  perversion  by  saying  that  the 
personal  virtue  of  the  Christian  is  not  excluded 
or  dispensed  with,  it  must  doubtless  weaken  the 
motive  to  holiness  of  life,  and  thus  prove  inju- 
rious to  the  interests  of  morality.  Why  was  it 
necessary  for  Christianity  to  point  out  so  many 
means  of  holiness,  in  order  that  we  might  attain 
perfect  happiness,  if  in  this  ivay  it  could  be  at 
once  attained  with  so  little  difficulty  and  labour. 

Note. — It  may  help  to  settle  the  controversy 
on  this  subject  to  consider  that  it  has  originated 
solely  in  mistake.  Two  things  have  been  sepa- 
rated which  never  can  be  put  asunder,  and 
which  never  are  in  the  Bible,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  always  connected.  All  that  Christ 
did  and  suffered  for  our  good  receives  its  pecu- 
liar worth  from  the  fact  that  he  did  it  from  obe- 
dience to  the  divine  will.  This  is  the  virtue 
or  obedience  of  Christ.  If  we  would  partake 
of  the  salutary  consequences  of  his  sufferings, 
we  nmst,  under  divine  guidance  and  assistance, 
follow  his  example.  This  is  an  indispensable 
condition.  'Fhe  two  things  are  always  connect- 
ed in  the  Bible,  and  should  be  in  our  instruc- 
tions; and  then  this  doctrine  cannot  be  nbused. 
The  remarks  made  by  Morus,  p.  170,  171,  are 
directed  to  this  point. 

The  Bible  indeed  justifies  us  in  saying,  (1) 
that  everylfiittg  which  Christ  uclivcly  performed 
during  his  whole  life,  in  obedience  to  God,  is 
salutary  to  us,  was  done  on  our  account,  and 
for  our  good.  But  (-2)  we  therefore  truly  af- 
firm, that  our  whole  happiness  (-rwrrpia)  is  ihe 
fruit  in  a  special  manner  of  his  obtdience  to  the 


408 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


divine  eominand,  both  in  his  suffering  and  in  all 
the  nctious  of  his  life.  Had  he  not  shewn  this 
obedience,  we  should  noi  have  attained  to  this 
happiness.  So  the  scriptures  everywhere  teach. 
The  obedience  of  ('hrist  in  sulferingis  therefore 
the  foundation,  and  imjjarts  to  us  the  assurance, 
that  all  his  other  obedience,  in  respect  to  all  the 
divine  commands,  will  be  for  our  benefit;  Jnhn, 
vi.  51;  iii.  11 — l(j;  xii.  21;  I  John,  iv.  9;  1 
Thess.  V.  9.  se().  No  injury  to  morals  need  be 
apprehended  if  the  scripture  doctrine  is  follow- 
ed, anil  thin<rs  wliich  belonp  together  are  not 
separated.     Vide  s.  Ill,  ad  finem. 


PART  II.  OF  CHAPTER  IV. 

ON   REDEMPTION    FROM  THE  POWER  OH  DOMI- 
NION  OF  SIN. 


SECTION  CXVI. 

OF  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THIS  DOCTRINE;  ITS  CON- 
FORMITV  WITH  SCRIPTURE;  AND  THE  MANNER 
IN  WHICH  WE  ARE  FREED  FROM  31N  THROUGH 
CHRIST. 

I.  Importance  of  this  Doctrine. 

In  treating  of  the  work  of  redemption,  writers 
have  commonly  considered  only  the  first  part 
— the  atontnunl,  or  freedom  from  the  puuish- 
ment  if  sin.  Hut  ddiverance  from  sin  belongs 
as  really  to  the  redemption  of  (IJhrist  as  deliver- 
ance from  punishment,  which  indeed  Ernesti 
and  others  have  before  remarked.  By  the  death 
of  Christ  we  are  indeed,  as  the  scriptures  teach, 
delivered  froiji  the  punishment  of  sin.  But  since 
the  disposition  to  sin  is  so  strong  and  universal 
among  men,  (and  this  is  the  whole  cause  of 
their  degeneracy  aeid  unhappiness,)  some  means 
must  needs  be  pointed  out,  in  the  proper  use  of 
which  they  may,  umler  divine  assistance,  over- 
come this  bias  and  propensity  to  sin,  and  may 
attain  to  true  holiness  and  the  practice  of  virtue, 
acce|)table  in  the  sight  of  (Jod.  If  Christ  had 
nut  shewn  us  such  means,  his  work  of  redemp- 
tion would  have  been  incom])lete,  and  his  atone- 
ment in  vain.  For  we  can  participate  in  the 
blessings  of  redemption,  even  after  we  have  ob- 
tained f>rgivenes8,  only  by  avoiding  sin  and 
living  righteously.  And  had  not  ('hrist  fur- 
nished us  with  means  to  do  this,  his  atonement 
would  he  of  no  avail. 

The  reason  why  this  has  not  been  commonly 
considered  in  the  systiins  of  theology  as  making 
a  part  of  the  work  of  redemption,  is,  tliat  the 
Socinians  have  reganled  it  as  constituting  ibe 
whole  of  this  work,  exclusive  of  the  utoucnunt 
iif  Chrinl  ht/  his  siiffrrinfss  and  dtath.  Evange- 
lical  writers,  therefore,  though  they  did  not  en- 


tirely omit  this  important  part  of  Christ's  work, 
passed  it  by  in  this  connexion,  in  order  to  avoid 
all  fellowship  with  such  an  opinion,  and  to  af- 
ford no  appearance  of  diminishing  in  the  least 
from  the  influence  of  the  atonement  or  satisfac- 
tion of  Christ.  But  in  conformity  with  the 
Bible,  even  the  ancient  fathers  considered  both 
of  these  tilings  as  belonging  to  the  work  of  re- 
demption— e.  g.,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Leo  the 
Great,  and  Gregory  the  Great.  The  latter  says, 
"Christ  became  man,  not  only  to  atone  for  us 
by  his  sufferings  and  death  ;  but  also  to  instruct 
us,  and  to  give  us  an  example."  'I'his  is  the 
full  scriptural  idea  of  d;to?.irpwcrtj.  Cf.  s.  106, 
II.  Therefore  redemption  (dnoj.vrpwotj)  com- 
prises the  two  following  parts — viz.,  (1)  Deli- 
verance from  the  punishment  of  sin  (i?.ai/ioj, 
atonement,  xaraXJ^y?;)  ;  (2)  from  Xhe  power  and 
dominion  of  sin.  The  former  is  effected  by  his 
sufferings  and  death,  and  is  confirmed  by  his 
resurrection  and  intercession.  The  latter  is  ef- 
fected by  his  doctrine,  accompanied  by  divine 
power  (the  assistance  of  the  Holy  Spirit.)  and 
by  his  example. 

The  connexion  of  these  two  parts,  as  we  learn 
it  from  scripture  and  experience,  is  this:— 
When  an  individual  is  assured  of  his  forgive- 
ness through  Christ,  he  is  filled  with  the  most 
sincere  love  and  gratitude  to  God  and  to  Christ. 
"  He  to  whom  much  is  forgiven,  loves  much  ;" 
Luke,  vii.  17.  These  feelings  render  hirn  dis- 
posed and  desirous  to  obey  the  commands  of 
God  and  Christ.  This  obedience,  flowing  fro  n 
love,  is  not  burdensome,  but  easy  and  joyful  ; 
1  John,  V.  3,  seq.  The  actual  ])ariicipati">n 
in  the  benefits  of  this  second  part  of  Christ's 
work,  belongs,  therefore,  in  all  its  extent,  to 
those  only  who  have  experienced  the  benefits 
of  the  former  part.  A  Christian  teacher,  there- 
fore, proceeds  preposterously,  and  contrary  to 
ihe  example  of  the  holy  scriptures,  when  he  ex- 
hibits ami  inculcates  only  the  second  part,  eith'?r 
passing  the  first  in  silence,  or  exciting  doubts 
with  regard  to  it,  or  casting  contempt  upan  it. 
He  ought  to  connect  the  two  parts,  and  to  exhi- 
bit them  clearly  and  scripturally,  as  the  apostles 
have  done.  The  metho<l  of  the  apostles  has 
been  proved  the  best  by  experience.  Whenever 
the  atonement  of  ('hrist,  or  the  first  part  of  th« 
work  of  redemptiim,  has  been  omitted,  litllo 
has  been  effect«vi  by  preaching  morality,  and 
holding  up  the  example  of  Jesus,  Men  mav 
be  taught  in  this  way  what  they  should  be,  buv 
are  left  ignorant  of  the  means  of  becoming  so. 

II.   Tftis  Doctrine  True  and  Scriptural. 
It  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible,  that  Christ  be- 
came man,  not  only  to  free  us  from  the  punish' 
mrnt  of  sin,  but  from  sin  itself.     Jesu»  himself 
says  this,  John,  viii.  32,  .Id,  seq.     Cf.  John, «" 
The  writings  of  the  apostles  contain  passages 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       409 


of  the  same  import — e.  g.,  Titus,  ii.  11 — 11. 
Here  Paul  shews  Titus  what  he  ought  to  teai-h. 
He  says  (ver.  11,  12),  that  Cliristianity  makes 
men  pious  and  virtuous,  and  gives  them  the 
most  cheerful  anticipations  of  the  future.  Now 
(ver.  11)  he  mentions  the  redemption  of  Christ, 
implying  («)  that  he  died  for  us  (tSwxfi'  tavtov 
trtfp  ;;uwi');  (i)  that  he  designed  to  deliver  us 
(^vTfiu'jrjai)  from  all  unrighteousness  (d«6 
ftuT/;i  uvQ/xiai),  and  make  us  the  friends  of  God, 
and  ready  for  all  good  works,  (Christian  vir- 
tues.) Here  plainly  drtoxirpto^tj  implies  holh 
the  particulars  ahove  mentioned.  So  1  Pet.  i. 
18,  Christ  delivered  us  (xvrpoiv)  ix  ;uarat'aj 
ata'jrpvf-/-i,frn/ii  a  sinful,  heathenish,  vicious  life. 
Ephes.  ii.  9,  10,  "  We  are  xriaj^trrf  j  iv  Xptorcj 
*rtt  tpyotj  dya^iV' — ••  ^m  renewed,  placed  in  a 
situation  in  which  we  can  act  virtuously.  Gal. 
i.  4,  "  Christ  gave  himself  ?tfpi  d/iopritLv  rjxCjv 
(to  deliver  us  from  sin),  and  to  rescue  us  from 
our  former  condition  in  the  service  of  sin,  (ortcoj 
i^iXr^rai  ix  tou  aiuivof  rtoi'>;'pov.)"  The  two 
things  are  connected  still  more  clearly,  1  Pet. 
ii.  21,  "  Christ  suffered  on  the  cross  the  punish- 
ment of  our  sins;  we  ought  therefore  to  die  to 
sin,  and  live  entirely  for  holiness.  For  to  his 
sufferings  are  we  indebted  for  all  our  blessed- 
ness (tliis  tw<fold  r^uud') ;  by  his  stripes  tve  are 
healed." 

In  order  deeply  to  impress  the  mind  with  the 
close  connexion  and  the  practical  use  of  both  of 
these  parts,  the  apostles  frequently  transfer  the 
terms  relating  to  the  death  of  Christ  to  the 
moral  improvement  or  holiness  of  men,  effected 
by  him.  K.  g.,  We  ought  to  die  spiritually  to 
sin,  as  he  died  for  it  bodily  ;  to  me,  &c.  Vide 
the  texts  already  cited ;  also  Rom.  vi.  4 ;  viii. 
10,  &c. 

More  important  still  are  the  passages  which 
teach  that  Christ  delivered  us  from  the  poicer 
mid  dominion  of  Satan,  as  Ephes.  ii.  2;  that  he 
has  destroyed  the  power  of  the  devil,  &c. ;  John, 
xii.  31,  seq.  This  phraseology  is  best  explained 
by  the  passage,  1  John,  iii.  8,  o  rtoiZv  duaprtai' 
ix  6(.a36%ov  iorlv  (diaboli  filius,  or  diaholo  sinii- 
lis,  ver.  12;  John,  viii.  44);  for  he  sinned  of 
old  (drt'  o^z^.i)-  Again,  Eij  tovto  {(faf.-^pioij*;  o 
Tioj  ©fov,  iva  Xinrj  tpya  6ta,3oXoi;.  The  latter 
clause,  tpya  8ta3dx(n»,  is  clearly  synonymous 
with  duapri'ai.  Sins  are  thus  described,  because 
the  devil  is  regarded  as  the  author  of  them,  and 
because  by  committing  sin  we  resemble  him, 
and  are  instruments  in  his  hand  ;  as,  on  the  con- 
trary, tpya  ©fov,  are  virtuous  and  pious  actions — 
such  as  flow  from  likeness  to  God,  or  love  to 
him. 

III.  The  iianner  in  which  Christ  delivers  us  from 
Sin. 

If  we  would  obtain  definite  conceptions  upon 
this  subject,  we  must  come  down  to  the  simplest 
52 


possible  ideas,  and  avoid  the  vague  and  obscure 
expressions  with  which  mystics  are  wont  to 
darken  their  own  views.  In  representing  the 
matter  briefly,  writers  are  often  content  with 
saying  that  new  power  and  ability  to  do  good  is 
afforded  us  by  Christ.  This  representation  ac- 
cords perfectly  with  the  holy  scriptures,  with 
the  promise  of  Christ,  and  with  Christian  expe- 
rience. From  this  language,  however,  we  are 
not  to  understand  that  any  miraculous  assistance 
is  furnished  by  Christ.  This  power  is  usually 
afforded  in  a  natural  manner,  and  the  scriptures 
themselves  clearly  point  out  the  mean's  by  which 
it  is  obtained.  That  Christ  frequently  and  dis- 
tinctly promised  his  aid  and  support  at  all  times 
to  all  his  followers,  if  they  on  their  part  per- 
formed the  rt  quisite  conditions,  is  made  certain 
from  the  scriptures ;  Matt,  xxviii.  20.  The 
term  Sviajuij  Xpi^rov  occurs  frequently  in  John 
and  in  the  epistles.  Vide  John,  xv,  1,  seq. ;  2 
Cor.  xii.  9:  2  Pet.  i.  3,  4. 

This  assistance  of  God  and  Christ  which  is 
promised  to  Christians  in  connexion  with  their 
use  of  the  Christian  doctrine,  does  not  act  in  a 
manner  inconsistent  with  the  powers  arrd  con- 
stitution of  human  nature,  but  wholly  in  accord- 
ance with  them.  According  to  the  wise  consti- 
tution of  our  nature,  all  our  actions  are  ))rinci- 
pally  dependent  upon  the  fixed  determination 
f)f  the  icill,  which  is  again  de|)endent  upon  the 
streiijith  and  clearness  of  the  motives  present  to 
the  understanding.  Now  we  are  freciucntly 
hindered  by  external  circumstances  which  are 
beyond  our  control  from  the  })raciice  of  virtue. 
In  this  case  we  are  without  guilt,  and  the  omis- 
sion cannot  be  imputed  to  us.  (Here,  however, 
we  are  liable  to  deception  by  thinking  we  are 
without  fault,  when  this  is  not  true.)  But  often 
the  fault  is  in  ourselves.  We  allow  sense  to 
rule  our  reason.  W"e  refuse  properly  to  consider 
the  motives  placed  before  us.  or  we  neglect  op- 
portunity of  instructing  ourselves  respecting 
duty  ;  or  are  chargeable,  perhaps,  with  both  of 
these  faults.  If  now,  in  this  case,  we  disobey 
the  law  of  God,  we  are  apt  to  bemoan  our  weak 
ness  and  want  of  power  for  doing  good,  Sucn 
faults  and  weakness  oftheundersiaiidingand  will 
cannot  be  corrected  by  any  miraculous  power 
affonied  by  Christ;  and  the  virtue  which  should 
be  effected  by  such  a  miraculous  power  would 
cease  to  be  a  personal  virtue  of  the  one  in  whom 
it  was  wrought,  and  consequently  could  not  be 
imputed  to  him.  There  is  no  other  way  but  for 
man  to  learn  the  motives  to  jiietj'  and  the  avoid- 
ing of  sin  which  are  presented  in  the  Christian 
doctrine,  and  to  form  the  fixed  resolve  th?t, 
under  divine  guidance  and  assistance,  he  will 
govern  his  own  will  by  what  he  knows  to  be 
the  will  of  God  and  Christ.  Only  then,  when 
he  has  done  everything  on  his  part,  c;in  he  count 
upon  the  divine  assistance.  Until  man  has 
2M 


410 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


done  Ills  part,  he  is  incapable  of  that  assistance 
wliich  Cioii  and  Christ  liave  proniisid  to  alTord. 
If  we  are  wanlintr  in  this  thankful  love  to  God 
and  Christ,  which  has  been  before  insisted  upon, 
we  must  also  be  wanlinff  in  the  disposition  either 
to  learn  or  obey  his  will  ;  and  in  this  condition, 
we  are  of  course  disqualified  for  his  assistance. 
These  remarks  lead  directly  to  the  answer  of 
the  question,  How  are  we  delivered  by  Christ 
from  the  power  and  dominion  of  sin]  When 
we  derive  the  motives  for  obedience  to  the  di- 
vine preoepts  from  the  instructions  and  example 
of  Christ,  and  sulTer  these  to  control  our  afiec- 
tions,  and  when  we  do  this  from  grateful  love  to 
(iod  and  to  Christ,  we  then  fulfil  the  conditions 
which  are  essential  on  our  part,  in  order  that  we 
miay  rely  upon  this  ])romised  guidance  and  as- 
sistance. We  shall  shew,  in  the  followin]^  sec-' 
tion,  what  is  taui^ht  in  the  Uible  respecting  the 
efficacy  of  the  instruction  and  example  of  Christ, 
in  overcoming  the  power  of  sin.  I3y  the  i;i- 
strneiion  of  Christ  we  obtain  exact  and  distinct 
information  respecting  the  nature  of  sin  and  its 
conse(|uences,  Ace.  His  instruclion  and  cxainjik 
shew  the  means  and  motives  for  avoiding  sin, 
and  leading  upright  and  pious  lives,   (dtxaiwj 

SKCTION  CXVII. 

OK  THE  DELIVERANCE  FROM  THE  I'OWER  AND  DO- 
MINION OF  SIN,  FOR  WHICH  WE  ARE  INDEBTED, 
UNDER  DIVINE  ASSIStXnCE,  TO  THE  INSTKLX- 
TlOX  AND  EXAMPLE  OF  CHRIST. 

I.  Scriptural  Doctrine  rcipectlm^  the  Efficacy  of 
Clirisl's  Instructions  in  sttliJuing  Sin. 

(1)  The  doctrine  of  Christ  informs  tis  dis- 
tinctly what  are  the  requisitions  of  the  divine 
law,  and  how  we  should  order  our  life  in  con- 
formity with  them  ;  it  teaches  us  to  notice  every 
deviation  from  this  law,  and  thedreadful  conse- 
(juenres  of  disobedience;  and  it  gives  these  in- 
structions in  a  maaner  which  is  plain  and  intel- 
ligible to  every  min<l.  This  comprehensive  and 
complete  instruction  as  to  the  whole  extent  of 
Christian  duty  gives  the  ('hristian  doctrine  a 
great  advantage  above  other  moral  codes,  in 
which  only  the  more  violent  nutbreakings  of  sin 
are  at  all  noticerl.  The  apostles  everywhere 
exhibit,  with  great  earnestness,  this  advantage 
of  the  Christian  doctrine,  and  Christ  bimst'lf 
declares  it  to  have  been  t)ne  great  object  of  his 
coming  into  the  world,  to  give  this  inslructiim. 
Accordingly,  Matt.  v.  "Jl,  see].,  be  givt-s  exam- 
ples of  lliis  more  compb-ie  instruction  about  the 
duties  of  man,  as  drawn  from  the  divine  com- 
niands. 

Those  religious  teachers,  thcrffore,  mistake 
very  much  who  make  the  doctrines  of  fnith  the 
Only   subjects   of  discourse,  entirely   uiniiting 


Christian  ethics,  and  perhaps  speaking  ^d- 
temj)tuoii8ly  of  them,  'i'hese  moral  instruc* 
tions  constitute  a  most  valuable  portion  of  the 
Christian  system.  Even  the  enemies  of  Chris- 
tianity, both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  have 
done  justice  to  the  morality  of  the  gospel,  but 
our  own  age  does  not  need  to  be  warned  so 
much  against  this  fault  as  against  the  opposite 
one  of  inculcating  the  mere  morality  of  the 
Bible,  and  of  speaking  disrespectfully  of  the 
evangelical  doctrines.  The  teachers  of  religion 
should  connect  the  two  together,  as  the  sacred 
writers  do,  and  should  draw  the  motives  to  ho- 
liness, virtue,  and  moral  purity  from  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Christian  religion.  Vide  s.  IIG, 
I.  ad  finem.  It  was  not  the  manner  of  Christ 
to  teach  the  duties  without  the  doctrines  of  reli- 
gion. Neither  he  nor  his  apostle<»  separated  the 
one  from  the  other.  The  gospel  contains  both. 
The  doctrine  respecting  Christ,  and  the  other 
great  doctrines  of  faith,  afford  a  powerful  support 
to  moral  lessons,  and  so  tlipy  are  uniformly  em- 
ployed by  the  apostles.  This  method,  however 
much  disregarded  at  present,  deserves  to  be  seri- 
ously recommended  to  every  teacher  of  religion 
who  is  desirous  of  promoting  the  true  and  lasting 
interest  of  his  hearers.  Christian  ethics  teach 
us  our  duty;  and  Christian  doctrines  open  the 
sources  from  which  we  must  draw  strength  to 
perform  it.  In  popular  discourse,  then,  instruc- 
tion in  morals  sliould  always  be  connected  with 
and  derived  from  evangelical  doclrinr s. 

(0)  The  Christian  doctrine  gives  full  instruc- 
tion respecting  the  manner  of  su])pressing  our 
sinful  inclinations,  and  the  means  we  should 
use  to  overcome  temptation  to  sin,  to  weaken 
the  power  of  sense,  and  to  make  constant  ad- 
vances in  holiness.  Tit.  ii.  11,  seq.,  "The  sa- 
lutary system  of  Christianity  is  designed  by 
Cod  for  all  men.  It  teaches  us  (,-tai6f{otga)  to 
renounce  all  irreligion  (u'5n3f(tt),  and  all  the 
sinful  passions  that  prevail  among  men  (zoauc 
xai,  fnt^vuiai)  ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  to  livo 
wisely,  piously,  and  virtuously  on  the  earth.*' 
2  Pet.  i.  3,  1,  seq.  This  passage  contains  the 
following  truths: — "God  gives  us  power  to 
lead  a  virtuous  life  (Cw>;  xai  t vif.Jfia),  and  shew* 
ws  the  means  of  doing  this  by  the  knowledge 
of  (Jod,"  (i.  e.,  the  Christian  scheme,  whose 
author  is  God.)  Ver.  1,  "  Hy  this  knowledge 
we  attain  to  pious  and  godlike  dispositions, 
(Wfta<  xoiiwvoi  (fvTjuj,  as  children  resembling 
our  Father,)  and  distinguish  ourselves  froni  the 
great  mass  of  mankind,  who  live  in  immorali- 
ty." "'i'hus  we  are  placed  in  a  situati<n  to 
practise  all  the  Christian  virtues,  (ver.  5 — 7,) 
and  are  not  d,)yoi  ovhi  nxa,>«o*,"  (i.  e.,  are  al- 
ways employed  in  works  of  virtue,  and  dia 
pi'SHil  to  whatever  is  good.) 

Christianity  therefore  justly   requires  of  its 
friends,  to  whom  it  gives  such  perfect  instruo 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       411 


lion  as  to  the  observance  of  the  divine  precepts,  j 
to  maintain  the  most  unsullied  purity  of  charac- 
ter. John  is  fully  justified  in  declaring  (1  John, 
ii.  4,)  tliai  lie  is  a  liar  who  professes  to  be  a 
friend  and  follower  of  Christ,  and  does  not  keep 
his  commandments.  The  same  writer  justly 
remarks  that  the  Christian  who  is  in  earnest  in 
overcoming  his  sins,  and  who  acts  out  of  pure 
love  to  God  and  to  Christ,  will  not  find  it  diffi- 
cult to  fulfil  the  commands  of  God,  ai  ivToXai 
avTou  pa|)nat  ovx  tiat-v',  1  John,  v.  3,  coll.  Matt, 
XI.  30.  He  therefore  assures  us,  in  entire  con- 
formity with  experience,  that  a  true  Christian, 
by  his  obedience  to  Christian  rules,  and  by  con- 
stant exercise,  can  advance  so  far,  that  virtue 
will  become  his  confirmed  habit,  and  the  pre- 
ponderating disposition  to  sin  will  become  sub- 
ordinate, ov  bi:va.rat,  o/tapruvfci',  1  John,  iil. 
8,  9. 

yi>le. — Paul  and  the  other  apostles  were  ac- 
customed to  connect  the  history  of  the  person  of 
Jesus  Christ,  in  his  humiliation  and  exaltation, 
with  his  doctrine.  From  this  history  they  de- 
duce some  oPthe  advantages  which  we  enjoy  as 
Christians,  and  also  some  of  our  duties  and  the 
motives  to  the  discharge  of  them;  or  they  refer 
to  this  history  in  inculcating  these  duties,  in 
order  to  render  them  more. impressive.  Thus 
they  frequently  ascribe  to  the  sutferings  and 
death  of  Christ  a  power  to  subdue  sin,  and  to 
excite  pious  affections.  An  example  of  this  is 
Heb.  ix.  14,  seq.,  "If  even  the  bJood  of  beasts 
took  away  external  impurity,  and  rendered  those 
who  were  expiated  externally  clean,  according 
to  the  law  of  Moses,  how  much  more  must  the 
blood  of  Christ  purify  us  from  sat"  (dead 
works) — i.  e.,  render  us  holy  ;  "  that  we  may 
be  placed  in  a  situation  to  worship  God  in  a 
manner  acceptable  to  him."  Still  more  clear 
is  the  passage  2  Cor.  v.  15,  "He  died  for  all, 
that  they  should  not  live  according  to  their  own 
choice  (tavra),  but  according  to  the  will  and 
cotiimands  of  Christ,  who  died  for  them."  The 
love  of  Christ  in  offering  up  himself  for  them, 
should  incite  them  to  grateful  love,  and  to  will- 
ing obedience  to  his  commands  ;  1  Peter,  i.  18, 
19,  "Christ  delivered  us  by  his  blood  irom  an 
idolatrous  and  sinful  course  of  life."  There  are 
many  more  jiassages  of  the  same  nature. 

From  a  comparison  of  these  texts  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  no  direct  or  miraculous  (rtiysical  agency 
is  hero  ascribed  to  the  death  of  Christ,  nor  any 
power  derived  from  it  which  is  peculiar  and 
distinct  from  the  influence  of  the  doctrine  re- 
specting Christ.  The  inliuence  of  the  death  of 
Christ  in  promoting  a  reformed  vmd  holy  life, 
takes  place  in  the  following  way  : — The  consi- 
deration of  the  death  of  Christ  promotes  (a)  ab- 
horrence and  dread  of  sin,  and  r-  ijard  for  the 
divine  law,  while  we  see  so  sev.  re  a  punish- 
ment inflicted  upon  Christ.     In   the  death  of 


Christ,  then,  we  see  sin,  in  all  its  dreadful  con* 
sequences,  and  the  inviolable  sanctity  of  the 
divine  law.  (i)  Love,  gratitude,  obedience  to 
God  and  Christ,  and  zeal  in  obeying  his  com- 
mandments, are  also  effects  of  contemplating 
Christ's  death.  Thus  2  Cor.  v.  15,  coll.  Gal. 
ii.  *20;  1  John,  v.  3;  Rom.  viii.  3,  4,  "Because 
Christ  was  punished  for  our  sins,  we  ought, 
from  gratitude,  the  more  carefully  to  obey  the 
precepts  of  the  law,"  {hixaiw^a  v6,uov.^  -Here, 
then,  the  effect  is  produced  upon  our  ajfcctiona 
through  our  undeistamUug. 

The  apostles  ascribe  a  similar  influence  in 
promoting  reformation  and  holiness  to  the  resur- 
rection of  Christ  and  his  exaltation  in  the  hea- 
vens, 2  Cor.  v.  15 ;  Col.  iii.  1 ;  Heb.  xii.  2.  By 
the  resurrection  and  exaltation  of  Christ,  his 
whole  doctrine,  and  all  which  he  did  for  us,  re- 
ceive new  importance,  and  are  rendered  clear 
and  certain;  and  if  we  confide  in  him,  and  obey 
his  precepts,  we  may  now  look  forward  with 
cheerful  anticipations  to  a  reward  in  heaven. 
For  (1)  he  has  gone  before  to  the  place  whither 
we  shall  follow  him  if  we  love  him,  and  seek 
to  resemble  him,  (John,  xiv.  2,  3;)  and  (2) 
while  we  continue  upon  the  earth  he  still  cares 
for  ivs,  and  is  active  in  promoting  our  welfare. 
Christ  himself  frequently  connects  these  two 
things,  John,  xv.,  xvi.,  xvii.  Vide  s.  112,  11. 
What  a  powerful  influence  in  promoting  piety 
and  holiness  must  these  considerations  exert 
upon  the  heart  of  every  man  who  cordially  be- 
lieves and  embraces  them  I 

II.  Injluence  of  Chrisfs  Example  in  aiding  the 

Practice  of  Virtue. 
There  is  a  propensity  to  imitation  implanted 
in  all  men.  Good  and  evil  examples  often  ex- 
ert an  influence  upon  the  heart  indescribably 
great,  and  sometimes  almost  irresistible.  This 
propensity,  as  well  as  the  love  of  distinction, 
ought  therefore  to  be  turned  to  account  in  edu- 
cation. Good  examples  do  far  more  to  improve 
and  ennoble  the  character,  ajid  to  perfect  holi- 
ness, than  mere  lessons  and  rules.  Loni^um  et 
difficile  iter  est  pnecepta,  says  Seneca,  breve  ct 
rjficax  per  exenipla.  Such  examples  act  more 
strongly  and  directly  upon  the  senses,  and  ex- 
cite the  heart  to  virtue  and  everything  noble  and 
great. 

The  example  of  Jesus  is  held  up  for  imitation 
everywhere  in  the  New  Testament,  as  the  most 
perfect  model  of  every  virtue.  It  is  made  the 
indispensable  duty  of  all  his  followers  to  con- 
form to  it  in  all  their  conduct.  Vide  1  John, 
ii.  6;  iii.  3;  1  Pet.  ii.  11,  "He  has  left  us  ex- 
ample (pattern,  ino-^pauuoi',)  that  we  should 
follow  his  steps."  But  the  exairiple  of  Chris! 
is  recommended  to  us  for  imitation,  not  only  ii 
respect  to  his  general  integrity,  purity  of  mo 
rals,  and  entire  blamelessness,   (in  which  h« 


4 12 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


was  perfectly  exemplary,  and  the  only  one  in- 
deed who  ever  was  so;  vide  s.  I»3,  HI.;)  but 
also  in  respect  to  particular  virtiif>s,  especially 
those  which  are  more  hi^h  and  difHciilt,  which 
require  a  <rreat  8tru<ji;le  and  elTort,  such  as  pa- 
tience, trust  in  God,  firmness  in  sutTerincr,  the 
practice  of  humility  and  self-denial.  In  these 
respects,  Christ  himself  commends  his  example 
to  the  imitation  of  his  followers.  Vide  1  I'ct. 
ii.  2l-i-i3;  IMiil.  ii.  5,  seq.  We  have  still  fur- 
ther encourajrement  to  imitate  the  example  of 
Jesus  hy  the  reward  bestowed  upon  him,  the 
man  Jesus,  in  consequence  of  his  piety  and  vir- 
tue, which  we  also  may  expect  to  receive,  so 
far  as  we  are  capable  of  it,  if  we  follow  him. 
Vide  Phil,  ubi  supra,  and  Ileb.  xii.  2,  3. 

It  is  an  excellent  rule  which  is  given  by  some 
of  the  ancient  Greek  philosophers,  that  in  our 
whole  life  and  in  all  our  actions  we  should  have 
the  example  of  some  jreat,  wise,  and  virtuous 
man  in  view,  and  that  we  should  imagine  him 
to  be  the  witness  and  overseer  (ctistos  et  puda- 
go^Hs"^  of  all  our  conduct.  They  advised  that 
we  should  do  everythinij  under  the  notice,  as  it 
were,  of  such  an  inspector,  and  inquire  at  every 
step  what  /te  would  do  or  recommend  in  this 
case;  would  he  approve  or  disapprove].  Could 
1  do  or  say  this  thinij  if  he  were  present  with- 
out blushin<^  ?  &c.  Kpictetus  (Kiichir.  c.  51) 
r»*comriieiuis  Socrates  and  Zeno  for  models  ;  Se- 
neca (Kp.  II.  Kxira.),  Cato,  and  Laelius.  Chris- 
tians can  select  no  jrreater  and  more  perfect  man 
to  be  the  witness  of  their  conduct  and  oruide  of 
their  morals  than  Jesus.  And  we  know,  too, 
tli;il  we  may  not  only  imagine  him  to  be  the 
witness  and  judtjc  of  our  conduct,  but  that  he 
actually  is  so.  He  knows  all  our  thoujrhts  and 
actions,  and  will  be  the  sole  Judtje  of  the  livinjj 
and  the  dead.  So  we  are  taught  by  Christ  him- 
self in  his  discourses  recorded  in  John,  and  by 
all  the  apostles.  Both  Christ  and  his  apostles 
require  Christians  to  do  everything  iv  ovofiati 

The  passage  Heb.  xii.  1,2  deserves  to  be  no- 
ticed amonir  the  many  which  speak  of  imitating 
the  example  of  Christ.  Paul  first  compares  the 
firm  and  pious  sulfrrers  of  antiquity,  whose  ex- 
ample in  sulfering  flie  Christian  ought  to  imi- 
tate, with  spectators  and  witnesses,  who  look 
upon  our  race  and  contest,  and  encourage  us  to 
perseverance.  Among  these  witnesses  is  Jesus, 
who  far  surpasses  the  rest,  who  is  the  best  ex- 
ample ftf  confifleuce  in  (Jod,  and  of  every  virtue, 
and  who  constantly  observes  us,  and  will  finally 
reward  us  if  we  follow  him. 

Hut  those  only  who  possess  the  characte.  de- 
scribed, s.  I  I'i,  I.,  arl  Jincm,  are  properly  cwpa- 
ole  of  imitating  tiiis  example  of  Jesus.  Men 
who  have  not  felt  the  consciousness  that  their 
sins  were  forgiven,  and  have  not  been  renewed 
in  the  temper  of  ilu-ir  mind,  have  no  taste  or 


capacity  fir  this  imitation  of  Christ.  Nor  can 
we  pro|)erly  require  of  them  what  they  in  this 
situation  are  incapable  of  performing.  We  can 
make  them  feel,  however,  if  their  moral  sensi<- 
bility  is  not  entirely  deadened,  how  far  below 
this  example  they  st.md,  and  how  good  and  sa- 
lutary it  would  be  for  them  to  imitate  it. 


PART  IH.  OF  CHAPTER  IV. 

ON  THE  PRESENT  AND  FLTL'RE  CON.SEQlENCRa 
OF  THE  WORK  OF  CHRIST. 


SECTION  cxvni. 

SCRIPTURAL  TITLES  OF  THE  SALVATION  PROCL'RED 
BV  CHRIST  FOR  MEN;  ITS  GENERAL  NATURE; 
THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  RE- 
SPECTING THE  ABOLITION  OF  THE  OLD-TESTA- 
MENT DISPENSATION  BV  CHRISTIANITV,  AND 
THE  AbVANTAGES  RESULTING  FROM  IT  TO  THE 
WORLD. 

I.  Scriptural  Names  of  the  Blessings  of  Christianity, 
and  their  Nature. 

Some  of  these  names  are  literal,  others  figu- 
rative. The  most  common  are  the  following-— 
viz.,  Ki?.oyc'a,  n3-<3,  denoting  every  kind  of  be- 
nefit, K|)hes.  i.  3;  Gal.  iii.  14.  Xupij,  jn,  n^n, 
John,  i.  It),  "Through  his  infinite  love  we  have 
obtained  x'^^x.v  wri  ;^aptToj,"  an  undeserved  hene- 
fit  superior  to  the  other,  in  opposition  to  the  Mo- 
saic dispensation,  (ver.  17,)  which  could  not 
secure  this  forgiveness  of  sin,  and  tlie  blessings 
connected  with  it,  which  are  here  intended  hy 
the  word  ;tapi»'.  The  word  t^'wij  is  also  fre- 
(juently  used,  vita  vere  vitalis,  happiness.  Also 
CwortQiftT^ai,  f  iji',  X.  T.  %.,  in  opposition  to  drtu- 
>jia  and  J^dvaroj,  unhappiness,  John,  iii.  36;  X. 
1 1  ;  Kphes.  ii.  5,  where  the  figure  is  continued, 
"Through  Christ  he  has  vivifud  and  raised  us 
up,"  &c. 

The  Jews  had  anciently  very  diverse  opinions 
respecting  the  nature  of  thu  blessings  to  be  ex- 
pected from  Christ.  Only  a  few  of  the  better 
instructed  conceived  that  these  benefits  were 
entirely  of  a  spiritual  nature.  For  such  bless- 
ings the  great  mass  had  no  taste.  They  expect- 
ed, for  the  most  part,  temporal  blessings,  and 
hoped,  under  the  Messiah,  to  be  rich,  honourable 
and  mighty.  Vide  s.  89.  And  these  expecta- 
tions have  prevailed  in  a  large  portion  even  of 
the  Christian  world.  Accordingly,  many,  in 
direct  opposition  to  the  spirit  of  < -hristianiiy, 
have  associated  the  promises  of  earthly  good  and 
temporal  welfare,  made  umler  the  Mosaic  insti- 
tute, with  the  precepts  of  the  New  Testament. 
We  may,  in<ieed,  hope  and  expect  to  obtain  from 
God  all  that  good, even  of  a  temporal  nature,  ol 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MaN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      41* 


which  we  are  capable,  and  of  which  we  stand 
in  need.     But  through  Christ,  and  observance  of 
his  precepts,  we  cannot  hope  to  obtain  eartiily 
good.    For  the  design  of  his  religion  is  to  with- 
draw us  from  earth  and  sense,  to  improve  and 
ennoble  the  heart,  and  to  procure  the  enjoyment 
of  hiifh  spiritual  blessedness;  Phllippians,  iii. 
14,  17,  20.    On  this  ground,  therefore,  tlie  Jew- 
ish idea  of  the  coming  of  a  millenial  kingdom 
of  Clirist  upon  the  earth  is  entirely  objection- 
able.    The  apostles  never  indulge  in  such  ex- 
pectations, but  take  every  opportunity  to  con- 
tradict them.     They  call  those  who  entertain 
such  ideas  na^xixoi,  persons  who  adhere  to  what 
is  sensible  and  exterior,  have  no  taste  for  what 
is  spiritual,  and  are  not  therefore  real  disciples 
of  Jesus.    Hence  Paul  says,  Ephes.  i.  3,  "  God 
has  blessed   ns,  through   Christ,  rtu'^rj  frXoyia 
rtvevLiatixYi  iv  frtoi'pai'ioi.;.'       Uvfvuarixoi  is 
here  opposed  to  aapxixoi,  and  implies  that  the 
blessings  spoken  of  are  not  designed   for  the 
body  and   the  senses,  but  for  the  mind.     Tiie 
phrase  'Ev  rot?  irtovpavioc^  (sc.  roTtoij-  vide  verse 
20;  ii.  6,  1-2)  does  not  signify  in  the  Christian 
church,   but    denotes,   literally,   the    blessings 
which  we  shall  enjoy  tn  heaven,  which  is  our 
home,  where  we  are  citizens,  (not  in  the  visible 
world.)     Hence  in  Heb.  viii.  6,  he  calls  the 
blessings  which  are  bestowed  upon  us  tlirough 
Christ,  in  comparison  with  the  promises  made 
under  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  xpiCrToiaaya^u. 
In  Heb.  vii.  19,  he  says,  that  there  is  through 
Christianity,  frtftsaycoyif  xpfi,rro>/ojfXrti6oj,  (i.  e. 
it  inspires  the  hope  of  more  great  and   distin- 
guished divine  favours,)  since  the  Mosaic  insti- 
tute is  removed. 

The  blessings  bestowed  upon  us  through 
Christ  are  commonly  divided  into  -general  or 
public,  (such  as  relate  to  the  whole  human  spe- 
cies.) and  particular,  privala,  (such  as  relate  to 
each  individual  Christian.)  Among  the  former 
is,  as  the  New  Testament  everywhere  shews, 
the  abolition  of  Judaism,  (the  ancient  institute.) 
and  the  establishment  of  a  new  dispensation 
and  institute,  by  which  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth  might  he  united  in  one  common  religion. 
We  shall  first  treat  of  the  removal  of  the  anciei.t 
church  of  God,  and  of  the  establishment  of  the 
new  ;  and  then  of  the  particular  benefits  of 
Christianity. 

11.  The  Abolitim  of  the  Mosaic  Institute,  and  t/te 
Union  of  Jews  and  Gentilct  in  one  common  Re- 
ligion. 

(1)  The  Israelitlsh  constitution  and  religion 
(fouoj)  were  only  temporary  and  national.  They 
were  desianed,  in  their  first  ori<iin,  only  for  a 
barbarous  and  rude  people,  destitute  of  moral 
cultivation.  But  the  human  race  was  not  des- 
tined to  remain  always  in  a  stalp  of  infancy; 
and  as  soon  as  men  were  prepared  for  a  more 


high,  perfect,  and  spiritual  instruction,  that  more 
imperfect  kind,  intended   for  beginners,  would 
of  course   be   omiiied.     The   Jewish   institute 
was  designed  to  be  only  jjreparatory  ;  such  is 
the  uniform  doctrine  of  the  apostles,  especially 
of  Paul.     Vide  the  Introduction,  s.  12,  where 
we  have  cited  the  most  important  texts,  which 
are  principally  contained  in  the  epistles  to  the 
Galrttians  and  Hebrews.     Now,  therelbre,  ac- 
cording to  their  instruction,  Christ  had  abolish- 
ed the  law.     (Christ  himself,  for  good  reasons, 
gave  at  first  only  hints  which  led  to  this  con- 
clusion— e.  g.,  John,  iv.  21 — 24;  x.  Ifi.     He 
left  the  full  development  of  this  doctrine  for  his 
disciples.)    Uom.  x.  4,  Tt'xoj  rov  vouov  Xptfi-ro^— 
i.  e.,  TiT^joi  tipfpt  ru  jo^oj.    Heb.  vii.  18,  I'J ;  Gal. 
iv.  4,  5;  Eph.  ii.  14,  15.     According  to  these 
and  other  passages  Christ  has  freed  his  follow- 
ers from  obligation  to  observe  the  law  of  Moses; 
and  the  punishments  threatened  in  it  do  not  re- 
late to  those  who  believe  in  Christ.    Vide  Gal. 
iii.  13,  Xptcrroj  t^r;y6paa(v  s^uci;  ix  t>-s  xazclpa^ 
rov  vouw — i.  e.,  from  the  punishments  which 
the  Mosaic  law  threatens. 

Here  two  questions  arise — viz., 
(a)  How  are  we  to  understand  those  texts 
which  teach  that  the  Mosaic  law  and  institute 
are  removed  and  declared  to  be  null  by  the  cru- 
cifixion? Such  texts  are.  Gal.  iii.  13;  Eph.  ii. 
10;  iii.  15;  and  especially  Col.  ii.  14,  "He 
took  it  away,  and  nailed  it  to  his  cross," — by 
ills  crucifixion  he  declared  it  invalid.  The  apos- 
tles everywhere  teach  that  the  new  dispensation 
tlirough  Christ  (jcoujj  bioi^r^xr;)  commenced  at 
his  death,  and  was  by  that  event  solemnly  sanc- 
tioned and  introduced.  Eph.  v.  25,  20;  Heb. 
xiii.20;  ix.  14,  15,  where  the  preparatory  eco 
nomy  of  Moses,  consisting  in  sacrifices,  is  com 
pared  with  the  preparatory  economy  of  Christ, 
consisting  in  the  sacrifice  of  himself.  Christ 
himself  calls  his  blood  which  was  shed,  al^a 
xati-/;«  bia^yxr^i,  Matthew,  xxvi.  28.  Conse- 
quently, tiie  ancient  Israelitish  dispensation 
ceased  with  the  death  of  Christ,  because  at 
that  event  the  new  dispensation  commenced. 
We  see  by  this  what  value  was  attached  to  the 
death  of  Christ,  and  how  everything  iii  this  new 
dispensation  through  Christ  proceeds  from  it. 
The  day  of  his  death  is  the  consecration-day  of 
the  new  covenant.  The  new  covenant  is  not 
dated  from  the  time  when  he  began  to  teach, 
but  from  the  time  of  his  death. 

(6)  Are  all  the  Mosaic  laws  abolished  by 
Christ,  and  no  longer  obligatory  upon  Chris- 
tians'? From  the  passages  cited  we  must  cer- 
tainly answer  in  the  affirmative.  But  the  laws 
of  Moses  are  of  dilTerent  kinds;  and  many  of 
the  older  theologians  maintdned  that  Christ 
abolished  only  the  ceremonial  and  civil  law  of 
the  Israelites,  and  not  the  moral  law,  especially 
that  contained  in  the  decalogue.  But  in  the 
2  M  2 


414 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


passatjps  of  the  \eW Testament  which  treat  of 
the  aholition  of  the  law  there  is  no  allusion  to 
this  threefold  distinction.  Paul  includes  the 
whole  under  vouof,  liomans,  vi.  II ;  Gal.  iii.  19, 
2.').  Besides,  many  of  the  laws  of  Moses,  which 
are  truly  moral,  are  expressed  and  stated  in  such 
a  way  as  to  shew  plainly  that  they  were  de- 
sijfned,  in  tknffitrm,  only  for  the  circumstances 
and  wants  of  the  Israelites  at  the  time  heintr — 
e.  g.,  "  Honour  thy  father  and  thy  mother,  that 
thy  days  may  be  lon^  in  the  land,''''  (Palestine;) 
and  the  law  respecting  the  Sabbath. 

The  mistake  upon  which  this  limitation  is 
founded  may  be  pointed  out.  Moral  laws  are 
■n  themselves  universally  oblitjatory,  and  unal- 
verable  as  the  laws  of  nature.  There  are,  doubt- 
ess,  many  such  moral  laws  in  the  code  of 
Moses,  as  well  as  of  Solon,  Lycuri^us,  and 
others.  But  they  are  not  binding  upon  Chris- 
tians because  they  are  parts  of  the  Mosiic  code, 
and  stand  in  the  decalogue,  but  («)  because 
they  are  founded  in  the  constitution  of  human 
nature,  which  God  himself  has  given  us,  and 
are  therefore  laws  of  nature,  and  (i)  because 
Christ  has  commanded  us  to  obey  them.  In 
the  same  way,  we  observe  the  moral  laws  which 
stand  in  the  codes  of  heathen  legislators — Con- 
fucius, Solon,  Lycurgus,  &c.;  not  because  they 
have  given  them,  but  because  these  laws  are 
universal,  and  founded  in  our  very  nature. 
When  a  ruler  introduces  a  new  statute-book 
into  his  dominions,  the  old  book,  after  its  rejec- 
tion, is  no  longer  the  rule  by  which  right  and 
wrong  are  determined,  although  much  in  it 
still  remains  true.  Just  such  is  the  case  here. 
Morus  well  observes  (p.  2 13,  infra),  that  Chris- 
tians observe  the  moral  precepts  in  the  Mosaic 
code,  quia  ratio  dtclat,  et  C/iriuli  dnctrina  propit- 
iiit,  jiropatKndiique  ciiufirmat,  .Tud.ri  rcro  letic- 
banlur  ca  ohsirrarc,  quia  ratio  diclabal,  et  iMoses, 
JH»iiu  diritin,  prscKCripnerat. 

In  this  way  wo  may  understand  the  declara- 
tion of  Christ,  Matthew,  v.  17 — ID,  "that  he 
was  not  come  to  destroy  the  law  and  the  pro- 
phets, (louor  xot  7ti>nfrjai,)  and  that  all  the  di- 
vine commands  contained  in  them  must  be 
punctually  obeyed."  This  docs  not  conflict 
with  the  dortriiie  of  Paul.  Christ  was  neither 
able  n'lr  willing  to  abrogate  these  ttiiircrsal 
lauKs,  because  they  were  given  by  God  for  all 
men;  not,  however,  because  they  were  given 
by  Moses.  It  was,  on  the  contrary,  the  design 
of  Christ  still  more  to  illustrate  these  laws,  and 
to  recommend  obedience  to  them  by  his  doc- 
trine and  example. 

The  question,  Whether  the  ten  command- 
ments of  Moses  should  be  retained  in  the  moral 
instruction  of  the  common  people  and  of  the 
yoiinjr.  has  been  much  contioverted  of  late. 
(Cf.  Tliom.  Boclo,  Eiwas  iiher  den  Decaiogus, 
oder,  von  der  Verbindlichkeit  der  zehn  Gebote 


fiir  die  Christen;  Schmalkalden.  1781>.  Svov 
Hufnagel,  Leber  den  Iteliyionsunterricht,  nach 
den  zehn  (leboicn;  Zachari:i,  Bibl.  Thecd.  th. 
4;  Less,  Diiderlein,  Ueinhard,  in  their  Chris- 
tian ethics.)  From  what  has  been  already  said, 
it  is  plain  that  the  Ten  Commandments  are  not 
obligatory  because  they  are  laws  given  by 
Moses.  They  ar^  not  therefore,  '/  niccssity, 
fundamental  in  Christian  instruction.  No  in- 
jury, however,  is  to  be  apprehended  from  mak- 
ing them  so,  any  more  than  in  the  first  Christian 
church,  if  the  manner  in  which  Christ  and  the 
apostles  allude  to  the  moral  precepts  of  Moses 
and  the  Old  Testament  be  only  made  our  model. 
The  intelligent  and  conscientious  teacher  will 
be  very  cautious  in  declaring  to  the  comujon 
people  and  the  young  that  the  Ten  (.'ommand- 
inenls  are  abrogated,  since  he  might  be  easily 
understood  to  mean,  that  the  duties  enjoined  in 
them  are  no  longer  obligatory.  The  instruction 
which  God  has  given  through  Jesus,  respecting 
the  moral  law  and  our  duties,  is  much  more 
perfefct  and  extensive  than  that  which  was 
given,  or  could  be  given,  through  Moses.  Our 
hearers  should  therefore  be  led  directly  to  this 
more  copious  fountain  of  knowledge.  This  will 
not  prevent  our  connecting  instruction  from  the 
Old  Testament  with  that  from  the  New,  as 
Christ  and  the  apostles  did,  especially  since 
the  history  of  the  Old  Testament  so  well  eluci- 
dates and  explains  many  points  of  duly. 

In  those  churches  in  which  the  decalogue  is 
incorporated,  by  their  very  constitution,  into  the 
system  of  instruction,  it  is  neither  necessary  nor 
advisable  for  the  teacher  to  urge  the  discontinu- 
ance of  this  custom.  By  this  course  he  would 
do  more  hurt  than  good.  He  will  proceed  more 
properly  and  judiciously  by  confirming,  com- 
pleting, and  enlarging  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment all  the  particular  moral  precepts  contained 
in  the  decalogue,  making  the  decalogue,  in  this 
way,  serve  only  as  a  guide  to  Ciiristi;ui  instruc- 
tion. He  will  do  well  also  to  connect  with  or 
append  to  the  catechism  a  good  outline  of  Chris- 
tian doctrines  and  morals,  exhibited  in  a  natural 
order,  and  in  an  intelligible  and  practical  man- 
ner, according  to  the  holy  scriptures. 

(2)  It  was  the  great  object  of  Jesus  to  esta- 
blish an  universal  religion,  by  which  all  nations 
of  the  earth  might  be  united  in  one  common 
worship  of  God.  Vide  John,  x.  \G,  ''One  fold 
and  one  Shepherd."  Cf.  K«inhard.  Ueber  den 
Plan  des  Slifters  der  christlichen  Religion.  Bui 
this  plan  in  its  whole  extent  could  ni>t  be  car- 
ried into  effect,  nor  indeed  was  it  designeil  to 
be,  until  after  his  departure  from  the  earth. 
Vide  John,  xii.  32.  In  order  to  render  this 
plan  practicable,  it  was  essential  that  the  Mo- 
saic institute  should  be  abrogated,  and  declared 
10  be  thenceforward  abolished.  W  ilhoul  this, 
Jews  and  Christians  could   never  be  brought 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       415 


together,  or  united  in  a  common  religious  so- 
ciety. The  Jews  were  distinguished  by  na- 
tional pride  and  contempt  for  all  the  rest  of 
mankind.  They  considert-d  themselves  exclu- 
sively as  a  lioly  people, -beloved  of  God.  All 
other  nations  seemed  to  them  to  be  desecrated, 
and  hated  by  God.  They  exhibit,  as  Tacitus 
Bays  (Hist.  v.  5),  Odium  hostile  adversus  oinnes 
gentes;  and,  as  Paul  says,  1  These,  ii.  15,  a 
universal  misanthropy,  riarnv  d»'|>pwrtoij  ivavttoi. 
And  what  was  the  occasion  of  this  hatred  and 
eeparation?  Their  misunderstanding  the  Mo- 
saic laws,  and  putting  a  false  interpretation 
upon  them. 

In  opposition  to  this,  the  great  principles  of 
Christianity  are,  the  love  of  God  and  universal 
philanthropy,  and  that  all  upright  and  true  wor- 
shippers of  God,  of  whatever  nation  they  may 
be,  are  equally  acceptable  to  him,  have  equal 
rights,  and  an  equal  share  in  the  blessings  of 
Christianity,  John,  iv.  21—21;  Acts,  x.  35; 
Romans,  x.  12;  Gal.  v.  G.  This  assimilation 
and  union,  by  which  all  distinction  between 
Jew  and  heathen  would  cease,  could  not  be 
brought  about  except  by  the  abrogation  of  the 
Mosaic  institute,  which  was  designed  by  God 
to  be  only  a  preparatory  economy.  One  of  the 
principal  passages  relating  to  this  subject  is 
Ephes.  ii.  12—19,  coll.  Col.  i.  21,  seq. ;  Ephes. 
ii.  10,  seq.  "Christ  has  united  the  two  (Jews 
and  heathen),  has  done  away  the  cause  of  their 
enmity,  has  established  harmony,  brought  them 
both  together  into  one  society,  and  given  them 
citizenship  in  the  kingdom  of  God  ;  this  he  did 
by  removing  the  wall  of  partition  (;Uf  o'otot;j;o>' 
■rovi  4),iayjuoi),  ver.  14),  that  separated  between 
heathen  and  Jews,  and  prevented  their  becom- 
ing one  people."  This  ivall  of  partition  was  the 
Mosaic  law,  as  he  himself  explains  it,  ver.  15, 
fo/iioj  ivtoxi^v.  This  he  calls,  in  ver.  14,  t;^^pa, 
the  cause  of  enmity. 

SECTION  CXIX. 

THE  HAPPINESS  WHICH  CHRISTIANS  OBTAIN  IN 
THIS  LIFE  FROM  CHRIST. 

We  treat  now  of  the  particular  benefits  of 
which  every  professor  of  Christianity  partakes 
when  he  performs  the  prescribed  conditions. 
Vide  s.  1 18, 1,  ad  fin.  As  our  existence  is  com- 
posed of  two  very  unequal  portions,  these  bless- 
ings are  likewise  of  two  kinds.  We  enjoy  some 
of  them  even  in  the  present  life,' and  others  not 
before  we  enter  the  future  world;  s.  120.  It 
must  always  be  borne  in  remembrance,  that  the 
apostles  derived  all  these  spiritual  advantages, 
of  whatever  kind,  from  Christ,  and  that  they 
connect  these,  as  well  as  the  rewards  of  the 
pious  (^natural  and  positive),  in  such  a  way  with 
the  history  of  Jesus,  that  they  represent  him  as 
;he  procurer  of  them  all.    This  method  of  in- 


struction is  perfectly  suited  the  wants  of  man- 
kind. General  truths  become  much  more  intel- 
ligible, clear,  and  certain,  by  being  placed  in 
connexion  with  true  history,  from  which  they 
receive  a  positive  sanction.  We  find  that  the 
ancient  teachers  of  religion  among  tlie  heathen 
pursued  the  same  course.  And  tliis  is  a  proof  that 
they  better  understood  the  consiiiuiiun  of  man 
than  those  Christian  teachers  who  would  sepa- 
rate everything  historical  from  the  exhibition  of 
Christian  truth.     Vide  s.  108. 

The  spiritual  blessedness  which  believers  in 
Christ  receive  through  him,  even  in  the  present 
life,  consists,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
New  Testament,  in  the  following  particulars  : — 

I.  Assurance  of  the  undeserved  Benevolence,  the  Con* 
slant  Favour,  and  Paternal  Love  of  God. 

The  apostle  places  this  class"  of  spiritual  be- 
nefits in  the  closest  connexion  with  the  whole 
history  of  Christ,  representing  them  always  as 
the  fruit  of  the  atonement.  Their  doctrine  is,  that 
whoever  is  sure  of  the  forgiveness  of  his  sins  (and 
this  assurance  he  receives  through  the  atonement 
of  Christ,  or  through  faith  in  Christ  as  a  Saviour 
and  expiator),  and,  under  the  guidance  and  as- 
sistance of  God  and  Christ,  lives  conformably 
to  the  divine  precepts  (which  he  learns  from  the 
Christian  doctrine  and    from   the   example,  of 
Christ),  such  an  one  is  capable  of  receiving  the 
divine  blessings  which  are  promised  to  such,  and 
he  can  at  all  times  be  assured  of  thu  favour  and 
paternal  love  of  God  ;  he  will  be  treated  by  God 
and  Christ  as  a  friend,  and  made  partaker  of 
their  happiness,  so  far  as  he  is  susceptible  ot  it. 
Various  figures  and  expressions  are  used  in 
the  scriptures  to  represent  these  fruits  of  the 
atonement,  and  of  fiiilh  in  it.    But  they  all  con- 
vey one  and  the  same  idea.     They  ought  not 
therefore,  in  systems  of  theology,  to  be  sepa- 
rately considered,  in  different  chapters  or  arti- 
cles.    The  following  expressions  are  some  of 
the  most  common — viz.,  sonship,  the  right  of 
adoption,  election,  access  to  God,  and  union  with 
him.   We  shall  now  briefly  explain  these  terms. 
(1)  Tio^fCTLtt  0fov.    This  is  a  term  which  was 
originally  borrowed  from  the  Israeliiish  church. 
In  the  ancient  languages  the  phrase,  children  of 
God,  denotes  the  peculiar  friends,  the  favourites 
of  the  Deity.    The  Israelites  received  this  name, 
and  also  that  oi  frstlwrn,  to  denote  their  pre- 
eminence above  other  people.    Vide  Ex.  iv.  22, 
23.     Hence  in  Rom.  ix.  4,  the  Israelites  are 
said  to  possess  rio^foia — i.  e.,  the  rights  of  the 
favourite  people  of  God.     This  term  is  trans- 
ferred to  true  Christians,  in  order  to  denote  the 
relation  which  subsists  between  them  and  God. 
Those  who  endeavour  to  resemble  God  in  their 
conduct,  and  who  faithfully  obey  his  command- 
ments, have  a  higher  capacity  for  hajjpiness  and 
reward  than  others  who  are  wanting  in  these 


<IG 


CHRISTIAN  TIIKOLOGY 


traits  of  character.  We  hence  concliKjP,  with 
reason,  that  God  loves  anil  favours  them  more 
than  others  who  are  unlike  him.  One  who  loves 
God  as  a  son  loves  his  father,  and  seeks  to  re- 
semble him  as  a  dutiful  son  seeks  to  resemble 
his  father,  will  he  loved  by  God  in  return,  as  a 
dutiful  son  is  loved  by  his  father.  All  the  ad- 
vantajjes  and  spiritual  benefits,  therefore,  which 
we  obtain  tliroufjh  faith  in  Christ,  and  obedience 
to  his  precepts,  are  considered  as  belonging  lo 
vio'^taCa,  because  they  are  all  proofs  of  the  pater- 
nal love  of  CJod.  Vide  Gal.  iv.  1,5;  iii.  2('i;  Rom. 
viii.  15  (rti'fvyiavu>>£5io{,  a  filial  disposition),  and 
ver,  23  (the  reward  of  Christians);  Kphes.  i.  5; 
1  John,  iii.  1,  2.  This  right  of  adoption  we  owe 
to  Christ,  as  the  author  of  Christianity  and  our 
iSaviour.  Those  only  possess  this  right  who 
believe  in  him  as  Xptoroj  and  Swrjjp.  Hence 
John  declares  (i.  12),  '•He  gives  to  all  who 
believe  on  him  the  privilege  (f|oi"5ia)  of  consi- 
dering themselves  the  children  of  Godi"  which 
privilege  they  obtain,  according  to  ver.  13,  not 
by  descent  from  pious  ancestors,  according  to 
tiie  Jewish  prejudice,  but  solely  by  true  faith  in 
Jesus  Christ,  and  from  the  holiness  and  like- 
ness to  God  arising  from  and  connected  with 
faith. 

The  apostles  give  this  appellation  to  the  sin- 
cere worshippers  of  God  the  more  readily  and 
frequently  on  account  of  the  name  of  Christ, 
Tio{  0£ov.  God  treats  Christians  as  his  peculiar 
friends  on  account  of  Christ,  who  is  his  most 
behjved  and  chiiif  favourite,  rt,)ior6roz'jj,  fjiovo- 
yivrii.     Vii'.e  Gal.  iii.  2G,  27;  iv.  4—7. 

Pious  Christians  arc  thus  called  the  children 
nf  God  in  a  twofold  sense:  (r/)  because  they 
love  God  as  their  Father,  and  obey  him  from 
love;  (6)  because  they,  on  account  of  tliis  dis- 
position, are  loved  in  ret\irn  by  God,  as  ubedient 
children,  and  so  obtain  from  him  forgiveness  of 
sins  and  other  Christian  blessings.  Both  of 
thfse  ideas  are  sometimes  implied  at  the  same 
time  in  this  term. 

[In  the  older  writers  of  the  English  ehumh 
(as  well  as  in  the  ancient  fatliers,  and  the  most 
devout  and  spiritual  writers  of  oilier  nations,) 
we  fn-qiienlly  meet  with  the  idea,  that  the  rela- 
tion existing  between  man  and  God,  denoted 
by  somhif),  is  not  merely  a  relation  o^  fceUnf^, 
hut  also  of  nuturc.  This  is  sometimes  illustrated 
by  saying  that  we  are  not  adopted  by  God  into 
his  family  in  the  same  manner  in  which  a 
weilthy  lieiiefictor  sometknes  adopts  a  destitute 
and  orphan  cliilil,  conferring  upon  him  great 
privileges,  and  giving  him  the  name  of  gon,  to 
whii'h  he  has  no  natural  title.  In  such  a  case, 
this  name  would  denote  only  that  the  per- 
son on  whom  it  was  conferred  held  the  same 
plaee  in  t'le  afTcctions  of  the  benefactor,  and 
exercised  in  return  the  same  feelings  of  gr.iii- 
lude  and  dutiful  reverence  as  an  own  son  would 


in  similar  circumstances.    And  this  seems  to  b« 
the  more  general  sense  in  which  this  appella* 
tion  was  used  in  reference  to  the  friends  anJ 
worshippers  of  God  before  the  Christian  dispen- 
sation, and  to  those  few  who,  like  the  devout 
Cornelius,  are  found*  fearing  God  even  in  the 
midst   of   heathenism.     But   this   term,    when 
applied  to  believers  in  the  New  Testament,  has 
a  ouperior  meaning,  and  points  to  the  gift  of  the 
Spirit  of  adoption,  which,  in  the  highest  sense,  is 
peculiar  to  the  Christian  dispensation,  and  con- 
sequent upon  the  completion  of  Christ's  work. 
By  being  born  of  God,  and  receiving  this  peculiar 
grace,  the  Spirit  of  adoption,  believers  become 
partakers  of  "the  divine  nature,"  and  possessed 
of  an  internal  principle,  the  fruits  of  which  are 
the  love  and  obedience  in  which  the  essential 
nature   of  sonship    is   sometimes   placed,    but 
which  are  in  reality  only  the  signs  or  effects  of 
that  new  life  in  which  it  really  consists.     The 
possession  of  this  Spirit  by  Christ,  though  in  a 
far  higher  degree  of  intimacy,  seems  to  he  one 
of  the  grounds  of  his  bearing  the  title  of  .Son. 
And  the  manner  of  the  Spirit's  presence  and 
operation  in  believers  is  compared  by  the  sacred 
writers  with  the  hypostatical  union  of  the  divine 
and   human   natures   in   Christ.      These   ideas 
may  be,  indeed,  carried   so  far  as  to  involve 
error.     But  it  is  an  important  question  whether 
they  have  not  a  scriptural  basis.    Is  the  compa- 
rative   infrequency,   in    our    later    theological 
writings,  of  these  ideas,  which  were  so  current 
in  the  fathers  of  the  English  church,  the  result 
of    an    advance    or   a    decline    in    theological 
science? — Tii.] 

(0)  All  the  words  which  literally  signify  lo 
choose  and  t/te/ are  frequently  employed  in  order 
to  denote  the  distinguished  favour  and  love  of 
God  to  his  people.  We  are  accustomed  to 
select  from  many  things  that  which  is  the  best, 
most  desirable,  and  valuable.  Hence  to  say  a 
thing  is  chosen  is  often  the  same  as  to  say  it  is 
vnliifible  or  useful — e.  g.,  axfvni  ixXoyrj,  Acts, 
ix.  15.  Now,  because  our  love  rests  upon  those 
objects  which  appear  to  us  good  and  valuable, 
the  words  which  in  the  oriental  languages  sig- 
nify to  setid,  signify  also  to  love,  to  wi.-h  irell  to 
any  one,  lo  henrfit  him,  in  a  distinguished  man- 
ner. In  the  same  way  is  -na  used  in  Hebrew — 
e.  g.,I)eut.  iv.  57,  where  2nN  is  added.  The  LXX. 
sometimes  render  it  by  the  word  ixXfytiW,  as 
in  the  passage  cited,  and  sometimes  by  tvho- 
XH.V  and  (iya.-faV.  The  New  Testament  employs 
the  words  ixXiyi'^'^ax.  and  <xXfxfo{  in  the  same 
manner.  In  the  Old  Testament,  the  Israelili's 
were  denominated,  by  way  of  eminence,  the 
chosen  or  beloved  (:'->«n3)  of  God.  This  term  was 
then  transfi-rred  to  Christians,  who  become  wor- 
thy of  the  love  of  God  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ, 
and  by  coniliSet  conformed  entirply  to  ihe  divine 
will — c.  g.,  Matt.  xxiv.  21 ;  I  Pet.  ii.  9.    'E*xi- 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       417 


yio^ai  is  therefore  Christianum facer e,  as  1  Cor. 
i.  27,  28.  In  the  same  way  the  verba  cognu- 
Mcendi,  in  the  ancient  languages  mean  to  love, 
to  he  friendly  to  any  one.  Tiius  Christians  are 
said  to  be  yvi^o'^ivni  vxo  ©«ov,  amid  Deo.  Gal. 
iv.  9 ;  1  Cor.  viii.  3,  coll.  Ps.  Iv.  14. 

(3)  The  terms  which  denote  the  drawing  near 
of  God  to  men,  or  union  with  him.  God  was 
conceived  of  by  the  ancient  world  as  corporeal, 
and  as  resembling  man.  Thus  many  believed 
that  he  was  literally  and  actually  more  present 
in  one  place  than  in  another,  and  that  he  ap- 
proached the  place  where  he  wished  to  exert 
his  power,  and  that  otherwise  he  withdrew  or 
absented  himself.  Vide  s.  23,  II.  From  such 
conceptions  a  multitude  of  figurative  expressions 
have  arisen  in  all  the  ancient  languages.  These 
expressions  appear  very  gross  and  unworthy  of 
God.  At  first,  however,  they  were  literally 
understood  by  the  great  mass  of  mankind.  But 
afterwards,  as  the  views  of  men  became  en- 
larged and  improved,  they  were  understood  figu- 
ratively, and  were  interpreted  in  such  a  way  as  to 
be  consistent  with  the  divine  perfections.  The 
terms,  the  approach,  or  coming  of  God  to  any 
one,  the  connexion  of  God  with  any  one,  denote 
a  high  degree  of  his  favour  and  love,  and  of  the 
active  display  of  these  feelings,  his  assistance 
and  agency ;  and  so  the  willulrawiucnt  of  God, 
and  his  forsaking  any  one,  denote,  on  Ibe  otlier 
hand,  the  withdrawing  of  iiis  love  and  the  bene- 
fits resulting  from  it.  Thus  n^iii  denotes  the 
friendship  of  God,  Ps.  Ixxiii.  28,  coll.  Zech.  ii. 
10, 11.  And  thus  Christ  promises  to  his  disciples 
that  he  and  his  Father  would  conic  and  make 
their  abode  with  them — i.  e.,  would  be  always 
connected  with  them,  and  never  withhold  from 
them  their  special  assistance  and  protection  ;  in 
short,  would  be  to  them  what  one  friend  is 
to  another  in  guiding  and  upholding  him  ;  ver. 
21,  fu<}iaiifftv.  Thus  Jesus  consoles  his  dis- 
ciples who  were  lamenting  his  departure.  Cf. 
Rev.  iii.  20,  and  Matt,  xxviii.  20.  The  terms, 
j^jUft;  iofitv  (or  yiivonfv)  iv  ^fa,  ^foj  tativ 
(or  fiivii)  ^v  vfxiv,  which  occur  John  xvii.  21, 
and  1  John,  iii.  24,  &c.,  denote,  in  the  same 
way,  a  high  degree  of  the  sjiecial  favour  and 
friendship  of  God,  agreement  of  disposition 
with  him,  and  his  assistance  connected  with 
his  favour.  Cf.  John,  xv.  1,  "  Whoever  is  and 
remains  faithful  and  devoted  to  him  shall  be 
treated  by  him  in  the  same  manner  in  return; 
he  shall  be  united  to  him,  as  the  branch  is 
united  to  the  vine." 

From  these  and  similar  passages  the  mystics 
have  taken  occasion  to  speak  of  a  secret  union 
(h7»io  myslica)  with  God  and  Christ.  Tliey 
commonly  express  this  by  the  terms,  the  in- 
dwelling of  God  in  the  heart,  sirtliing  down  into 
O'td,  the  eumtnunication  of  God,  the  enjoyment 
53 


of  him,  &,c.  &c.  Some  of  them  associated  very 
gross  conceptions  with  these  phrases;  cf.  s.  23. 
After  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  such 
language  became  more  common  in  the  Western 
church.  It  was  understood  by  some  in  a  literal 
manner,  and  in  a  sense  unworthy  of  ilie  charac- 
ter of  God  ;  by  others,  in  a  manner  entirely  con- 
formed to  the  Bible,  but  yet  sometimes  too  indis- 
tinctly. Luiher,  Melancthon,  and  other  reform- 
ers, retained  the  phraseology  of  the  ancient  mys- 
tics, and  it  was  adopted  into  the  systems  i>f  theo- 
logy. Some  made  a  special  article  on  the  subject 
of  the  mystical  union;  though  Meianclhori  and 
others  took  pains  to  controvert  the  gross  ideas 
of  the  fanatical  mystics.  Hence  it  came  to 
pass  that  this  phraseology  was  thus  used  mostly 
in  homiletical  and  catechetical  discourses,  and 
that  formerly  many  sermons  and  books  were 
written  upon  this  subjoct. 

In  the  holy  scriptures  these  terms  denote  some 
times  the  agreement  of  the  dispositions  of  th-/ 
pious  with  the  law  of  God ;  sometimes  the  pe- 
culiar favour  and  friendship  of  God  towards 
them,  and  the  special  proofs  of  it,  and  also  tlieir 
enjoyment  and  feeling  of  the  tokens  of  this 
friendship. 

There  Js  no  reason,  therefore,  for  making  a 
particular  article  in  the  systems  of  theology 
upon  this  sul)ject.  Caution,  however,  should 
be  used  in  Christian  instruction  to  prevent  the 
notion  that  there  is  anything  properly  miraculous' 
in  this  matter  which  is  not  according  to  the 
Bible.  This  caution  is  the  more  necessary,  as 
many  enthusiastic  parties  frequently  employ 
such  expressions  with  regard  to  iliese  divine  in- 
fluences, and  give  them  such  a  meaning  as  im- 
plies an  immediate  illumination  independent  of 
the  holy  scriptures.  So  the  Quakers  and  Boiie- 
mians.  And  it  has  sometimes  hajipeiied  thai 
well-meaning  though  unenlightened  Christians 
have  received  the  doctrine  of  these  sectarians  as 
scriptural  because  it  was  expressed  in  scriptural 
phraseology. 

Another  reason  for  calling  these  proofs  of  the 
love  of  God,  and  the  experience  of  them,  uni» 
myslica,  is,  that  they  are  inward,  and  enjoyed  by 
spiritual  fellowship,  and  are  unseen  and  disre- 
garded by  those  who  have  no  taste  or  capacity 
for  si^ch  experiences.  A  satisfactory  and  full 
exi)lanation  of  these  feelings  cannot  be  given  ta 
those  who  have  no  experience  of  them,  as  is  the 
case  with  all  matters  of  experience.  Paul  said, 
very  truly.  Col.  iii.  3,  "  Your  (the  true  Chris- 
tian's) life  in  God,  (i.  e.,  your  divine  life,  which 
is  acceptable  to  God — your  happy  life  as  Chris- 
tians.) like  the  present  life  of  Christ  in  heaven, 
in  the  full  enjoyment  of  happiness,  is  concealed 
(zfarpvrtrat)  from  the  sreat  multitude  of  men;^ 
they  do  not  regard  it  as  happy  or  desirable  !>♦• 
cai  se  they  have  no  taste  fur  it. 


418 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOfiY. 


n.  Happiness  and  Peace  of  Mind,  and  a  joyful 
Prospect  of  I  lie  Future. 

We  owe  to  Christ,  according  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  New  Testament, 

(1)  Inward  pence  and  hnppinexs.  These 
spring  from  the  firm  conviction  that  through 
Christ  we  have  obtained  from  CJod  the  forcrive- 
ness  of  sin,  and  frotn  the  joyful  consciousness 
of  the  power  of  O'hI,  and  his  approbation  of  our 
feelings  and  conduct.  This  state  of  mind  is 
frequently  exjiressed  in  the  New  Testament  by 
rta,y^r;ita.,  cheerful  conjidenre  in  God,  in  opposition 
to  an  anxious  and  slavish  fear  of  punishment. 
Thus  Hfb.  iv.  16,  rtpoTfp;fwuf^a  /tfra  rta,'|'jr1i'a^ 
tu  %p6i'(f)  rr^i;  ;t"p''"{'  "  ^^  f*  "I'-^y  now  with  joyful 
confidence  evpect  unmingled  good  from  God, 
and  supplicate  him  for  it."  1  John,  iv.  17, 
?fa,'|'>;'i4ai'  t;);'fu'  iv  r;ui(>a  xpiVfuy,  to  be  able  to 
look  forward  to  the  day  of  judgment  with  cheer- 
fulness. Cf  1  John,  iii.  -20,  2\,  peace  nf  God, 
or  with  Go'J.  Rom.  v.  1,  2,  Eip>;v>;i'  rtpoj  Tov 
&eov  t^oufv,  Sixaiu^ifTfi — rtpo'jaytoy^i'  fij  ;ta'pti' 
0f oO,  &c.  Ver.  11,"  We  can  at  all  times  rejoice 
in  the  assurance  of  divine  favour,  (xavxaut^a  if 
&f6  ;)  and  this,  Christ  by  his  atonement  has  en- 
abled us  to  do."  By  this  assurance  and  confi- 
dence the  sou!  of  the  true  Christian  comes  to 
such  a  firm,  steadfast,  and  composed  frame,  as 
enables  him  to  endure  unmoved  the  greatest 
trials.  He  is  deeply  convinced  that  the  greatest 
adversities  contribute  to  his  highest  good,  and 
are  the  means  which  flod,  as  a  kind  father,  em- 
ploys for  the  welfare  of  his  children,  whom  he  is 
educating  not  merely  for  this  short  life,  but  for 
eternity,  Rom.  v,  3;  viii.  'JR,  22. 

(2)  The  mo.it  cheerful  proxprct  ff  the  future,  or 
a  certain  hnpr  of  our  future  bles.iedness.  One 
great  object  of  Christian  instruction  is,  to 
awaken,  confirm,  and  cherish  this  hope.  It  is 
always  used  as  a  motive  to  diligence  in  holi- 
ness, to  self-denial,  and  to  steadfastness  in  all 
the  sutferings  and  adversities  of  the  present  life. 
Ftom.  v.  2,  ixnif  f>'Ar^f  P>fov — i.  e.,  of  the  divine 
rewards.  Rom.  viii.  17,  IS,  21,  seq. ;  1  Pet.  i. 
3;  2  Cor.  vii.  1,  4,  H,  se*].  All  this  is  every- 
where connected  with  the  history  of  the  person 
of  Jesus  in  his  humiliation  and  exaltation:  and 
confirmation  of  the  views  now  given  is  /Irawn 
from  his  sufferings  and  death,  as  Heb.  ix.  15; 
from  his  resurrection  and  subsequent  ernltntion,  as 
John,  vii.  2S ;  xvii.  21 ;  1  Thess.  v.  »— 10.  By 
his  death  wo  are  deliver«;d  from  death.  His  re- 
surrection and  his  exalted  st  ition  are  pledges  to 
«is  that  he  will  actually  perform  all  that  he  pro- 
mised, and  will  bring  us  to  that  place  to  which 
he  has  gone  before — to  our  proper  heme,  and  our 
Father's  house. 

We  ought  not,  however,  in  hopn  v.f  the  future 
«orld,  to  forget  the  present.     \V  »   should  re- 


member that  God  designs  that  we  should  lirft 
for  the  present  world,  and  that  our  ha]>|»inew 
hereafter  depends  upon  cur  good  improvement 
of  the  time  now  allotted  us.  Faith  in  Christ 
and  grateful  obedience  to  all  his  requirements 
should  render  us  happy  even  here.  1  Tim.  iv.  B, 
ii"ii3fia — 6,"tayyf?.tai'  (?;):")  C"*;?  fr^i  '  v''  xt"  T»;t 
^tX>.ovi>;;.  This  cheerfulness  and  joy  which 
so  visibly  distinguish  the  pious  (yhrisiian,  and 
more  than  ever  in  the  midst  of  sutTerings  and 
adversities,  often  compel  those  who  are  without 
to  wish  that  they  were  as  pious  and  as  enviably 
happy  as  they  see  him  to  be.  Many  are  in  the 
case  of  King  Agrippa.  (Acts,  xxvi.  2"'.)  whocon- 
fessfld  that  but  little  was  wanting  to  persuade  him 
to  become  a  Christian.  But  they  stop  here,  be- 
cause they  are  unwilling  to  employ  the  simple 
means  necessary  for  obtaining  the  Christian  cha- 
racter, and  dread  to  sacrifice  their  sinful  pro- 
pensities. 

SECTION  CXX. 

THE    HAPPINESS    WHirH    CHRISTIANS    OBTAIN 
THROUGH  CHRIST  IN  THE   FL'TIRE  LIFE. 

Tims  subject  also  is  placed  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  most  intimate  connexion  with  the 
history  of  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  is  ile- 
duced  from  it.  He  is  the  procurer  of  this  ha|)pi- 
ness.  This  subject  needs  only  to  be  briefly  and 
summarily  stated  here;  since  the  scripture  <ioc- 
trine  respecting  the  happy  and  ui)h:-;>py  condi- 
tion of  men  after  death  will  be  more  fully  exhi- 
bited, s.  1 17,  et  seq. 

I.    Our  Deliverance  from  Death  obtained  through 
Christ. 

Death  is  always  represented  in  the  New  Tea 
tament  as  the  effect  and  consequence  of  sin. 
Now  since  Christ  has  delivered  from  the  conse* 
quences  and  punishment  of  sin,  he  must  also  bn 
regarded  as  the  cause  of  our  deliverance  tVom 
death.  The  resurrection  of  the  dead — i.  e.,  the 
complete  restoration  of  the  whole  man,  both  as 
to  soul  and  body,  is  a  blessing  for  which  the 
human  race  is  indebted,  according  to  the  .New 
Testament,  to  Christ.  Vide  John,  xi.  25 ;  1  Cor. 
XV.  22.  The  resurrection  of  the  dead  was  gene- 
rally believed  among  the  Jews  at  the  time  of 
Christ  and  the  apostles,  and  only  the  Sadducees 
denied  it.  But  Christianity  gave  to  this  doctrine 
a  new  support  and  sanction.  It  now  became 
intimately  connected  with  the  reli<rion  of  Jesus 
and  with  the  history  of  his  person,  like  everf- 
thin<T  else  relating  to  the  deliverance  and  welfare 
of  man. 

(1)  Christ  and  the  apostles  have  the  merit, 
which  is  unquestionably  jrreat,  of  castinQr  new 
light  upon  the  doctrine  of  life  beyond  the  grave, 
and  the  future  restoration  of  the  whole  man,  and 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BftOt'GHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       419 


^nvinpr  it  a  certainty  it  never  had  before.  They 
exhibited  itiis  truth  in  such  a  way  that  on  one 
side  it  serves  for  the  conifort  and  consolation  of 
mankind,  and  on  the  other,  to  uro^e  powerfully 
to  the  practice  of  goodness  and  holiness  in  the 
present  life.     Vide  Heb.  ii.   15;    1  Thess.  iv. 

13,  18;  1  Cor.  xv.  30,  57,  58;  Acts,  xxiv. 
14 — IG.  Paul  therefore  says,  very  truly,  2 
Tim.  i.  10,  that  Christ  is  ^ninoaj  ^urjv  xai 
a.^ba^)(siav  6ia  rov  ti-ayyfT^iov — 1.  e.,  by  his  in- 
structions he  brought  to  light,  and  clearly  and 
infallibly  revealed,  the  doctrine  of  a  happy  im- 
mortality. 

(•2)  IJut  this  doctrine  is  intimately  connected 
in  the  New  Testament  with  the  history  of  the 
person  of  Christ.  According  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment we  are  indebted  for  our  hope  of  a  future 
restoration  to  life  by  the  resurrection, 

(fl)  To  the  death  of  Chrid.  For  the  deliver- 
ance of  man  from  every  kind  of  misery,  and 
from  all  the  punishment  of  sin,  and  consequently 
from  death,  is  always  derived  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament from  the  death  of  Jesus.  Vide  s.  111. 
The  clearest  passage  of  this  kind  is  Hebrews,  ii. 

14,  "  Christ  became  man  in  order  to  take  away 
{iva  xatai>yr^nri)  by  his  death  the  power  of  him 
who  is  the  autlior  of  death,  llie  devil,''''  (from  whom 
death  and  every  calamity  is  derived,  since  he  is 
regarded  as  the  author  of  sin,  whi(!h  brought 
death  in  its  train.  Vide  1  Cor.  xv.  56.)  Here 
belongs  also  the  passage,  Rom.  v.  14 — 19,  where 
Christ  is  compared  with  Adam.  Adam  brought 
death  into  the  world  by  his  disobedience,  Christ 
brought  in  life  by  his  obedience,  (irtozor,  willing 
obedience  to  the  divine  will,  especially  to  the 
divine  purpose  that  he  should  suffer  and  die  for 
us.)  The  same  thing  is  briefly  expressed,  1  Cor. 
XV.  21,  thus: — "  As  Adam  was  the  cause  of  the 
death  of  all  men,  so  all  owe  it  to  Christ  that  they 
shall  be  raised  at  the  last."  This  corresponds 
with  the  language,  ver.  55,  ^'laroj  xatfno^r^  fi^ 
rixoj,  dtalh  overcome  (by  him),  heucforth  ceases; 
and  also  with  2  Tim.  i'.  10,  xarapyiroai  rbv  ^'ra- 
ror,  tah'nir  away  the  jmiver  of  death,  vavquishinir 
it — i.  e.,  freeing  men  from  it,  and  awaking  them 
to  eternal  life.  And  in  the  Revelation  of  .John, 
the  victory  of  Christ  is  made  to  consist  princi- 
pally in  the  fact  that  through  him  death  ceased  in 
be ;  Rev.  xxi.  4,  ^loroj  o-ix  ttsrir  tti,  or,  was  cast 
into  the  hthe  offre,  xx.  14 — i.  e.,  was  removed 
and  able  no  more  to  hurt. 

iVo/e. — The  Bible  mentions  it  as  one  of  the 
olessings  resulting  from  the  work  of  Christ,  that 
all  mankind  will  be  raised  by  him — e.  g..  1  Cor. 
XV.  21,  22,  coll.  John,  v.  21,  seq.,  and  conse- 
quently the  wicked  as  well  as  the  good.  Some 
theologians,  indeed,  have  objected  to  considering 
resurrection  in  the  case  of  the  impenitent  as  a 
blessing,  and  have  rather  regarded  it  as  a  punish- 
inei>t.   But  a  great  value  is  ascribed  in  the  Bible 


to  mere  existence,  even  in  the  present  life,  where 
we  live  in  the  midst  of  so  many  evils  and  adver- 
sities. Life  in  itself  is  always  more  valuable 
than  non-existence,  or  annihilation;  although  it 
seems  that  for  some  men  it  would  have  been 
better  never  to  have  been  born  ;  as  Christ  him- 
self says,  doubtless  in  the  language  of  a  curren' 
proverb,  Matt.  xxvi.  24.  Now  although  the 
wicked  are  to  be  punished  in  the  future  world 
through  their  own  fault,  the  preservation  of  their 
life  does  not  on  this  account  cease  to  be  a  bless- 
ing; still  less  is  it  changed  itself  into  a  punish, 
ment,  by  the  punishments  which  will  be  conse- 
quent upon  it.  The  ancient  fathers,  Athana- 
sius,  Augustine,  Theodoret,  Hilarius,  and  others, 
understood  the  subject  very  much  in  this  way. 

(6)  To  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  Morus,  p. 
175,  s.  3. 

The  New  Testament  teaches,  that  from  the 
resurrection  of  Christ  we  may  and  should  argue 
the  possibility  and  reality  of  our  own.  Was  God 
able  to  raise  Christ,  and  did  he  actually  raise 
him,  from  the  dead  ;  he  is  both  able  to  raise  us, 
and  will  actually  do  so.  The  resurrection  of 
Christ  is  therefore  a  sensible  confirmation  of  the 
doctrine  of  our  resurrection.  So  Paul  argues, 
1  Cor.  XV.  12 — 20.  In  Acts,  iv.  2,  it  is  said  that 
the  apostles  taught  through  Jesus  the  resumction 
of  the  dead — i.  e.,  by  his  example.  As  Cod 
raised  up  Christ  in  order  to  confer  upon  him  a 
reward  in  heaven,  we  are  to  share  in  the  same 
reward  and  happiness,  and  to  be  with  Christ. 
We  can  therefore  be  certain  of  our  resurrection  ; 
1  Thess.  iv.  14;  2  Cor.  iv.  14;  1  Peter,  i.  21. 
Christ  is  therefore  called  arta.(>xri  xfxoifiruivujv, 
1  Cor.  XV.  20,  23,  and  rtptororoxo^  ix  Ttoi'  rtxpuiv, 
the  first  that  rose,  Col.  i.  18,  because  he  must  be 
fv  Tidni  rfpioTft'tof.  Cf.  progr.  "  de  nexu  resurrec- 
tionis  Jesu  Christ!  mortuis  et  mortuorum,"  in 
script  a  rarii  argumenti,  N.  ix. 

(c)  To  the  more  perfect  condition  of  Christ  in 
heaven.  Christ  and  the  apostles  everywhere 
teach  that  it  is  the  will  of  God  that  Christ  should 
continue  and  complete  in  heaven  the  great  work 
which  he  commenced  on  earth  for  the  restoration 
of  the  human  race.  He  has  therefore  empowered 
Christ  to  raise  the  dead  and  to  hold  a  day  of  judg- 
ment, with  which  Christ  will  accomplish  his 
great  work  for  the  good  of  man.  He  himself  de- 
clares this,  John,  v.  21,  25 — 29,  and  represents 
this  charge  as  entrusted  to  him  by  the  Father. 
In  John,  xi.  25,  he  says,  <yj>  nfxi  r-  diaaraot;  xa* 
ri  i^i^r — i.  e.,  the  cause  of  the  resurrection  and 
vivitication  of  men,  he  to  whom  they  are  indebted 
for  this ;  cf.  ver.  26.  Paul  says.  Rom.  xiv.  9,  tliat 
by  his  death  and  resurrection  he  has  shewn 
himself  to  be  Lord  {xvpui-nv)  of  the  dead  and 
living;  and  1  Cor.  xv.  25,  26,  he  will  conquer 
and  disable  death,  the  last  enemy  of  the  humaa 
race.     Cf.  s.  9^,  99.  >J 


420 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


n.  Our  Delivet tnce  from  Puniihment  after  Death, 
and  our  Happiness  in  t tie  Future  World  obtain cd 
through  Christ. 

The  consequences  and  punishment  of  sin 
continue  even  into  the  future  world ;  and  it  is 
thftre  first,  according  to  the  scriptures,  that  the 
positive  punishmenis  of  sin  are  completely  in- 
flicted. Now  Christ  has  not  only  freed  us  from 
these  punishments  (eternal  condemnation)  on 
certain  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  by  us,  (vide 
Rijinans,  v.  9;  1  'I'hess.  i.  10,  /jvo^fcoj  ^.ucij  ano 
TTif  opyrj  rrj  f,);^oui»^j;)  but  we  owe  to  him  our 
wiiole  welfare  and  blessedness  in  the  future 
worlil,  (Cw>7  aiwvioj.)  There  tiie  happiness  be- 
gun ill  the  present  life  will  continue  and  be  per- 
fected, and  everything  by  which  it  is  now  in- 
terrupted will  be  removed.  Besides,  according 
to  the  New  Testament,  we  may  expect  that 
God  will  there  confer  positive  blessings  and  re- 
vards.  Paul  says,  1  Thess.  v,  9,  t>fro  rudf  o 
©fo{  ovx  fij  o^tyr^v,  a>.x'  (ij  rtfpi?toi>jgiv  (j4or>j)5iaj 
(the  attainment  of  happiness)  6kx  XpujTov. 
But  how  do  we  attain  this  liajjpiness  through 
Christi 

(1)  Bi/  the  doctrine  of  Christ.  This  gives  us 
(a)  Information  respecting  the  nature  of  future 
happiness,  so  far  as  we  are  now  capable  of  un- 
dt'rstanding  it.  Vide  1  Timothy,  i.  10;  1  Cor. 
XV.  (i)  Direction  how  we  may  obtain  the  pos- 
session of  it.  The  religion  of  Christ  derives 
motives  to  piety  and  godliness  from  the  bless- 
edness of  the  future  world,  shews  us  the  means 
by  which  we  may  attain  it,  and  prepares  us  for 
it.  John,  iii.  16;  vi.  51;  1  John,  ii.  25,  the 
great  end  of  the  Christian  religion  (tnciyyfXra) 
is  to  give  men  t^un^  oiwuoj.  By  the  Christian 
doctrine,  and  obedience  to  it,  we  are  made 
(through  divine  assistance)  to  resemble  the 
lioiiness  and  rijjhteousness  of  Christ  in  this 
world,  in  order  that  we  may  hereafter  be  re- 
warded, as  he  is;  1  John,  iv.  17;  2  Thess.  ii. 
13.  15;  iv.  14.  Hence  the  Christian  doctrine 
itself  is  called  ^u»J  and  Cw^  aiuviof,  because  it 
shews  (iiov  C*^);?;  John,  xvii.  3.     But, 

(2)  Our  enjoyment  of  this  happiness  is  de- 
icribed  as  principally  owing  to  Chrisfs  death 
a'ul  sub.ie(fucnt  cxaltntion.  ■  (n)  Our  entire  free- 
dom from  misery  and  our  being  placed  in  a 
happy  condition  is  ascribed  to  the  death  of 
Christ,  (vide  No.  1.,)  and  consequently  the 
liappiness  of  the  futuro  stale  must  also  be  a 
consequence  of  this  event.  Heb.  ix.  15,  "  We 
obtain  through  the  death  of  Christ  inayyixiav 
<<m^viov  xXj/poio/iJoj."  1  Thess.  V.  10.  »>  He  died 
for  us,"  iVa  f'vv  ovTu»  C»;''"A"*'«  ('')  '^•"C"  Christ 
js  exalted  in  heaven,  he  cares  for  the  good  of 
Birn.  He  is  oirtoj  (twTjypto?  cuwv»ov  roij  vnaxoi- 
«b-}tv'  our9  noAi,  Heb.  v.  9,  coll.  vii.  '25.  And 
as  he  has  received  power  from  the  Father  to 
raise  the  dead  and  hold  a  day  of  judgment,  he 


has  also  received  charge  from  him  to  distribota 
rewards  to  the  righteous  and  to  introduce  his 
followers  into  the  abodes  of  the  blessed.  Vide 
Malt.  XXV.  32,  seq. ;  John,  x.  28,  29,  s-^^v  acoi- 
vkov  Sibti/ii' avToii,  xvii.  2;  2  Tim.  iv  IH,  el 
seq. 


ARTICLE  XI. 

ON  THE  DOCTIIINE  OF  THE  CO.VDITIO.NS  OF 
SALVATION. 


This  Article,  and  the  following,  exhibit  the  man- 
ner in  which  Christians  may  attain  to  the  promifcd 
happiness.  The  Eleventh  Article  treats  of  the  con- 
ditions which  the  Christian  doctrine  j)resc'ri!ics  to 
men,  and  which  must  l)e  performed  by  them  if  they 
would  actually  enjoy  this  blessedness,  'i'hesc  con- 
ditions are,  repentance  and  faith.  The  Twelfth 
Article  treats  of  the  assistances  by  which  God  ena- 
bles men  to  perform  the  prescrilwd  conditions,  or, 
technically  speaking,  De  operatiunibus  gratiit.  sivi 
de  cccononua  gratis. 


SECTION  CXXI. 

O.N  THE  CHRISTIAN  DOCTRINE  OF  ''FAITH,"  AS 
THE  ONLY  CONDITION  OF  SALVATION;  TOGE- 
THER WITH  REMARKS  RESPECTING  THE  SALVA- 
TION OF  THE  HEATHEN  AND  OF  INFANTS. 

I.  Outline  of  the  Christian  Doctrine  re.tpecting 
Faith  ;  the  origin  and  ground  of  the  same. 

(1)  Jesus  and  the  apostles,  in  the  instruc- 
tions which  they  give  to  adults  who  are  ac- 
quainted with  the  Christi.in  doctrine,  always 
insist  chiefly  on  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  as  the 
great  condition  of  obtaining  the  salvation  pur- 
chased by  Christ.  The  whole  happiness  of  the 
Christian  (his  bt-xaionvvr;  and  (jwrriua)  is  de- 
rived from  this  single  source;  and  the  unblicver 
(artinr^(Ta<)  loses  this  happiness,  and  brings 
upon  himself  iniseri/,  (unwXfia,  xaraxptiij;) 
Mark,  xvi.  16;  Romans,  i.  17;  iii.  21,  22. 
"the  gospel  makes  known  the  determination 
of  God  to  forgive  all  who  believe  on  Jesus 
Christ,  on  account  of  their  faith,  (ix  or  6ia  tjjj 
rti'oTfwj;)"  Hebrews,  x.  38,  39,  seq, 

(2)  The  doctrine  of  faith  is  therefore  inse- 
parably connected  with  the  doctrine  of  th# 
atonement  and  of  jitstiftealion.  The  latter  cap 
be  obtained  only  through  faith.  Therefore,  cf 
8.  108,  where  the  plan  of  this  doctrine  is  stated 

We  are  led  even  by  natural  religion  to  tiie 
followini;  points: — "Man  must  regard  himself 
as  morally  imperfect,  and  in  such  a  way,  too, 
as  to  imply  guilt  on  his  own  part;  or,  which  is 
the  same  thing,  ho  must  acknowleilge  himself 
to  be  a  sinner,  a  iransijressor  of  the  divine  pre- 
cepts.    He  must  acknowledge  that  he  oivjht  to 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUCJHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       49! 


avoid  and  abhor  sin,  plate  his  confidence  in  the 
iriprcy  of  God,  hope  for  pardon  and  forgiveness 
from  hini,  and  that  he  ought  to  form  and  execute 
the  serious  purpose  of  obeying  the  divine  pre- 
cepts and  living  acceptably  to  God."  This 
might  Be  called  ihefatlh  of  reason.  But  this 
philosophical  faith  is  wanting  in  that  certainty 
and  evidence  which  is  necessary  to  tranquillize 
the  mind;  it  is  insufficient  to  satisfy  those  whose 
consciences  are  awakened ;  as  we  have  before 
shewn,  s.  108.  Experience  teaches  that  a  faith 
of  this  general  nature  is  not  able  to  answer  those 
feelings  which  rise  in  the  inmost  soul  even  of 
the  best  of  men.  There  must  bo  something  po- 
sitive and  hidorical  upon  which  they  can  rely; 
some  express  assurance  from  God  of  his  for- 
giveness; or  they  will  be  left  in  the  most  dis- 
tressing uncertainty.  The  greater  part  of  the 
human  race,  in  all  nations,  are  therefore  united 
in  believing  that  something  must  be  done  in 
order  to  conciliate  the  favour  of  God  to  sinners, 
and  to  induce  him  to  forgive  their  past  offences  ; 
and  also  that  their  mere  reformation,  and  their 
living  in  the  practice  of  virtue,  imperfect  as 
their  goodness  will  always  be,  is  insufficient  to 
secure  the  divine  forgiveness,  and  can  afford  no 
quieting  assurance  that  pardon  is  obtained.  Vide 
s.  108.  Now  Christianity  rejects  all  the  means 
of  conciliating  the  favour  of  God,  in  which  the 
great  body  of  men  place  their  confidence,  and 
which  were  common  among  Jews  and  Gentiles 
at  the  time  of  Christ.  It  regards  them  as  af- 
fording false  grounds  of  peace,  and  as  being  in- 
jurious to  morality;  and  in  place  of  them  incul- 
cates faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  atonement 
made  by  him,  and  makes  this,  exclusive  of  the 
personal  deserts  of  believers,  the  sole  ground  of 
all  the  benefits  which  they  enjoy. 

In  this  manner,  the  doctrine  respecting  the 
conditions  of  salvation  is  brought  into  the  closest 
connexion  with  the  other  positive  doctrines  of 
Christianity,  and  especially  with  the  history  of 
the  person  of  Christ.  To  the  greater  part  of  man- 
kind this  scriptural  faith  possesses  far  more  in- 
terest, evidence,  and  certainty,  than  a  merely 
philosophical  faith  can  ever  give.  The  latter 
mustbe  for  ever  attended  with  uncertainty, doubt, 
and  fear  of  the  reverse  of  what  is  hoped  for. 
And  this  uncertainty  and  fear  may  become,  in 
moments  of  suffering  and  adversity,  extremely 
disturbing,  and  perhaps  lead  to  obstinate  de- 
spair. For  we  cannot  obtain  from  philosophy  any 
express  assurance  of  the  will  of  God  relative  to 
our  forgiveness.  Again  :  the  scriptural  account 
of  faith  in  Christ  as  the  only  condition  of  sal- 
vation excludes  wholly  all  the  false  motives  to 
duty  which  are  so  injurious  to  true  morality. 
The  essentials  of  the  scriptural  doctrine  on  this 
point,  and  their  connexion  with  each  other,  may 
be  clearly  seen  in  the  following  statement. 
The  Christian  should  strive  after  the  greatest 


possible  moral  perfection,  (likeness  to  God.) 
This  effort  should  result  from  willing  obeJ/mct 
to  God,  and  this  again  from  thankful  lovt  to 
God,  and  confidence  in  him,  and  not  from  slavish 
fear  of  punishment;  1  John,  iv.  18,  19.  But 
this  love,  tins  grateful  confidence,  cannot  exist 
unless  man  is  convinced  that  God  is  graciously 
disposed  towards  him,  and  will  forgive  his  sins. 
God  does  not  forgive  sins,  however,  on  account 
of  good  works,  self-inflictions,  sacrifices,  &c., 
but  on  account  of  Christ;  s.  108.  We  must 
therefore  believe  that  Christ  by  his  death  has 
procured  forgiveness  and  salvation.  But  would 
we  come  to  the  actual  enjoyment  of  the  pr'nnised 
forgiveness,  we  are  under  indispensable  obliga- 
tions to  live  henceforward  in  the  strictest  ob- 
servance of  the  divine  comiiMnds  fniu  grateful 
love  to  God  and  to  Christ.  Consequently  we 
must  become  familiarly  acquainted  with  the 
divine  precepts  and  must  regulate  our  whble 
conduct  according  to  them  ;  and  how  to  do  this 
we  are  fully  taught  in  the  Christian  doctrine. 
And  thus  fail h  as  much  involves  our  doing  the 
divine  will,  as  it  does  our  knowing  it. 

The  personal  enjoyment  and  possession  of 
forgiveness  and  saving  grace,  and  of  the  whole 
sum  of  Christian  blessedness  which  God  has 
promised  to  bestow,  is  called  applicaiio  grati.-e, 
and  the  condition  on  which  we  obtain  these 
b\ess'ings  (^conditio  gratin-')  isfaith.  Vide  Moms, 
p.  197,  seq.,  s.  1,  2.  Those  who  enjoy  these 
blessings  are  called  in  the  scriptures  by  dif- 
ferent names.  Vide  Morus,  p.  197,  note  3. 
Cf.  Tollner,  Wahre  Griinde  warum  Gott  den 
Glauben  an  Christum  will,  in  his  "  Vermischte 
Aufsatze,"  th.  ii.  st.  2. 

II.  On  the  Salvation  of  Heathen  and  of  Children. 
(1)  When  treating  of  the  conditions  of  salva- 
tion established  in  the  Christian  scheme,  we 
speak  in  reference  to  Chi-islians — i.  e.,  those 
who  have  opportunity  and  capacity  to  become 
acquainted  with  Christianity,  and  to  convince 
themselves  of  its  truth,  without  undertaking  to 
say  what  means  for  attaining  salvation  God 
may  give  those  who  are  ignorant  of  Christian- 
ity, or  who  remain  unconvinced  of  its  truth 
through  unintentional  mistake,  and  without 
criminality  on  their  part,  God  is  not  limited 
to  one  single  method,  which  he  is  compelled  to 
employ  equally  at  all  times  and  among  all  men. 
The  Bible  says,  indeed,  that  God  will  punish 
the  heathen  on  account  of  their  sins;  not.  how- 
ever, because  they  did  not  believe  in  Jesus 
Christ,  if  this  was  not  their  fault,  but  because 
they  did  not  act  agreeably  to  the  knowledge 
which  they  possessed,  and  the  law  of  nature 
with  which  they  were  acquainted;  Rom,  i.  21, 
spq.;  Ephes.  ii.  1,  2,  The  holy  scriptu'^"' 
therefore,  never  recrard  the  heathen  merely  as 
such,  as  excluded  from  salvition  Such  pas- 
2N 


422 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


sages  as  Mark,  xvi.  16,  do  not  relate  to  the 
heathen  who  are  innocently  ignorant  of  the 
gospel.  The  word  ani'jttif  does  not  signify 
not  to  beHei'e,  but  to  uiabclicrc,  and  always  im- 
plits  guilt.  The  conclusion  sometimes  drawn 
fromsuch  passages  is  as  improper  as  it  would 
he  jLo  conclude  from  2  Thess.  iii.  10  that  the 
child  and  the  infirm  man  should  be  left  to  pe- 
rish by  hunger;  as  Heilmann  well  observes. 
No  one  will  ever  be  condemned  for  guiltless 
ignorance,  or  for  unintputional  and  innocent 
mistake;  but  only  for  guilty  rejection  and  con- 
tpiuiit  of  the  truth,  or  for  living  contrary  to  the 
|lri!th  when  once  known.  What  Mark  expresses 
by  ViniffTfti',  John  expresses  by  ^^  Ttiirfwn', 
^'c  be  unbeh'evi'jii^,')  John,  iii.  18;  xii.  17,  48; 
and  thes»  twc  modes  of  expression  are  synony- 
mous. Vide  John,  iii.  3C.  Hence  rl.ti'jr/a  and 
dxrJ^cia  were  frequently  interchanged  as  syno- 
nymous, Rom.  iii.  3;  xi.  20,  23,  30.  Now  the 
afn^ovvrsi  or  ariiaroiivrfi  are  (a)  the  nnbeliev- 
itit;,  those  who  do  not  receive  the  words  and 
decl.irations  of  another  as  true,  who  do  not  give 
them  credit;  (b)  the  disobedient,  obstinate,  (cun- 
lumuun;)  in  which  sense  Xenophon  and  other 
classical  writers  use  the  word  a.Ttt'iTfiv.  Now 
the  terms,  axfi'^fiv  'K.^h'^tCi,  oLTafTfiv,  firi  rtiirfv- 
iiv,  o^fTfti-  X()igroi',  are  used  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament to  designate  those  who  are  disobedient 
to  riirist,  and  do  not  follow  his  precepts,  always 
implying  guilt  on  their  part.  This  is  done  in 
two  ways:  (a)  by  despising  and  rejecting  Chris- 
tianity when  it  is  once  made  known,  or  when 
opportunity  is  given  for  undHrslanding  and  exa- 
mining it;  Rom.  iii.  3;  2  Cor.  iv.  II  ;  (5)  by  liv- 
ing in  opposition  to  Christian  truth  when  it  is 
understood  and  embraced,  and  by  neglectimr 
its  precepts.  Vide  Tit.  i.  IG.  In  both  of  these 
cases  there  is  guilt;  and  hence  punishment 
(xoraxpiiii)  ensues.  Tlie  word  unbe/iff,  there- 
fore, often  designates  at  the  same  time  these 
two  kinds  of  guilt— e.  g.,  Mark,  xvi.  IC;  John, 
iii.  18—21  ;  xii.  17,  18. 

Those  heathen,  now,  who  do  not  belong  to 
one  or  the  other  of  these  classes,  are  not  disbe- 
litrirs,  though  they  may  not  believe  in  Christ. 
Upon  such,  therefore,  condemnation  is  not  pro- 
liounced  in  these  passages.  They  are  not  in- 
deed obedient  to  Christ,  nor  yet  dimbedient. 
Thus  one  who  is  not  the  Subject  of  a  certain 
king  may  not  iiMlfed  be  obi-dient  to  his  laws, 
eitlier  because  he  is  ignorant  of  tliem,  or  not 
bound  in  duty  to  obey  tliein ;  but  hi-  cannot  on 
this  account  be  called  dinnbidiinl,  I)is..bpilienof 
al\v;iy9  presupposes  an  f)l)lig.ition  to  obedience. 

(2>  God  has  not  seen  ufo.id  as  yei  to  bring 
all  nations  to  the  knowledge  of  f'hristi.uiity. 
And,  liille  capable  as  we  are  of  understamling 
the  |dan  of  God  in  this  respect,  we  ou^iii  noi  to 
conclude  from  this  circumstance  that  the  (^hris- 
.ian  revelation  is  unnecessary  and  may  easily 


be  dispensed  with.    It  has  pleased  God  to  Jear* 
many  nations  for  thousands  of  years  in  a  barba- 
rous and  savage  state.     But  can  we  conclude 
from  this  fact  that  intellectual  cultivation  and 
moral  improvement  are  superlluous  and  useless, 
and  therefore  missions  are  unnecessary^     Nor, 
on  the  other  hand,  can  we  conclude  from  this 
circumstance  that  God  cannot  save  the  heathen 
because  they  have   not   enjoyed   the    light   of 
Christian  revelation.    Human  happiness  has  as 
many  degrees  and  gradations  as  human  cultiva- 
tion and  refinement  of  manners,  and  all  men  aro 
not  capable  of  one  and  the  same  degree.    They 
cannot  all,  therefore,  be  treated  by  God  in  the 
same  manner.    One  thing  may  be  indispensable 
to  tiie  happiness  of  some  persons  and  of  some 
nations,  while  to  others  the  same  thing  is  quite 
superfluous,  because  they  are  as  yet  incapable 
of  enjoying  the  happiness  arising  from  it.    It  is 
not  said  in  direet  words  in  the  New  Testament, 
that  God  will  make  the  heathen  eternally  /uijipy. 
If  this  were  said,  there  are  many  who  would 
pervert  it.     But  it  is  expressly  asserted   that 
God  does  not  demand  more  from  any  one  than 
he  is  al)le  with  his  knowledge  and  abilitit'S  tc 
perform;  Luke,  xii.  18,  seq.;  and  also,  that  hn 
who    faitltfully   serves    God    according   to   the 
knowledge  and   means  which   he  enjoys,  and 
does  what  he  considers  to  be  his  duty,  is  accept- 
able to  him;  Acts,  x.  35.     Cf.  Moras,  p.  I2P, 
note  9.    According  to  the  testimony  of  the  holy 
scriptures,  God  will   have  reference,  in  deter- 
mining the  character  and  conditions  of  men,  to 
the  knowledge  they  have  had,  the  dispositions 
they  have  cherished,  and  the  actions  they  havo 
performed.     We  may  confidently  expect  from 
the  goodness  of  God  that  since  he  has  hereto- 
fore given  to  so  many  nations  only  the  light  of 
nature,  he  will  not  make  them  miserable  for  the 
want  of  that  higher  knowledge  of  which  they 
are  innocently  destitute.     And  since  there  is  a 
future  life,  we  may  trust  that  he  will  there  lead 
tiiem   to  that  higher  deijree  of  happiness  and 
clearness  of  knowledge  which  they  did  not  at- 
tain in  this  life,  because,  without  tault  of  their 
own,  they  were  here  incapable  of  receiving  it. 
To  such  a  dispensation  in  the  future  world  there 
is  at  least  an  allusion  in  Rtv.  xxii.  2,  in  the  tree 
if  life,  by  the  river  of  life,  whose  leaves  serve  fi,f 

The  great  body  of  the  Jews,  from  the  earliest 
ages,  denied  salvation  to  the  heathen,  on  the 
principle,  F.xtra  eeclesinm  non  ilnri  salutrm. 
But  tliis  is  entirely  opposite  both  to  the  Old 
Testament  and  to  the  spirit  of  Christianiiv. 
Kven  Mahoiiinied  did  not  go  lo  this  degree  of 
exclusiveness.  Nor  did  the  more  ancient  fJre- 
cian  fathers  deny  salvation  to  the  heathen, 
although  they  pliilosoplii/.d  aliout  it  after  their 
manner.  K.  g.,  Justin  the  Martyr  and  Clennnt 
of  Alexandria   hold  that  the  \6fi^  exerted  au 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       4i-'« 


»fi[ency  upon  the  heathen  by  means  of  reason  ; 
and  that  the  heathen  philosophers  were  called, 
justified,  and  saved  by  philosophy.  But  after- 
wards, especially  after  the  third  century,  when 
^he  false  Jewish  notions  respecting  the  church 
(s.  134)  were  introduced  into  the  West,  and  the 
cjiaxim  was  adopted.  Extra  ecckniam  nan  dari 
*alutem,  (which  was  the  case  aftiT  the  age  of 
\ugustine,)  they  then  began  to  deny  the  salva- 
tion of  the  iieathen ;  though  there  were  always 
«oine  who  judged  more  favourably.  Thus 
Zwingli,  Curio,  and  others,  believed  that  (iod 
would  pardon  the  heathen  on  account  of  Christ, 
tilthough  in  this  life  they  had  no  knowledge  of 
liis  merits-  Cf.  the  historical  account  in  Bey- 
ken's  Diss,  "de  salute  gentium;"  Strasburg, 
1777;  and  a  short  statement  of  the  opinions  .of 
others  in  llorus,  p.  128,  129,  where  he  justly 
recommends  to  our  imitation  the  exemplary 
modesty  of  the  apostles  when  speaking  on  this 
Voint.  Tiie  whole  subject  was  investigated 
antnv  on  oceasion  of  the  violent  attack  which 
Hofslede,  a  preacher  in  Holland,  made  upon 
the  Bclisaire  of  Marmontel.  This  gave  rise  to 
Eherhard's  "  Apologie  des  Socrates."  Cf.  also 
'loilner,  Bevveis  dass  Gott  die  Menschen  auch 
'lurch  seine  Oirenbarung  in  der  Natur  zur  Se- 
Mgkeit  fiihre;  Ziillichau,  17(10,  8vo.  Many 
xiodern  writers  have  treated  this  subject  in  such 
a  way  as  to  lead  to  a  feeling  of  indifference 
towards  Christianity ;  but  this  result  need  not 
fce  feared  from  the  scriptural  representation  here 
given. 

(3)  We  must  apply  these  same  principles  to 
the  subject  of  the  salvation  of  iitfaiils.  None 
have  ever  really  doubted  respecting  the  salva- 
tion of  those  who  have  died  in  infancy,  before 
they  attained  to  the  full  use  of  their  understand- 
ing. For  since  there  is  a  future  life,  we  may 
expect  with  certainty  that  God  will  make  such 
provision  there,  that  both  children  in  the  literal 
sense,  and  those  who  are  children  in  under- 
standing and  knowledge,  will  be  able  to  obtain 
what  they  were  here  deprived  of  without  their 
own  fault;  and  that  in  his  goodness,  wisdom, 
and  justice,  lie  will  bestow  upon  them  that  de- 
gree of  happiness  of  which  they  are  capable. 

Theologians  have  pursued  two  dilTerent  me- 
thods in  treating  of  this  subject. 

(o)  Some  are  content  with  saying  that  God 
will  pardnn  and  save  infants  on  account  of  the 
merits  of  Ciirist,  which  extend  to  all,  although 
they  may  not  have  believed  in  Christ  during 
llieir  life-time;  and  tliat  their  being  born  with 
natural  depravity  will  not  harm  them,  because 
they  themselves  are  not  to  blame  for  it.  These 
writers  refer  to  Rom.  v.  15 — 17  for  an  analo- 
gous proceeding.  This  is  the  most  simple  and 
the  safest  view. 

(b)  Others,  misunderstanding  the  passage, 
Vlark,  xvi.  IG,  suppose  that  faith  in  Christ  is 


an  indispensable  requisite  for  salvation  in  all 
men ;  and  have  therefore  (together  with  some 
schoolmen)  embraced  the  doctrine  of  -i  faith  if 
irfants,  which  they  have  variously  explained 
and  described,  zs fides prwsumpta,  imp/icitn,  per 
baptismum  sine  verba  (some  say,  sine  co'^7\itiime\ 
infusa  ;  talis  affcctio  in  infante  qitalis  JJeu  placet. 
Tiie  schoolmen  describe  it  as  dispositio  ad  jiis- 
titiam.  But  none  of  them  succeed  in  conveying 
any  intelligible  idea.  Nothing  is  said  in  the 
New  Testament  about  such  a  faith.  Faith 
always  presupposes  knowledge,  and  power  to 
exercise  the  understanding.  Now  since  chil- 
dren have  neither  of  these  requisites,  faith  can- 
not be  ascribed  to  them;  nor  indeed  disbelief, 
unless  the  word  is  used  very  improperly.  The 
mere  want  of  faith  is  not  damnable,  but  unbelief 
only,  or  the  guilty  destitution  of  faith.  Those 
who  have  adopted  this  view  have  thus  been 
compelled  (as  appears  from  the  preceding  re- 
marks) to  vary  the  idea  which  is  uniformly 
attached  to  the  word  faith  when  adults  are  re- 
ferred to,  as  soon  as  they  speak  of  children,  and 
to  call  something  in  them  by  this  name  which 
is  nowhere  else  so  denominated.  The  passage, 
iMatt.  xviii.  6,  does  not  bear  upon  this  point, 
since  the  disciples  of  Christ  are  th<  re  meant 
Cf.  the  Article  on  Baptism,  s.  1 12,  and  Morus, 
p.  219.  From  the  words  of  Christ,  however. 
Matt.  xix.  14,  "Of  such  is  the  kingdom  of 
God,"  it  is  clear  that  he  considers  children  as  be- 
longing to  his  kingdom.     And  this  is  enough. 

SECTION  cxxn. 

OF  THE  VAI?10US  SIGNIFICATIONS  OF  THE  WORD 
FAITH,  AS  USED  IN  THE  BIBLE;  SOME  OF  THE 
PRINCIPAL  PASSAGES  RELATING  TO  FAITH  ;  THE 
PARTS  OK  WHICH  FAITH  IS  MADE  UP ;  AND 
SOME  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  THEOLOGICAL 
DIVISIONS  OF  FAITH. 

I.  Significations  of  niorii ;  a7id  Explanation  of  the 
principal  texts  relative  to  Faith. 

The  terms,  faith,  the  faithful,  &c.,  frequently 
occur  in  the  religious  dialect  even  of  the  He- 
brews. They  were  originally  taken  from  the 
language  of  common  life,  and  transferred  into 
the  religious  phraseology  of  the  Jews,  where 
they  express  various  nearly  related  ideas. 
From  this  Jewish  dialect  Christ  and  the  apos- 
tles borrowed  these  terms.  The  Hebrew  words 
trx,  prsn,  njirs,  were  translated  by  the  Hellen- 
istic Jews  (e.  g.,  the  LXX.)  by  the  words  nw- 
rfisiv,  rtiorii,  and  were  also  rendered  in  the 
same  way  by  Christ  and  his  apostles. 

;rN  primarily  signifies,  to  be  firm;  and  then, 
to  be  certain,  sure,  confident.  Hence  njirN  signi 
fies,  as  rttarij  does,  aside  from  its  religious  us*^, 
truth,  faith,  integrity,  honmir,  proif  {Xcts,  xvii. 
31),  and  conviction,   (Rom.  xiv.  23.)     When 


424 


CHKiSTTAN  THEOLOGY. 


ihtns^s  are  spoken  of,  )':>vn  and  rtiiTfinv  signify, 
to  hold  them  (whatever  they  are,  events,  doc- 
trines, laws)  as  certain;  when  persons  are 
spuken  of,  Ihey  signify,  to  trust  in  them,  to  rely 
on  their  ti:orJs,  declarations,  works.  These 
words  were  used  in  the  same  sense  in  reference 
I)  persons  and  things,  in  the  langnage  of  com- 
mon life  among  the  Jews.  In  Hebrew  they 
were  construed  with  the  particles  a  or  ^y.  Hence 
in  the  Septuagint  and  in  the  New  Testament, 
ftistiviiv  is  construed  with  f  ij  and  iv,  frequently 
too,  as  in  pure  Greek,  with  the  dative — e.  g., 
(Li  or  iv  X|K5T9,  ro  Xpt'7'r'o,  fvoyyfXi<j),  &c.  The 
term  occurs  for  the  first  time,  in  the  religious 
sense,  in  reference  to  Abraham,  Gen.  xv.  C, 
i)ti(jTivif  &fc) — i.  e.,  considered  his  promise  as 
sure,  relied  on  it,  and  acted  accordingly.  It 
frequently  occurs  afterwards  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment— e.  g.,  Exod.  xiv.  31  ;  Psalm  Ixxviii.  22, 
32,  &c.      - 

To  believe,  therefore,  (a)  when  commands, 
promises,  doctrines,  events,  are  spoken  of,  sig- 
nifies, to  consider  and  regard  them  as  fixed  and 
artain;  (i)  when  God  is  spoken  of,  it  denotes 
our  whole  duty  to  him,  love,  confidence,  and  obe- 
dience tn  his  commandments,  because  everything 
which  comes  from  him  is  certain  and  infallible; 
(f)  when  prophets  and  the  messengers  of  God 
are  spoken  of,  to  believe  them,  means,  io  receive 
and  obey  itdiat  they  make  known  as  of  divine 
arisrin  anil  infallibly  certain.  This  term  is  em- 
ployed in  the  Koran  in  the  same  way.  These 
main  ideas  are  differently  modified  according  to 
llie  different  objects  which  are  received  by  us 
as  certain.  And  hence  we  can  easily  derive  the 
strictly  religious  senses  in  which  this  word  is 
used  in  the  New  Testament. 

(1)  riiTrcj  frequently  signifies  rf//^'on  »7.fe//" 
and  the  particular  doctrines  of  which  it  consists, 
(^  files,  quv  credilttr,  or  fides  objcctiva;)  like 
linan,  in  the  Koran,  and  njirs  in  the  Talmud. 
It  is  thus  used  for  Christianity  in  general,  Jude, 
vcr.  3,  20,  dyiururrj  rtinrn,  (Jal.  iii.  23.  Also 
in  the  phr^ises  v.taxojj  rt/jirfuj,  fides  apo*tnlica, 
Niarna,  &.'c.  Xd^oj  niotftoj  is  the  doctrine 
which  requires  faith. 

(2)  It  is  more  frequently  used  subjectively, 
denotincf  ttie  approbation  which  one  gives  to  a 
teacher,  and  the  obedience  which  he  yields  to 
his  instructions,  after  being  convinced  of  the 
truth  of  his  doctrine  and  \.\w  divinity  of  his  mis- 
sion. This  approbation  is  called  in  the  schools, 
fidr'i  qua  creditur.  Thus  John,  v.  4(1,  nifttxinv 
MuvT^;  Matt.  xxi.  25.  32.  lujaii'j;.  When  used 
in  the  rjospels  in  reference  to  Jesus  it  denotes 
the  acknowledgment  of  him,  and  .ibedience  to 
biin,  sometimes  as  a  pro|»het.  anil  indeed  the 
greatest  messenger  of  Heaven;  and  sometimes 
as  Messiah.  Hence  ('hri><tians  are  called  «n- 
rdovtfi,  TttfTot..  Synonymous  witb  ntnrfvnv 
are    nd^rs^at,   o,uo>.oytt»'  Xpiatov    Ir^rnvv,  rltai 


Xptirov,  or  iv  Xpt^T'o,  Kvpiov  drttlv,  'Irmvv* 
intxaXftv  oioua.  XptTTov.  The  opposite  term* 
are  artinrflf,  drtft^fti',  uri  i-rtaxoi-eiv  fvoyytXi^ 
Closely  connected  with  this  is, 

(3)  'I'he  sense,  trust,  confidence,  rtfrtot^Ttj, 
which  arises  from  the  conviction  of  the  truth 
and  divinity  of  a  doctrine,  and  is  manifested  in 
dilTerent  ways. 

(a)  When  one  is  convinced  of  the  power  and 
goodness  of  another,  and  therefore  confidently 
hopes  for  help  and  assistance  at  his  hand,  and 
this  not  only  because  he  is  able,  but  also  will- 
ing to  help  and  befriend  him.  This  use  is  com- 
mon in  profane  writings,  in  Hebrew  (nra  and 
TTNn),  in  the  Septuagint,  and  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. Isaiah,  xxviii.  16;  Matt.  xix.  2,  &c. 
This  confidence  is  therefore  sometimes  express- 
ed by  the  word  fXrtij.  Rom.  V.  5.  by  fX.-tc'tfftv, 
with  iv  and  nf,  and  by  other  similar  terms. 
For  the  same  reason,  the  confidence  one  may 
feel  that  God  will  enable  him  in  an  extraordi- 
nary manner  to  work  a  miracle,  is  called  ^i^r^ 
— e.  g.,  Matthew,  xvii.  20;  Acts,  vi.  5,  B ;  1 
Cor.  xiii.  2.  This  faith  is  technically  called 
fides  miraculosa — the  faith  if  mirachs. 

(&)  When  one  is  convinced  that  another  will 
do  what  he  says,  (is  veracious  and  faithful,)  he 
depends  entireU'  on  his  promises,  and  certainly 
expects  thoir  fulfilment  in  every  case,  and  from 
this  confidence  complies  with  everyll>in<r  whirh 
the  other  re(]uires.  Thus  Abraham's  faith  in 
God  is  described ;  and  thus  the  terms  rtt^Tfvfer 
Ofo  and  A6y9  ©fov  are  often  used,  Ps.  cvi.  12  ; 
Hah.  ii.  1. 

From  this  wider  meaning  has  arisen  the  pro- 
per Christian  sense  of  saving  faith,  which  PhuI 
frequently  uses  in  his  epistles  to  the  Romans 
and  Galatians,  where  he  controverts  the  mis- 
take of  the  meritoriousness  of  observing  the  di- 
vine law.  Here  ftiitfinv  Kpiar^  and  rti'jTtf 
denote  the  firm  persuasion  that  we  owe  our 
whole  spiritual  welfare  to  Christ,  or  to  the  free, 
unmerited  mercy  of  God  on  Christ's  account, 
and  our  trust  in  God  and  Christ  arisinir  from 
hence.  Gal.  ii.  Ifi ;  iii.  fi ;  Rom.  iv.  16,  seq. 
This  kind  of  Christian  faith  is  compared  with 
that  of  Abraham.  He  confided  in  God  in  the 
same  manner,  according  to  the  measure  of  his 
knowledge.  He  relied  on  the  promise  (trtay- 
yf7.itt,  Rom.  iv.  20)  of  God  res|)eciiu£j  a  numer- 
ous olfsprinir,  '"id  on  the  other  crrcat  promises 
connected  with  this,  (althourrh  hes;iw  the  good, 
as  Paul  says,  only  noi'i'ju^fv,)  without  doubt- 
ing, (ov  Sifxpi^r,  and  ,t>j;iio^oprbf»?.  firmly  con- 
vinced,) though  the  thing  promised  was  appa- 
rently improbable.  (?rap'  iXnufia,  '^t.  18.)  Now 
as  Abraham  confided  in  the  promise  of  God, 
(ininrfvif  0fo,)  (Christians  should  also  oonfiiie 
in  the  promise  of  Go<l  and  Christ,  and  look  to 
God  for  salvation  and  blessedne,>s,  in  this  life 
and  the  lil\;  to  come,  in  and  throuoli  Chr'«t, 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       425 


and  not  on  their  own  account,  or  on  the  ground 
of  their  own  merit,  of  which  they  have  nothing 
to  boast.  This  is  what  theologians  cthW  justify- 
imr  and  saving  faith. 

The  two  forn>er  senses  of  faith  are  not  ex- 
cluded from  this  third  signification,  but  are  al- 
ways presupposed  and  included  in  it.  One 
who  would  obtain  forgiveness  through  faith  in 
Christ  must  (a)  have  an  acquaintance  with  the 
Christian  religion,  and  a  persuasion  of  its  truth  ; 
he  must  regard  it  as  of  divine  authority,  and 
embrace  it  with  all  his  heart;  and  (b)  he  must 
actually  rely  on  the  divine  promises  contained 
in  this  religion,  and  prove  the  reality  of  his  con- 
fidence by  his  feelings  and  actions.  The  latter 
sense  springs  out  of  tlie  former.  How  could 
Abraham  have  confided  in  God  if  he  had  been 
destitute  of  the  knowledge  of  God,  of  his  attri- 
butes, and  promises'?  Hence  when  Paul  would 
give  a  complete  description  o^  true  Christian 
faith,  he  often  comprises  both  these  ideas  quite 
distinctly  under  the  word  ularii,  Rom.  iii.,  iv., 
and  James,  ii.  19 — 24,  where  rtiatcvnv  refers 
sometimes  to  knoivledge  and  the  asaetit  of  the 
understanding,  and  sometimes  to  the  confidence 
which  springs  from  them. 

Nute. — The  passage  Heb.  xi.  1  has  always 
been  considered  one  of  the  most  important  with 
regard  to  the  subject  of  faith,  and  so  indeed  it 
should  be,  though  its  sense  has  been  frequently 
perverted.  The  meaning  of  this  passage  needs 
to  be  distinctly  exhibited.  Paul  here  speaks  of 
faith,  or  confidence  in  the  divine  promises  or 
declarations,  in  general,  especially  of  that  exer- 
cised in  sufferings  and  persecutions,  (in  order 
to  preserve  Christians  from  apostasy,)  not  ex- 
clusive, however,  of  the  peculiar  saving  faith 
of  the  Christian,  as  he  also  hopes  to  obtain  for- 
giveness and  salvation  through  Christ.  This 
is  taught  by  the  examples  of  Rahab,  Samson, 
Jephthah,  and  others,  which  are  mentioned. 
Paul  does  not  undertake  to  give  a  logical  defi- 
nition of  faith,  but  only  distinctly  to  describe  its 
characteristics,  without  which  one  cannot  lay 
claim  to  the  possession  of  faith.  But  this  is 
the  very  reason  why  the  passage  is  so  worthy 
of  note,  and  so  practically  useful ;  for  it  shews 
what  is  requisite  to  faith  in  general,  according 
to  Paul's  ideas  of  it,  and  what  traits  it  must  al- 
ways possess,  however  different  may  be  the 
objects  to  which  it  is  directed.  A  person  shews 
his  faith  by  being  firmly  and  unhesitatingly 
convinced,  on  the  mere  testimony  of  God,  (1) 
with  respect  to  things  which  are  not  actually 
present  with  us  and  in  our  possession  (iT^Tti^u- 
fifva) — e.  g.,  future  deliverance,  future  blessed- 
ness, promised  by  God,  of  whatever  kind  it  may 
be,  temporal  or  spiritual ;  (2)  with  respect  to 
things  beyond  the  reach  of  our  senses,  (ov 
j35u=rt6,ufia.)  Trtoiracrt?  and  tXtyxof  are  synony- 
taous  in  this  passage,  and  signify ^/i—na  persua- 
54 


.no,  Paul  himself  explains  his  meaning  in  ver. 
6:  the  pious  tnan  must  believe  that  God  exists, 
(■although  he  does  not  see  him,)  and  that  he  wih 
reward  his  worshippers,  (although  the  reward 
is  not  immediate.)  Here  therefore  both  know- 
ledge and  assent  to  the  truth,  and  the  confidence 
which  is  the  result  of  them,  are  requisite,  in 
order  to  the  existence  of  faith  in  the  wider  sense 
in  which  it  is  here  used. 

II.  Theological  Divisions  of  Faith ,-  and  the  parts 
of  which  it  is  composed. 

(1)  The  Bible  frequently  says  respecting  one 
who  professes  Christianity,  that  he  has  faith  in 
Christ.  Vide  No.  1.  But  this  faith  is  twofold. 
One  may  understand  and  externally  profess  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity  without  obeying  them 
or  feeling  their  transforming  influence  upon  his 
heart;  or  he  may  apply  them,  according  to  their 
design,  to  the  improvement  of  his  heart  and  the 
sanctification  of  his  dispositions;  in  short,  he 
may  do  all  that  God  requires  of  him  in  the 
Christian  doctrine.  The  hiith  of  the  former  is 
called yj(/cs  externa,  historica,  or  thcorctica;  that 
of  the  latter,  fides  interna,  habitualis,  salvif.ca, 
(^salutary,  saving,  crwr^ptoj.)  The  former  kind 
of  faith,  disconnected  with  the  latter,  is  some- 
times called  dead  faith,  because  it  is  inf^ffictual, 
and  contributes  nothing  to  our  improvement  or 
salvation.  The  phrase  is  taken  from  James,  ii. 
17,  20,  2(1.  The  latter  is  called  living,  viva,  ac- 
tuusa,  because  it  exerts  a  salutary  influence  in 
promoting  our  happiness  and  true  welfare. 

Christian  faith,  in  its  whole  extent,  is  there- 
fore a  conviction  of  the  truth  and  divinity  of  the 
Christian  scheme  of  salvation,  and  a  conduct 
conformed  to  this  conviction.  One  who  believes 
the  Christian  religion  in  such  a  way  as  to  act  in 
accordance  with  it,  and  who  allows  his, affec- 
tions to  be  governed  by  his  belief,  is  a  true 
Christian,  and  possesses  ^r/es  salvtfica.  As  to 
one  who  willingly  and  cheerfully  follows  the 
commandments  of  God  and  Christ,  and  sedu- 
lously conducts  himself  by  the  rules  which  they 
have  prescribed,  the  Bible  says,  either  that  he 
is  obedient  to  God  and  Christ,  or  he  believes  in 
them.  Hence  these  two  terms  are  synonymous; 
Morus,  p.  201,  n.  3.  The  definition,  therefore, 
which  Crusius  gives  in  the  passage  before 
cited,  is  just:  saving  faith  is  a  cordial  approval 
(f,  and  compliance  with,  the  divine  plan  if  salva- 
tion. 

(2)  On  the  different  parts  of  which  faith  con- 
sists. 

Faith  is  made  up  of  different  parts,  all  of 
which,  however,  must  belong  to  it,  in  order  to 
its  being  perfect.  The  different  objects  of 
Christian  instruction,  to  which  faith  refers, 
form  the  ground  of  this  division.  There  is  a 
faith  in  events,  in  doctrines,  commands,  and 
promises.  These  objects  will  be  paiw^-a»arlT 
2  N  i 


42b 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


considereil  in  the  following  section.  Now 
Christian  faith,  in  a  general  view,  embracing 
all  these  objects,  is  considered  by  theologians 
as  consisting  of  three  parts — knowledge,  assent^ 
and  tru^t,  or  confidence,  (^nutilia,  assemus^fidu- 
e/a),  which  will  now  be  considered.  Whenever 
entire  Cliristian  faith  is  spoken  of  as  compre- 
hending all  the  objects  just  mentioned,  this  di- 
vision is  perfectly  applicable.  But  all  these 
parts  do  not  belong  to  Christiaa  faith  as  direct- 
ed to  each  particular  object.  They  all  belong 
only  to  the  fuith  in  promises.  Knowledge  and 
assent  merely  are  requisite  to  the  faith  in  events 
and  doctrines;  and  a  will  and  inclination  to 
obey,  to  fiith  //»  the  divine  commands.  To  avoid 
this  inconvenience,  faith  might  be  made  to  con- 
sist in  two  particulars — knowledge,  and  a  dispo- 
sition of  heart  correspondent  to  this  knowledge, 
(^irtiypui^ii  xal  at5j»;(5tj,  Phil.  i.  9,)  according  to 
which  one  would  be  inclined  to  obey  the  divine 
commands  and  confide  in  the  divine  promises. 
Many  theologians  prefer  this  division.  But  in 
wliat  remains  we  sliall  follow  the  common 
threefold  division. 

(«)  Knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  believed  is, 
from  llie  very  nature  of  the  case,  an  essential 
part  of  fail!),  of  whatever  kind  it  may  be.  Paul 
asks,  IIuw  can  men  believe,  if  they  are  not  in- 
structed? (if  they  do  not  possess  knowledge  of 
the  things  to  be  believed,)  Uom.  x.  14.  This 
knowledge  cannot,  indeed,  in  every  case,  be 
equally  tliorough  and  comprehensive.  In  many 
of  the  early  Christians  it  was  at  first  very  gene- 
ral and  confined,  as  indeed  it  is  often  still,  to 
some  of  the  great  elenuMitary  truths.  But  how- 
ever liinitfd  and  imperfect  this  knowledge  may 
be,  it  always  implies  certainty,  and  must  amount 
to  a  firm  convicHon ;  otlierwise,  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  human  mind,  it  can  produce  no 
effect  on  the  will,  and  it  ceases  to  he  faith.  For 
we  l)eliHve  only  that  of  which  we  are  certain. 
Cf.  the  terms  vnonrarni  and  Ixiyxou  Heb.  xi.  1, 
and  nxjjijo-fo'ijftobttt,  Rom.  iv.  "Jl,  where  it  is 
contrasted  with  doubting;  also  James,  i.  fi. 
Hut  lliis  conviction  should  be  ellected  by  rea- 
sons which  enlighten  the  understanding,  by  in- 
struction intelligible  to  the  iuiman  mind,  not  by 
authoritative  and  compulsory  decisions.  The 
mere  reception  of  a  doctrine  on  the  word  or 
command  of  another,  without  being  ourselves 
convinced  of  its  truth,  is  nol  faith,  but  crcdulih/. 
Christ  and  his  apostles  therefore  prescrilie  in- 
struction, (^xr;t>varinv,)  and  make  faith  a  result  <ir 
elTect  iif  instruction — e.  g.,  Mark.  xvi.  Ifi,  And 
Paul  derives  ni'onj  from  uxor,,  Rom.  x.  17,  &<•. 
From  these  remarks  we  can  easily  see  how  far 
to  admit  tiie  fid.cs  implieita  of  the  schoolmi'n. 
They  mean  l)y  tliis,  faith  in  such  doctrini>s  as 
we  do  not  understand,  and  of  wiiich  we  are  not 
convinced  by  reason,  but  must  receive  on  the 
mere,  word  and  authority  of  the  church.     From 


these  remarks,  too,  we  can  easily  form  an  opi- 
nion respecting  the  fuith  of  children,  for  whicn 
some  contend.     Vide  s.  IvJO,  ad  finem. 

(i)  .hsent.  This  is  divided  into  general  (a^ 
sctisus  generalis),  by  which  is  meant  the  general 
reception  of  known  truth  as  credible  and  sure; 
and  inio  particular  (^assensus  specialis),  by  whicu 
is  meant  the  special  applicati(jn  of  certain  gene- 
ral truths  of  the  Christian  doctrine  to  oneself— 
e.  g,,  Christ  died  for  men,  and  also  for  me.  It 
is  this  latter  kind  which  more  frequently  pro- 
duces salutary  feelings  and  emotions  in  the 
soul.  Vide  tlie  examples,  Rom.  viii.  31 — 30; 
1  Tim.  i.  15,  16;  Morus,  p.  201,  s.  G.  This  is 
conmionly  expressed  in  the  New  Testament  by 
bixfJ^ai  and  rt04ja5{';^fcj>ai,  as  Mark,  iv.  20, 
where  ixxuvitv  implies  Ihe  knowledge  of  the 
truth,  7ttt)ja6f;^foJ>at,  assent  to  it,  from  whence 
the  result  xo.^7to^o^iilv.  1  Thess.  ii.  13,  where 
TtOjittXttuJai'fii'  "Koyov,  merely  to  hear  instruction^ 
is  distinguished  from  bixio'^o.i.  1  Cor.  ii.  14, 
the  carnal  man,  obedient  only  to  his  passions, 
does  not  assent  {bixto^o.v')  to  the  divine  doc- 
trine, &c. 

Although  assent  should  always  be  connected 
with  the  knowledge  of  the  truth,  because  the 
will' should  be  governed  by  the  understanding, 
yet  we  find  that  it  is  often  withheld  from  trutha 
which  cannot  be  doubted,  from  the  prevalence 
of  |)rejudice  or  passion.  So  it  was  with  the 
contemporaries  of  Jesus  in  Palestine.  They 
could  not  deny  that  the  miracles  which  he 
wrought  were  real  miracles,  and  yet  they  did 
not  yield  him  their  assent.  Like  to  these  are 
all  who  at  the  i)resent  day,  from  love  to  sin,  re- 
fuse obedience  to  the  truth  which  they  know. 
Such  persons  commonly  endeavour  to  persuade 
themselves  and  others  that  the  cause  of  their 
unbelief  has  some  other  ground  besides  their 
own  will ;  hence  they  give  ready  credit  to  every 
semblance  of  reason  for  doubting  the  truth  and 
divinity  of  Christianity. 

If  this  assent,  therefore,  is  genuine,  it  must 
act  on  the  heart  of  man.  The  will  must  be  con- 
trolled and  governed  by  the  truths  which  the 
understanding  acknowledges  and  embraces  as 
true.  Otherwise  this  assent  resembles  that 
which,  according  to  James,  ii.  19,  we  allow  even 
to  devils.  Cf.  James,  i.  22  ;  Luke,  viii.  13  ;  and 
lleb.  iv,  2. 

It  will  be  understood,  of  course,  that  this  as- 
sent has  ditfercnt  degrees,  respecting  which  we 
shall  say  more  hereafter, 

(c)  Trust,  or  conjidtnce.  Knowledge  and  as- 
sent become,  in  respect  to  the  divine  promises 
given  to  Christians,  confulcner — i.  e.,  a  firm  con- 
viction that  iho  promises  given  by  God  will 
surely  be  fulfilled.  Morus,  p.  202,  n.  2,  justly 
says,  "that  to  the  assent  of  the  nnderstanding 
there  must  he  added  a  trust  in  that  grace  (ot 
(.iod)  by  which  one  conducts  himself  contorio- 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       42* 


ably  to  this  gracious  promise."  All  the  three 
parts,  thcrelore,  of  which  faith  consists,  are 
.comprised  in  that  faith  which  relates  to  the 
divine  promises;  while,  from  the  very  nature 
of  the  case,  only  knowledge  and  assent  helon<;f 
to  the  faiih  relating  to  events,  doctrines,  and 
commands.  Here,  on  the  contrary,  from  the 
very  nature  of  the  subject,  all  the  three  parts 
must  consist  together.  This  state  of  mind  in 
Christians  is  -called  in  the  New  Testament 
rtfrto/i>};<5ts,  rt«|j|j);'?i.'a,  ^Xrtij,  x.  f.  X.  Ephes.  iii. 
12;   Heb.  iii.  G;  1  John,  ii.  28. 

^'ule. — On  the  mdhod  pursued  by  Jesus  and  the 
apmths  in  teachini^  the  doctrines  dJ'  faith.  They 
do  not  confine  themselves  merely  to  enlighten- 
ing the  understan<ling  {bibuoxny),  but,  in  con- 
nexion with  this,  they  would  always  have  an 
appeal  made  to  the  heart,  (^n(X\)a.xoX(lv.)  So 
2  Tim.  iv.  2;  1  Tim.  iv.  13 ;  2  Cor.  v.  20,  &c. 
They  always  employ. the  effect  produced  in  the 
understanding  by  truth,  to  move  and  excite  the 
affections  of  their  hearers  or  readers.  Thus  their 
instruction  is  always  perfectly  practical.  The 
Detrinniiig  must  indeed  be  always  made  by  in- 
*brming  the  understanding.  For  how  can  a  rnan 
believe  or  perform  anything  with  which  he  is  un- 
acquainted ?  Vide  Rom.  x.  14.  But  the  Chris- 
tian teacher  who  is  content,  as  is  often  the  case, 
with  giving  lifeless  instruction  totiie  understand- 
'ns,  and  who  supposes  that  the  approval  of  the 
»tfeclions  will  follow  of  course,  betrays  great 
ignorance  of  human  nature.  For  experience 
proves  that  the  state  of  the  heart  exerts  a  great 
influence  on  the  attention  paid  to  truth,  and  on 
the  whole  activity  of  the  understanding.  If  the 
heart  is  wanting  in  love  for  the  truth,  the  under- 
standing will  be  very  slow  in  coming  to  a  clear 
knowledge,  just  discernment,  and  proper  esti- 
mation of  it,  and  the  reverse.  According  to  the 
method  of  Ciirist  and  his  apostles,  therefore, 
which  is  adapted  to  the  very  nature  of  the  human 
soul,  the  teacher  who  labours  to  promote  the  con- 
viction and  conversion  of  men,  must  hcf^^in  at 
the  very  outset  by  inculcating  the  most  clear, 
practical  truths,  in  order  that  the  heart  may  first 
become  fu'ourably  disposed  to  the  truth,  and 
that  the  understanding  may  thus  become  more 
susceptible  of  what  is  taught.  He  nmst  then 
employ  again  the  truths  which  he  has  thus  com- 
municated to  excite  and  move  the  afl'ections. 
And  whatever  knowledge  is  conveyed  to  tlie 
mind  should  always  be  so  directed  by  the  Chris- 
tian teacher  as  to  excite  and  move  the  atTections. 

SECTION  CXXIIT. 

OF  THE  DIFKERENT  OBJECTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  DOC- 
TRINE TO  WHICH  FAITH  REFER-i  ;  AND  THE 
RELATION    OF    FAITH    TO    THE    SAME. 

These  different  objects  were  enumerated,  s. 


122,  II.  2,  and  will  now  be  separately  consi- 
dered. 

The  truths  of  the  Christian  religion  which 
faith  embraces  may  be  reduced  to  the  following 
classes  : — 

I.  Doctrines,  and  Historical  Facts. 

Historical  facts  are  here  classed  with  doctrines 
because  the  Christian  religion  is  founded  on 
facts;  such, .for  exaimple,  as  that  Christ  died, 
rose  again,  &c.  The  firm  conviction  that  these 
doctrines  or  events  are  true  is  called,  with  re- 
gard to  the  former,yjrfes  dngmatica,  with  regard 
to  the  latter, y/f/cs  histurica,  (in  the  more  limited 
sense.)  For  examples  of  the  former  kind,  vide 
Heb.  xi.  2,  seq.;  of  the  latter  kind,  Rom.  x.  9, 
10;  John,  xx.  29;  1  Cor.  xv.  3.  The  apostles 
always  placed  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  in 
the  most  intimate  connexion  with  the  person 
and  whole  history  of  Christ,  and  in  this  way 
gave  general  truths,  such  as  the  paternal  love 
of  God,  and  his  readiness  to  forgive,  the  author- 
ity of  positive  Christian  doctrines.  Vide  Art. 
X.  Christ  and  the  apostles  teaoh  no  Christianity 
indepemient  of  the  person  and  history  of  Jesus 
Christ.  Their  whole  system  is  founded  on  the 
fact  that  Christ  is  the  great  Messenger  promised 
by  God,  and  that  life  everlasting  may  be  ob- 
tained through  faith  in  him;  and  to  these  truths 
they  constantly  refer;  John,  xx.  31.  To  extend 
and  perpetuate  the  knowledge  of  these  facts  all 
the  gos|)els  were  written,  and  all  the  apostles 
laboured  in  their  oral  and  written  instructions. 
As  soon  as  the  doctrines,  laws,  and  promises  of 
Christianity  are  separated  from  the  history  of 
Christ,  they  lose  that  positive  sanction  which 
they  must  have  in  order  to  answer  the  demands 
of  the  great  mass  of  mankind.  The  apostles 
therefore  always  built  their  instructions  on  the 
history  of  Christ.  Cf.  1  Cor.  xv.  2,  3,  14.  And 
the  teacher  who  regards  the  directions  and  ex- 
ample of  Christ  and  of  the  early  Christian 
teachers,  and  who  is  convinced  of  the  import- 
ance of  these  peculiar  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity, will  follow  their  example  in  this  respect, 
that  instead  of  witiiholding  these  doctrines  fron^ 
the  youth  whom  he  is  called  to  instruct,  he  will 
|)lace  them  before  their  minds  in  a  manner 
adapted  to  their  comprehensions.  And  he  must 
disa[)prove  the  course  of  some  who  confine  their 
instructions  to  the  truths  of  natural  religion. 
But  even  supposing  that  the  teacher  should 
doubt  in  his  own  mind  respecting  the  import- 
ance of  these  peculiar  Christian  doctrines,  he 
ought  to  know,  from  the  mere  princi|)les  of  hu- 
man nature,  that  the  dry  exhibition  of  the  truths 
of  reason,  without  the  vehicle  of  history,  is  ill 
adapted  for  the  instruction  of  the  common  people 
and  of  the  young.  He  ought  to  know,  too,  that 
there  is  no  history  which  can  be  used  to  more 
advantage  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  great 


429 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


truftis  of  religion  evident,  impressive,  and  prac- 
tical, than  the  history  of  Clirist.  In  iieirlectinfr 
this  method,  or  ohjecling  to  it,  he  has  considered 
only  one  side  of  the  subject,  and  while  he  sup- 
poses he  is  proceeding  very  philosophically,  his 
conduct  is,  in  fact,  exceedingly  otherwise. 
Happy  the  teacher  who  knows  from  his  own 
experience  the  salutary  efficacy  of  the  positive 
doctrines  of  Christianity!  Supposing  him, 
however,  not  to  have  this  experierfce,  he  ought, 
for  the  reasons  above  given,  to  adopt  this  most 
reasonable  method  of  instruction.  Cf.  Muller, 
Vom  christlichen  Religionsunterrichte;  Wintor- 
thur,  1800,  8vo. 

But  in  order  that  the  general  doctrines  of 
Ciiristi mity  may  exert  an  influence  on  any  one's 
feelings  and  dispositions,  he  must  exercise  the 
asaemit)  spiclulis  (s.  122,  II.) — i.  e.,  he  must  be 
convinced  of  the  applicability  of  these  doctrines 
to  himself;  he  must  appropriate  and  apply  them 
to  himself;  he  must  feel,  for  example,  that  Christ 
died  not  only  for  all  men,  but  also  for  him.  For 
our  confidence  in  the  divine  promises  given 
through  Christ  and  on  his  account  must  depend 
on  our  conviction  tliat  they  relate  personally  to 
ourselves,  that  they  are  given  to  us.  To  pro- 
duce this  conviction  should  be  the  great  object 
of  the  teacher.  For  religion  should  not  be  so 
much  the  concern  of  the  head  as  the  interest  of 
the  heart. 

II.  The  Divine  Promises. 

The  liivine  promises  constitute  a  very  import- 
ant part  of  the  Christian  doctrine.  The  faith  in 
them  which  is  required  of  us  as  Christians  has 
not  so  much  respect  to  the  promises  of  temporal 
good  as  to  those  of  spiritual  and  elenml  good 
which  we  may  obtain  through  Christ  and  on 
his  account. 

The  following  particulars  may  be  noticed  with 
respect  to  this  failli — viz., 

(1)  Truii  faith  in  the  divine  promises  consists 
in  a  confident  and  undoubting  hope  that  Cod  will 
fulfil  tht'm,  and  will  actually  bestow  u|)on  us  the 
good  which  he  has  promised.  All  the  three 
f»arts  of  wliicti  faith  consists  (knowledge,  as- 
sent, and  confidence,  Uom.  iv.  Ifi)  belong  to 
tliis  kind,  B.  122.  Paul  illustrates  the  nature 
of  this  kind  of  faith  by  the  example  of  Abraham, 
Rom.  iv.  20;  (lal.  iii.  8,  IG.  Abrah.mi  had 
great  promises  made  to  him  (l.^ayyfXiai),  the 
fulfilment  of  which,  at  the  time  ihey  wert^  given, 
was  (juite  improbable;  and  yet  he  maintained  a 
firm  f.iith.  We  may  mention  h<*re  the  examples 
of  the  faith  of  the  Israelites,  John,  iii.  II,  coll. 
Nam.  xxi.,  and  Heb.  iv.  1.  In  tlie  last-cited 
passage,  fiiih  in  ('Jtris'tan  promises  is  not,  in- 
deed, the  particular  subject  of  discourse.  Hut 
all  which  is  true  of  faith  in  other  promises  of 
divine  favours  is  also  true  of  faith  in  Christian 
promises.   The  only  difference  in  the  two  cases 


is  the  difference  of  the  objects  upon  which  faith 
fixes.  The  signs  and  characteristics  of  it  are 
the  same.  Vide  Heb.  xi.  1,  (s,  122,  ad  finem.) 
Hence  Paul  calls  all  who  bplicve  in  the  diviwe 
promises  (oi  ix  Jtt'arfujj,)  Jbraham''s  children — 
i.  e.,  like  him,  and  capable  of  a  similar  reward. 

(2)  The  promises  given  to  Christians,  as 
such,  have  all  reference  to  Christ ;  Mnrus.  p. 
203,  s.  7.  They  are  placed  in  the  mo&t  intimate 
connexion  with  his  person  and  history.  Christ 
is  therefore  always  described  as  the  ground  of 
our  faith,  (^fitndumenium  fidei .)  We  are  taught 
everywhere  that  Christ  died  for  us.  that  on  his 
account  God  remits  the  punishment  of  sin,  and 
bestows  upon  us  everlasting  happiness.  Ii  is  in 
these  divine  promises  that  we  are  required  to  be- 
lieve— i.  e.,  we  must  be  persuaded  that  God  will 
fulfil  them  for  us.  Vide  Uom.  iii.  15;  viii.  12, 
17;  iv.  21.  Theologians  call  Ibis  kind  of  faith, 
or  Ibis  firm  conviction  that  C!od  will  perform  his 
promises  to  ms,  and  for  Christ's  sr.ke  be  gracious 
to  us,  the  nppHcation  or  Im/in^  hnhl  (apprehen- 
sionem)  of  the  nurits  <if  Christ.  Both  the  theory 
itself  and  this  term  rest  upon  the  authority  of 
the  New  Testament,  although  the  term  rfa^a- 
7.au3uvfiv  Xpiatov  in  Col.  ii.  6,  signifies.  In  bt 
informed  rcspcclins;  Christ  and  his  rcUi^ion,  to 
ht;ar  Christian  doctrines.  This  idea  is  com- 
monly denoted  by  the  terms,  m'^nvfiv  to  Xoy^ 
roO  (jraupov,  fij  v>{.co^tira,  x.  r.  X.  V  ide  Morns, 
p.  203,  n.  1.  But  in  John,  i.  12,  the  term  xou- 
fidvtiv  XpiiroK  is  used  to  denote  this  sclf-'ipply- 
ingfiiith,  for  it  is  directly  explained  by  the  term 

rttlTf  Vf  t»'. 

(3)  The  result  of  this  confident  faith  in  the  di- 
vine promises  is  the  possession  or  enjoyment  of 
the  promised  good,  or  the  reward.  God  is  not 
only  able  to  perform  his  promises;  he  is  likewise 
true  and  infallible.  But  he  never  makes  promises 
to  men  on  the  ground  of  their  desert,  for  they 
have  none;  but  all  his  promises  are  uudnirrfed. 
He  gives  them,  indeed,  on  condition  of  fiith 
(6ctt  rtinrnoj),  Rom.  iv.  4,  16;  but  yet  6wp'di» 
and  xara  ;t"p"'»  ^^^  ^^^  ^^  ofuXr^ua.  'I'his 
truth  is  thus  expressed  in  the  same  connexion 
(ver.  3);  a  man's  observing  the  divine  law  can 
not  be  imputed  to  him  as  a  merit,  but  faith 
only  Xoyi^fTai  fij  bixa^onvvirv.  Cf.  Gen.  xv.  (i. 
For  obedience  to  the  divine  law  is  what  we  oire. 
Nor  can  we  finti  anywhere,  even  in  the  greatest 
saint,  an  obedience  so  perfect  as  to  satisfy  con- 
science. Now  since  Christians  are  to  have 
good  bestowed  ujion  them  through  Christ,  and 
on  account  of  faith  in  the  divine  promises,  and 
since  this  good  is  commenced  in  the  removal  of 
punishment,  or  the  forgiveness  of  sin  {jusliji- 
Cdliini,  pardon),  this  faith  is  called  jusltfi/imr 
(^justificam);  as  Paul  says,  in  the  passajje  cited, 
htxaiov/ift'ot'  6u>pfa»'  ^la  T^<  jtiirfwj.  Paul  illus- 
trates litis  by  the  example  of  Abraham.  His 
faith  in  the  divine  promises  was  impu'e'!  to  him 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT   BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      429 


by  God  as  a  merit — i.  t.,  he  was  rewarded  on 
account  of  his  faith.  The  promises  made  to 
him  of  a  favoured  posterity  and  the  possession 
of  Canaan  were  fultilled  to  him  as  a  reward. 
In  Heb.  xi.  31,  Paul  iUiistrates  this  by  tiie  ex- 
ample of  Riihab.  Her  faith  (a  firm  conviction 
that  the  God  of  tlie  Israelites  is  omnipotent,  and 
would  fulfil  his  promises  to  the  Israelites,  and 
give  ihem  the  land  of  Canaan)  was  the  occasion 
of  her  being  parduncd,  and  not  perishing  with 
tlie  rest  of  the  Canaanites,  ov  owaTii^Xtro  1015 
anii'^r^'ya'jc,  or,  as  Janies  says  (ii.  25),  (bi.xaiu,',ir^. 
In  this  case,  indeed,  the  object  of  faitli  is  ditfer- 
ent  from  the  oi)ject  of  Christian  faith.  But  the 
result  (reward)  is  the  same;  and  the  charucUr- 
islics  of  it  are  the  same.  In  the  case  of  liwhab, 
the  good  bestowed  was  earthly  and  temporal ; 
in  the  other,  spiritual  and  eternal. 

III.  The  Divine  Laws  or  Precepts. 

Since  lo  believe,  in  the  large  sense,  is  the  same 
as  to  receive  and  obey  the  Christian  doctrine  in 
all  its  parts;  its  laivs  and  rules  of  action  must 
be  as  perfectly  acknowledged  and  received  as  its 
promises. 

(I)  Statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Ncv)  Tes- 
tament on  this  stibjed.  One  who  believes  the 
divine  |)romises  receives  the  good  promised  on 
account  of  his  faith  ;  but  it  is  not  optional  with 
him  to  receive  this  part  only  of  the  ('hristian 
doctrine,  and  to  refuse  obedience  to  the  laws 
which  it  prescribes.  No  one  can  say,  /  ivill 
hold  fust  to  the  promises,  and  leave  the  observance 
of  the  law  to  others.  These  two  things  cannot 
be  separated;  and  they  are  both  implied  in  be- 
lieving in  Christ,  or  the  gospel,  Christ  and  the 
apostles  everywhere  teach  that  the  observance 
of  the  precepts  of  Christianity,  or  holiness,  can- 
not be  separated  from  faith  in  Christ.  Obedi- 
ence is  the  fruit  of  faith.  Matt.  vii.  21,  "He 
only  who  does  the  will  of  my  Father  can  enter 
into  the  kingdom  of  heaven."  John,  xv.  11; 
Luke,  vi.  4G — -19;  I  John,  ii.  3 — G,  which  is 
the  most  decisive  text.  Paul  expresses  himself 
in  the  same  manner  on  this  subject.  Gal.  v.  6; 
Ephes.  iv.  22,  and  here  certainly  he  does  not 
contradict  James.  The  latter  is  very  explicit  on 
this  subject,  especially  in  the  second  chapter  of 
his  epistle,  where  he  remonstrates  against  liic 
perversions  of  the  doctrine  of  faith,  as  if  a  mere 
knowledge  and  cold  assent  to  the' truth,  a  dead 
faith  in  Christ,  disconnected  with  the  practice 
of  holiness,  could  be  sufficient. 

This  disposition  of  the  Christian  to  live  in 
entire  conformity  with  the  precepts  of  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine  is  called  pfiovr;ua  rtvfi\uatoi,  Ro- 
mans, vii.  6,  7,  18 — i.  e.,  the  renewed  temper 
produced  by  God,  by  means  of  Christianity, 
the  holiness,  love,  and  zeal  for  virtue  produced 
in  the  Christian  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  is  op- 
posed to  ^povtjfia.  oa^xoi — i.  e.,  the  disposition  to 


live  according  to  sinful  propensities.  This  dis- 
position is  everywliere  ascribed  to  God,  or  to 
the  Holy  Spirit,  as  the  author  of  Christianity^ 
the  guide  of  the  pious,  and  the  promoter  of  all 
Christian  perfection.  In  Romans,  viii.  1,  this 
stale  is  described  by  the  phrase  rttptrtaTfii'  xara 
rti-fvjua,  and  in  ver.  9,  by  Ttvivfia  X^nrirov,  a 
Christian  state  of  mind,  a  disposition  like  that 
of  Christ,  and  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  his 
assistance  and  instructions.  In  I  John,  iii.  24, 
the  same  term  is  used.  In  Gal.  v.  22,  the  terra 
xa^moi  rtj'tvjuaras  is  used,  denoting  Christian 
virtues,  actions  proceeding  from  a  heart  renewed 
by  the  Holy  Spirit,  through  the  influence  of 
Christianity.  In  Rom.  vi.  G,  &;c.,  this  charac- 
ter is  called,  metaphorically,  xai^os  aivpijunoj, 
and  the  renunciation  of  the  previous  love  and 
habit  of  sinning  is  called  ^irajoia,  the  putting 
"Jl  <f  '/'C  old  man,  &c.,  which  will  he  further 
considered  here.ifter.  Faith  in  the  divine  pro- 
mises, thus  connected  with  obedience  to  Chris- 
tian precepts,  or  holiness,  is  called  living,  or 
active  faith,  viva,  acluosa,  opcrosa,  practica.  Paul 
himself  speaks  of  a  faith  (bi  ayurtJjs)  ivspyovfiivrj. 
Gal.  V.  G. 

(2)  On  the  use  of  the  ivords  law  and  gospel, 
in  the  Bible  ai^d  in  theology,  and  inferences  from 
it.  Morus  treats  this  subject  as  an  Appendix 
to  c.  3,  p.  238—244. 

(ft)  When  the  words  »/6,uoj  and  ypd/xixa  are 
used  in  the  New  Testament  in  opposition  lo 
evayyeXiov  and  nvfiifta,  the  former  do  not  mean 
precepts  respecting  the  conduct  of  men  in  gene- 
ral ;  nor  the  latter  merely  the  promises  (^inayyc- 
xiat,)  given  to  Christians.  But  ib/xoi  and  ypau^ua 
frefjuently  denote  the  Mosaic  law,  or  the  whole 
Old-Testament  institute  and  religion;  ivuyyi- 
Xiov,  nvivi^a.,  and  other  similar  teriris,  the  whole 
Christian  doctrine,  its  commands  as  well  as  its 
promises.  Thus,  e.  g.,  the  sermon  on  the  Mount, 
Matt,  v.,  is  purely  evangelical,  even  in  the  pre- 
cepts respecting  conduct  which  it  contains; 
John,  i.  17;  Rom.  viii.  2;  2  Cor.  iii.  6;  iv.  6, 
seq. ;  Morus,  p.  240,  s.  4. 

This  will  help  us  to  explain  many  of  the  texts 
in  which  the  apostles  speak  of  the  great  advan- 
tages which  the  gospel  has  over  the  law ;  where 
they  say  the  law  was  imperfect,  was  not  design- 
ed for  all  men  in  all  ages,  is  not  obligatory  on 
Christians,  and  is  supplanted  by  Christianity. 
Much  like  this  is  found  in  Rom.  iii.,  iv.,  vii., 
viii.,  and  Gal.  iii. 

But  the  schoolmen,  and  many  theologians 
who  followed  them,  did  not  distinguish  accu- 
rately between  the  various  senses  of  the  wordf 
vouoi  and  fiayyixiov  in  the  New  Testament 
And  notwithstanding  it  is  clearly  asserted  that 
the  whole  Mosaic  institute,  as  such,  is  super- 
seded hy  Christianity  (vide  s.  118,  II.),  yet 
many  held  the  opinion  tiuit  the  law  given  on 
Mount  Sinai  was  designed,  as  far  as  its  moral 


-130 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


part  is  concerned,  for  the  whole  world,  and  is 
obligfntory  at  all  times,  even  on  the  ground  of 
its  having  been  there  given.  They  understand 
the  Chriftinn  law  and  the  law  of  Mofea  to  be  sy- 
nonymous, and  believe  that  the  Mosaic  law,  as 
such,  (the  ceremonial  part  only  excepted,)  is 
obligatory  upon  Christians.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  always  understand  fvayytXioi',  according 
to  its  etymology  (joyful  news),  to  mean,  not 
the  whole  Christian  doctrine,  but  only  that  part 
of  it  which  contains  the  promises. 

This  departure  fr^m  the  scriptural  usage  gave 
occasion  to  adopt  the  division  into  hnv  and  f'-'i.s- 
pcl  in  the  theological  sense.  Such,  then,  is  the 
state  of  the  case.  Gospel,  in  the  wider  sense, 
is  the  whole  Christian  doctrine,  as  composed 
both  of  precept  and  promise.  This  is  the  most 
common  sense  in  the  New  Testament.  In  the 
narrower  sense,  it  is  the  promises  of  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine,  especially  those  of  pardon  through 
Christ.  In  this  sense  it  sometimes  occurs  in 
the  New  Testament;  Rom.  x.  16,  coll.  ver. 
3—1.3;  Kom.  i.  16,  17;  iii.  21 ;  Acts,  xiii.  32; 
XX  24,  rvayyiXiov  ;^aptroj  ©fou,  I  Cor.  ix.  23. 
In  this  sense  theologians  have  always  used  it. 
Lnic  generally  signifies  in  the  New  Testament 
the  Mosaic  law;  but  sometimes  the  precepts  of 
God  and  nf  Christ,  Gal.  vi.  2,  &c. 

(i)  Hy  hiw  and  goxpel,  as  used  in  theology, 
the  whole  sum  of  the  doctrine  of  salvation  is 
meant.  By  the  law  is  understood  the  sum  of 
all  the  divine  precepts  given  to  man  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testament;  or,  the  whole  moral  laiv  ; 
Morus,  p.  238,  seq.,  s.  2.  From  this  we  learn 
what  (Jod  has  commanded  and  forbidden,  and 
of  course  what  sin  is.  By  i^nxpcl  is  understood 
all  the  promises  relating  to  the  salvation  of  man 
through  Christ,  whether  contained  in  the  Old 
or  New  Testament.  'I'hese  assure  men  of  grace 
and  forgiveness,  and  thus  comfort  and  encoiir- 
age  the  sinner;  this  is  what  is  more  properly 
called  fvayyt'?.tov  j^apiroy. 

This  definite  theological  use,  which  is  not  in 
itself  unscripiural,  was  common  before  tlie  He- 
formation  in  the  Honiish  church,  and  was  em- 
ployed hy  the  schoolmen  in  their  systems.  Be- 
cause the  decalogue  contains  moral  precepts,  and 
is  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  law,  and  be- 
cause lo'uo^  occurs  sometimes  in  this  sense  in 
the  New  Testament,  they  called  all  moral  pre- 
cepts the  law ;  and  because  jvayyiXiw  signifies, 
ctyinologically,  a  joyful  mesnaise,  and  occurs 
sometimes  in  this  sense  in  the  New  Testament, 
they  called  all  the  promhrs  of  God,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  of  a  joyful  nature,  ^o»pel.  This  was 
proper  in  itself.  The  fault  lay  in  their  regard- 
ing this  as  the  only  scriptural  use,  and  accord- 
ingly endeavouring  to  adapt  it  to  all  the  pas- 
sages in  which  law  and  poxpel  occur.  Luther 
and  Mehinctlion,  and  also  the  Swiss  reformers, 
retained  the  established  usage  of  these  terms. 


and  from  th'^m  it  has  been  adopted  by  other  .he* 
ologians  of  the  protestant  church  into  their  sys- 
tems. The  Arminians,  in  the  seventeenth  cerv 
tury,  made  the  first  attempt  to  shew,  some  of 
them,  that  this  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  Bible, 
and  others,  more  justly,  that  it  is  not  the  only 
scriptural  use.  They  taught  that  the  gospel 
comprehends  laws  as  well  as  promises,  and 
that  one  as  well  as  the  other  must  be  comprised 
in  faith  in  .lesus  Christ.  But  the  old  division 
was  for  a  longtime  retained  by  protest  nit  theo- 
logians, even  in  their  homiletical  aiid  cateche- 
tical instructions;  nor  was  there  anything  ob- 
jectionable in  this.  Although  this  use  of  these 
words  is  not  the  only,  nor  even  the  common 
scriptural  usage,  y^t  there  is  good  reason  for 
this  distinction  (Morus,  p.  210,  s.  1).  if  it  is 
only  properly  explained.  The  truth  wfiich  is 
designated  by  it  cannot  and  ought  not  to  be 
passed  over.  For  it  is  plain  that  rules  for  con- 
duct and  promises  of  blessing  are  of  altoeether 
a  different  nature,  have  different  ends,  and  pro- 
duce different  effects,  and  that  boih  therefore 
must  have  dilTerent  predicates.  The  Christian 
doctrine  contains  both.  From  the  nature  of  the 
human  soul,  promises  of  a  gnat  good  awaken 
pleasure  in  the  mind,  and  incite  to  willing  effort 
to  do  everything  which  can  secure  the  enjoy- 
ment of  this  good.  But  this  very  nature  of  the 
soul  makes  rnles  for  feeling  and  conduct  neces- 
sary. Precepts  and  promises  must  be  most  in- 
timately connected.  And  the  promises  must  be 
made  to  serve  as  a  spring  and  motive  to  obey 
the  divine  commands.  This  obedience  is  an 
indispensable  condition,  and  unless  it  is  fulfilled 
the  promised  good  cannot  be  bestowed.  This 
is  the  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
Christian  teacher  must  therefore  make  use  of 
the  law,  in  order  to  promote  the  knowledge  of 
sin,  and  repentance,  and  to  shew  the  unhappy 
consequences  which,  according  to  the  Christian 
doctrine,  result  from  sin  both  in  this  life  and 
the  life  to  come;  and  that  he  may  t-niploy  for 
this  purpose  everything,  as  well  in  the  Old  as 
in  the  New  Testament,  which  bears  on  this 
subject.     Vide  Morus,  p.  212,  s.  7. 

Note. — The  passages,  liom.  iii.  and  (ial.  iii. 
and  iv.,  relating  to  the  law  and  its  abolition, 
have  been  misunderstood  in  two  dillerent  ways, 
which  should  be  carefully  guardt  d  aijainst. 

(«)  Some  have  taught  that  believers  have  no- 
thing to  do  with  the  law,  since  Christ  has  ful- 
filled it  for  them  ;  and  they  appeal  to  these  pas- 
sages. They  would  embrace  only  one  part  of 
the  gospel — its  promises,  and  would  gladly  be 
relieved  of  the  other,  and  thus  overthrow  all 
morality.  Such  were  the  doctrines  of  many  of 
the  fanatics  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  and 
afterwards.  Morus,  p.  241,  s.  6.  The  same 
thing  was  charged  upon  Agricola  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  his  followers,  the  Antino- 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION:       431 


mians.    Hence  the  fifth  and  sixth  articles  were 
introduced  into  the  Form  of  Concord. 

(!>)  Others  have  supposed  that  the  Mosaic 
oeremonial,  or  civil  law  exclusively,  is  intended 
in  those  jias^nc^ps  where  it  is  said  that  man  de- 
Ker^es  n^thinix  of  God  by  observing  the  law — 
R.  g.,  Rom.  iii.  and  Gal.  iii.  and  iv.  They 
maintained,  accordingly,  that  although  the  fa- 
vour of  God  could  not  be  conciliated  by  obe- 
dience to  the  ceremonial  law,  it  might  be  by  the 
observance  of  the  moral  law.  Thus  the  Soci- 
nians  and  many  others.  But  Paul  knows  nothing 
of  such  a  distinction,  and  what  he  says,  he  says 
of  the  whole  Mosaic  law,  moral  as  well  as 
ritual.  The  observance  of  the  one  is  as  little 
meritorious  as  of  the  other;  and  what  is  true  of 
the  moral  law  of  Moses  is  true,  according  to 
his  express  declaration  in  these  passages,  of  the 
whole  moral  law,  whether  learned  from  nature 
or  from  the  Christian  doctrine.  Vide  Progr.  in 
Rom.  vii.  et  viii,,  in  "Scripta  varii  argumenti," 
Num.  xii.  The  following  is  the  doctrine  of  the 
apostles: — Obedience  to  the  divine  law  is  not 
the  ground,  or  the  procuring-cause,  of  our  for- 
giveness and  salvation.  (And  happy  is  it  for 
men  that  it  is  not;  for  were  it  so,  no  man  of  an 
enlightened  and  tender  conscience  could  ever  be 
sure  of  salvation.)  Faith  in  Christ  who  died  for 
us  is  the  only  ground  of  our  acceptance.  Still 
obedience  to  the  divine  law  is  an  indispensable 
duty  in  connexion  with  this  faith;  indeed,  it  is 
practicable  and  easy  only  while  this  ftiith  exists. 
The  strict  requirements  of  the  moral  law  cause 
us  to  see  clearly  how  deficient  and  imperfect 
we  are,  since  while  we  allow  that  the  law  re- 
quires only  what  is  right,  we  are  j-^et  unable  to 
conform  to  it.  They  also  excite  in  us  a  deep 
feeling  of  our  need  of  a  different  dispensa- 
tion, coming  in  aid  of  our  imperfection.  And 
by  seeing  our  need,  we  become  disposed  to  em- 
brace the  provisions  for  salvation  which  God 
offers.  Thus  the  law  lends  us  to  Christ,  Rom. 
iii.,  vi.,  vii.,  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 

SECTION  CXXIV. 

OF  THE  CONNEXION  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  WHICH 
FAITH  IS  composed;  THE  CHARACTERISTICS 
AND  DEGREES  OF  FAITH  ;  AND  THE  CONDITIONS 
ON  WHICH  IT  IS  SAVING. 

I.  The  relation  in  tvhich  the  parts  belonging  to  Faith 
stand  to  each  other. 

Here  the  following  cautions  should  be  ob- 
served— viz., 

(1)  We  should  not  separate  one  part  of  faith 
iTa.n  another,  or  insist  more  upon  one  than  an- 
other, or  imagine  that  the  different  parts  may 
exist  at  different  times.  This  mistake  has  been 
aiade  by   some  with  respect  to  the  promises, 


(gospel,)  and  the  rules  of  conduct,  (law.) 
Some  insist  wholly  or  disproportionately  on 
the  latter,  and  thus  alarm  one  who  is  just  be- 
ginning a  religious  life,  and  who  feels  himself 
to  be  still  weak.  This  is  the  fault  of  those  who 
[ireach  only  the  law  or  morality,  who  are  always 
telling  men  (though  they  irenprally  know  it 
sufficiently  without  being  told)  wiial  thi-y  ought 
to  be,  without  shewing  them  the  proper  means 
of  becoming  so,  and  how  they  may  acquire  the 
requisite  power.  Others  dwell  entirely  on  the 
promises,  and  neglect  the  law,  instead  of  deriv- 
ing from  the  promises  the  motives  and  power 
to  obey  the  law,  as  the  Bible  does,  1  John,  iv. 
10,  19  ;  iii.  3  ;  Gal.  ii.  20.  Vide  s.  123,  ad  finem. 
At  the  present  day,  the  former  mistake  is  the 
more  common  one,  and  therefore  needs  to  be 
guarded  against  more  carefully  than  the  other. 

(2)  We  should  not  consider  the  manner  in 
which  faith  arises  in  man,  and  in  which  one 
part  of  it  follows  another,  to  be  uniformly  the 
same  in  all  cases;  nor  should  we  prescribe  the 
same  order  and  succession  as  essential  to  all. 
The  physical  and  moral  constitution  of  men  is 
so  different,  and  the  circumstances  under  which 
they  begin  to  amend  their  lives  are  so  unlike, 
that  the  same  form  and  method  cannot  possibly 
be  prescribed  to  all.  The  neglect  of  proper  at- 
tention to  this  difference  among  men  gives  easy 
occasion  to  uncharitable  judgments,  to  hypo- 
crisy, anxiety,  and  scrupulous  doubts. 

The  common  representation  is  that  which 
Melancthon  has  given  in  his  "  Loci  Theologici." 
Reformation  is  commenced  bv  means  of  the 
law,  which  convinces  man  of  his  sins.  Then 
follows  the  distressing  sense  of  the  merited  di- 
vine displeasure,  and  the  desire  of  obtaining 
pardon.  Here  the  gospel  comes  in  for  man's 
relief,  and  imparts  comfort  and  consolation. 
Hehce  arise  faith,  and  the  fruits  of  it;  and  from 
faith,  forgiveness  of  sin  and  the  assurance  that 
it  is  remitted. 

In  this  way  does  the  moral  change  in  men 
frequently,  but  not  always,  take  place.  The 
order  is  not  important,  provided  all  the  essen- 
tial parts  of  faith  are  exhibited.  Faith  can  no 
more  be  wrought  in  all  Christians  in  the  same 
manner  than  the  sciences  and  arts  can  be  learned 
by  all  in  the  same  manner.  With  one,  the  ter- 
rors of  the  divine  threatenings  and  punishments 
must  be  used  in  the  first  instance ;  with  an- 
other, of  a  more  mild  and  gentle  disposition, 
the  infinite  love  of  God  and  his  proiiiises  must 
be  used.  Though  beginning  in  ditTerent  ways 
both  may  come  to  the  same  result.  When  we 
compare  the  accounts  of  conversions  recorded 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  we  obserre  this  ' 
very  difference.  They  all  exhibit  the  great  es- 
sential of  faith;  but  the  manner  in  which  they  . 
came  to  the  possession  of  it  is  different.    Books 


433 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


containing  accounts  of  the  conversion  of  parti- 
cular men  are  very  useful;  but  we  should  he- 
ware  of  making  the  experiences  of  individuals 
and  the  way  in  which  they  may  have  been  led 
to  faiih  a  rule  for  all.  Vide  Toellner,  Theolo- 
gisciie  Untersuchungen,  st.  i.  ii. 

l^yolc. — Neander  has  illustrated  this  import- 
ant point  very  fully  in  his  "  Denkwurdigkeiten," 
and  also  in  his  "  Gelegenheitsschriften."  The 
F  fth  Article  in  the  latter  collection  of  Trea- 
tises, entitled,  "The  Manifold  Ways  of  the  Lord 
in  the  Work  of  Conversion,"  is  worthy  of  the 
careful  study  of  all  engaged  in  promoting  reli- 
gion in  the  world.  It  is  a  deep  saying  of  Ori- 
gen,  that  what  Paul  said  of  his  becoming  all 
things  to  all  men,  that  he  might  gain  some,  is 
applicable  in  a  far  higher  sense  to  the  Saviour 
himself,  in  the  methods  he  employed  while  on 
the  earth,  and  still  employs  in  heaven,  to  bring 
men  to  saving  faith. — Tr.] 

II.  St^ns  by  which  we  can  discover  the  Existence 
of  true  Faith. 

To  every  Christian  it  is  of  the  first  import- 
ance to  know  whether  he  possesses  true  faith, 
that  he  may  be  sure  of  his  being  accepted  by 
God.  These  signs  may  be  reduced  to  two 
classes,  which  correspond  with  the  instructions 
of  the  New  Testament. 

(1)  Christian  dispositions.  These  are  called 
in  the  New  Testament  ffiovrjfia  rtvfv/iaros,  or 
itvivfioL.  Vide  s.  123.  Rom.  viii.  14,-  10, 
"The  renewed  Christian  temper  (rtifvjua)  pro- 
duced in  us  by  God,  by  means  of  Christianity, 
affords  us  inwardly  the  surest  proof  ('svu^tap- 
Tvpti)  that  we  are  the  children  of  God,"  that  we 
resemble  him,  that  we  love  him,  and  that  he 
loves  us  a  father  loves  his  children.  Eph.  i. 
13,  II,  "Ye  are  sealed  by  the  Holy  Spirit — 
1.  e.,  the  Christian  disposition,  for  which  you 
are  indebted  to  God,  is  a  sure  proof  to  you  that 
God  loves  you  and  will  bless  you;  it  is  -^  pledge 
(a,v(^3wi/)  to  you  of  future  rewanl."  Thus,  too, 
I  Jolin,  iii.  21,  "  IJy  the  .^nV// (that  renewed 
temper  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  Christ  and 
the  Il.dy  Spirit)  we  know  that  we  are  true 
Christians,  and  beloved  by  God."  The  Chris- 
tian may  therefore  be  sure  that  he  has  faith 
when  he  is  conscious  of  hatred  to  sin,  sincere 
love  to  God  and  Christ,  to  the  good  and  pious, 
and  of  a  constant  effort  to  increase  in  holiness 
or  moral  perfection. 

(2)  But  these  dispositions  must  be  exhibited 
in  //f  external  conduct,  bij  aelioiia  wliicii  tlow 
from  grateful  love  to  God  and  Christ,  and  from 
other  reliijious  motives,  (xo^irtoi  jtyji^aroj.) 
These,  therefore,  are  infallible  signs  of  faith. 
Vide  1  John,  ii.  29;  iii.  7,  seq.  Christ  said, 
Matthew,  vii.  IG,  "By  their  fruits  ye  shall 
know  them."    Entire  reliance  cannot  be  placed 


upon  evidences  drawn  from  mere  interniil  feet 
iiig.  One  may  easily  deceive  hinjself  with  re^ 
gard  to  his  own  feelings;  and  if  a  certain  de* 
gree  of  fueling  is  insisted  upon  as  necessary, 
those  who  do  not  come  up  to  this  sttndard, 
while  yet  they  may  have  faith,  will  be  easily 
led  into  mistake,  and  involved  in  doubt  and  dis- 
tress. Nor  can  we  properly  demand  that  every 
one  should  give  the  time  and  hour  when  he  bo 
gan  to  believe;  for  faith  is  not  always  instanta 
neous,  but,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  human 
soul,  is  sometimes  gradual.  Vide  Spalding, 
Vom  Werth  der  Gefiililo. 

Note. — The  common  theological  phrase,  in- 
ternum testimonium  Spirilus  Sancti,  is  derived 
from  Rom.  viii.  IC,  (Tlie  passage,  1  John,  v. 
G,  8,  does  not  relate  to  this  point.) 

(1)  This  passage  treats  directly  of  the  inward 
conviction  which  Christians  obtain  of  their  be- 
ing forgiven  by  God,  from  the  new  disposition 
vvliich  he  has  produced  in  them  by  means  of 
Christianity.  By  this  they  are  sure  (a)  that 
they  are  now  free  from  the  divine  punishments, 
which  they  had  reason  to  fear  while  they  con- 
tinued unrenewed  and  followed  their  sinful  de- 
sires ;  and  also  (6)  that  they  have  a  share  in  all 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  believers,and  shall  be 
partakers  of  the  promised  blessedness  in  future. 

(2)  But  under  this  phrase  theologians  include 
the  internal  conviction  which  Christians  have  of 
the  divinity  of  the  Christian  doctrine.  But  this 
conviction  arises  only  by  way  if  inference.  The 
Christian  reasons  thus: — Because  morels  ef- 
fected for  the  moral  good  of  men  by  means  of 
Christianity  than  by  all  other  means,  (as  he  can 
say  from  his  own  experience,)  it  follows  that 
this  doctrine  is  divine,  or  that  we  must  believe 
what  Christ  and  his  apostles  say  when  they 
declare  it  to  be  divine.  John,  vii.  17,  "One 
may  be  sure  from  his  own  experience  that  what 
Christ  atlirmed  is  true,  that  he  did  not  speak  of 
himself,"  fee.  Cf.  I  Thess.  ii.  13.  This  con- 
viction dep'^nds,  therefore,  on  the  ex|)erience  of 
each  individual  Christian.  He  himself  must 
have  felt  the  etricacy  of  the  Christian  doctrine 
in  his  own  heart.  Hence  this  is  called  the  fjr- 
])erinientiil  proif  of  ihe  divinity  of  the  Christian 
religion;  and  Christ  himself  insists  upon  it, 
John,  vii.  IG,  17;  1  Thess.  ii.  13.  Every  true 
Christian  must  have  this  experience ;  but  it  can- 
not be  used  to  convince  one  who  is  not  a  true 
Christian,  because  he  has  never  felt  in  himself 
the  better  influence  of  the  (."hristian  dopirine; 
still  less  can  this  experience  be  brouiiht  in  proof 
of  the  divinity  of  the  books  of  the  liible.  It  only 
proves  the  divinity  of  the  doctrine  contained  in 
them.  Vide  Less,  in  the  Ajipendix  to  hia 
"  W^ahrheit  der  christlichen  Relitji'n,"  and 
\oes8elt.  Diss,  de  Sp.  S.  tesU ;  Hallo,  17G0 
Cf.  s.  7,  U.,  ad  finem 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       433 


III.   The  cliflhrent  degrees  of  Faith:  the  possi- 
bility of  losing  Faith  and  of  falling  away. 

(1)  The  knowledge,  intelligence,  and  whole 
mental  state  of  men  are  very  different,  as  well 
as  their  natural  constitution,  temperament, 
and  faculties.  Hence  we  infer  that  faith  can- 
not have  the  same  degree  of  perfection  in  all. 
We  are  not  responsible,  however,  for  the 
weakness  and  imperfection  of  faith  any  fur- 
ther than  it  is  criminal ;  a  subject,  the  consi- 
deration of  Avhich  belongs  more  proj^erly  to 
theological  ethics.  The  Bible  accordingly 
distinguishes  between  a  weak,  imperfect,  in- 
cipient faith,  and  a  strong,  perfect,  confii-med, 
and  assured  faith.  It  compares  the  state  of 
one  just  beginning  to  exercise  faith,  to  child- 
hood, and  that  of  the  more  confirmed  Chris- 
tian, to  manhood.  Tide  Romans,  iv.  19; 
2Thess.  i.  3;  Ephes.  iv.  13,  14;  1  Cor.  iii.  1. 

(2)  But  no  Christian  can  make  pretensions 
to  the  higliest  possible  degree  of  perfection  in 
faith,  although  he  should  constantly  strive 
after  it.  Great  imperfections  and  innumera- 
ble defects  always  remain  even  in  the  best 
Christians,  partly  in  respect  to  their  know- 
ledge, partly,  and  indeed  mostly,  in  respect 
to  their  practice  of  known  duties.  Vide  Ps. 
six.  13;  Phil.  iii.  12;  James,  iii.  2.  This 
ought  frequently  to  be  noticed  by  the  teacher, 
in  order  to  humble  the  pride  of  men,  and  to 
excite  more  zeal  and  effort  in  the  pursuit  of 
holiness,  and  more  watchfulness  against  sin. 
This  consideration  leads  us  to  say, 

(3)  It  is  possible  that  even  the  best  and 
most  perfect  Christian  should  lose  his  fiiith, 
and  apostatize.  The  Bible  clearly  teaches 
that  one  may  lose  his  faith,  and  therefore  foil 
of  the  blessedness  promised  on  condition  of 
faith.  Vide  1  Tim.  i.  19;  vL  21.  Christ  him- 
self mentions,  (Luke,  viii.  13,)  the  rtpofjxot'pouj, 
■who  indeed  possessed  true  faith,  but  did  not 
remain  steadfast.  And  for  what  purpose  are 
the  frequent  exhortations  to  constancy  in 
faith  given  in  the  holy  scriptures,  if  there  is 
no  possibility  of  its  being  lost?  Cf.  Gal.  ii.  2 ; 
Heb.  vi.  4.  seq.  Still  the  way  of  recovery 
stands  open  even  to  the  apostate  while  he 
lives ;  Luke,  xxii.  32 ;  Ps.  li.  2—19.  Cf.  s.  113. 
But  from  the  verj-  principles  of  our  nature  it 
is  plain  that  reformation  and  the  recovci-y  of 
faith  must  be  more  difficult  the  oftener  one 
who  had  begun  to  walk  in  the  way  of  holi- 
ness returns  to  unbelief  and  sin;  2  Pet.  ii. 
20—22;  2  Timothy,  ii.  26. 

Note  1. — Many  have  held  that  true  faith 
cannot  be  lost.  Against  this  opinion  the 
above  paragraph  is  directed,  (a)  Some  ftma- 
tics  have  held  that  faith  could  not  be  lost  or 
destroyed,  even  by  living  in  sin  and  vice.  So 
taught  the  Valentiuians,  according  to  Ire- 
noeus;  and  more  lately,  the  enthusiastic  Ana- 
baptists, Munzer,  &c.,  at  the  time  of  the 
Reformation.  They  are  condemned  in  the 
thirteenth  article  of  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
55 


sion.  [h]  The  advocates  of  absolute  decreea 
also  held  that  he  who  had  once  attained  true 
faith  could  not  lose  it,  because  God  could  not 
alter  the  irrevocable  decree  he  had  once 
formed  respecting  his  salvation.  And  as  faith 
is  made  in  the  Bible  an  indispensable  condi- 
tion of  salvation,  one  predestined  to  salvation 
could  not,  in  their  view,  lose  faith.  Cf.  s.  32, 
ad  finem.  Augustine  was  the  first  .who  lield 
this  doctrine.  He  was  followed  in  the  fifth 
century  by  Prosper  of  Aquitania,  and  in  the 
ninth  century  by  Gottschalk,  although  the 
datter  expressed  himself  doubtfully  on  this 
subject.  Calvin  and  Beza,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  adopted  this  doctrine,  Avhich,  to- 
gether with  the  doctrine  de  decreto  absoluto, 
was  established  by  the  Synod  at  Dordrecht, 
1618,  as  an  article  of  fiiith,  in  opposition  to 
the  Ai'minians. 

[Note  2. — On  the  doctrine  of  the  saints' 
perseverance  there  has  been  much  needleSvS 
debate.  To  prevent  this,  and  to  arrive  at  a 
just  and  satisfiictory  conclusion  as  to  this 
doctrine,  it  is  important  to  dismiss  whatever 
does  not  properly  belong  to  it,  and  to  make 
the  subject  of  inquiry  as  specific  and  simple 
as  possible. 

First,  then,  it  is  no  part  of  this  question, 
Avhcthor  it  is  in  itself  possible  that  believers 
should  fall  away ;  or  whether  they  are  liable, 
or  exposed  to  this,  or  are  in  danger  of  final 
apostasy.  The  advocates  of  this  doctrine  may 
admit  all  this  as  really  as  its  opponents.  In- 
deed, it  is  often  asserted  by  them  (e.  g.  in 
the  articles  of  the  Synod  of  Dort)  that  be- 
lievers not  only  may,  but  if  left  to  their  own 
strength  certainly  will  draw  l>ack  to  perdi- 
tion. 

Secondly.  It  is  admitted  on  both  sides  that 
Christians  are  to  be  warned  of  their  danger, 
after  the  example  of  the  scriptures ;  and  that 
this  danger  should  be  set  before  them  as  a 
means  of  awakening  them  frv.in  slum)>er,  in- 
citing to  duty  and  watchfulness,  and  making 
them  faithful  unto  death. 

Thirdly.  It  is  admitted  also  on  both  sides 
of  this  question  that  the  belief  in  the  doctrine 
of  perseverance  will  probably  have  a  bad  in- 
fluence upon  those  who  think  themselves 
Christians  when  they  are  not,  and  even  upon 
true  Christians  in  a  state  of  declension. 

Fourthly.  All,  too,  will  admit  that  many 
who  appear  for  a  time  to  have  Christian  faith, 
and  belong  to  the  visible  church,  do  in  fact 
apostatize. 

When  these  conceded  points  are  dismissed 
from  the  question,  what  remains  at  issue  be- 
tween the  advocates  and  opponents  of  this  doc- 
trine ?  Merely  this.  Whether  Gud  will  actually 
preserve  all  truebeliei'ers  from  final  ajtostasy,  and 
keep  them  through  faith  unto  salvation?  In  ar- 
guing this  point,  nothing  is  necessary  for  the 
advocates  of  this  doctrine  but  to  prove  from- 
20 


434 


CHRISTIAN^  TIIROLOGY. 


eeriptnre  that  God  has  purposed  and  promispd 
to  preserve  all  whom  he  has  renewed  by  his 
Spirit.  If  this  can  he  shewn,  the  warnings  and 
exhortations  contained  in  the  scriptures,  so  Tar 
from  beintj  inconsistent  with  the  promise  and 
purpose  of  (Jod,  are  the  most  suitable  means  of 
Becurinsf  their  fulfilment ;  since  no  motive  tends 
so  powerfully  to  keep  ('hristians,  as  intelligent 
and  moral  agents,  from  apostasy,  and  to  secure 
their  perseverance,  as  the  exhibition  of  their 
danger. 

As  to  the  power  of  God  to  employ  such  means 
and  exert  such  an  influence  on  Christians,  in 
perfect  consistency  with  their  moral  agency, 
as  shall  hinder  the  hurtful  tendencies  of  the 
world  and  their  own  hearts,  and  bring  them  to 
heaven,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt. 

It  may  be  proper  to  ask,  in  conclusion,  whe- 
ther the  objections  commonly  urged  against  this 
doctrine  do  not  derive  their  chief  strength  from 
misapprehension  and  mis-statement,  and  Tmm 
a  vague  use  of  terms  1  Let  the  simple  inquiry 
be  made,  whether  believers  will  in  fact  fall 
away  and  perish;  and  let  this  (juestion  be  an- 
swered in  a  purely  scriptural  manner,  and  the 
■common  objections  will  lose  their  force,  and  the 
•  doctrine  of  perseverance  be  acknowledged  to  be 
adapted  to  glorify  God,  and  to  comfort  and  ani- 
■mate  the  pious. — Tr.] 

IV.  The  Attributes  essential  to  "Saving"  Faith. 

(1)  Coiustanci/  to  the  end  of  life,  {^perseveran- 
tia.)  This  is  called  by  Paul  vnouovr/,  Heb.  x. 
AG,  coll.  iii.  1 1 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  58.  (In  Matt.  xxiv. 
13,  the  subject  is  not  salvation,  but  ttin/ioral 
deliverance.)  This  constancy  must  extend  to 
all  the  parts  which  belong  to  faith.  One  must 
neither  renounce  the  Christian  doctrine  in  gene- 
ral, and  apostatize  from  it,  (Luke,  viii.  1.3;  2 
Pet.  ii.  20;)  nor  may  he  give  np  particular 
doctrines  which  are  essential  to  the  Christian 
eystem ;  1  .John,  ii.  24.  He  must  remain  un- 
shaken in  his  reliance  upon  the  divine  promises  ; 
Heb.  vi.  12;  (Jol.  i.  23.  He  must  avoid  most 
cautiously  all  disobedience  to  the  divine  com- 
mands; I  Timothy,  i.  18,  coll.  Kzek.  xviii.  20. 

{(2)  Growth  and  iixcrease  infaith,  {inertnienia 
fidci.)  («)  We  must  endeavour  to  extend  and 
perfect  our  knowledge  of  Christian  doctrines 
ai>d  duties;  Heb.  V.  12;  vi.  1,  seq.;  Phil.  i.  0, 
Req.  (/()  \Vt!  must  make  constant  ailvances  in 
holiness,  and  in  the  practice  of  all  ('hristians 
virtues.  We  must  strive  daily  to  be  freed  from 
our  remaining  faults,  and  to  chorisli  and  deepen 
our  hatred  to  sin  Qmnilcntia  fjuotidiuiui),  I  Pet. 
ii.  1,  2.  Holiness  and  the  practice  of  Christian 
virtue  must  become  habitual  with  us ;  2  Cor.  vii. 
1.  The  observation  often  made  by  theologians, 
that  there  is  no  pausing  here,  that  we  must 
either  advance  or  recede  in  goodness,  is  true 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  human  mind. 


(3)  The  evidence  offrrifh  Tnj  sr^oi  worhn,'' 

A.  The  various  meunings  of  the  w<ird  f^/y« 
in  the  holy  scriptures.  A  careful  examination 
of  these  would  have  prevented  many  mistakes 
and  controversies. 

(rt)  '^K,j-/oi<  denotes  an  action,  in  the  widest 
sense,  whether  morally  good  or  bad — e.  g.,  God 
rewards  man  according  to  his  works,  Romans, 
ii.  G,  &c.  Hence  ?pyoi/  also  signifies  an  C7/i- 
yhyment,  business,  office ;  an  office  in  the  church, 
for  example,  as  in  2  Tim.  ii.  21,  seq. 

(i)  The  phrase  J'pya  dyo^H*  or  xaxd,  or  tpyo 
simply,  frequently  denotes  particular  actions 
which  are  conformed  to  the  law  of  God,  or 
Christian  virtues,  which  God  has  promised  to 
reward,  in  opposition  to  aucntriai  OTt^yyanovr^fMi 
Matt.  V.  16;  Rom.  ii.  7;  1  Tim.  v.  21,  25,  &c. 
In  this  sense  the  word  'pya  is  used  by  .lames 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  second  chapter  of 
his  epistle.  Cf.  James,  iii.  13.  With  James, 
then,  good  icorks  are  pious  actions,  such  as  are 
(lone  with  reference  to  God — i.  e.,  such  as  flow 
from  love  to  God  and  a  spirit  of  obedience. 
Such  actions  only  are  pronounced  by  the  scrip- 
tures to  be  true  virtues,  because  ihey  flow  from 
religious  motives.  They  are  Christian  good 
works  whenever  they  are  done  with  a  particular 
reference  to  Christ. 

But  this  term  came  to  denote,  in  a  narrower 
sense,  particular  works  of  love,  such  as  alms, 
(kc;  Acts,  ix.  3G;  1  Tim.  vi.  18,  &:c.  During 
the  middle  ages  the  Roman  church  made  this 
particular  sense  the  prominent  one,  and  accord- 
ingly ascribed  great  merit  to  almsgiving,  pre- 
sents tu  cloisters,  churches,  &c.,  8.  125.  But  such 
works  are  called  good  in  the  holy  scriptures 
only  90  far  as  they  are  an  active  exhibition  of 
love  and  obedience  to  God,  and  as  they  flow 
from  religious  motives. 

(c)  Quite  different  from  this  is  the  meaning 
of  the  term  tpya  rouov,  (sometimes  simply 
tpya,)  when  used  by  Paul  in  o|vpnsiiion  to 
rtcTTi J,  Rom.  ii.,  iii.,  iv. ;  Gal.  ii.,  iii.,  fic.  Vide 
Progr.  "  De  dispari  formula  docendi.  qua  Chris- 
tus,  Paulus  et  Jacobus  de  fide  et  factis  disse- 
rentes  usi  sunt,  item  que  de  discrimine  tpywv 
i'6/zou  et  ?pyw>'  dya^wv,"  (1803,)  in  "Scr.  Var. 
Argum."  Num.  xii.  (Translated  in  the  Bib. 
Repository,  Jan.  1833.)  Correspondent  to  this 
phrase  is  that  in  the  writings  of  the  Rabbins, 
3"  "»im  s'i:'"::,  which  denotes  the  fulfilment  and 
observance  of  the  divine  law  and  of  its  particu- 
lar precepts,  whether  they  are  of  a  moral  nature 
or  not,  and  whether  they  are  given  by  God 
through  Christ,  Moses,  or  by  the  law  of  nature. 
Vide  s.  113,  II.,  and  s.  123,  and  fin.  in  the  note. 
Paul  allows,  and  fre(|uently  exjiressly  de- 
clares, that  whoever  should  perfectly  obey  this 
law,  in  whatever  way  made  known  to  him, 
should  actually  live  by  it,  or  enjoy  the  bles>-!ed- 
ness  promised  by  God  as  a  reward,  not  because 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BV  THE  REDE:\IPTION.       435 


he  oould  demand  this  as  somethinnf  which  he 
had  earrifd,  hut  because  God  had  promised  it. 
But  no  man,  in  his  present  condition,  can  boast 
of  such  an  obedience  as  this,  and  therefore  none 
can  hope  to  be  accepted  with  God  and  blessed 
on  the  ground  of  his  obedience  to  the  divine 
commands,  (tj  ijjycov  roixov.)  Paul  expresses 
himself  very  clearly  on  this  point,  Tit.  iii.  5, 
coll.  ver.  3;  2  Tim.  i.  D ;  Ephes.  ii.  8.  The 
reason,  therefore,  why  he  excludes  obedience 
to  the  divine  commandments  as  a  ground  of  our 
forgiveness,  or  why  he  holds  that  obedience  is 
not  the  meritorious  cause  of  forgiveness,  is,  that 
we  do  not  in  reality  obey  the  divine  law  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  enable  us  to  rely  on  the  divine 
promise  above  mentioned.  And  yet  God  has 
declared  that  he  will  shew  mercy  to  us;  this 
must  therefore  be  done  in  some  other  way,  and 
by  some  other  means — namely,  by  faith.  It  is 
on  this  account  that  he  excludes  the  ?pya  vd^uov, 
or  our  supposed  obedience  to  the  divine  com- 
mandments, from  faith  in  Christ,  and  from  the 
forgiveness  and  salvation  to  be  attained  through 
faith,  Rom.  iii.  20,  et  passim.  But  as  to  Jpya 
uya^u — i.  e.,  the  virtues  performed  from  love  to 
Christ,  Paul  would  no  more  exclude  them  than 
Christ  and  James  did.  On  the  contrary,  he 
derives  them,  as  they  did,  from  faith,  and  in- 
sists strenuously  upon  them,  and  in  the  very 
passages  in  which  he  denies  merit  to  J'pya 
vuy.ov — e.  g.,  Rom.  ii.  7 — 10;  Ephes.  ii.  10, 
seq.     Cf.  s.  108,  123,  ad  finem. 

Paul  and  James  are  therefore  agreed  in  fact. 
And  there  is  no  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the 
words  mans  ^f'*^  Stzaiovn^at  as  used  by  them, 
but  solely  in  the  use  of  the  word  t'pya.  Paul 
speaks  of  the  foolish  mistake,  by  which  one 
•would  obtain  life  and  salvation  from  God  by  his 
supposed  fulfilment  of  the  divine  law,  while  in 
reality  he  does  not  keej)  the  law,  James  speaks 
of  the  pious,  unpretending  exercise  of  virtue, 
which  is  the  first  fruit  and  the  evidence  of  faith, 
and  therefore  rewarded  by  God.  Paul  and 
James,  as  well  as  Christ,  disapprove  of  the  for- 
mer, while  both  of  them,  as  well  as  Christ,  re- 
quire the  latter,  with  great  seriousness  and  ear- 
nestness. 

B.  Mlint  Christ  and  the  apostles  teath  as  to 
shelving;  faith  hy  good  works.  They  are  all 
agreed  in  saying  that  an  indolent  and  inactive 
faith  (j'fxpa,  James,  ii.)  is  of  no  advantage,  and 
is  entirely  contrary  to  its  object.  For  faith  is 
designed  wholly  for  active  life,  and  must  be 
manifested  and  proved,  so  often  as  there  is  op- 
portunity, by  the  practice  of  holiness.  This  is 
what  James  so  well  insists  upon  in  the  second 
chapter  of  his  enistle.  His  doctrine  is,  that 
every  Christian  must  possess  faith  in  God,  (the 
knowledge  of  God,  and  that  trust  in  him  result- 
ing from  this  knowledge;)  but  that  this  faith 
must  be  exhibited  in  works,  (fruits,  chap,  iii.) 


What  good  does  it  do  for  one  to  say,  I  know 
and  honour  God,  and  confide  in  him,  if  he  does 
not  prove  this  by  his  pious  actions?  If  Abra- 
ham had  professed  faith  with  his  mouth,  but 
had  not  obeyed  when  God  commanded  him  to 
offer  up  Isaac,  would  that  have  pleased  God? 
No!  He  did  not  receive  the  divine  approbation 
and  blessing  until  he  proved  in  fact  that  he  had 
right  conceptions  of  God,  and  that  he  placed 
unlimited  confidence  in  him.  In  the  same  way 
Christ  shews  that  man  must  be  known  by  his 
works,  (xaprtot,)  and  prove  hy  them  that  he 
truly  fears  God,  Matt,  vii,  IG — 24;  John,  xiv. 
15;  XV.  11.  And  Paul,  too,  teaches  that  God 
will  reward  men  for  the  uniform  practice  of  vir- 
tue, (rrto^fr?;  tpyov  (iya^ou,)  Rom.  ii.  7,  and 
that,  while  Christians  are  indebted  for  their  sal- 
vation to  the  mere  grace  of  God,  and  not  their 
own  works,  they  are  yet  placed  by  the  divine 
commands  under  obligation  to  practise  these 
J'pya  dya^a,  Ephes.  ii.  8 — 10.  Thus  he  calls 
the  virtues  xaprtovj  rti'fv,uaroj,  (the  fruits  of  a 
heart  renovated  by  the  influence  of  the  gospel,) 
Gal.  v.  22,  25.  In  Rom.  viii.  1,  13,  he  says, 
that  one  is  not  a  Christian  who  has  not  ni'fvua 
Xptdfov.  Vide  other  passages  in  Morus,  p.  212, 
Note. 

The  uniform  doctrine  of  the  holv  scriptures 
is  therefore  briefly  this: — "Faith  is  the  condi- 
tion of  salvation.  (Hence  so  high  a  value  is 
placed  upon  it,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  scriptures.)  But  this  faith  cannot  exist 
unless  the  heart  is  truly  renewed  and  made 
holy ;  and  this  inward  renewal  is  evidenced  by 
good  actions  or  works.  Now  this  faith,  and 
the  holiness  inseparably  connected  with  it,  and 
and  the  exhibition  of  it  hy  good  works,  is  re- 
warded by  God,  This  faith  and  what  is  con- 
nected with  it  is  therefore  the  condition  of  sal- 
vation (conditio  sa/utis,)  but  not  the  meritorious 
cause,  (causa  meriforia ,-)  for  salvation  is  an  im- 
meriled  favour.  Vide  Romans,  iii.  24,  25 ;  vi. 
22,  seq.     Cf.  s,  125. 

SECTION  CXXV. 

of  the  nature  of  christian  good  works  or 
virtues;  the    relation    in  which    thev 

STAND   TO    salvation;    AND    THEIR    MERITORl- 
OUSNESS. 

I,  The  true  nature  of  Christian  good  works. 

Their  worth  or  capability  of  being  rewarded 
(not  their  merit)  consists  partly  in  their  con- 
formity to  the  rules  of  conduct  which  God  has 
given  to  Christians,  (materiale  actionis,)  James, 
ii,  11,  and  partly  in  the  erid  to  which  they  ar« 
directed,  and  the  motive  by  which  they  are  per- 
formed, (formale.)  An  action,  therefore,  is  not 
a  good  work,  although  it  may  be  right  and  law. 
f'ul  in  itself,  when  it  results  from  impure  and 


436 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


unworthy  molivps,  such  as  vanity,  ambition,  the 
gratification  of  ineiinati  jn,  &c.  The  Christi.in 
perforins  pwd  ivorks  only  when  he  acts  from 
thani<ful  love  to  God  and  Christ,  and  in  uncon- 
ditional obedience  to  their  recjuirenients ;  in 
short,  from  motives  drawn  from  the  Christian 
religion,  Romans,  xii.  2;  2  Cor.  v.  15;  Phil.  i. 
11 ;  John,  xiv.  15,  21,  and  almost  the  whole  of 
the  first  epistle  of  John. 

We  cin  here  distingiii^ih  three  cases — viz., 

(1)  In  acting,  the  Christian  may  be  con- 
Bcious  of  this  motive,  and  act  solely  on  account 
of  it. 

(2)  But  it  is  neither  possible,  nor  requisite, 
that  he  should  at  all  times,  and  in  every  action, 
be  distinctly  conscious  of  this  motive.  For  one 
acquires,  from  long  exercise  in  virtue  as  well  as 
in  vice,  a  habit  of  action.  And  since  this  habit 
presupposes  a  high  degree  of  perfL-ction,  the 
value  of  actions  performed  under  the  force  of 
this  principle  is  not  less,  but  often  greater;  for 
they  imply  a  prevailing  feeling  of  piety  and  love 
to  God. 

(3)  Filial  obedience  to  God,  or  religious  mo- 
tives, are  not  always  the  single  and  only  motives 
to  good  actions,  even  in  Christians.  Their  own 
advantage,  reward,  fear  of  punishment,  the  main- 
tenance of  a  good  reputation,  &c.,  influence  them 
to  action.  These  motives,  in  themselves,  should 
not  be  entirely  banished,  as  some  rigorous  mo- 
ralists, who  are  ignorant  of  human  nature,  would 
do.  For  God  makes  use  of  these  very  means  to 
hold  men  to  the  observance  of  his  laws.  They 
may  therefore  be  used  by  us  as  assistances.  But 
it  is  clear  that  an  action  which  results  from  such 
motives  merely,  cannot  be  called  a  pious  Chris- 
tian action,  or  a  irond  wo/c,  although  in  itself  it 
may  be  useful,  commendable,  and  even  accept- 
able to  God.  Vide  Rom,  ii.  14,  2G,  27 ;  Acts,  x. 
4,  3 1, 35.  The  teacher,  therefore,  should  beware, 
in  Christiiin  education,  of  drawing  the  prinicipal 
m'ltive  from  amitition  and  selfishness;  for  these 
principles  will  exclude  every  good  and  religious 
ffi^liniT,  and  introduce  manifold  evil  into  the 
youthful  heart. 

In  Christian  good  works,  therefore,  every- 
thing depends  upon  the  state  of  mind,  the  dis- 
positiim  (rtifuutt.  (Jal.  v.  22)  with  which  they 
are  performed.  That  man  only  is  capable  of 
pood  works  (in  the  Christian  sense)  who  has 
a  pure  and  prevailing  love  to  Gml  and  ('hrist, 
and  whose  principle  it  is  to  practise  all  known 
pood  and  to  avoid  all  known  evil,  because  such 
is  the  will  of  God  and  of  Christ.  God  and 
Christ  estimate  the  worth  of  an  action,  therefore, 
■  not  according  to  the  external  appearance,  upon 
which  men  look,  but  according  to  the  disjutsition 
ef  the  heart,  which  men  do  n>t  see.  Hence  an  ac- 
tion may  frequently  appear  to  men  to  he  trilling, 
insignificant,  or  even  blamable,  while  in  the  sight 


of  G.)d  it  is  commendable  arid  of  great  price. 
Such  was  the  act  of  Mary  in  anointing  Jesus, 
which  his  disciples  blamed,  Mark,  xiv.  Christ, 
however,  called  it  a  good  work,  because  it  was 
a  pious  deed — i.  e.,  because  it  resulted  from  sin- 
cere and  grateful  love  to  him ;  and  such  actions 
only  are,  in  his  judgment,  good  ivorks.  Vide 
Toilner,  Ueber  die  BeschalTenheit  eines  guten 
Werkes,  in  his  "Theol.  Untersuch,"  th.  ii. 

iVole  l.^Good  works  are  required  from  every 
Christian,  so  far  as  he  is  able  to  perform  them. 
Gal.  v.  25;  1  John,  ii.  f,;iii.7.  Cf.  s.  123.  The 
last  clause  contains  a  necessary  limitation.  For 
sometimes  he  finds  no  opportunity,  or  is  placed 
in  circumstances  unfavourable  for  exhiliiiing,  by 
his  outward  actions,  the  pious  dispositions  con- 
cealed in  his  heart.  Moreover,  those  just  com- 
mencing a  religious  life,  and  who,  though  they 
have  real  faith,  have  it  in  a  less  degree,  (s. 
121,)  cannot  exhibit  that  perfect  and  mature 
fruit  which  is  expected  from  advanced  and  con- 
firmed Christians.  But  God  judges  of  the 
goodness  of  actions  according  to  the  inward 
disposition  and  the  sincerity  of  the  heart.  In  a 
good  work  this  rectitude  of  motive  in  indispen- 
sable. Ephes.  iv.  20;  1  John,  ii.  6.  We  can- 
not therefore  say  that  faith  is  always  rich  in 
virtues  ;  for  it  cannot  always  be  so.  Nor  will 
his  unfruitfulness  be  charged  against  any  one 
as  a  sin,  unless  he  himself  is  to  blame  fir  it.  In 
this  matter  God  is  the  only  infallible  judge. 

Note  2. — When  the  Bible  speaks  of  the  neces- 
sity of  Christian  good  works,  it  refers  only  to 
Christians,  and  to  what  is  required  of  them  ac- 
cording to  the  Christian  doctrine.  No  one  who 
is  destitute  of  the  knowledge  of  Christiinity 
without  his  own  fault  can  be  required  to  live 
according  to  its  rules,  or  be  punished  merely 
because  he  does  not.  Nothing  will  be  re(|uired 
of  any  one  which  has  not  been  given  him. 
Christian  actions  may  indeed  be  more  perfect 
and  noble  in  themselves  than  others,  because 
they  flow  from  more  perfect,  pure,  and  elevated 
motives;  but  the  good  actions  of  those  who  are 
not  Christians  do  not  cease  to  be  good  and  ae 
ceptable  to  God  because  they  do  not  flow  from 
Christian  motives.  Cf.  the  example  of  the  cen- 
turion Cornelius,  Acts,  x.,  and  the  declaration 
of  Paul,  Rom.  ii.  6 — 11.  In  the  former  passage, 
(ver.  35,)  Peter  ascribes  (f>o,3ov  0fov  to  the  hea- 
then centurion  Cornelius ;  and  in  the  latter, 
Paul  calls  the  actions  of  heathen  *pya  o^a^  ; 
and  both  teach  that  truly  religious  actions  in 
heathen  are  acceptable  to  God,  and  will  be  rt^ 
warded  by  him.  The  doctrine  of  Aiiiiustine, 
therefore,  virtntcs  ethniar  esse  splendida  vilia,  is 
f.ilse.  He  tauwht  that  all  which  man  does  a* 
man,  without  supernatural  and  irresistible  grace, 
is  sin.  Hence  he  alTirmed  that  the  heathen  were 
condemned  because  they  could  not  but  sin.    Vide 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       437 


B.   121,  II.     [Cf.  "Bib.  Repos."  .Tan.   1833. 
Art.  Augustine  and  Pelagius. — Tr.] 

II.  The  Relation  which  exists  between  the  Good 
W'urlis  of  Chrixtians  and  their  Salvation. 

There  was  a  controversy  in  the  Lutheran 
church  in  the  sixteenth  century  on  the  question, 
IVIielher  good  works  are  essential  to  salvation  ?  Ge. 
Major,  a  theologian  of  Wittenberor,  and  some  of 
the  disciples  of  Melancthon,  held  the  affirmative ; 
Flacius  and  others,  the  negative.  Nic.  Amsdorf 
of  Raumburg  went  so  far  as  to  say  (1559)  that 
they  stood  in  the  way  of  salvation — a  horrible 
position  if  it  is  understood  to  mean,  that  obe- 
dience to  the  divine  law  is  damnable.  But  this 
was  not  his  meaning;  he  only  meant  to  affirm 
that  the  opinion  that  good  works  could  merit 
salvation  is  dangerous  to  the  soul.  And  in  this 
lie  was  right;  but  so  was  Major  in  his  position. 

The  difficulty  may  be  removed  by  considering 
in  what  the  salvation  of  Christians  consists. 

(1)  It  is  begun,  the  foundation  of  it  is  laid,  in 
the  forgiveness  of  sin,  or  justification  in  the  nar- 
rower sense.  This  is  the  free  gift  of  God,  and 
cannot  be  merited  by  good  works,  s.  113,  II. 
But  this  blessing  is  forfeited  by  one  who  omits 
good  works,  and  commits  sin.  Vide  1  John,  iii. 
G;  Gal.  v.  1!>;  1  Cor.  vi.  9,  10.  Good  works, 
therefore,  are  necessary  for  the  continuance  (co7j- 
servalio)  of  this  benefit.  They  are,  wiien  they 
can  be  performed,  the  condition  of  pardon,  though 
not  the  meritorious  cause  of  it. 

(2)  Salvation  consists  in  the  divine  rewards, 
or  proofs  of  the  divine  favour;  partly  those 
which  are  natural,  such  as  quiet  of  soul,  peace 
with  God,  &c.,  and  parily  positive,  bestowed 
both  in  the  present  and  future  life,  as  we  are 
taught  by  the  scriptures.  These  rewards  can- 
not be  merited  by  good  works  in  themselves 
any  more  than  the  forgiveness  of  sin.  But 
faith,  and  the  good  works  connected  with  it,  are 
the  conditions  on  which  alone  these  rewards  are 
obtained,  and  the  degree  of  reward  is  regu- 
lated by  the  degree  of  zeal  in  holiness  which 
is  exhibited;  Matt.  xxv.  20 — 29;  2  Cor.  ix. 
6;  Gal.  vi.  7,  &c.  For  obedience  to  the  di- 
vine law  is  as  essential  a  part  of  Christian  faith 
as  to  trust  in  God  through  Christ,  s.  123.  Good 
works  are  therefore  always  described  in  the 
Bible  as  the  effects  and  fruits  of  Christian  faith, 
James,  ii.  20,  seq. 

We  may  therefore  justly  say,  as  Major  did, 
that  good  works  are  essential  to  the  attainment 
of  salvation,  as  a  condition,  and  we  may  also  say, 
as  Flacius  and  Amsdorf  did,  that  they  are  not 
to  be  regarded  as  meritorious,  or  the  procuring 
cause  of  our  salvation.  Cf.  F.  T.  Riihl,  Werth 
der  Behauptunjjen  Jesu  und  seiner  Aposlel ; 
Leipzig,  1791,  8vo;  especially  the  4th  Essay, 
♦'  Seligkeit  beruht  allein  auf  Glauben,"  u.  s.  w. 


Also  Storr,  Commentar  zum  Brief  an  die  He- 
braer,  th.  ii. 

III.  History  of  opinions  respecting  the  meritoriou»- 
ness  of  Good  Works. 

God  has  determined  and  promised  to  reward 
the  good  actions  of  men.  But  this  reward  is  not 
something  earned  by  men,  (s.  lOS,  II.,)  which 
God  is  bound  to  pay  them ;  it  is  given  to  them 
of  his  free,  undeserved  goodness.  Hence  these 
rewards  are  called  in  the  New  Testament  ;^dpij, 
Supfci,  trtatvoj,  (approbation,)  6o|a,  ari^avo^— 
terms  which  imply  gifts  and  undeserved  rewards. 
These  rewards  are  intended  to  excite  men  to  love 
God  more  sincerely  and  to  yield  a  cheerful  and 
willing  obedience  to  the  divine  commands,  not- 
withstanding the  difficulties  with  which  this  obe- 
dience is  attended. 

But  obvious  as  this  doctrine  is  to  sound  and 
unprejudiced  reason,  the  great  tnass  of  mankind, 
t>i  all  ages  and  religions,  have  regarded  certain 
external  actions  as  meritorious  and  propitiatory. 
This  error,  as  far  as  it  is  theoretical,  results  from 
false  notions  respecting  God,  and  our  relations 
to  him.  This  is  the  reason  why  it  is  so  preva- 
lent, in  one  form  or  another,  among  the  .lews, 
the  heathen,  and  ('hristians.  Vide  s.  108,  II. 
But  this  theoretical  error  would  have  been  easily 
escaped  or  exploded  if  it  were  not  connected  with 
the  depraved  inclinations  of  the  human  \\^'^.xt. 
Love  to  sin  makes  men  quick  in  inventing  theo- 
ries which  will  allow  them  to  indulge  in  it  at 
pleasure,  and  yet  assure  them  of  the  favour  of 
God.  We  shall  here  briefly  exhibit  the  false 
opinions  which  have  prevailed  on  this  subject 
among  Christians. 

(I)  Many  Christians,  (especially  the  converts 
from  Judaism,)  even  in  the  times  of  the  apostles, 
ciierished  the  opinion  that  their  acts  of  supposed 
conformity  to  the  law,  such  as  almsgiving,  sacri- 
fices, ceremonies,  circumcision,  and  obedience  to 
other  particular  precepts  of  the  ceremonial  and 
moral  law  of  Moses,  were  meritorious.  They 
even  believed  that  the  good  works  of  their  ances- 
tors were  imputed  to  them.  Hence  Paul  shews, 
in  his  epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Galatians,  that 
man  deserves  nothing  of  God  for  his  supposed 
obedience  to  the  divine  lav^f ;  that  the  opinion  of 
the  meritoriousness  of  our  own  works  is  in  the 
highest  degree  injurious;  and  that  God  forgives 
and  rewards  us  solely  on  account  of  faith,  with 
out  any  desert  on  our  part,  (SizcwoiJv  hw^iixv,  bid 
rtiafftoj  Xpcijrov.) 

But  here  again  a  mistake  was  made  on  the 
other  side,  and  Paul  was  understood  to  speak 
lightly  of  the  observance  of  the  divine  law.  He 
himself  complains  that  he  was  thus  misunder- 
stood, Rom.  iii.  8  ;  vi.  15  ;  Gal.  v.  13.  The  same 
thing  has  happened  to  Luther,  Arndt.  Spener, 
and  other  Christian  teachers  of  ancient  and  mo- 
2o2 


438 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


dern  times,  who  have  followed  in  his  footsteps. 
Kven  in  ttiR  agre  of  the  apostles  there  were 
some  filse  Christians,  and  even  f.ilse  teachers. 
They  lived  a  sensual,  disorderly  life,  and  justi- 
fied this  on  the  orround  that  CJirixtiiitus  are  free 
from  the  law.  Against  such  a  st^ntiment  there 
is  much  said  in  the  e|)isties  of  John,  Peter,  and 
JuIp.  OUiers  believed  that  an  inactive  failh 
wnild  suffice,  and  that  works  are  not  important. 
Tiii-y  were  content  if  thi^y  were  only  orthodox 
in  fiead.  James,  in  tjje  second  chapter  of  his 
epistle,  is  strenuf"-  in  opposiiifr  this  sentiment. 
Hf  shews  that  true  (-'hristian  f.iith  cannot  exist 
unless  it  isexhihited  by  Christian  virtues.  Cf.  the 
E-s.iy  above  oiled  in  ••  Scripla  V'arii  Ari^umenli." 
(J)  Nuiwithstandinij  tliese  cUvar  instructions 
of  the  .Ww  Testament,  these  two  mistakes  re- 
specting the  merit  of  works  and  ihi^  sutliciency 
of  an  inoperative  faith,  have  always  prevailed 
a!non<r  Cliristians.  Toe  mistake  respecting  the 
merit  of  works  was  adopted  into  the  whole  sys- 
te:n  of  the  Latin  church.  This  will  now  be 
shewn  from  history. 

A.  DuriniT  the  dark  ages,  after  monastic  prin- 
ciples he.rame  prevalent  in  the  Western  church, 
the  worship  of  God,  piety,  and  holiness,  were 
supposed  to  consist  almost  wholly  in  external 
rilts.  They  believed  that  God  would  be  induced 
by  certain  external  actions  to  bestow  favour  on 
mankind.  They  thought  they  could  merit  his 
4])prohation  somewhat  ;is  the  day-labourer  earns 
his  wages  by  toil.  Much  importance  was  at- 
tached to  works  of  beneficence,  to  almsgiving  and 
|>r('sents,  especially  to  cloisters  and  churches. 
'J'hey  thus  kept  to  the  sense  in  which  t^tya  o'/ooa 
is  sometimes  used  in  the  New  Testament — viz., 
opera  bcnejica,  st9pping.  however,  with  the  out- 
ward action,  and  hniving  the  disposition  of  the 
heart  out  of  account.  \'ide  s.  r21,  ad  finem. 
They  also  insisted  upon  self-inflictions,  fasts,  and 
other  external  punisiiments,  arbitrarily  imposed; 
jusi  as  the  Jews  formerly  did.  'I'hey  even  re- 
lied, like  the  Jews  again,  upon  the  virtues  of  the 
saints,  and  upon  l/ieir  trranurc  tif.irood  wor/is. 
'I'hese  views  led  to  sjreat  corruption  in  morals, 
and  a  wide  remove  from  the  genuine  spirit  and 
true  nature  of  Christianity. 

B.  After  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
the  schoolmen,  and  especially  Thomas  Aquinas, 
began  to  admit  these  views  into  their  theological 
systems,  and  to  defend  them  by  logical  argu- 
ments. They  reasoned  (o)  from  the  term  /iio- 
^o{,  which  is  fref|uently  used  in  the  Hil>le  to 
denote  wat^en  eartud,  as  I  Cor.  iii.  ft.  where  the 
\'ulgate  has  meriliim ;  anil  also  fr<im  many  of 
the  old  Ijitin  fathers,  who  had  said,  mkhkhk/io- 
tiiinrm  sdliitrin,  fee.  Hut  by  such  language  they 
meant  notliing  more  than  co'iscqut,  impitrarc, 
in  which  sense  mtrcre  is  nse<l  by  Cicero  ami 
other  Latin  writers.  And  in  general  in  all  the 
ancient    languages,    and     in    the    Hebrew    and 


Greek,  the  terms  which  denote  waives,  reeinm' 
pence,  are  used  for  rfujarr/ of  any  kind,  whether 
deserved  or  not.  'i'he  meaning  in  every  case 
must  be  determined  by  the  context.  In  the  New 
Testament,  what  is  called  fiin'^o^  is  also  called 
jfdpii  and  6wpfu  in  the  same  context.  We  are 
said  to  receive  ^^'J^l•  Swpfaj/.  Thomas  Aquinas 
taught  that  when  man  of  his  own  accord  per- 
forms benevolent  actions,  gives  alms,  endows 
churches,  &c.,  God  considers  this  as  done  to 
him,  and  sees  fit  (a-quitin,  enni^ruum)  to  reeonf 
pense  the  act.  This  he  called  meritum  de  eon- 
irruf).  (i)  Again,  he  appealed  to  the  doctrine 
of  Augustine,  J)e  gratia  supeniaturali  .ipirilita 
sancli.  This  grace  produces  good  works  in  the 
regenerate,  which  therefore  merit  salvation,  be* 
cause  they  are  derived  from  the  Holy  Spirit. 
[^e  called  this  meritum  de  cotu/ii^no.  Tiie  unre- 
generate  cannot  perform  any  such  meritorious 
Works,  because  they  do  not  possess  this  grace. 
He  was  followed  in  his  opinions  by  oiher  teach- 
ers; and  in  the  sixteenth  century  this  doctrine 
was  confirmed  by  the  council  at  Trent. 

C.  This  false  theory,  so  greatly  injurious  to 
morals,  was  vehemently  opposed  by  the  German 
reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Luther  es- 
pecially argued  against  it  from  the  principlea 
contained  in  Paul's  epistles  to  the  Romans  and 
(Jalatians,  which  were  directed  against  similar 
mistakes  ma<le  by  the  Jews,  But,  ill  the  heat 
of  the  controver'^y,  Luther  frequently  went  to 
the  other  extreme,  and  sometimes  expressed 
himself  with  too  little  precision  and  disiiiutness. 
lie  sometimes  appeared  not  imly  to  deny  merit 
to  those  works  winch  the  monks  regarded  as 
meritorious,  and  to  alt  self-righteous  works, 
(Paul's  wor/i.i  of  the  /aw,)  but  also  to  speak 
slightingly  of  Christinn  r/r/i/fs,  and  rather  to  de- 
preciate than  recommend  them;  though  this 
was  far  from  his  intention.  But  afterwards, 
when  his  doctrine  was  misapplied  by  some  who 
appealed  to  his  authority,  be  became  more 
•ruarded,  ami  exj)ressed  himself  more  definileiy. 
Melanctbon  especially  took  pains  to  guard 
against  these  perversions  in  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession (Art.  iv.),  in  his  Apology,  and  in  his 
"  Loci  'I'heologici."  After  the  death  of  Luther, 
Melanctbon  and  some  of  his  associates  endea- 
voured to  analyze  the  subject  still  further,  and 
to  obviate  all  mistake.  But  they  were  poorly 
rewarded  for  their  pains,  since  they  were  chanjed 
with  d«'pariing  from  Luther  and  adopting  the 
errors  of  the  liomish  church.  Hence  much  con- 
troversy  arose  in  the  Lutheran  cbtirch  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  which  ran  out  for  the  most 
part  into  mere  loiromachy,  as  in  the  case  of 
M.ijor  and  Amsdorf.  It  was  hoped  that  the 
Formula  of  Concrd  would  put  an  end  to  this 
strife,  Morus.  p. -Jl  L  But  the  adherents  of  the 
Romish  church  still  appealed  to  the  second 
chapter  of  James,  in  opposition  to  Luther,     He 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      43i> 


and  his  associates  did  not  know  how  to  defend 
themselves  against  this  argument,  and  did  not 
sufficiently  understand  the  difference  between 
fpya  ttya^a  and  the  tpya  lofxov,  which  were  re- 
garded as  meritorious.  This  is  the  reason  why 
he  and  the  authors  of  the  "  Magdeburg  Centu- 
ries," and  some  other  theologians,  spoke  so  dis- 
creditably of  this  epistle. 

Note. — The  circumstances  of  the  Christian 
teacher  in  our  days  are  frequently  such,  that, 
after  the  example  of  Christ  and  the  apostles,  he 
must  sometimes  insist  more  upon  faith  as  the 
ground  of  pardon  and  salvation,  and  sometimes 
more  upon  the  fruits  of  faith,  or  pious  Christian 
actions.  He  should  take  the  former  course 
w  hen  he  has  to  do  either  with  sinners  who  are 
sorrowful  and  truly  penitent  on  account  of  their 
sins,  or  with  those  who  have  a  self-righteous 
disposition,  and  hope  that  they  shall  be  forgiven 
and  saved  on  account  of  their  supposed  obe- 
dience to  the  law,  and  their  virtuous  conduct. 
Vide  Luke,  xxiii.  40,  seq.,  xviii.  'J;  Rom.  iv. 
5;  Acts,  xvi.  30.  He  must  do  this  in  order  to 
shew  that  salvation  depends  entirely  upon  a  dis- 
position of  sincere  and  unwavering  confidence 
in  God — (i.  e.,  upon  faith,)  since  God  and 
Christ,  who  know  the  heart,  have  regard  solely 
to  the  disposition.  In  this  way  one  who  is 
proud  of  his  virtue,  self-righteous,  and  pharisa- 
ical,  will  learn  wherein  he  is  deficient. 

He  must  take  the  latter  course — that  of  re- 

ommending  ifrW  works,  or  the  fruits  of  faith — 
when  he  deals  with  those  who  undervalue  or 
neglect  the  pursuit  of  holiness  either  throiigh 
levity,  indolence,  or  the  love  of  sin;  who  per- 
suade themselves  that  a  mere  external  pro- 
fession of  faith  will  be  sufficient;  who  say, 
Lord,  Lord;  but  obey  not  his  coinmandmeuia ; 
and  who  pervert  the  doctrine  of  justification 
through  faith  to  excuse  a  life  devoid  of  good- 
ness, perhaps  openly  sinful.  Such  persons 
must  be  made  to  see  that  their  sentiments  are 
false,  and  that  there  are  some  infallible  signs 
hy  which  it  may  be  known  whether  a  person 
possesses  true  faith;  as  a  tree  may  be  known 
by  its  fruits.  These  signs  are  pious  actions, 
which  are  the  invariable  attendants  of  faiih, 
and  which  the  true  believer  will  never  fail  to 
perform  whenever  I.e  has  opportunity.  Matt, 
vii.  16;  xix.  21;    xxv.  31 — IG  ;   Rom.  ii.  6; 

1  'i'iin.  vi.  18 ;  James,  ii. 

SECTION  CXXVI. 

EXPr.ANATION  OF  THI;:  TERMS  WHITH  ARE  I'SED  IN 
THE  SCRIPTURES  TO  DENOTE  BOTH  THE  EXTER- 
NAL PROFESSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY  (KIDES  EX- 
TERNA) AND  INTERNAL  MORAL  IMPROVEMENT 
AND  SANCTIFICATION. 

It  is  the  oreneral  custom  to  treat  of  repeiifnucc, 
eonvirsion,  renewal,  regeneration,  sanctijication. 


in  separate  and  distinct  articles  (loci)  ,•  but  this 
was  not  the  case  anciently.  Neither  the  t-ccic 
siastical  fathers  nor  the  schoolmen  treated  these 
topics  separately.  It  was  not  until  the  sixteenth 
century  that  tliis  method  was  adopted  ;  and  the 
chief  object  of  this  at  first  was  to  explain  more 
fully  these  scriptural  terms  and  obviate  different 
errors  relating  to  them.  But  afterwards  the  dis- 
tinction was  more  finely  drawn,  these  doctrines 
were  more  separated,  and  particular  proof-texts 
were  sought  for  each.  But  many  of  these  dis- 
tinctions are  not  to  be  found  in  the  Bible.  All 
of  these  terms  denote  the  imprnvernenl  of  men, 
and  imply  the  same  divine  agency  ;  although 
sometimes  the  gradual  progress  and  the  differ- 
ent degrees  of  moral  improvement  are  distin- 
guished. The  better  plan  is,  therefore,  to  br'ng 
all  these  topics  together,  and  to  treat  of  them  in 
one  and  the  same  article,  as,  indeed,  most  theo- 
logians now  do.  So  Morns,  p.  220,  seq.,  ;?.  6. 
'{'be  case  is  the  same  with  respect  to  callini^, 
illuniinalion,  and  similar  expressions,  which 
will  be  explained  in  Art.  xii.,  De  operationibus 
gratise,  s.  130. 

I.  Scriptural  idea  of  the  words  denoting  Conver- 
sion,   (iKtaTpo<pf\,   cniarpipeiv,    by    wllicll   the    LXX, 
translate  Ike  Hebrew  jii".) 
'Erttarpfiffti'   frequently   stands  alone,  some- 
times connected  with  ini  or  Ttpoj  rbv  (diov,  to 
turn  to  God.     This  term  is  derived  from   the 
very  frequent  comparison  of  the  actions  and  con- 
duct of  man  with  a  way,  and  with  walking  in 
it;  whence  the  religion  itself  which  fme  adopts 
is  itself  called  •y\-\.     But  this  term  is  used  in 
two  different- senses — viz., 

(1)  It  denotes  the  moral  improvement  and  ho- 
liness of  men  when  they  repent  of  their  sins  and 
forsake  them.  In  this  sense  is  the  term  com- 
monly used  in  theology,  Ezek.  iii.  19;  Joel,  ii. 
12,  13;  Matt.  xiii.  15;  Acts,  iii.  19.  This 
turning  is  produced  by  God,  or  the  Holy  Spirit, 
by  means  of  revealed  truth.  The  same  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  fitravotlv,  by  which  also 
the  LXX.  render  the  Heb.  jiu.  These  two 
forms  of  expression  are  frequently  interchanged 
as  synonymous,  as  Acts,  xv.  3,  coll.  xi.  IS. 
"The  heart  is  tumid  away  from  the  love  of  sin, 
and  inclined  to  efforts  after  what  is  good  and 
right,  under  the  assistance  of  (iod  and  the  Holy 
Spirit."  Vide  2  Cor.  vii.  11  ;  Jer.  iii.  12,  13, 
(an  exhortation  to  the  Israelites  to  return  to 
Gr>d.  from  whom  they  had  departed.) 

(2)  It  denotes  sometimes  the  external  transi- 
tion from  a  false  religion  to  the  true. — the  re- 
nunciation of  idolatry;  Hos.  iii.  5  ;  Ezek.  xiv. 
6.  Hence  it  is  applied  in  the  New  Testament 
(n)  to  Gentiles  who  enter  into  the  external 
Christian  community.  Acts,  xx.  21 ;  xxvi.   18 

1  Thess.  i.  0  ;  (/;)  to  .lews  becoming  Christians 
Acts,  ix.  3y;  xiv.  15;  2  Cor.  iii.  16. 


440 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ThoRetwo  fionses  oii^ht  to  1)0  distinn:uishpd 
in  the  oxjiliiniition  \>{  this  t<^rin.  For  thoufjh 
conversion  of  the  former  kind  is  the  object 
of  the  hitter,  yet  it  is  not  uhvnys  attained. 
But  sometimes  the  two  meanings  are  con- 
ni'cted  tn;;ether,  lieeausc  tlie  first  is  the  o)>- 
jcct  of  the  seeond,  and  with  many  is  actually 
Httaini'd.  Thus  when  tlie  apostles  preach 
oonversicm  to  Jews  and  (Jentiles,  they  mean 
Ooih;  for  neither  Christ  nor  his  apostles  en- 
courapced  a  merely  external  introduction  into 
tho  Christian  church.  Still  they  require  men 
to  enter  into  the  external  church  because 
tliere  are  the  means  of  conversion  found. 

II.  Scriptural  idea  of  the  words  denoting  Re- 
(feiicnttion,  (jtoXiyyft'toia,  yfffao^jai  avui^xv  or 
8f  vr/poi',  fliayf  ii'ttij^ai.  Also  the  Hijnonijmouti 
terms,  araxatiwfj/f,  avavioiv,  xoufo;  av^purto;, 
xoMii;  xrioij,  X.  t.  "K.) 

The  word  rfaXiyytctata  denotes  frequently 
any  entire  alteration  of  state,  by  which  one 
is  hrnutrlit  into  an  entirely  new  and  reformed 
condition,  or  jilaced  in  a  better  situation. 
The  ciiange  indicated  by  this  terra  is,  how- 
ever, a.s  Morns  justly  observes,  in  every  case, 
mutatio  in  ineliiiJi,  p.  223,  note  at  the  top. 
Vide  "  Scrijjta  Varii  Argumenti,"  Num.  vi. 
Thus  Cicero  (Att.  iv.  6)  calls  his  restoration 
from  exile,  rtaXiyyti'toia,  anil  Josephus  (Ant. 
xi.  3)  calls  tiie  restoration  of  the  Jewish  land 
after  the  captivity  ttaUyyfveuia  rtarptioj.  Tiie 
stoics  spoke  of  naXiyyiviaia  rdv  ox^v.  In  Ro- 
man law,  the  manumission  of  a  slave  was 
calli.'il  his  rr(/ciien(lliin.  In  Matt.  xix.  2f<,  it 
denotes  an  introduction  into  a  new  and  hapj)y 
situation,  whether  the  resurrection  or  the  es- 
tablisinnent  of  tho  Messiah's  kingdom  be 
understood. 

When  the  Israelites  spoke  of  a  person 
changing  his  religion,  they  used  the  plirases 
birt/i,  new  Idrt/i,  &c.  When  a  Cent  He  passed 
over  to  Judaism  (became  a  j)roselyte),  he  was 
rogar<led  liy  the  Jews  as  new  born,  a  new  man, 
a  r/illd  just  beginning  to  live.  As  such  he 
was  reii'ived  into  their  church,  and  obtained 
civil  rights.     Even  in  the  Old  Testanlent  the 

term  "^7*  is  used  in  reference  to  proseJi/tc-i, 

Ps.  Ixxxvii.  5,  coll.  Is.  xlix.,  li.,  liv.  This 
might  be  called  external  rei/eiu:ration.  Tho 
term  was  aft«'r\vards  used  by  tho  Rabbins  in 
a  moral  sense,  since  it  becam«i  tiie  duty  of  one 
who  had  been  adinitteil  into  the  Jewish 
church  to  live  acconling  to  Jewish  laws,  and 
to  have  a  ln-tter  moral  disposition.  This  is 
internal,  moral  rei/rneration.  The  term  was 
used  in  both  of  these  senses  by  the  Jews  at 
the  time  of  Christ  and  the  apostles. 

Now  it  was  not  the  manner  of  Christ  and 
thea])ostles  to  invt-nt  new  terms,  but  to  Ixjr- 
row  terms  from  tiie  ancient  Jewish  jihrase- 
ology,  and  transfer  them  to  Christianity. 
Hence  we  find  all  these  words  used  in  the 
New  Testament  in  tlirec  different  bouses — 

f'lL., 


fl)  To  denote  one's  passing  over  fxtemaUy 
from  Judaism  or  heathenism  to  the  Christian 
society,  and  making  an  external  profession 
of  the  Christian,  in  opposition  to  the  Jewish 
or  heathen  religion,  which  tho  Christian  re- 
nounces. Thus  Paul  says,  Ephes.  ii.  15, 
"  Christ  has  united  Jews  and  tientiles  into 
one  church,"  (fij  xaivov  a>'^pw«o»',  which  can- 
not here  denote  internal  r<'fi>rination,  as  this 
could  not  bo  predicated  of  all.)  Cf.  James, 
i.  18.  Thus  Peter  says,  1  Pet.  i.  3,  "God 
hath  brought  us  to  the  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity {cwayfvvrjiai  f;ndi),  in  order  to  enable 
us  to  obtain  salvation."  Paul  frequently  says 
of  those  whom  he  had  induced  to  make  pro- 
fession of  Christianity,  that  he  had  begotten 
them  (yfvfov),  Philemon,  v.  10;  1  Cor.  iv.  15; 
and  liStftn',  Gal.  iv.  19. 

(2)  To  denote  the  internal  or  moral  reneieal 
of  the  heart  and  of  the  whole  dispfisition  of 
man.  This  is  tho  object  of  one's  becoming  a 
Christian,  to  renounce  the  love  of  sin,  and 
love  what  is  good,  and  to  practice,  it  from 
motives  of  love  to  God  and  Christ.  This 
state  is  effected  in  Christians  by  God,  or  the 
Holy  Spirit,  through  faith  in  Christ.  The 
creation  of  a  new  heart  (reformed  disposition) 
is  mentioned  in  this  sense,  even  in  the  Old 
Testament,  Ezek.  xxxvi.  26—28 ;  Ps.  li.  12. 
In  other  psissages  tho  term  eircnmci'don  of  heart 
is  used,  l)out.  x.  1(3 ;  elsewhere,  a  new  heart,  a 
new  sjtirit,  a  new  mind,  which  has  God  for  its 
author,  Ezek.  xi.  19.  20;  Psalm  1.,  li.;  Is.  i., 
<ic.  In  this  sense  Paul  speaks  of  jiutting  on 
the  neio  man,  and  putting  oft'  the  <-///  man,  of 
a  1WW  creature,  after  the  /wm/zcof  God,  Ephes. 
iv.  22,  24,  and  Col.  iii.  9,  ll>.  and  aiaxau'wuij 
voo^,  Rom.  xii.  2,  and  avartovs^ai  tw  mtv/iart, 
Epiies.  iv.  23.  seq.  Here  belong  all  the  texts, 
in  John  and  elsewhere,  which  teach  that  man 
must  be  burn  of  God,  or  tho  Holy  Spirit — 
i.  e.,  become  his  child,  love  him,  in  disposi- 
tion and  conduct  resemble  him,  that  he  may 
be  loved  by  t!od  in  return  ;  for  all  which  he 
is  indebted  to  God  or  to  the  Holy  Spirit, 
I  John,  iii.  9;  v.  1 ;  John,  i.  12,  li!.  Cf^,  the 
remarks  respecting  vio^taia,  s.  119,  I.  1. 
These  different  terms,  therefore,  refer  to  ono 
and  the  same  thing. 

(3)  In  many  passages  these  two  senses  are 
combined,  because  internal  regeneration  is  the 
object  of  external  regeneration;  exactly  as  In 
the  case  of  i ft larpitfuv.  Among  othi-r  texts  is 
John,  iii.  3,  5,  "  Whoever  is  not  born  of  bajv 
tism  and  the  Holy  Spirit  (i.  e.,  does  not  conse- 
crate himself  by  l)apt  ism  to  the  profession  of  my 
religion,  and  does  not  become,  through  divine 
assistance,  a  refurmcil  man,  a  e/iilil  ft'  (lod,  a 
friend  of  Gotl,  like  him  in  moral  character)  can- 
not lie  considered  a  member  of  the  Messiah's 
kingdom  {3aiiXiia  &toi}."  Hence  bantism  is 
called.  Tit.  iii.  5,  Xovrpoi'  rtcJuyyf  vmiaj.  because 
we  are  not  only  solemnly  admitted  by  this  rit« 
into  the  Chriitian  society,  but  are  likewiw 


ST^TE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTIOX.       441 


thereby  obligated,  according  to  the  precepts  of 
Christ,  to  become  refirmed  in  character;  and 
on  this  condition  have  all  the  rights  and  re- 
wards of  God's  children  granted  and  assured  to 
us.  So  the  Rabbins  expressed  themselves  with 
regard  to  the  baptism  of  proselytes.  And  for 
this  reason  the  most  ancient  fathers,  Ignatius 
and  Justin,  call  baptism  drays vj-jj^tj. 

III.  Scriptural  idea  of  the  term  ficravoia. 

This  word  is  used  by  the  Greeks  to  designate 
a  change  in  a  person's  opinions,  aims,  disposi- 
tions, with  respect  to  particular  things.  Thus 
the  phrase,  tij  /xtrdj'oiav  aytiv,  signifies  to  in- 
duce any  one  to  alter  his  opinion,  and  to  adopt 
another.  Polybius  uses  the  word  ^travoflv  in 
relation  to  a  general  who  designed  to  stake  bat- 
tle, but  afterwards  determined  differently.  Plato 
contrasts  rc^ovoilv  (to  use  forecast)  and  fitra- 
voeiv,  (to  reconsider  when  it  is  too  late.)  In 
Heb.  xii.  17,  it  is  said  that  Esau  could  not  ob- 
tain the  alteration  of  his  father's  opinion,  (fitrd- 
I'ota.)  In  the  classical  writers,  however,  this 
term  is  not  used  to  denote  particularly  an  alter- 
ation in  the  moral  state  of  the  rnind  or  heart. 
This  use  first  prevailed  among  the  Grecian 
Jews,  and  was  derived  by  them  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint.  The  flebrew  aiu',  is  commonly  ex- 
pressed in  the  Septuagint  Version  by  ^stavonv, 
as  Is.  XXX.  15,  though  sometimes  also  by  tm- 
erpiffiv.  The  Hebrew  om  is  rendered  in  the 
same  way,  Jer.  iv.  28.  These  significations 
run  together,  since  we  determine  not  to  repeat 
that  which  causes  us  sorrow.  Hence  the  words 
(xtravodv  and  ^trauh^ii^at  are  connected  as  sy- 
nonymous, 2  Cor.  vii.  8,  coll.  Luke,  xvii.  4. 
This  word,  accordingly,  like  trttsrpo^^,  and 
other  similar  terms,  is  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, in  a  wider  and  a  narrower  sense — viz., 

(1)  It  denotes  the  forsaking  of  a  religion 
which  one  had  formerl}'  professed,  and  is  pro- 
fessing a  new  (the  Christian)  religion,  (because 
there  is  in  this  case  a  chnnge  of  view  and  opi- 
nion with  respect  to  religion;)  Acts,  xx.  21, 
where  it  is  said  that /itravota  fij  Qfov  is  preach- 
ed to  Jews  and  to  Gentiles,  in  connexion  with 
rtiWij  fij  XpcfToi'.  Thus  Luke,  xxiv.  47,  and 
other  texts.  Vide  Morus,  p.  222.  In  the  same 
way  as  the  return  of  the  Israelites  from  idolatry 
to  the  true  religion  was  called  fierdvoia,  could 
the  conversion  of  Jews  or  Gentiles  to  Christian- 
ity be  so  called. 

(2)  It  more  commonly  denotes  a  moral 
change.  And  {a)  it  expresses  the  entire  moral 
renovation  or  conversion  of  men,  in  the  widest 
sense;  and  (6)  the  commencement  of  this 
change,  wiven  one  begins  to  abhor  the  evil  which 
he  loved,  and  to  form  the  sincere  purpose  of  for- 
saking it.  It  is  frequently  used  in  this  nar- 
rower sense  in  the  holy  scriptures,  and  this  is 
its  most  common  use  in  theology,  as  will  be 

56 


furtlier  shewn,  s.  127.  This  change  always 
presupposes  an  entire  revolution  in  the  views 
and  feelings  of  the  subject  of  it;  he  begins 
thenceforward  to  love  and  practise  good  instead 
of  evil.  This  was  the  great  subject  of  the 
preaching  of  John  the  Baptist;  Mfraioftrf  was 
his  continual  theme.  Matt.  iii.  2,  11  ;  Luke,  iii. 
8.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Christ,  Mark,  i. 
15.  It  here  denotes  a  radical  alteration,  or  a 
change  by  which  an  entirely  new  direction  is 
given  to  one's  life  and  elforts.  Hence  the 
phrases  which  occur  so  frequently,  ufraiostv 
dno  Tuiv  duapTiuiv  or  ipytov  vexjidiv,  Acts,  viu. 
22;  Heb.  vi.  I.  Hence,  too,  ^ufraiwu'  and  ini- 
nrpi^fiv  are  interchanged  as  synonymous.  Acts, 
iii.  I'J,  2G;  Rom.  ii.  4. 

(.?)  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  fre- 
quently connect  the  two  meanings  of  tiie  word 
uetdvoia  together,  since  the  object  of  an  exter- 
nal change  of  religion  is  always  the  improve- 
ment of  the  heart.  Acts,  xi.  18,  "God  hath 
granted  even  to  the  heathen  ftiTdioiav  nj  ^^r;v, 
The  ancient  ecclesiastical  fathers,  even  in  the 
Latin  church,  also  connected  with  this  word  the 
idea  of  repentance  and  reformation  in  the  moral 
sense;  and  Lactantius  proposes  well  (Inst.  Div, 
vi.  24)  to  render  it  by  the  word  rei:i]>iiicentia. 
But  the  word  commonly  employed  in  Latin 
theology  wzs  prjenilentia,  by  which  the  Vulgate 
renders  /xfrdiota;  which  is  not,  indeed,  incorrect 
in  itself,  but  often  rather  ambiguous,  and  some 
times  quite  inappropriate.  Cf.  Moms,  p.  224 
s.  2.  After  the  fourth  century  writers  began  to 
understand  this  word  according  to  the  Latin 
(lyniology,  and  to  vary  from  the  usage  of  the 
Bible.  The  influence  of  Aug\istine  contributed 
to  the  wide  ditTusion  of  this  error.  He  insisted 
upon  the  derivation  of  the  word  panitintia  from 
punio  OT pwnio ;  because  man  himself  punishes 
his  own  sins,  and  therefore  receives  forgiveness. 
Pwnitentia  est  quxdam  dokniis  vindicta,  semper 
Pf  MENS  in  se,  quod  dolet  commisisse,  De  Po?nit., 
c.  8,  He  was  followed  by  other  Latin  teachers, 
especially  by  Peter  of  Lombardy  and  other 
scliooimen.  The  unscriptural  idea  that  pani- 
tenlia  is  not  only  repentance  for  past  sins,  but 
punishment,  self-inflicted,  on  account  of  them, 
has  prevailed  widely  not  only  in  the  Romish 
but  also  in  the  prolestant  church. 

This  sort  of  pcenitentia  is  expressed  in  the 
Roman  church  by  the  German  terms,  Busse  (jiC' 
nance,  punishment,  in  the  shape  of  a  Jine  or 
mulct^,  Busse  thun  (Jo  do  penance),  bi/ssen  (Je 
atone'),  the  last  of  which  terms  expresses  more 
clearly  the  false  associated  idea.  Many  pro- 
testants  have  therefore  wished  that  when  the 
error  of  the  Romish  church  implied  in  this  term 
was  abandoned,  this  term  itself,  which  so  easily 
leads  into  mistake,  had  also  been  criven  up. 
Christ  has  freed  us  from  the  punishment  of  sin, 
and  an  atonement  on  our  part  is  not  possibla 


142 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Even  wlipn  we  repent  (^frai-otti) — i.  e.,  alter 
and  vfi/rin,  we  //i«/re  rwi  atonentcnt,  but  we  re- 
ceive sfreat  lilessinijs.  Vide  the  Apolocry  of  the 
Auu-sljur^  (^jnfession,  c.  v.  and  vi.  But  there 
is  no  word  in  German  [and  the  same  is  true  in 
Eni^lish]  Aviiich  answers  fully  to  the  Greek 
(iiTuioia,  And  if  the  scriptural  idea  of  this  term 
is  explained  in  the  early  catechetical  instruc- 
tions, the  inaptness  of  the  terms  by  which  it  is 
rendered  need  not  be  so  much  regretted,  since 
people  in  common  life  are  not  accustomed  to 
take  words  in  their  etymological  sense. 

IV,  Scriptural  idea  of  terms  denoting  Holiness  or 

Sanctity,    (iyiowui'ij,    aytaaii6i,   k.  t.  \.,  also   bai6rrii, 

offioj.     Hifj.  •^r^p,  with  its  derivatives.) 

Tiie  words  aytoy,  ayiu^iiv,  U'Ti  designate 
primarily  whatever  is  singled  out,  selected,  or 
bent  in  its  kind.  V^ide  s.  29.  It  was  first  applied 
in  the  ancient  languages  to  ear/^rwi/ excellences 
and  privilegi's;  afterwards,  to  those  of  an  inter- 
nal and  moral  nature.  Hence  arose  the  twofold 
use  of  thi.'se  terms  in  the  Bible,  which  must  not 
be  overlooked ;  they  denote  sanctitas  externa, 
and  interna. 

(1)  All  the  Israelites  are  called  by  Moses 
cmr),  and  iioliness  is  ascribed  to  them  without 
respect  to  thtir  moral  conduct,  but  merely  from 
the  circumstftnce  that  they  were  (externally) 
separated  from  the  Gentiles,  anti  (external)  pro- 
fessors of  the  true  religion.  The  same  way  of 
speaking  became  common  in  respect  to  Chris- 
tians, who  are  frequently  called  in  the  New 
Testament  ayiot,  j^yia'juivoi,  merely  from  the 
circumstance  that  they  profess  externally  t'ne 
Christian  religion,  and  belong  externally  to  the 
Christian  connnunity,  and  thus  are  distinguish- 
ed from  Jews  and  (Jeniiles.  Hence  all  who 
were  received  into  the  visible  Christian  church 
by  baptism,  were  called  aytoi.  Christians,  with- 
out respect  to  their  moral  disposition,  as  appears 
from  the  epistles  to  the  Corinthians. 

(•2)  These  terms  are  also  evidently  used  by 
the  sacred  writers  in  a  moral  sense.  Lev.  xix. 
2.  "  He  ye  holy,  fr.r  I  am  holy."  Cf.  I  Pel.  i. 
14  —  l(i.  So  ayta/i^oj,  in  Itom.  vi.  22,  is  the 
same  as  fnxaioivvTi  in  ver.  18,  19,  virtue,  riirhle- 
ousntKS ;  ayujiivfri,  1  Thess.  iii.  13,  and  ayiaCfti', 

V.  23.  AyittTwoj,  in  Heb.  xii.  II,  is  that  with- 
out which  no  man  shall  sic  the  Lord,  The  same 
is  true  ol  oii»jand  orjiorrf,  Kphes.  iv.  21;  Luke, 
i.  75,  (j'»tor>;5  xai  dixcuoavii^.  It  here  denotes 
thai  blamelessn -ss  of  feeling  and  conduct  which 
is  required,  according  to  the  divine  precepts, 
from  a  true  worshipper  of  (Jod.  and  especially 
from  a  Christian,  and  also  the  hahitinil  abhr>r- 
reiice  of  sin  an<l  love  of  moral  excellence.  Cf. 
1  .(ohn,  ill.  7<  ^ixcuof  ifri,  xou>ui;  (xftcof  htxaio^ 
inn-  Itom.  vi.  18.  hovXfvuv  bixaio^vvr^,  coll.  ver. 
l;»,  "  He  IS  dead  to  sin,  and  lives  entirely  for 
virtue."     In  this   way  the  Christian  hocoaius 


like  God,  and  loves  him  from  similarity  of  dis- 
position, and  in  return  is  loved  by  God,  as  a 
dutiful  son  who  resembles  his  father  is  loved 
by  him.  Man  is  destined  for  holiness,  and  the 
happiness  proportionately  connected  with  it. 
Vide  s.  'A,  11.;  and  when  any  one  is  admitted 
into  the  community  of  the  saints,  (llie  Jews  un- 
der the  old  covenant,  and  Christians  under  tlie 
new,)  his  holiness  is  the  great  object  aimed  at. 
The  church  is  designed  to  be  selmla  sanetilatis. 
Otherwise,  his  admission  into  the  church  and 
his  fellowship  with  the  saints  will  be  of  no  ad- 
vantage to  him;  indeed,  his  condemnation  will 
be  aggravated  in  consequence  of  these  privi- 
leges. Holiness  is  therefore  the  evidence  and 
result  oi conversion,  or  of  repentance  and  regenc' 
ration.  One  who  is  destitute  of  holiness,  or 
who  is  negligent  in  the  pursuit  of  it,  is  not  con- 
verted,  or  borti  again,  or  has  not  repented.  For 
an  account  of  the  nice  distinctions  and  techni- 
cal definitions  of  the  words  C'inversion,  regenera' 
lion,  repentance,  renewal,  »anc!ijicutiitn,  which 
theologians  formerly  introduced  into  their  sys- 
tems, vide  Morus,  p.  223.  [Also  cf.  Hahn.  s. 
523,  11".— Tr.] 

SECTION  CXXVII. 

STATEMENT  OF  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  MORAL  REFOR- 
MATION ;     ITS     commencement;     ON     PLTTINO 

OFF  repentance;  and  on  late  conveusk-ns. 

I.  Scriptural  Doctrine  respecting  Repintance  and 
Conversion,-  inferences  from  it ;  and  an  Ej'jiIo- 
nation  of  Tecliniail  Terms. 

(1)  Two  things  are  justly  considered  as  es- 
sential to  the  commencement  of  reformation — 
viz.,  the  knowledge  of  sin  as  sin,  and  the  sor- 
row of  soul  arising  from  it,  or  bitter  penitence 
on  account  of  sin  and  abhorrence  for  it.  CJhris- 
tian  repentance  is  therefore  a  lireli/  knowledge, 
agreeably  to  the  precepts  of  the  gospel,  of  the 
sin  which  we  have  committed,  as  a  great  evil. 
This  knowledge  is  called  lireli/  when  it  is  effi- 
cacious and  infiuences  the  w  ill,  in  '>pposition  to 
a  dead  knowledge,  which  has  no  influence  upon 
the  determinations  of  the  mind.  These  two 
tilings  must  belong  to  reformation  of  every 
kind,  and  to  whatever  object  it  relates,  for  they 
are  founded  in  the  very  nature  of  the  human 
soul.  W  henever  a  change  takes  place  in  human 
views  and  fi>eliiigs,  whether  ei\tire  or  (lartial,  it 
is  always  elTected  by  the  same  laws,  and  in- 
volves the  same  general  feelings.  In  order  that 
a  man  may  renounce  a  particular  vice,  (suppose 
drunkenness,)  his  understanding  must  first  ap- 
prehend it  as  a  fault,  and  must  see  its  injurious 
conse(|uences.  The  first  efl'ect  is  therefore  pro- 
duced upon  the  understanding,  and  next,  through 
that,  upon  the  will,  'i'he  lively  conceiilion  of 
'.he  evil  consequences  of  past  transgression  or 


STATE  IXTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       443 


of  habitiMl  vice  awakens  sorrow  for  sin,  aver- 
Bltm  to  it,  and  a  determination  henceforward  to 
avoid  it.  But  Christian  reformation  does  not 
consist  in  the  jjiving  up  of  particular  sins  and 
vices,  l)ut  in  renouncing  sinful  dispositions  and 
principles,  in  the  turning  of  the  heart  from  the 
love  of  sin  to  the  love  of  goodness.  Particular 
oulbreakings  of  sin  may  be  compared  with  par- 
ticular symptoms  of  a  dangerous  disease;  at- 
tempting to  remove  these  will  be  in  vain,  unless 
the  disease  itself  is  entirely  cured.  If  this  is 
done,  these  symptoms  of  course  disappear.  In 
the  same  way  we  should  strive,  not  only  to  be 
rid  of  particular  sins,  but  to  be  renewed  in  the 
whole  temper  of  our  souls. 

The  same  things  are  essential  to  every  kind 
of  reformation — e.  g.,  Jer.  iii.  12,  13,  where  the 
Israelites  are  exhorted  to  renounce  their  idola- 
try ;  and  2  Cor.  vii.  8 — 11,  which  describes  the 
feelings  produced  among  the  Corinthians  by  the 
rebuke  which  Paul  administered  to  them  on  ac- 
count of  their  indulgence  to  the  incestuous  per- 
son; and  these  feelings  were  the  cause  of  their 
reformation,  or  of  iheir  putting  away  the  olTence. 
Here  fxtrdvota  is  said  expressly  to  consist  main- 
ly in  y^i-Ttri  zttTtt  0fd»',  godly  sorrow,  which  was 
very  beneficial  to  them  after  they  became  con- 
scious of  their  guilt.  Cf.  Ezek.  xviii.  '21,  seq. ; 
Luke,  iii.  10—14. 

Now  since  the  nature  and  operations  of  the 
human  soul  are  tiie  same  at  all  times,  it  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  the  manner  of  moral  re- 
formation is  described  in  the  Old  Testament  as 
essentially  the  same  as  in  the  New.  And,  in- 
deed, the  process  of  reformation  could  not  he  dif- 
ferent in  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New,  since 
it  depends  upon  the  unaltered  constitution  of  the 
human  soul,  of  which  God  himself  is  the  author. 
The  experience  of  David,  (after  his  alfair  with 
Bathsheba,)  recorded  in  Ps.  li.,  is  full  of  in- 
struction on  this  point.  It  consists  of  the  know- 
ledge of  his  sin  and  desert  of  punishment,  sor- 
row, repentance,  desire  of  forgiveness,  the  ear- 
nest wish  for  reformation  and  for  confirmed 
goodness;  also  of  love,  confidence,  and  sincere 
gratitude  to  God.     Cf.  Ps.  xxxii. 

The  nature  of  reformation,  and  especially  of 
its  comim^ncement,  are  clearly  described  by 
Christ  in  two  parables. 

(«)  The  parable  of  the  pharisee  and  the  pub- 
lican, Luke,  xviii.  9 — 14.  The  phari«ee  is  very 
proud  of  his  virtues  and  inerits,  and  thinks  no 
man  is  better  than  himself,  and  is  fiuent  in 
praise  of  his  own  good  works.  The  publican 
acknowledges  his  sins,  is  troubled,  and  peni- 
tent. He  utters  the  simple  feelinir  o(  his  heart 
in  the  few  words,  "God  be  menit'ul  to  me,  a 
sinner."  And  Jesus  decides,  that  the  latter  went 
down  to  his  house  forgiven  by  (lod,  the  other 
not.     Here  the  man  who  believe*  that  he  shall 


obtain  the  grace  of  God  on  account  of  his  own 
works  or  worthiness,  through  pride  and  selfish 
blindness  remains  ignorant  of  himself  and  his 
great  imperfections,  and  does  not  see  God  as 
holy  and  just.  He  is  not  therefore  incliiied  to 
embrace  the  doctrine  of  forgiveness  through 
grace  without  personal  merit,  and  accordingly 
he  is  not  forgiven.  This  mistake  is  called  self- 
righteousness,  from  Rom.  x.  3.  Cf.  Dan.  ix. 
18;  Is.  Ixiv.  (3.  This  mistake  is  one  of  the  most 
injurious  and  dangerous,  because  the  man  who 
makes  it  persuades  himself  that  he  does  not 
need  reformation. 

(6)  The  excellent  parable  of  the  prodigal  son, 
Luke,  XV.  The  object  of  this  parable  is  two- 
fold. First,  to  shew  in  what  way  a  man  comes 
to  the  knowledge  of  sin,  and  to  the  feeling  of 
guilt;  how  he  must  humble  himself,  and  ac- 
knowledge his  unworthiness  of  the  divine  fa- 
vours, and  yet  have  confidence,  and  lay  hold  of 
and  embrace  the  undeserved  forgiveness  of  God. 
Secondly,  this  parable  shews  how  gracious  and 
kind  the  feelings  of  God  are,  and  how  ready  he 
is  to  forgive  the  repentant  sinner.  Vide  Luke, 
XV.  7,  10.  Cf.  Tollner's  Essays  in  his  "Theo) 
Unters."  Bd,  i.  th.  2,  s.  3!J0,  seq.;  "  Busse 
und  Glauben;"  also,  "Leber  die  Parahel  vom 
verlornen  Sohn." 

(2)  Sorrow  for  the  sins  we  have  eomniiited, 
(xvnti,  2  Cor.  vii.  9,  10,)  which  is  also  an  es- 
sential part  of  reformation,  is  called  by  theolo- 
gians contrition,  brokcnness  of  heart,  (Germ. 
Zer/cnirschuni(.)  Our  older  theologians  justly 
render  and  explain  this  term  by  the  phrase  litue 
and  Leid,  (penitence  and  sorrow.)  The  term  is 
taken  from  the  Hebrew  nn  n3i  and  -larj  a"'  (lit. 
wounded  hcarf),  Ps.  xxxiv.  19;  Is.  Ivii.  19;  Ps. 
li.  19.  Both  of  these  terms  are  applied  to  a  de- 
sponding, contrite,  troxihled  mind,  whatever  the 
cause  of  the  distress  may  be.  Cf.  is.  Ixi.  1, 
and  other  passages  cited  by  Morus,  p.  218,  n.  9. 
'fhe  lively  knowledge  of  sin  as  a  great  evil,  ne- 
cessarily involves  unhappy  feelings  and  sorrow, 
{dolor  anititi,  "KvTtr,,)  Ps.  li.  19;  Jer.  xxxi.  19; 
Luke,  xviii.  13.  And  since  we  are  drawn  away 
to  sin  by  the  strength  of  our  passions,  and  cold 
reason  is  far  too  weak  to  aflord  the  necessary 
resistance,  other  feelings  must  be  opposed  to 
those  which  incline  us  to  sin,  in  order  to  coun- 
teract their  influence;  for  man  is  not  merely  a 
rational  being,  but  is  composed  of  sense  and 
reason,  (Germ.  Verniinftig-sinnliches  Wesen.) 
Now  it  is  a  great  object,  and  one  of  the  chief 
advantages  of  religion,  to  excite  and  maintHin 
these  penitential  feelirtffs.  Sorrow  for  sin  is 
highly  beneficial  in  its  influence,  and  is  essen- 
tially involved  in  true  and  radical  reformation. 
Hence  Paul,  2  Cor.  vii.  9,  calls  this  penitence 
and  sorrow,  Xvwj/v  xara  ®i6v,  aceeptahie  to  God, 
aarembk   to  his  will  and  purpose — because  it 


<44 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


contrilnitps  to  our  salvation,  (ft?  Turrpiai .)  And 
because  it  does  so,  it  is  a  repentance  not  to  be 
repented  of,  (aufrauf'^j^roi.) 

But  liiis  sorrow  tor  sin  is  very  different  in  de- 
gree both  as  to  gtrenislh  (iulcmiir')  and  conlinu- 
aiicc,  {exteiusive.)  Men  dillVr  exceedingly  from 
each  other  in  respect  to  constitution,  tempera- 
ment, and  the  entire  mental  disposition.  Ac- 
cordingly, their  feelings,  and  the  manner  in 
wliich  they  express  them,  are  very  different. 
No  general  rule  can  therefore  be  prescribed  for 
all,  respecting  the  degree  of  sorrow  which  it  is 
necessary  to  feel,  and  the  manner  in  wliich  it 
must  be  expressed.  We  have  no  definite  mea- 
sure of  human  feeling,  no  malhcsia  ojficluum. 
Let  this,  then,  be  the  only  rule  by  which  we  try 
ourselves  and  others :  Sorrow  fur  sin  is  then  only 
sujficienlly  i^eat  (for  the  pur|)ose  of  reformation) 
w/ien  it  produces  in  us  a  constant  aversion  to  sin, 
rtmaininir  throxii^h  our  whole  lives.  It  implies 
the  sincere  wish,  fl'uu/d  that  I  had  not  traiv- 
gressed  the  divine  commands,  and  also  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  desert  of  punishment  on 
account  of  such  transgression.  But  while  one 
is  inclined  from  his  very  temperament  to  sorrow 
and  despondency,  or  to  violent  outbreakings  of 
feelinij,  another  is  naturally  disposed  to  cheer- 
fulness, is  more  considerate  and  reserved,  and 
gives  little  vent  to  his  emotions.  Besides,  there 
ure  different  degrees,  both  of  actual  sin  and  of 
inward  corruption,  in  different  men;  and  their 
feelings  of  sorrow  will  of  course  vary  accord- 
ingly. 

Sincerity  of  heart  is  the  great  requisite  here; 
Ps.  xxxii.  '2.  It  is  on  this  only  that  (Jod  looks 
with  approbation.  The  accurate  recollection  of 
Mch  particular  sin  we  have  ever  committed  is 
neither  necessary  nor  possible.  Still  less  are 
the  external,  visible  figns  of  penitence  and  sorrow 
essential  to  reformation,  unless  they  arise  from 
the  deep,  sincere  sorrow  of  the  heart.  Whether 
the  feelings  of  the  heart  shall  be  expressed  by 
f.xlernal  signs  depends  wholly  upon  the  differ- 
ence of  men  as  to  natural  temperament  and  or- 
ganization. As  to  tears,  lamentations,  and 
siijlis,  they  are  of  very  little  conse(|uence  in  this 
matter.  Provided  the  heart  be  renewed,  whe- 
tbi-r  it  be  with  or  without  tears  is  a  |)oint  of  in- 
dilVerence.  The  tearless  repentance  of  a  man 
of  a  sedate  cast  of  mind  may  be  more  sincere 
and  acceptable  lo  Cod  than  the  penitence  of  a 
person  of  a  more  effeminate  mould,  which  is 
att»'nded  with  siirliing  ami  weepinix,  but  which 
otien  passes  soon  away  and  leaves  no  al>idini> 
fctlecls.  Cf.  121,  L  If.  Wh  should  beware, 
however,  of  considering  persons  to  l)e  hypocrites 
because  they  make  these  violent  dfinoiislrations 
of  feeling — a  rash  decision  ton  often  made!  On 
this  point  we  are  liable  to  mistake,  anil  reljirious 
teachers  have  often,  from  the  earliest  times, 
been  in  fault  here.    Many  made  loo  much  of  the 


term  contrition,  and  undertook  to  lay  down  de- 
finite rules  on  this  subject,  and  appealed  to 
some  examples  and  passages  in  tlie  Bible, 
which  are  not,  however,  universally  applica* 
ble — e.  g.,  the  repentance  of  David,  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, Peter,  and  the  repentance  in  sacf.tloth 
and  ashes  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament, 
which,  however,  does  not  di  -rrilie  reformation 
of  heart,  but  the  public  exteri.al  rites  employed 
in  case  of  pestilence  and  other  great  calamities. 
Such  vehement  expressions  of  fteling  are  not 
required  of  all  men.  The  example  of  David, 
who  spent  three  quarters  of  a  year  in  trouble  on 
account  of  his  sins,  is  frequently  mentioned 
here.  But  he  had  himself  to  blame  for  this;  ^ 
since  he  himself  confesses.  Psalm  xxxii.  3,  4, 
that  he  endeavoured  to  keep  siletice  respecting 
his  sins — i.  e.,  to  exculpate  himself  before  God, 
to  palliate  his  guilt,  and  to  avoid  the  necessity 
of  humble  confession  and  penitence.  As  soon 
as  he  acknowledged  his  sin  and  repented  of  it, 
God  forgave  him,  ver.  5. 

Christianity  does  not  lay  down  any  definite 
rule,  or  prescribe  any  artificial  efforts  by  which 
this  moral  change  must  be  effected.  It  requires 
from  each  nothing  but  what  is  adapted  to  his 
nature.  Peter  tvept,  and  considerinjj  his  cha- 
racter and  his  crime,  this  was  natural.  The 
publican  only  sighed.  Zaccha'us  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  done  either  the  one  or  the  other. 
And  yet  the  penitence  and  reformation  of  all 
was  acceptable  in  the  sight  of  God. 

According  to  the  precepts  of  Christianity  this 
change  must  result  in  the  suppression  of  the 
reigning  desires  of  the  flesh,  and  in  restoring 
dominion  to  those  principles  of  reason  which 
are  conformable  to  the  will  of  (lod  ;  and  thus 
renovating  the  whole  man,  and  making  liim, 
before  carnal  (^napxixof),  to  be  spiritual  {ntfxua- 
rixof),  obedient  to  the  precepts  of  Chrisiianiiy, 
and  in  a  state  prepared  to  enjoy  the  guidance 
and  assistance  of  dod,  or  the  Holy  Spirit.  Cf. 
Uomans,  vii.  25;  viii.  1,  seq. 

'i'heologians  call  the  reformation  of  men  who 
were  before  entirely  rude  and  savage,  panilen' 
tiain  primam,  or  magnam  ,-  that  (if  those  who 
are  in  a  better  moral  condition,  hut  still  need 
reformation,  pirnitcntiam  stantium.  tir  stcundam^ 
or  f/uotidianain.  And  all,  even  the  greatest 
saints  on  earth,  stand  in  need  of  this  daily  re- 
pentance, though  in  different  degrees.  None 
can  jusily  consider  themselves  perfect.  All 
must  acknnwledije  themselves  sinners,  deficient 
and  imperfect.  So  the  whole  scripturts  require 
us  lo  feel  ;  and  everywhere  insist  upon  sincere 
and  unpretendinir  liuniility,  and  condemn  the 
opposite  dispositions. 

(3)  Sorrow  or  jienitence  for  sin  must  flow 
from  the  knuwlrd-^e  of  sin — i.  e.,  from  a  con- 
si-io\isness  that  we  have  acted  contrary  to  the 
divine  law,  and  therefore  deserve  divine  punish 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       445 


meiits.  Hence  it  follows  that  we  should  impar- 
tirtll}'  examine  our  actions  acrnrclinjr  to  the  law^ 
of  God.  Now  when  one  sees  that  he  has  been 
ungrateful  and  disobedient,  and  rendered  him- 
self unworthy  of  the  divine  favour;  when,  in 
view  of  this,  he  feels  sorrow  and  sincere  peni- 
tence, and  begs  God  to  pardon  his  sins  and 
avert  deserved  punishment;  this  is  called  mak- 
ini^  confession  of  sin  to  God,  {eonfessio.)  This 
is  not,  then,  as  some  would  have  it,  a  particular 
part  of  repentance.  It  is  the  opposite  of  con- 
tea/ing,  exculpating,  palliating  one's  sins  before 
God.  (refusing  to  acknowledge  them  as  such, 
and  to  seek  forgiveness  for  them.)  Proverbs, 
xxviii.  13,  "  He  that  covereth  his  sins  shall  not 
prosper;  but  whoso  confesseih  and  forsaketh 
them  shall  have  mercy."  So  Christ  represents 
it  in  the  parable  of  the  prodigal  son,  Luke,  xv. 
Vide  Psalm  xxxii.  3 — 6;  Dan.  ix.  4;  1  John, 
1.  S,  wliere  saying  we  have  no  sin  is  o|)pns('d  to 
o)UoXoyfiaJ>ai  o.^a^ri.av,  ver.  9,  to  acknowledge 
and  repent  of  siii. 

The  Bible  says  nothing  of  the  necessity 
which  the  Romish  church  teaches  of  making 
confession  to  men  as  to  representatives  of  God. 
It  recommends,  however,  the  practice  of  con- 
fessing our  faults  to  experienced  Christians,  and 
of  opening  to  them  the  state  of  our  hearts,  as 
conducive  to  vital  religion.     Cf.  James,  v.  16. 

(4)  Sorrow  for  sin  and  hatred  and  abhorn^nce 
of  it  are  always  founded  on  a  previous  know- 
ledge of  sin;  but  they  are  produced  in  two 
ways — viz., 

(fl)  By  contemplation  of  the  divine  precepts 
and  the  penalty  threatened  in  the  law  against 
transgressors.  The  divine  laws  were  given  for 
our  higiiest  good.  Every  violation  of  them  both 
destroys  the  happiness  flowing  from  obedience 
and  incurs  the  punishment  annexed  to  disobe- 
dience. When  the  sinner  seriously  revolves 
such  considerations  as  these,  he  must  necessa- 
rily feel  mingled  emotions  of  shame,  terror, 
anxiety  on  his  own  account,  and  abhorrence  for 
sin  itself.  We  find  that  Christ  and  the  apos- 
tles made  use  of  these  coijsiderations  in  order 
to  awaken  a  salutary  fear  in  the  minds  of  their 
hearers.  Vide  Matt.  iii.  7,  10;  Luke,  iii.  3, 
seq.;  Heb.  x.  29,  seq.  This  is  called  by  the 
schoolmen  and  in  the  Romish  church,  at./ilio, 
or,  as  Thomas  Aquinas  has  it,  eontritio  irformis 
— i.  e.,  imperfecta,  inchohata,  {^dolor  de  peecato  e 
metu  paiiiarum.) 

(i)  By  contemplation  of  the  divine  promises 
containeti  in  the  gospel.  When  we  consider, 
yn  ojie  siV/e,  the  undeserved  love  and  kindness 
of  God,  exhibited  in  so  nrffiny  ways,  and  espe- 
cially through  Christ,  and  which  has  sought 
in  every  possible  manner  to  lead  us  to  true  hap- 
piness in  this  life  and  the  life  to  come,  and  has 
invited  and  encouraged  us  by  the  greatest  prf)- 
mises,  (John,  iii.  16;)  and  when  we  consider. 


on  the  other  side,  out  own  levity  and  negligence, 
our  wilful  reji-ciion  of  the  means  of  good  offered 
us  by  God  ;  when  we  consider  all  this,  we  must 
be  constrained  to  feel  the  deepest  penitence  and 
shame,  abhorrence  for  sin,  and  love  to  God  and 
Christ  who  have  done  so  much  for  us.  These 
motives  have  a  great  and  mighty  efficacy  in 
promoting  radical  reformation.  Jesus  and  the 
apostles  use  these  motives  more  frequently  than 
any  others.  Their  whole  heart,  as  it  were,  livest 
in  them.  Vide  John,  iii.  16;  xxi.  15,  seq.;  1 
Pet.  iv.  1—3  ;  Tit.  ii.  10,  11.  The  schoolmen 
and  the  Romish  church  call  this  contrilionem 
[dulorein  de  peccuto  e  dikclione  oriundum.)  Thus 
this  very  consideration  of  the  great  blessings 
for  which  we  are  indebted  to  Christ  leads  to 
faith  in  him.  He  who  knows  that  much  has 
been  forgiven  him,  loves  much,  Luke,  vii.  47. 
Since  Christ  has  done  so  much  for  us,  and  hap 
even  died  for  us,  we  are  led  to  place  our  whole 
trust  in  him,  and  look  to  him  for  all  our  happi- 
ness, and  to  obey  his  commands  from  grateful 
love,  John,  iii.  5,  14 — 21.  We  see  that  by  our 
sins  we  are  rendered  unhappy,  that  by  our  own 
merit  we  cannot  obtain  the  favour  of  God,  not 
even  by  our  best  works.  Hence  we  confide  in 
Christ,  and  seek  through  faith  in  him  to  obtain 
forgiveness  of  God,  ix  rtiorttoj  bixa.iti'^r^vai.  Gal. 
iii.  24.  In  this  way  we  become  children  of  Gud, 
(Tioi,  Qcoii  bia.  rttntn^i  iv  XpidT^,  ver.  26,)  be- 
loved  if  God,  and  blessed  by  him. 

Many  of  the  schoolmen  and  theologians  of 
the  Romish  church  reject  altogether  the  motives 
first  mentioned,  asserting  that  they  are  not  at  all 
promotive  of  our  moral  improvement.  The  An- 
tinomians  of  the  sixteenth  century  expressed 
themselves  in  a  similar  manner  with  many 
others.  It  is  true  that  this  attrition  may  be  so 
abused  as  to  lead  to  a  despair  which  will  abso- 
lutely prevent  instead  of  promoting  reformation. 
But  still  when  it  is  cautiously  made  use  of,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  rude  and  uncultivated  men, 
it  produces  a  very  good  effect,  and  is  therefore 
employed  in  the  Old  Testament,  by  John  the 
Baptist,  and  Jesus  himself,  with  many  classes 
of  hearers.  Some  are  entirely  incapable  of  the 
tender  emotions  to  which  the  appeal  is  made  in 
this  second  class  of  motives.  Their  heart  must 
be  broken  and  softened  before  it  can  become 
susceptible  of  the  motives  of  the  gospel.  There 
is  in  this  respect  the  same  difference  even  in 
adult  persons  that  there  is  betw'een  children, 
some  of  whom  are  ill-mannered  and  rude,  and 
others  docile  and  well-disposed.  The  wise 
teacher  will  emjUoy  different  means  with  these 
different  cases;  and  so  must  also  the  teacher 
of  religion.  Vide  Tollner's  Essay  (No.  1) 
"Busse  und  Glauben." 

When  one  is  reformed,  the  love  of  sin,  now 
renounced,  is  succeeded  in  his  mind  by  holiness 
diligence  in  duly,  or  pious  Christian  dispositions 
2P 


44  € 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


and  a  h^^y  Christian  walk.  Cf.  s.  l'2fi,  IV. 
Hence  some  llipolo^ians  of  the  Lutlieran  church 
in  tlie  sixteenth  century,  look  jvnuttntia  in  so 
wide  a  sense  as  to  includeyV/i7/t  and  diligence 
in  frond  works. 

Moras  (p.  216,  217,  s.  2)  has  given  a  good 
eummary  statement  of  the  different  parts  of  re- 
formation here  separately  considered.  The  in- 
ward man  is  principally  regirded  in  Christian 
reformation.  The  object  is  not  merely  to  re- 
strain the  gross  outbreakings  of  sin,  hut  to  rec- 
tify the  whole  disposition  and  heart,  so  that 
the  subject  of  it  will  henceforth  act  from  entirely 
different  motives  and  principles.  The  holy 
scriptures,  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, insist  everywhere  that  the  loij,  xa^hla., 
Ttvivfia,  o  tacd  drJi,jurto;,  must  be  renovated.  The 
terms,  circumcixion  of  the  heart,  new  heart,  reno- 
vation, regeneration,  new  creature,  all  express 
this  truth.  Vide  John,  iii.  1 — 21 ;  also  No.  vi. 
in  ^^  Scripla  Varii  Arguinenti,''''  above  cited.  If 
any  one  expects  to  succeed,  by  attempting  to 
amend  externally,  or  in  any  other  way  than  by 
a  radical  change  of  heart,  he  will  be  disapoint- 
ed.     Vide  No.  i.  1; 

II.  Delay  of  Repentance  ;  and  late  Conversion.  ^ 

This  subject  is  treated  more  fully  in  Chris- 
tian ethics. 

(1)  The  danger  and  evil  of  delaying  reforma- 
tion, (ff)  Tlie  danger  and  difficulties.  'I'he 
longer  one  continues  in  sin  the  more  fixed  be- 
comes his  habit  of  sinning,  and  of  course  the 
more  difficulty  will  he  find  in  breaking  loose 
from  it.  He  will  thus  become  more  and  more 
the  slave  of  sin,  and  be  constantly  bound  with 
stronger  chains.  The  longer  tiierefore  reforma- 
tion is  deferred,  the  more  difficult  it  becomes. 
Besides,  external  circumstances  are  not  in  our 
power.  Many  die  suddenly ;  others  lose  the 
use  of  their  reason,  or  in  their  last  moments  are 
entirely  unfitted  for  the  mental  efforts  which  are 
requisite  for  attending  to  the  important  concerns 
of  religion,  &c.  (ft)  There  must  always  be  an 
evil  and  injury  attending  late  reformations, 
however  thorough  and  sincere  they  may  be. 
G.)d  |)roporiions  the  rewards  he  bestows  to  the 
degree  of  zeal  which  one  shews  in  goodness, 
and  to  the  length  of  time  during  which  he  has 
exhibited  it.  Vide  s.  125,  II.  One  who  has 
just  commenced  a  virtuous  course,  ami  has 
made  but  little  advancement  in  it,  cannot  expect 
a  great  reward.  In  the  future  life,  he  must  re- 
main inferior  to  others,  and  thus  suffer  for  his 
remissness  and  negligence. 

(2)  The  opinions  of  theologians  havr  always 
been  very  much  divided  on  the  question  as  tf) 
the  possibility  of  late  repentance,  and  the  worth 
of  it.  Vide  the  history  of  these  opinions  in  He- 
gelmeyer's  Diss,  "de  sera  ptenitentia,"  p.  i.; 
Tubingen,  1780. 


First.  Most  hold,  with  tiuth,  that  late  reform- 
ation  is  possible,  and  that  God  in.iy  pardon 
(tlioujh  with  the  limitations  mentioned.  No.  I) 
even  those  who  defer  repentance  to  the  last,  if 
it  is  then  thorough  and  sincere.  'I'hey  hold, 
however,  for  the  reasons  above  {jiven,  that  such 
late  conversions  are  very  doubtful,  and  that 
[jreat  caution  should  be  used  in  speaking  confi- 
dently of  the  salvation  of  those  who  put  off  reli- 
gion to  the  last,  lest  this  should  tend  to  confirm 
others,  to  their  great  injury,  in  their  prevailing 
errors.  It  is  unsafe  for  men  to  pronounce  any 
opinion  in  such  a  case.  For  there  is  no  evi- 
dence of  true  faith  but  the  works  of  the  life. 
None  but  God  can  look  into  the  heart.  But 
since  God  can  look  into  the  very  soul ;  since  he 
will  forgive,  without  exception,  all  who  sin- 
cerely repent  of  their  sins,  and  ask  fitririveness 
through  Christ,  in  the  way  which  he  has  pre- 
scribed, (1  Tim.  ii.  4;  2  Fet.  iii.  9;)  and  since 
the  grace  of  God  is  limited  to  no  time,  to  no  ter- 
minum  gratiac pereniploriuru,  (s.  113, 1.  3  ;)  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  in  abstracto,  but  thai  (ii)d  will 
really  forgive  those  who  seek  for  pardon,  though 
it  may  be  late,  if  their  desire  be  only  sincere 
and  earnest.  He  will  bestow  even  upon  such 
that  happiness  and  reward  of  which  they  are 
susceptible.  The  example  of  the  malefactor  on 
the  cross  (Luke,  xxiii.  40 — 13)  is  justly  refer- 
red to  in  behalf  of  this  opinion.  The  Cliristian 
doctrine  justifies  us  in  promising  pardon  and 
mercy  to  all,  even  the  greatest  sinners,  at  all 
limes,  provided  they  will  only  accept  these 
offers.  To  cut  off,  therefore,  an  unhappy  dying 
man  from  all  hope,  and  to  thrust  him  into  de- 
spair, is  without  scriptural  warrant,  and  highly 
presumptuous  and  cruel. 

Secondly.  Others  regard  late  repentance  as 
impossible,  and  hold  that  one  who  has  deferred 
it  to  the  last  cannot  hope  for  pardon;  because, 
they  say,  late  repentance  never  can  be  true  or 
sincere,  and  this  is  a  condition  indispensable  to 
forgiveness.  They  appeal  to  the  example  of 
many  who  in  prospect  of  death  gave  sijins  of 
repentance,  but  who,  as  soon  as  danger  was 
past,  became  worse  than  before. 

Hut  («)  there  are  also  examples  of  a  different 
kind — examples  of  those  who,  like  ibe  thief  on 
the  cross,  became  repentant  and  l)elieving  in 
circumstances  of  imminent  danger,  and  who  yet 
have  afterwards  manifested  an  unshvik^n  fidelity 
(I'y)  Those  who  advocate  this  opinion  ot"ten  mis- 
take the  want  of  perseverance  in  faith  for  the 
want  of  sincerity  in  it.  (c)  The  examples  men- 
tioned do  not  prove  that  late  repentance  is  nftrr 
sincere  and  thorouffli,  but  only  thai  it  is  not 
always  so;  which  indeed  is  true. 

The  great  argument,  however,  which  is  used 
on  this  side  is,  that  conversion  is  no!  the.  work  tf 
a  moment,  (not  subitanea  or  ittslantanea,)  but 
requires  lime,  earnestness,  zeal,  practice.   This 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      447 


Is  true  from  the  very  nature  of  the  human  mind. 
Bui  this  only  proves  the  great  difficulty,  the 
uncertainty  and  danger  of  such  late  conver- 
sions, and  not  the  entire  impossibility  of  them. 
Many  men,  in  v.hom  the  work  of  conversion  is 
not  completed,  are  siill  not  entirely  evil  and 
destitute  of  all  good.  The  seed  of  goodness 
frequently  lies  in  their  hearts,  while  its  growth 
and  fruitfulness  are  impeded  and  prevented  by 
various  internal  and  external  hindrances.  But 
this  work  may  have  been  silently  and  unob- 
eervedly  going  on  in  the  midst  of  these  difficuU 
lies.  And  now  unexpectedly  some  external 
circumstance  occurs  as  a  means  of  awakening. 
The  person  hears  a  moving  exhortation,  is  re- 
minded of  some  promise  or  threatening  from 
the  Bible,  is  placed  in  imminent  danger,  or  in 
some  such  manner  is  aroused,  and  impelled  to 
attend  more  earnestly  to  the  concerns  of  his 
soul.  These  circumstances  depend  on  Divine 
Providence,  and  God  makes  use  of  them  as 
means  for  the  conversion  of  men.  This  appears 
to  have  been  the  case  with  the  malefactor  on  the 
cross.  Probably  there  had  been  a  long  prepa- 
ration in  his  mind  for  the  result  to  which  he 
then  came.  The  passage,  Heb.  vi.  4 — 6,  'A6i;- 
vatov — rfapartfodi'Taj — avaxaivi^^tiv  di  ^etdvoiav, 
has  no  relation  to  this  point.  This  passage 
refers  to  those  who  persevere  in  apostasy,  and 
the  rejection  of  religion.  The  phrase,  d^viatoi' 
iatt,  means  only  that  it  is  impossible  for  men. 
Cf.  Matt.  xix.  26. 

Those  theologians  who  differ  so  widely  from 
the  Bible  as  to  hold  that  the  forgiveness  of  men 
depends  altogether  upon  their  holiness  or  obedi- 
ence to  the  divine  commandments,  and  not  upon 
faith  in  Christ  and  his  atonement,  are  indeed 
hard  pressed  in  this  point.  If  they  would  be 
consistent,  they  must  deny  salvation  to  those 
who  delay  repentance  till  just  before  the  close 
of  life,  and  who  therefore  do  not  exhibit  the 
fruits  of  this  change.  So  even  Steinbart 
thought.  The  holy  scriptures,  on  the  contrary, 
teach  that  God  forgives  men  on  account  of  their 
faith  in  .Tesus  Christ;  that  holiness  is  the  con- 
sequence of  this  faith,  and  that  without  this 
faith  in  Christ  man  is  not  able  to  live  hcdy. 
Now  if  a  man,  whose  reformation  begins  with 
faith,  is  prevented  by  death  from  exhibiting  the 
fruits  of  this  faith,  (which,  however,  he  would 
have  exhibited  had  he  lived  longer,)  -he  cannot, 
on  this  account,  be  excluded  by  God  from  hap- 
piness ;  although  his  happiness  will  be  less  than 
that  of  others  who  have  pursued  a  long  course 
of  active  virtue.  Thus  we  might  conclude  in 
ubatraeto  I  the  determination  in  particular  given 
cases  must  be  left  with  God. 

Note. — The  work  of  Noesselt,  "Ueber  den 
Werth  der Moral  und  spatenBesserung,"  (Halle, 
1777,  8vo,  Ausg.  2,  1783;  especially  s.  220, 
Beq.,)  contains  much  on  this  subject  which  is  ex- 


cellent. This  work  was  occasioned  by  the  unset- 
tled, partial,  and  indefinite  views  contained  in 
many  works  on  this  subject,  especially  in  those 
which  held  up  the  opinion  that  late  repentance 
is  impossible  or  of  no  avail ;  such,  for  example, 
as  that  of  Saurin,  "  On  the  Delay  of  Conver- 
sion;"  Edward  Harwood,  "On  tlie  Invalidity 
of  Repentance  on  the  Death-bed  ;"  and  Stein- 
bart, on  the  question  "  What  Value  can  be  al- 
lowed to  Sudden  Conversions,  esppcially  on  the 
Death-bed  ;  and  what  is  it  advisable  publicly  to 
teach  on  this  subject]"  Berlin,  1770,  8vo. 

SECTION  CXXVIII. 

REMARKS  ON  THE  FALSE  OPINIONS  AND  PERVER- 
SIONS CONCERNING  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  REPENT- 
ANCE, WHICH  HAVE  BEEN  GRADUALLY  ADOPTED 
IN  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.- 

Most  of  these  mistakes  have  arisen  from  false 
ideas,  agreeing  with  the  depraved  inclinations  of 
the  human  heart,  Tespec\.'u\g  furgiveucss  rf  sin, 
propitiriting  God,  and  ilie  merit  of  good  works. 
Cf.  s.  108,  and  s.  125,  III. 

I.  Penance  of  the  Excommunicuted. 

The  apostles  and  other  ancient  Christian 
teachers  held  that  it  is  the  prerogative  of  God 
alone  to  forgive  sin,  and  that  men  are  bound  to 
confess  their  sins  to  him,  and  to  seek  forgiveness 
from  him.  So  taught  Justin  the  Martyr  (Apol. 
2),  and  others.  But  even  as  early  as  the  times 
of  the  apostles  the  custom  (which  had  before 
prevailed  among  the  Jews)  of  excommunicating 
gross  offenders  from  the  church  (a^Oixriftoj)  was 
adopted  by  Christians,  and  was  indeed  necessary 
at  that  time.  The  rites  attending  restoration  to 
the  church  became  constantly  more  numerous 
and  complex  during  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
centuries.  Those  who  were  restored  were  com- 
pelled tfi perform  public penm^ce,  {ponitentia pnb- 
lica,")  The  excommunicated  person  {lopsus)  was 
bound  (1)  to  labour  to  convince  the  church  of 
the  reality  of  his  penitence  and  reformation. 
He  appeared  therefore  in  public  in  a  mourning 
dress;  he  fasted,  wept,  and  begged  for  prayers, 
(corUritio.)  (2)  He  was  bound  to  make  a  pub- 
lic confession  of  sin,  and  to  ask  forgiveness  of 
the  church;  and  this,  in  order  to  humble  him  and 
to  warn  others,  {cnnfessio.)  (3)  His  undergo- 
ing these  and  other  trials  and  punishments  im- 
posed upon  him  as  the  condition  of  his  being 
readmitted,  was  called  satiffactio ;  and  he  ob- 
tained pacem.  Vide  Morini  Tractatus  dc  pceni- 
tentix  Sacramento.  This  was  originally  only 
church  discipline,  and  nobody  pretended  that  it 
was  connected  with  the  forgiveness  of  sins  by 
God,  who  looks  not  upon  the  outward  man,  but 
upon  the  heart.  Indeed,  Montanus  in  the  se- 
cond century,  and  Novatran  in  the  third,  though 
they  were  so  rigorous  in  church  discipline  that 


448 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


they  were  unwilling  to  readmit  a  person  who 
had  been  once  excluded,  did  not  deny  that  he 
mijjiit  obtain  forgiveness  from  God. 

II.  Penance  supposed  the  means  of  obtaining  the 
Forgiveness  of  God. 

We  find  that  the  great  body  of  Christians 
since  the  second  century  have  entertained  very 
erroneous  a|)i)reliensions  respecting  this  excom- 
niunicaticm.  Many  believed  (although  the  doc- 
trine was  not  as  yot  formally  sanciioned  by  the 
authority  of  the  church)  that  a  person  by  being 
excommunicated  from  liie  church  is  also  ex- 
cluded frirn  communion  with  God.  But  they 
also  held  ihat  when  the  church  forgives  a  person 
and  admii.s  iiim  again  to  their  fellowship,  God 
also  forgives  him  and  admits  him  to  his  favour. 
And  ihis  opinion  was  more  dangerous  in  its  ten- 
dency tiian  the  former.  The  church,  and  espe- 
cially those  who  ruled  over  it,  who  had  the  most 
to  say  in  this  matter,  came  to  be  regarded  more 
and  more  as  the  representatives  of  God.  Vide  s. 
135,  I.  Hence  great  importance  was  attached  to 
t!ie  external  rile  in  the  read  mission  of  the  excom- 
municated. The  idea  became  prevalent,  that 
God  is  influenced,  and  moved  as  it  were  to  com- 
passion, by  fasting,  weeping,  kneeling,  begging, 
and  sighing.  In  short,  it  was  believed  that  a  per- 
son could  obtain  forgiveness  of  God  by  the  same 
external  means  by  which  the  favour  and  forgive- 
ness of  thechurch  and  its  rulers  could  be  obtained. 
And  the  teachers  of  religion  often  contrii)Uled  to 
the  increase  of  such  errors  by  insisting  injudi- 
ciously upon  these  external  riles.  lOven  Origen 
sometimes  expressed  himself  in  this  unguarded 
manner — e.  g.,  in  Ilomil.  15  in  Levit.  .\fter 
the  fourth  century,  the  service  of  tJod  was  made 
to  consist  more  and  more  in  mere  outward  cere- 
monies. 

I  IF.  Auricular  Confession. 

When  the  Christian  church  was  much  en- 
larged, the  Grecian  church  in  the  third  century, 
and  the  Western  church  in  the  third  and  fourth, 
commuled  the  public  confession  of  the  excom- 
municated for  private  confession  to  be  made  to 
a  presbyter  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Vide 
Sozom.  i\.  .35.  This  too  was  soon  abolished  in 
t'le  Grecian  church,  but  it  was  retained  in  the 
Lalin  church.  Hence  arose  by  degrees  the  prac- 
tice of  auricular  cinfission,  and  then,  slowly,  the 
whole  system  of  public  penance.  At  first  the 
lap.si  only  wi^re  bnund  to  confess  tiieir  grosser 
otTences  to  spiritual  guides,  befort?  they  could  be 
reinstated  and  allowed  to  approach  the  hidy  sup- 
per. But  ifi  process  of  time,  every  Christian 
was  reijuireil  to  confess  to  the  clergy  all  his 
sins,  even  the  least  of  ihem,  before  he  could  lie  ■ 
admitted  to  the  Lord's  table.  The  clergy  and  ■ 
the  monks  confirmed  ihe  po|)ulace  in  tiie  |)ersuH- 
sion,  to  which  it  was  itself  predisposed,  llkui  con-  , 


fession  to  the  priest  was  the  same  as  co.ifesaion 
to  God;  and  that  the  j)riests  gave  absolution  in 
God's  stead. 

This  much-abused  principle,  that  confession 
must  be  made  to  spiritual  teachers  and  ibe  heads 
of  the  church,  is  found  very  early,  even  in  the 
third  century — e.  g.,  in  the  writings  of  Origen 
(Ilomil.  in  Levit.),  and  especially  of  the  Laiin 
fathers,  Cyprian,  Ilieronymus,  and  Augustine. 
They  compar;?d  the  presbyter  with  a  physician, 
who  cannot  heal  a  disease  if  he  is  not  made 
acquainted  with  it.  In  all  these  rites,  there  is 
much  which  is  good,  and  which  might  be  prac- 
tised to  great  advantage,  and,  indeed,  was  so  if 
the  early  church.  But  afterwards,  when  th| 
priesthood  and  laity  had  both  very  r.mch  dege- 
nerated, they  were  greatly  perverted  and  mis- 
applied. 

IV.  Penance  imposed  by  the  Clergy. 

At  first  the  church  imposed  the  suli faction  to 
be  made  by  offenders.  This  was  now  done  by 
the  ecclesiastic,  to  whom  confession  was  made. 
The  penalties  imposed  by  him  were  now  no 
longer  considered  merely  as  sali.faclion  given  to 
Ihe  church.  It  was  believed,  that  by  these  sanie 
means  God  is  rendereil  propitious  and  his  judg« 
ments  are  averted.  It  was  also  believed  that 
the  teachers  and  ministers  r-f  the  church  are  the 
representatives  of  G(jd.  These  ministers  were 
now  frequently  compared,  as  indeed  they  had 
been  during  the  third  century,  with  the  Leviti- 
cal  priests,  who,  in  God's  stead,  imposed  pu- 
nishments for  the  purpfise  of  atoning  for  sin, 
such  as  prayers,  fasts,  almsgiving,  and  other  rites 
and  gifts,  which  were  now  looked  upon  as  me- 
ritorious good  works,  s.  1-5.  The  ecclesiastics 
and  monks  had  books  tf  penance,  in  which  the 
penalties  were  assi<rned  for  each  partii  niar  sin. 
Viile.Ioh.  UalUius.  l)e  pcenis  et  salisfa?tionil)U3 
humanis;  Amst.  lijlD. 

V.  The  Doctrine  of  Indulgences. 

At  last  the  doctrine  of  indulgences  was  intro- 
duced. This  was  destructive  of  all  morality. 
The  |)raclices  of  penance  and  conftssion  which, 
at  least  during  the  darker  periods  of  the  middle 
ages,  maintained  t(»  some  degree  an  external 
discipline  and  order,  fell  at  once  into  neglect 
and  disuse.  For  by  means  of  indulgences  the 
people  obtained  remission  of  the  penances,  and 
freedom  from  the  canonical  or  ecclesiastical  pu- 
nishments of  sin,  which  were  imposed  by  their 
fithcr  confessors.  These  indulgences  were  first 
gr.mted  by  the  bishops,  when  an  individual  of- 
f'Ted  of  his  own  accord  to  pcrfornj  some  good 
work,  to  give  alm>t,  to  found  charitable  institu- 
tions, to  build  churches,  &c.  They  were  aO"'- 
wards  sold  lor  mere  money.  After  some  time 
tlie  pope  appropriated  the  trade  in  indulgences 
to  hims  -If,  and  during  the  thirteenth  and  four- 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       449 


teenth  centuries  carried  on  a  wide  extended  mo- 
nopoly in  this  business.  Indulgences  could 
now  be  purchased  even  {or  future  sins.  It  was 
the  prevailing  belief  that  these  indulgences  de- 
liver not  only  from  canonical  punishments — 
i.  e.,  from  those  imposed  by  the  laws  of  the  vi- 
sible church,  but  also  from  the  divine  punish- 
ments, since  the  pope  is  the  vicar  of  God  and 
of  Christ.  After  the  thirteenth  century  this 
practice  was  sustained  by  the  doctrine  de  thesauru 
bonorum  operum,  which  the  church,  and  espe- 
cially the  pope,  the  head  of  the  church,  were 
supposed  to  hold  at  their  disposal,  s.  125.  The 
abuses  attending  this  practice  gave  occasion  to 
the  reformation  in  Germany  and  Switzerland  in 
the  sixteenth  century. 

VI.  Scholastic  System  of  Penance. 

These  erroneous  opinions,  which  had  gra- 
dually arisen,  were  brought  into  a  formal  sciio- 
lastic  system  by  the  schoolmen,  and  especially 
by  Peter  of  Lombardy  in  the  twelfth,  and  Tho- 
mas Aquinas  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The 
whole  doctrine  of  the  Bible  respecting  moral 
refurmaiion  and  a  change  of  heart  was  thus 
changed  into  a  matter  o{  external penanc:.  This 
became  the  prevailing  system  of  the  Romish 
church,  and  all  these  principles  of  the  school- 
men were  sanctioned  by  the  Council  at  Trent, 
Sess.  14. 

The  following  are  the  main  principles  of  the 
schoolmen — viz., 

(1)  Pxititentia  is  derived  from  puvio,  accord- 
ing to  Augustine,  and  therefore  denotes  the  pu- 
niahment  of  oneself .  Hence  originally  the  Ger- 
man Busse,  which  signifies,  punishment,  alone- 
ment,  &c.     Vide  s.  12G,  IV. 

(2)  Each  particular  sin  must  be  atoned  for  by 
particular  satisfactions. 

(.3)  Therefore  every  Christian  must  confess 
all  his  sins  to  the  minister  of  the  church,  as  a 
priest  and  judge,  placed  in  God's  stead. 

(4)  Conversion,  therefore,  consists  of  three 
things — viz.,  eontritio,  or  compunctio  cordis,  con- 
fcssio  oris,  (to  the  priest  in  God's  stead,)  and 
Hatisfaclin  operis,  (^satiifaetion  rendered  by  per- 
forming the  penances  imposed.)  All  this  was 
borrowed  from  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline. Vide  No.  I.,  on  the  distinction  between 
atlriiio  and  eontritio.     Cf.  s.  127, 1.  3. 

(5)  This  satisfaction,  or  atonement, .mnst  be 
made  by  prayer,  alms,  fasts,  and  other  external 
rites  and  bodily  chastisements.  Accordingly, 
Peter  of  Lombardy  says,  Oratio  domintca  detet 
minima  et  quotidiana  peccata.  Sufficit  oratin  do- 
minica  cum  eleemosynis  et  jejunio.    Vide  s.  108. 

(6)  This  poena  salisfacloria,  which  must,  in 
the  usual  course,  be  endured,  may  be  somewhat 
remitted,  says  Thomas  Aquinas,  by  means  of 
indulgences.  But  this  principle  was  afterwards 
very  much  extended.     Vide  No.  v. 

57 


(7)  One  who  is  not  absolved  of  his  pardon- 
able  sins  by  rendering  such  satisfactions  goes 
at  death  into  purgatory,  where,  in  the  midst 
of  torments,  he  must  make  atonement  for  them. 
The  doctrine  de purgatorio  v,iis  propagated  dui- 
ing  the  fourth  century  in  the  West,  and  univer- 
sally prevailed  from  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh 
centuries.  It  was  believed,  however,  that  souls 
could  be  freed  from  purgatory,  or,  at  least, 
that  their  continuance  there  could  be  shortened 
by  having  masses  said  for  thei'  souls.  Vide 
s.  150. 


ARTICLE  XII. 

ON  THE  OPERATIONS  OF  GRACE;  OR  THE  DI- 
VINE INSTITUTIONS  FOR  PROMOTING  RE. 
PENTANCE    AND    FAITH;     S.    129—133,    INCLC- 

SIVE. 


SECTION  CXXIX. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERMS  "GRACE,  OPERA- 
TIONS OF  GRACE,  MEANS  OF  GRACE,"  AND- 
OTHER  PHRASES  EMPLOYED  IN  THKOLCGV  ON 
THIS  subject;  and  the  CONNEXION  OF  THIS 
DOCTRINE    WITH    THE    PRECEDING. 

I.  Connexion  of  this  Doctrine  with  (he  foregoing  ; 
and  the  Import  of  it. 

The  whole  Christian  doctrine  is  given  by 
God  to  men  in  order  to  bring  them  to  faith  and 
repentance,  and  consequently  to  eternai  nappi- 
ness.  For  they  are  not  capable  of  this  happi- 
ness until  they  perform  the  conditions  described 
in  Article  xi.  But,  as  the  scriptures  teach  us,, 
we  are  not  at  present  in  a  condition  to  amend' 
ourselves,  and  by  our  own  powers  to  fulfil 
these  conditions,  without  some  higher  assistance 
and  guidance  of  God.  This  incompetency  i» 
owing  to  the  power  of  sense,  and  its  preponder- 
ance over  reason,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing, 
to  natural  depravity.  Vide  sec.  77 — HO.  Now, 
though  man  needs  a  moral  change,  his  will, 
according  to  both  scripture  and  experience, 
being  in  a  high  degree  depraved,  he  is  yet 
unable,  without  divine  help  and  assistance, 
either  to  awaken  within  himself  earnest  desires- 
after  holiness,  or  to  execute  the  good  purposes 
he  may  form,  and  persevere  in  them,  or  to 
perform  the  other  conditions  upon  which  his 
salvation  depends.  All  the  arrangements,  there- 
fore, which  God  has  made,  in  order  to  produce 
in  those  who  live  in  Christian  lands  faith  in 
Christ  and  a  change  of  heart,  and  to  secure 
their  continuance,  and  thus  to  bring  r..en  to  the 
enjoyment  of  the  promised  salvation,  are  called 
by  the  general  name  of  grace,  or  the  operation* 
2  r2 


450 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


of  divine  grace,  (jrrpsrationes  gralix,  German, 
GruidenwirkungcnA 

II.  The  Various  Names  hy  which  these  Operations 
are  commonly  designated  in  Theology, 

(1)  Griilia.  By  this  term  is  understood,  in 
theolojry,  the  divine  operations  or  power  ^assist- 
aner)  exerted  in  producing  repentance  or  con- 
version. It  is  contrasted  with  nature,  and  hy 
this  is  meant,  the  natural  powers  of  man,  which, 
on  account  of  his  depravity,  are  regarded  as  too 
weak  and  insufficient  to  efiect  this  moral  reno- 
vation, and  therefore  need  to  be  elevated  and 
strengthened  hy  God.  The  state  of  one  who  is 
enlightened  by  Christian  doctrine,  and  by  a 
faithful  use  of  it,  under  divine  assistance,  is  re- 
newed, is  called  a  stale  tf  grace,  (^stains  gratiw.) 
This  is  opposed  to  the  natvral  state,  (^status  na- 
turae, or  nafuralis,')  by  which  is  meant  the  state 
of  one  who  is  not  as  yet  enlightened  by  tiie 
Christian  doctrine,  or  renovated  by  its  influ- 
ence, and  has  not  yet  experienced  the  assisit- 
anceofGod.  Morus,  pages  2.34,  235.  Augus- 
tine first  used  the  word  gratia  to  denote  the  su- 
pernatural agency  of  God  in  conversion.  Ho 
held  this  agency  to  be,  in  reality,  miraculous, 
and  therefore  irresistible.  Vide  sec.  132.  This 
use  of  the  term  has  since  been  retained  in  theo- 
logy, even  hy  those  who  have  discarded  the  er- 
roneous opinions  of  Augustine. 

Xupt;  is  used  in  the  Bible  to  denote  («)  the 
undeserved  divine favmir  towards  men  in  general  ; 
(b)  the  result  and  pnxf  of  t\\\s  favour  in  the  par- 
ticular blessinfTS  bestowed ;  and  (c)  rttore  espe- 
cially the  blessings  for  which  we  are  indebted  to 
Christ,  pardon,  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  and  all 
the  Christian  privileges  connected  with  forgive- 
ness. Hence  all  the  operations  of  God  on  the 
hearts  of  men,  in  promoting  repentance  and  holi- 
ness, are  comprehended  by  the  sacred  writers 
under  the  term  x'i\"^ii  ss  being  the  most  distin- 
guished favours;  although  these  are  not  the 
only  favours  intended  by  this  term  in  its  scrip- 
tural usage,  but  the  others  now  mentioned  are 
also  often  designated  by  it.  Vide  s.  88,  II., 
note. 

The  whole  series  of  operations  and  means 
which  find  employs  to  bring  men  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  blessedness  procured  by  Christ  is 
called  in  theology,  wconomia  grati.r,  the  cecnno- 
my  or  disprnsation  nf  grace,  ((Jerm.  Gnndeivtn- 
atalt,  or  Ilinrichtung,)  Theologians  distinguish 
here  (o)  actus,  or  irptrationes  gratiir — i.  c,  the 
gracious,  salutary  influences  (also  called  aurilia 
graliic)  by  which  men  are  brought  to  salvation, 
and  (3)  the  media  grati.x — i.  e.,  the  means 
which  God  employs  in  exerting  these  influ- 
ences on  the  hearts  of  men ;  the  means  of  re- 
pentance or  holiness.  These  means  are,  the 
Word  of  God — the  divine  doctrine,  especially 
that  made  known  through  Christ.     The  theolo- 


gians of  Tubingen  have  sometimes  g-jven  the 
name  gratia  applieatnx  to  these  divine  opera- 
tions, because,  through  iliem,  God  applies  to  us 
the  merit  of  Christ  to  be  embraced  by  f.i'.h — 
i.  e.,  he  places  us  in  a  condition  in  which  we 
actually  realize  the  fruits  of  Christ's  merits. 

(2)  These  operationes  gratiw  are  sometimes 
called  the  office  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  (^olJicium,  or 
/itunus  Spirilus  Sancti,  or  better,  his  opus,  busi- 
ness, work,  cf.  s.  105,  I.  2,)  because  the  sancti- 
fying divine  influences  are  frequently  ascribed 
in  the  scriptures  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  Some  the- 
ologians have  ascribed  ^  fiurfold,  and  others  a 
fivefold  office  to  the  Spirit,  in  renewing  the 
heart  of  man — viz.,  elenctieum,  didacticum,  psc- 
deulicum,  paraclcticum,  and  others,  epnnorthoti- 
cum.  A  different  division  is  made  by  others. 
This  form  of  the  doctrine  is  derived  from  the 
passage,  John,  xvi.  7 — 15.  But  there  the  thing 
principally  intended  is  the  instruction  which 
the  apostles  should  receive  from  the  Holy 
Spirit,  by  which  they  themselves  sliould  be 
enabled  to  teach  men,  to  exhort  tliem  to  repent- 
ance, and  to  convince  {t7.iyxiiv)  them  of  their 
unbelief.  This  passage,  then,  does  not  speak 
of  the  renewing  influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
on  the  hearts  of  a// Christians;  though  all  these 
renewing  influences  are,  beyond  a  (piestion,  as- 
cribed everywhere  in  the  scriptures  to  God,  and 
especially  to  the  Holy  Spirit.     Vide  s.  131. 

jSmIc, — The  various,  and  mostly  fruitless, 
controversies  which  have  prevailed  umong  the- 
ologians, especially  since  the  time  of  Augus- 
tine, respecting  the  manner  in  which  the  agency 
of  God  is  exerted  in  renewing  the  heart  of  man, 
and  likewise  the  various  technical  terms  and 
fine  distinctions  which  have  been  introduced, 
have  rendered  this  article  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult and  involved  in  the  whole  system  of  theo- 
logy. These  subtleties,  however,  should  have 
no  place  in  the  religious  instruction  given  to  the 
unlearned  Christian.  It  is  sufficient  for  him  to 
know  (1)  that  he  owes  his  renewal  nc  l  to  him- 
self and  his  own  powers,  but  (2)  that  it  is  the 
result  of  that  powerful  divine  assistance  whi.h 
CJod  denies  to  none  for  this  purpose;  (3)  that 
faith  and  repentance  are  not  produced  hy  an  ir- 
resistible influence,  but  that  man  ran  resj«t 
them  ;  (1)  that  in  the  case  of  those  who  ei.joy 
the  Word  of  God  (revealed  religion),  the  sav- 
ing change  is  effected  by  God,  through  this 
Word,  as  a  means;  and  that  (5)  tho.>.e,  there- 
fore, who  enjoy  the  Word  of  (Jod  are  to  expect 
no  divine  assistance  entirely  disconnected  from 
it,  though  they  may  look  f'<T  this  assistance  in 
connexion  with  the  faithful  use  of  the  Word  of 
God ;  and  that,  accordingly,  (fi)  man  must  not 
be  passive  and  supine  in  this  work,  but  care- 
fully use  all  the  opportunities  and  means  which 
liivine  grace  affords  him. 

Erasmus    remarked   in   hi*,    ••■•ork,   "Contra 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       451 


librum  Lutheri  de  servo  arbitrio,"  that  it  is  not 
csst-ntial  that  one  should  be  able  to  determine 
accurately  and  logically  the  manner  in  which 
grace  operates  on  the  heart,  if  he  only  inwardly 
experiences  these  renewing  influences.  Not 
every  one  who  imagines  that  he  understands 
ihe  manner  in  which  the  divine  agency  is  ex- 
eneJ  has  himself,  of  necessity,  actually  expe- 
rienced it,  and  the  reverse.  Nor  is  it  either  ne- 
cessaiy  or  possible,  in  particular  cases,  to  deter- 
mine Jefinitely  how  much  man  himself  (^nalura) 
has  contributed  to  his  own  improvement,  and 
jiow  m-jch  i;race  has  done  for  him,  provided  he 
Bincerely  believes  that  he  owes  his  entire  re- 
newal ID  the  unmerited  divine  compassion. 
Vide  Mofus,  p.  229,  note,  and  p.  236,  237. 

SECTION  CXXX. 

WHAT  Attr  THE  OPERATIONS  OF  DIVINE  GRACE 
FOIl  PUO>U)TING  THE  REPENTANCE  AND  SALVA- 
TION OF  THOSE  WHO  LIVE  IN  CHRISTIAN  LANDS  ; 
AND  WHAT  MEANS  DOES  GOD  EMPLOY  IN  EXERT- 


ING THESE  INFLUENCES  ON  THEIR  HEARTS 


1.  In  lohai  the  Oprrations  of  Divine  Grace  consist ; 
and  in  tohat  order  they  follmu. 

We  shall  first  exhibit  this  doctrine  in  the  form 
in  which  it  is  commonly  treated  in  theological 
systems,  and  then  shew  how  it  may  be  more 
simply  and  intelligibly  represented. 

(1)  The  common  method  in  theological 
schriols  is  to  describe  these  various  divine  ope- 
rations by  figurative  terms  drawn  from  the 
Bible,  often  using  them,  however,  in  a  differ- 
ent sense  from  that  in  which  they  are  ther# 
Msed,  and  then  to  treat  particularly  and  sepa- 
. lately  of  calling,  illuniiiwtion,  regeneration, 
union  with  God,  sanclijication,  and  renovation. 
The  result  of  this  has  been,  that  these  particu- 
lar parts  are  conceived  of  as  different  and  dis- 
tinct, while  in  truth  they  are  most  intimately 
connected.  Vide  s.  12G,  in  prin.  Theologians 
make  the  following  division  of  these  influences, 
and  suppose  them  to  follow  in  this  order: — («) 
Man  is  invited  by  the  truths  of  the  Christian 
religion  to  repent  and  accept  the  salvation  of- 
fered him,  (^vocatiu.)  (i)  He  now  attains  a  pro- 
per, lively,  and  salutary  knowledge  of  Chris- 
tian truth,  (illuntinatio.)  (c)  Wlien  the  under- 
standing entertains  just  views,  then  the  will  is 
renewed.  Good  feelings  and  dispositions  arise 
in  place  of  sinful  ones,  {rcgeneratio.')  (rf)  This 
work  of  illumination  and  regeneration  must  be 
carried  on  by  ever-increasing  divine  influences; 
and  thus  progressive  sanctification,  or  entire 
holiness,  will  be  effected ;  and  the  higher  the 
degrees  of  divine  influence,  the  more  closely 
will  man  become  united  with  God,  (w/i/o  mys- 
tiea.)  The  proper  scriptural  import  of  most  of 
these  terms  was  explained  s.  126;  and  the  unio 


mystica  in  s.  119,  I.  3.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  233. 
Calling  and  illumination  still  remain  to  be  ex- 
plained. 

(fl)  Illumination.  This  word  is  commonly 
explained  in  theology  in  such  a  way  as  to  ren- 
der it  applicable  only  to  the  true  believer.  It 
denotes  that  true  and  living  knowledge  of  the 
doctrines  of  salvation  which  has  a  powerful  effi- 
cacy upon  the  will,  which  is  not  the  case  with 
the  knowledge  which  unregenerate  men  pos- 
sess. So  that,  as  theologians  explain  it,  illu- 
ininare  aliquem  is  the  same  as  cum  effectu  fulu- 
tari  ducere  aliquem.  Of  such  a  kind,  indeed, 
must  our  knowledge  be,  in  order  to  be  salutary 
and  saving;  and  to  make  it  so  is  the  object  of 
the  divine  influences.  In  the  Bible,  however, 
this  term  is  differently  used  in  a  wider  and  nar- 
rower sense.  To  enlighten,  ^wn'^fir,  ^'!<n, 
means,  (a)  to  instruct,  ttach.  It  is  used  by  the 
LXX,  as  synonymous  with  ht-hdnxfiv,  x.  r.  X. 
And  human  teachers  are  said  to  enlighten  men 
as  well  as  God.  Thus,  Eph.  i.  18,  "The  eyes 
of  the  understanding  being  enlightened  ;"  and 
iii.  9,  iputl^tiv;  and  2  Cor.  iv.  6;  Heb.  vi.  4, 
(fxotts.woj.  For  <f)w5  is  intelligence,  clear  kncw- 
ledgc,  and  the  oyposite,  trxoroj,  is  ignorance. 
Of  the  same  import  is  the  phrase,  dmynr  tovj 
o^^aX^ovj,  Acts,  xxvi.  18,  &c.  All  this  is  the 
same  as  the  phrase,  Sovvai,  yvHtsiv  (jwr>;ptaj, 
Luke,  i.  77.  (|3)  Light  and  darhiess  also  sig- 
nify prosperity  and  adversity.  Hence,  in  the 
scriptural  use,  (y)  both  meanings  are  some- 
times united  in  these  words,  (in  the  widest 
sense) — instruction,  and  the  happiness  which 
results  from  it.  Thus  Christ  is  said  fi^ti^eiv 
Tov  xuajj-ov,  and  to  be  ^w^  xoafiov,  a  teacher  and 
benefactor  of  the  world,  John,  i.  4;  viii.  12.  In 
the  scriptures,  therefore,  illumination  signifies, 
instruction  in  those  truths  which  Gcd  gives  to 
men  for  their  salvation.  It  is  always  the  end 
of  this  illumination  to  influence  the  will  and  to 
promote  holiness;  but  through  the  fault  of  man 
this  end  is  not  always  attained.  Those  with 
respect  to  whom  the  design  of  God  is  attained 
are  savingly  enlightened.  But  in  a  wider  sense 
even  the  wicked  may  be  said,  according  to  the 
scripture  use  of  this  term,  to  be  enlightened — i. 
e.,  converted.  Hence  ^cort5^«vrfj  is  frequently 
a  general  name  of  those  who  live  in  Christian 
lands,  because  they  are  better  instructed,  al- 
though they  are  not  all  savingly  enlightened. 

(b)  Calling,  gracious  calling.  Theologians 
understand  by  this  term  the  offer  of  the  bless- 
ings purchased  by  Christ  which  is  made  to 
men,  whether  they  accept  the  offer  or  not.  This 
use  of  the  term  has  its  origin  principally  in 
some  of  the  parables  of  Christ,  in  which  he  de* 
scribes  the  blessings  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom, 
or  Christian  privileges,  under  the  image  of  a 
great  feast,  to  which  many  guests  (xfx?.rutitrt) 
are  invited,  many  of  whom  despise  the  invita- 


45S 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


tion,  ar.  1  only  a  few  accept  it,  as  Matt.  xxii.  3, 
«eq.  Now  some  have  undertaken  to  apply  tliis 
beautiful  fisfure  employed  by  Christ  to  all  the 
cases  in  which  xx^j^ij,  xXr^roi,  xaXilv  occur  in 
the  apostolical  writings,  by  which  the  greatest 
violence  is  done  to  these  terms.  In  most  of  the 
passages  of  the  New  Testament,  in  which 
xaXfiv  stands  without  any  further  qualification, 
it  signifies,  not  merely  to  nff,r  Christian  privi- 
leges to  any  onf,  but  actually  to  impart  iliem. 
It  denotes  admission  into  the  Christian  church, 
and  the  enjoyment  of  Christian  rights.  KXrrot 
are  those  who  have  not  only  received  an  invita- 
tion to  become  Christians,  but  are  real  Chris- 
tians, (such  as  are  admitted  ;)  and  xXjJitj  is,  in 
general,  that  divine  favour  conferred  on  any  one 
by  which  God  counts  him  worthy  of  the  privi- 
leges of  Christianity.  It  is  therefore  frequently 
a  blessing  bestowed  only  upon  actual  Chris- 
tians. KXi^itj  therefore  frequently  signifies  the 
particular  advantages  which  any  one  obtains  by 
means  of  Christianity.  Vide  Romans,  i.  7;  2 
Thess.  ii.  11;  2  Peter,  i.  3;  Kph.  iv.  4,  fXrt/j 
x>.>;'jfw{.  Heb.  iii.  1,  xXirni^  inovfidvvoi,  &c. ; 
and  when  Christ  says,  Matt.  xx.  14,  many  are 
called,  (enjoy  the  advantages  of  Christian  in- 
struction,) few  belong  to  the  chusen^  /those  who 
are  truly  good  and  acceptable  to  God.) 

Bid  vhal  in  the  origin  of  this  use?  From  the 
ancient  use  of  the  words  n-i,i  and  xaXnv.  They 
were  used  to  denote  calling — i.  e.,acc<-pti>t^,re- 
eeivinir  ;  designing  or  nominating  any  one  to  a 
particular  service,  employment,  office,  privilege, 
&c.  Hence  it  was  said  of  priests  and  prophets 
whom  God  took  into  his  service,  that  they  were 


called ;  and  so  of  Abraham,  whom  he  chose  tdiolTered  to  all,  and  that  all  have  opportunity  to 


be  his  peculiar  friend;  and  of  the  Israelites, 
whom  he  received  and  selected  from  otiiers,  as 
hi«  own  peopU — e.  g.,  Is.  xlviii.  12.  The 
particular  meiiii)er3  of  the  Christian  society  to 
whom  this  benefit  happened  are  called  x7.rjoi. 
Thus  Paul  uses  the  words  xX^itj,  and  xax/iv  fif 
the  external  election  of  the  Israelites  to  be  the 
people  of  God,  Rom,  xi.  2f),  and  ix.  11.  This 
phraseology  was  now  ap|)lied  to  Christians, 
denoting  partly  their  external  reception  in  the 
Christian  community,  (Rotn.  ix.  21.)  and  partly 
all  the  advantages  and  blessings  which  they  re- 
ceive through  Christianity.  We  are  able,  there- 
fore, according  to  Mnrus,  to  distinguish  three 
different  uses  of  the  word  xa\fiv  in  the  New 
Testament,  when  it  is  used  in  reference  to  reli- 
gion— viz.,  («)  to  adinoni.ih  or  eouiuicl  any  one 
for  his  best  good:  (h)  to  instruct  him  as  to  his 
Welfare,  to  point  out  to  him  and  furnish  him  the 
means  of  attaining  it.  (fiith  in  Christ,  which  is 
active  in  good  works;)  (c)  to  offer  and  promise 
this  good  to  any  one.  So  in  the  parajjles  of 
Christ.  When,  therefore,  God  is  said  to  call 
any  one,  the  meaning  \*,  in  llie  theological 
^Mnse,  that  he  teaches  him,  or  causes  him  to  be 


instruct  d  in  the  truths  of  salvation,  that  he  may 
embrace  them,  and  act  accordingly,  and  that  he 
promises  him  all  the  blessings  and  privileges 
connected  with  the  Christian  doctrine. 

(2)  The  method  best  adapted  to  the  nature 
of  the  subject  is  to  divide  all  which  God  does 
to  assist  us  in  obuiining  the  blessings  promised 
in  the  gospel  into  three  princijial  classes — viz., 

First.  The  first  divine  influences  are  in- 
tended to  communicate  to  man  the  kniwUdge 
of  the  truths  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  of 
the  blessedness  purchased  by  Christ  for  man- 
kind, {illuminalio,  in  the  wider  sense.)  This 
must  necessarily  come  first;  for  how  can  a  man 
be  disposed  to  desire  or  accept  a  divine  favour 
of  which  he  knows  nothing?  Paul  therefore 
says,  very  justly,  Rom.  x.  11,  "How  should 
they  serve  God  in  whom  they  do  not  believe? 
And  how  should  they  believe  in  him  of  whom 
they  know  nothing  (of  ovx  ^xovjav)  ?  And  how 
should  they  know  anything  of  him  without  be- 
ing instructed  ]"  Ry  this  instruction  man  be- 
comes acquainted  with  the  divine  decree,  (/tre- 
dcslinatio,')  that  the  happiness  promised  liirousrh 
Christ  is  intended  even  for  him,  and  that  ho 
must  appropriate  it  to  hitiiself;  that  (-hrist  has 
redeemed  him,  died  for  him  ;  and  that  he  there- 
fore may  obtain  the  forgiveness  of  sin,  and  eter- 
nal salvation,  &c.  In  this  way  man  is  invited 
to  receive  and  obey  the  Christian  docir'ne,  that 
his  heart  may  be  thus  disposed  ;  ar.d  this  is 
called  vocalio,  in  the  widest  sense. 

This  calling  is  sometimes  said  to  be  universal. 
If  by  this  is  meant  that  the  Christian  relisrion 
and  the  blessedness  attainable  by  it  is  actually 


become  acquainted  with  it,  and  that  those  who 
do  not  know  and  receive  it  can  blame  only 
themselves,  the  statement  is  false,  and  contrary 
to  historical  fact.  For  the  blessings  of  Chris- 
tianity are  not  published,  even  to  the  present 
day,  to  all  nations,  to  say  nothing  of  all  men  ; 
because  God  must  know  that  at  present  all  are 
not  prepared  to  receive  these  blessings,  though 
doubtless  he  does  not  wholly  neglect  even  such, 
but  in  a  different  way  conducts  them  to  all  that 
happiness  of  which  they  are  capable,  and  will 
doubtless  continue  to  do  so  throughfiul  the  future, 
world.     Vide  s.  121,  II.     Cf.  s.  H8,  II. 

In  another  sense,  however,  this  gracious  call- 
ing is  truly  and  scripturally  said  to  be  univer- 
sal;  in  the  sense,  namely,  («)  that  all  people 
and  individuals  have  free  access  to  the  grace  of 
God  in  Christ  as  soon  as  they  have  opportunity 
to  become  acquainted  with  it ;  and  (/;)  that  every 
real  Christian,  without  exception,  may  enjoy  the 
whole  sum  of  blessedness  procured  by  (thrift, 
by  complying  with  the  prescribed  conditions, 
(rtnrij  xoi  ^*ruw)io.  Art.  xi.) 

Skionp.  The  next  class  of  operations  go  to 
secure  our  actual  enjoyment  of  the  blesseilnesf 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       4S3 


promised  us  and  procured  for  us  by  Christ. 
These  operations  take  effect  when  man  no 
longer  acts  in  opposition  to  the  knowledge 
which  his  understanding  has  received ;  but 
faithfully  complies  with  it,  follows  what  he 
knows  to  be  right,  and  allows  his  will  to  be 
governed  by  it;  so  that  his  knowledge  is  no 
longer  dead,  but  living.  It  is  in  fact  the  same 
divine  agency  which  enlightens  the  understand- 
ing and  renews  the  will.  Whatever  is  done  in 
the  understanding  has  the  renewal  of  the  will  for 
its  object,  and  is  for  this  end  efTected,  This 
divine  agency  has  for  its  aim  the  production  of 
faith  and  repentance,  the  excitement  of  Chris- 
tian dispositions,  and  the  salutary  consequences 
thence  resulting;  Rom.  v.  5,rtvevixa  ayiov;  xiv. 
17,  bLxaioavvrj,  £tpj;t'>j,  ;to45">  ^f  rti'fvuan  ayiw. 
I'it.  iii.  4 — 7.  The  pouring  out  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  is,  in  this  passage,  producing  and  com- 
municating the  Christian  temper  of  which  Cod 
is  the  author,  and  by  which  we  become  xXr^^ovo- 
fxoi.  ^w>^5  atcoviov. 

This  is  calling  in  the  stricter  sense,  [or  f^cc- 
<«/«/ calling,]  dL\\'\  regeneration  {convcrsio  transi- 
iiva)  in  the  theological  sense;  s.  126. 

When  any  one  feels  a  firm  and  lively  convic- 
tion of  the  truths  of  salvation  with  which  he  is 
acquainted,  God  grants  him  power  to  subdue  his 
sinful  desires,  and  cheerfully  to  obey  the  divine 
precepts.  Thus  (a)  the  internal  hindrances  to 
faith  and  repentance,  by  which  we  are  kept  from 
the  enjoyment  of  spiritual  happiness,  are  re- 
moved; and  ignorance,  error,  prejudice,  and  the 
prevailing  bias  to  sense,  are  weakened.  Vide 
Morus,  p.  226,  n.  1,  where  the  texts  of  scripture 
are  cited,  (i)  On  the  contrary,  man  is  led  by 
God  to  entertain  better  views,  is  inclined  to 
faith  and  repentance,  and  is  brought  into  a  stale 
in  which  he  is  ready  and  able  to  repent  and  be- 
lieve. Both  of  these  particulars  are  comprised 
in  the  expression  of  Christ,  God  draws  (iXxhiv) 
men  to  believe  in  him — i.  e.,  he  convinces  them, 
and  renders  them  disposed  to  this  duty,  John, 
vi.  41.     Vide  Morus,  p.  227,  Note  2. 

Third.  The  third  class  of  divine  operations 
relates  to  the  preservation  of  faith,  and  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  entire  happy  condition  resulting 
from  it.  Faith  is  saving  only  on  certain  condi- 
tions. These  are,  its  firmness,  growth,  and  in- 
crease, and  the  shewing  of  it  by  good  works, 
or  Christian  virtues.  Vide  s.  124,  IV.  This 
class  comprehends,  therefore,  («)  those  divine 
operations  and  institutions  which  tend  to  in- 
crease our  knowledge  of  the  great  truths  of  sal- 
vation, and  perfect  our  acquaintance  with  them. 
The  state  resulting  from  these  influences  is 
commonly  called  illuminalio  regenitorum.  (i) 
Those  influences  by  which  the  Christian  is  ad- 
vanced in  holiness  and  fitted  for  the  practice  of 
Christian  virtue,  so  as  to  attain  a  habit  of  good- 
ness, (renovalio  and  sanclificatio,  in  the  theolo- 


gical sense;  s.  126.)  Both  of  these  influences 
are  noticed  2  Thess.  ii.  17,  ©foj — or»;pt'|at  v^aj 
iv  Tiavti  Xoy^  xal  tpyo)  aya^9.  The  latter 
is  mentioned  1  Thess.  v.  23,  ©soj — aytd^ai  r^ioij 
oXoffXfif.     Cf.  iii.  13. 

Note. — When  the  enlightening  of  the  mind 
into  the  knowledge  of  the  truths  of  salvation 
and  the  learning  of  these  truths  is  spoken  of,  it 
is  only  so  ftr  as  these  truths  are  practical,  and 
stand  in  connexion  with  the  plan  of  salvation 
(Art.  xi.),  and  so  have  an  influence  on  the  holi- 
ness or  moral  improvement  of  men.  These 
illuminating  divine  influences  are  not  intend-  d 
to  convey  learned  theological  science  to  tlie 
mind,  or  to  teach  the  holy  scriptures  thooreti- 
cally.  All  this  must  be  done  by  each  individual 
by  his  natural  efforts.  Thi-  diviui'  influences 
are  directed  only  to  wioro/ ends,  producing  faith 
and  repentance,  and  renewing  the  heart.  It 
is  therefore  possible  for  an  unregenerate  and 
wicked  man,  who  has  not  therefore  experienced 
these  renewing  influences,  lo  possess  a  funda- 
mental theoretic  knowledge  of  religion,  which 
he  may  have  acquired  by  his  own  diligence. 
And  if  he  is  a  teacher,  he  may  clearly  explain 
to  others  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible,  and  convince 
them,  and  thus  he  the  means  of  good.  Cf.  Phil, 
i.  16 — 18.  This  good,  however,  will  be  very 
much  prevented  by  the  fact  that  hearers  give 
much  more  regard  to  the  example  than  to  tiie 
doctrines  of  their  teacher,  and  that  what  does 
not  go  from  the  heart  does  not  commonly  reach 
the  heart.  Again;  these  divine  influences  have 
different  degrees,  since  the  capacity  for  them 
is  different  in  different  men.     Vide  s.  124,  HI. 

II.  The  Means  which  God  employs  in  producing 
these  effects. 
The  doctrine  of  the  prolestant  church  has 
always  been,  that  God  does  not  act  immediately 
on  the  heart  in  conversion,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  he  does  not  produce  ideas  in  the  under- 
standing and  effects  in  the  will,  by  his  absolute 
divine  power,  without  the  employment  of  exter- 
nal means.  This  would  be  such  an  immediate 
illumination  and  conversion  as  fanatics  contend 
for,  who  regard  their  own  imaginations  and 
thoughts  as  eflfects  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Morus, 
p.  231,  note.  The  doctrine  of  the  protes-tant 
church  is,  that  God  exerts  these  reforming  in- 
fluences mediately  ;  and  that  the  means  which 
he  employs  with  those  wlio  have  the  holy  scrip- 
tures, is  the  divine  doctrine  taught  in  them,  espe- 
cially the  truths  if  Christianity,  in  their  full  ex- 
tent, comprising  laiv  and  gospel,  (^precept  aiiA 
promise.")  On  this  subject,  cf.  s.  123,  HI.  It 
is  only  through  the  medium  of  these  truths  that 
these  effects  are  produced,  and  not  in  a  direct 
manner. 

The  sacraments.  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, are  enumerated  among  the  means  of  grace^ 


IM 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


and  are  so  called.  This  is  proper,  if  we  remem- 
ber that  these  sacraments  do  not  exert  an  in- 
flupiice  through  tiiemselves  alone,  as  external 
rites  of  reljtriun,  but  only  as  connected  with  the 
Wcrd  of  God,  or  so  far  as  the  truths  of  the  Chris- 
tian reliorion  are  connected  with  them,  are  sen- 
6ibl\'  exhibiti-d  and  impressively  set  forth  by 
them,  and  so  through  their  means  are  personally 
apiro|)riated  by  men.  Kverything  here  comes 
bark  to  the  Word  of  God,  or  the  revealed  doc- 
trines of  Christianity,  which  is  the  medium 
through  which  God  exerts  his  influence,  even 
in  tiie  sacraments. 

The  f.ict  that  God  exerts  these  influences  in 
the  conversion  of  men,  through  the  doctrines  of 
revelation,  is  established, 

(1)  By  such  passages  of  scripture  as  ex- 
pressly declare  that  faith,  repent.ince,  and  holi- 
ness, are  excited  and  produced  in  the  human 
lifarl  by  (iod,  through  the  influence  of  Christian 
tniih;  as  2  Pet.  i.  3,  "The  divine  power  hath 
given  us,  by  means  of  the  Chrisiian  docirine 
(frtiyi/iuntj),  all  the  means  which  we  need  in 
order  tf>  live  piously  and  godly."  Rom.  x.  17, 
IS,  jr  rtirTTc;  (5  ttxoj;^;  cf.  ver.  14.  James,  i.  1"<, 
"(ii)d  has  renewed  us  Aoy^  dxjji^rias."  Con- 
nect with  these  all  the  texts  in  which  the  Chris- 
tiin  iloctrine  is  compared  with  seed  sown  by 
God,  falling  upon  the  human  heart,  and  bear- 
ing fruit,  Luke,  viii.  11,  seq. ;  1  Pet.  i.  '23, 
ajtypa.  I  .Iiihn,  iii.  9,  anepua  Avtov  jufcfi  iv 
avTu.  1  Thess.  ii.  13;  2 'J'im.  iii.  IG;  John, 
viii.  31,  32. 

(2)  The  texts  which  declare  that  through  this 
divine  doctrine  Christians  are  brought  to  the  en- 
joyment of  blessedness,  and  are  j)re8erved  in  it. 
John,  xvii.  17,  20;  2  Cor.  iii.  6,  rtviv^a  fwortoift, 
1  Tim.  iv.  IG,  "If  thou  rightly  teachest  the 
Christian  doctrine  ofavrov  autifii  xai,  axoiovrui 
arxt.''  Ivphes.  vi.  13 — 17,  where  it  is  shewn  in 
figures  that  by  the  right  use  of  the  Christian 
di»ctrine  one  may  advance  far  in  all  Christian 
virtues,  and  may  secure  himself  against  apos- 
t  iKV.  I  John,  V.  4,  "  By  your  faith  iw  the  Son 
of  Gi>d  you  overcome  the  world."  James,  i. 
21,  the  Ciuistian  doctrine  is  called  t^ipvTOi  Ad- 
yti — i.e..  the  doctrine  implanted  in  ('hristians, 
in  which  they  are  instructed;  as  Paul  uses 
^vtfviiv,  I  ('or.  iii.  6,  secj.,  adding  6n'u^fi'oj 
owiat  -^vxaf  v/xlJv.  .Morus  cites  other  passages, 
p.  22.5,  s.  I,  note  I. 

Xi>le. — It  has  become  common  in  theological 
schools  to  denominate  tlie  divine  dnclrine.  the 
euiu  of  whieh  is  contained  in  the  holy  scriptures, 
the  JVitrd  of  (iod,  from  a  liter.il  translation  of 
0'i~N  "tai,  Jjr^na,  or  Adys  Wiois  or  Xjxirou.  'i'iiis 
term  denotes  the  declirations,  oracles,  revela- 
tions made  in  tlie  Uible,  and  hence  the  dli-iiie 
doctrine,  or  inslrvcliim  in  general,  as  Psalms 
cxix.,  civ.,  cv.,  &c.     Thus  in  the  New  Testa- 


ment the  Christian  doctrine  is  denominated 
simply  Adyoj.  In  later  times  it  has  become 
common  to  call  the  Bible  itself,  considered  as  a 
book,  the  ll'urd  if  Gud,  and  many  have  ascribed 
a  diinne  and  superhutural  power  to  the  Bible  aa 
a  book.  In  this  way  occasion  has  been  given 
to  the  mistake  of  ascribing  to  the  book,  as  such, 
what  belongs  to  the  truths  m  doctrines  contained 
in  it.  This  is  never  done  in  the  holy  scripturca 
themselves.  Tiiere  the  Word  of  Gud  is  the  di- 
vine doctrine  itself,  with  which  we  are  made 
acquainted  by  this  book,  but  which  can  be  etfi- 
cacious  without  the  book,  as  it  was  in  the  first 
ages  of  Christianity,  before  the  writings  com- 
posing the  New  Testament  were  written.  For 
the  power  lies  not  in  the  book  itself,  but  pro- 
perly in  the  doctrine  which  is  contained  in  the 
book.  Vide  'i'oellner,  Utber  den  Unlerschied 
iler  heiligen  .Schrifi  und  des  Wortes  Goues,  in 
his  "  Vermischten  Aufsatzen,"  2te  Samml.  s. 
8c!,  f. 

Si:CTION  CXXXI. 

HOW  IS  THr:  DIVtNE  ORIGIN  Oh"  THESi:  GtlACIOUS 
nfc;.\EWlNC;  INKLL'EMES  PROVED  FROM  THIC  HOI.Y 
SCRII'TLRES  ?  AND  RKMAHlvS  IN  EXPLANATIO.S 
OF  THE  SCRIPTLRAL  PHUASEOLOGV  ON  THIS 
SUBJECT. 

I.  Scriptural  Proof  (f  the  Divine    Origin  (f  the 
Injluvnccs  of  Grace. 

Many  texts  are  frequently  cited  here  which 
do  not  belong  to  this  suhjeet,  hut  which  refer 
only  to  miraculous  gifts,  which  the  apostles  and 
some  of  the  first  Christians  received,  and  not 
at  all  to  the  renewing  influences  which  are  im- 
parled to  all  Christians.  Such  are  1  Cor.  .xv. 
10;  2  Cor.  iii.  18.  Still  there  are  many  texts 
w'hich  relate  directly  to  this  subject,  a  few  only 
of  wliiih  will  be  here  cited,  under  two  |)rincipal 
classes. 

(I)  The  texts  which  leach  that  God,  or,  what 
is  the  same  thing,  the  Holy  Spirit,  works  by  hi« 
power  in  the  hearts  of  Christians,  1  Thess.  ii. 
13;  Kphes.  i.  II);  Rom.  viii.  1 — 6.  Hence  the 
whole  renewed  and  sanctified  stale  of  the  true 
Christian  is  denominated  7tvn<ua  and  ^fiovrtfia 
nifi^oToj,  as  in  the  passages  cited.  \  ide  s. 
123,  11.  1,  and  s.  124.  II.  'I'iirough  ibis  intiu- 
ence,  the  flesh  or  sense  (^f>ovr,ua  ia(>xoi,  lu,)?) 
loses  its  dominion  over  reason,  and  the  will  is 
renewed  ;  all  which  results  from  (Jod,  or  fronj 
tlie  Holy  Spirit,  who  dwells  and  works  in  ihe 
hearts  of  (^Itrislians. 

Now  in  the  same  way  as  the  influenee  of  God 

or  of  the  Holy  Spirit   (n^pyfto,  »»'tp')n  rti-f wua) 

lakes  place  in  true  Chrisii.uis.  the  iftt>yfta  rou 

'  Saraici,  <Ta>)Xo'j,x.  r.X.,  works  in  unbelievers  and 

sinners — e.  g.,  Kpiies.  ii.  2;  cf.  i    ID,  20.     Ful 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       455 


as  Satan  is  regarded  and  described  as  the  author 
»f  evil  and  wickedness  in  depraved  and  unbeliev- 
ing men,  so  is  God  the  author  of  goodness  and 
virtue  in  enlightened  Christians.  So  liom.  v, 
5  ;  Ephes.  iv.  30,  y-vmlv  rtvivfia  oiytor,  to  coun- 
teract by  sin  his  salutary  influences. 

(2)  The  texts  in  which  all  the  specific  spiri- 
tual benefits  which  Christians  enjoy  are  ascribed 
to  God,  or  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  the  author,  or 
efficient  cause.  There  is  not  one  among  all 
these  benefits  which  is  not  somewhere  described 
as  produced  by  divine  influence.  Thuc  {a)  in- 
slruclion  in  Christianity  (illuminatio),  John,  vi. 
45,  G5 ;  Ejjhes.  i.  17,  18,  "  God  gives  us  Ttvsvfia 
(jo(})ta5  by  the  Christian  doctrine;"  1  Thess.  iv. 
0 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  3,  8.  (i)  Conversion  and  faith, 
and  the  entire  sum  of  Christian  blessedness 
(x%r^ryii),  Pliil,  i,  fi;  Ephes.  i.  11 ;  ii.  5,  10;  iii. 
10;  Acts,  xvi.  14  ;  2  Tim.  ii.  25.  (c)  The  tf- 
fids  and  consequences  of  faith  ;  such  as  <^ood  in- 
tentions, readiness  to  good  works,  and  sMll  in 
doing  them,  Ephes.  iii.  16  ;  2  Pet.  i.  3  ;  2  Thess. 
ii.  17;  Rom.  XV.  5.  Indeed,  the  very  execution 
of  our  good  purposes  is  represented  as  the  work 
of  the  Spirit,  1  Cor.  i.  8 ;  1  Pet.  v.  10;  Rom. 
viii.  13,  14;  ix.  1;  xiv.  7;  Phil.  ii.  12,  13, 
"The  Cl)ristian  who  is  in  earnest  about  his  own 
salvaticin  should  exhibit  all  diligence  and  zeal; 
and  yet  he  should  cast  himself  upon  the  divine 
guidance  and  assistance,  since  he  can  do  nothing 
of  himself.  For  it  was  God  who  had  awakened 
in  the  Pbilippians  (when  Paul  was  among  them) 
a  serious  desire  for  salvation,  and  who  aided  in 
the  execution  of  this  desire,  (although  Paul 
was  absent  from  them.)  And  this  he  did  V7i(\:> 
ti'boxiai — i.  e.,  for  all  this  the  Pbilippians  were 
indebted  to  the  mere  mercy  of  God,  to  his  free, 
gracious  will." 

II.  Remarks  Explanatory  of  the  Scriptural  Phrase- 
ology on  this  sufijecf. 
(1)  There  are  many  passages  in  the  Bible 
which,  taken  by  themselves,  ajypear  to  affirm  an 
iiiimedinte  influence  of  God  in  the  renewal  of 
men — an  influence,  therefore,  which  is  miracu- 
lous and  irresistible,  and  involving  an  exertion 
of  his  bare  omnipotence.  And  so  there  are  pas- 
sages, where,  on  the  other  hand,  it  seems  to  be 
taught,  that  Ciod  denies  and  withholds  from  men 
the  means  for  their  improvement,  and  renders 
them  hard,  obdurate,  &;c.  In  other  ^jassagcs, 
however,  it  is  expressly  said  that  God  employs 
means,  and  that  tiiesc  are  accessible  to  all  men. 
V'ide  s.  130,  II.  These  influences  are  described 
in  these  very  passages  as  resistible.  It  is  dis- 
t'nctly  taught  that  man  is  not  to  be  compelled; 
(hat  he  himself  must  not  be  inactive  about  his 
own  moral  welfare;  that  he  is  free  to  will  and 
choose  good  or  evil.  Hence  good  and  evil  ac- 
tions are  ascribed  to  man  himself,  and  considered 


as  imputable  to  him.  We  find  these  two  way9 
of  representing  this  subject  connected  together 
in  the  same  manner  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 
in  other  ancient  writings — e.  g.,  those  of  the 
Arabians  and  Greeks.  Cf.  the  texts  cited  8. 
85,  II.  3.  According  to  these,  God  puts  good 
and  evil,  wisdom  and  folly,  into  the  hearts  of 
men,  and  is  the  author  both  of  their  prosperity 
and  their  overthrow.  And  yet,  according  to 
these  same  writers,  the  good  actions  of  men  are 
rewarded  by  God,  and  their  wicked  actions  pu 
nished  by  him,  as  their  own  actions  ;  whereas  if 
they  came  from  God,  they  would  not  be  imput- 
able to  those  by  whom  they  were  performed. 

(2)  Are  not  these  two  representations  really 
contradictory  ?  Such  they  may  appear  to  us, 
who  are  accustomed  to  ditferent  distinctions  and 
expressions  from  those  which  werefornierly  com- 
mon respecting  divine  influences,  the  freedom  of 
the  human  will,  and  its  relation  to  Divine  Pro- 
vidence. Those  especially  who  are  scieiiiifically 
educated  are  apt  to  bring  these  subjects  into  a 
philosophical  form,  and  to  express  them  in  scho- 
lastic terms.  Hence  in  modern  languages  we 
have  appropriate  expressions  with  regard  to  free- 
dom. &c.,  even  in  common  discourse.  Such  was 
not  the  case  in  ancient  times.  And  for  this  rel- 
son  we  frequently  find  difficulties  and  contradic- 
tions where  they  saw  none.  On  the  one  hand, 
the  ancient  world  acknowledged,  with  us,  that 
God  governs  everything,  and  that  nothing  can 
take  pla*e  W'ithout  his  co-operation;  on  the 
other  hand,  they  knew  that  the  human  will 
must  at  the  same  time  remain  free,  because  the 
actions  of  men  would  otherwise  cease  to  be  their 
own  actions.  If  men  were  moved  like  machines, 
and  wrought  upon  like  statues,  their  actions 
could  not  be  imputed  to  them.  But  in  the  an- 
cient world,  the  means  by  which  God  acts  were 
not  always  so  carefully  distinguished  as  is  com- 
mon at  present.  And  even  when  these  means 
were  known,  they  were  more  seldom  mentioned. 
The  sacred  writers,  indeed,  well  understood 
them,  for  they  frequently  mention  them,  but  not 
in  every  case  distinctly.  Thus  it  happens  that 
many  things  were  generally  described  by  the  an- 
cients as  the  inmiediate  efl"ects  of  divine  power, 
which  actually  took  place  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  means  which  were  either  unknown 
to  them,  or  which  they  left  unmentioned.  And 
so,  many  effects  of  the  divine  agency  which 
have  a  miraculous  aspect  were  really  produced 
by  natural  means.  To  those  who  are  unac- 
quainted with  the  ancient  phraseology,  the  de- 
scription given  of  those  efli'f'Cts  in  the  ancient 
manner  of  thinking  and  speaking  seems  to  im- 
ply that  God  brought  them  to  pass  b^  an  jmme- 
diale  and  irresistible  agency.  Vide  s.  70,  Note 
ad  fin. 

Now  what  did  Augfustine  and  his  followeii 


456 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


do  1  Thoy  took  only  one  class  of  these  texts, 
and  interpreted  them  as  they  would  the  lan- 
g-iiatre  of  aeciirale  philosopliers,  without  payinqr 
any  re<rdrd  to  the  extreme  simplicity  of  style  in 
which  the  Bihle  was  written.  They  drew  con- 
clusions and  general  doctrines  from  these  texts, 
wiiioh  were  never  drawn  hy  the  autliors  them- 
selves from  these  premises;  and  all  this  from 
ignorance  cf  the  ancient  manner  of  thinking  and 
speaking.  Vide  s.  85.  Illiterate  persons  have 
generally  understood  this  scriptural  phraseology 
better  than  others. 

From  these  passages,  Augustine  and  his  fol- 
lowers deduced  the  doctrine  of  the  irresisltbk 
grace  <if  God  as  something  which  is  miraculous 
in  its  nature,  and  which,  according  to  his  uncon- 
ditional decree,  he  hestows  upon  some  men,  and 
withholds  from  others.  Without  this  grace,  man 
could  not  recover  himself  to  holiness,  because, 
since  the  fall,  he  possesses  no  freedom  of  will  in 
spiritual  things.  Man  can  do  ny/A/n"- which  will 
contribute  to  this  end.  He  is  entirely  passive 
under  these  operations  of  grace.  Augustine  de- 
pended much  on  the  passage,  John,  vi.  44,  "  No 
rnrin  can  come  to  me  unless  the  Father  draw 
h^in,"  (rk  ixrntia  irresistibili  dparticulari.)  The 
me  ining  of  this  passage  is,  "  No  man  can  come 
to  me  unless  tlie  conviction  of  the  great  love  of 
the  Father  (in  giving  me  to  the  world  from 
love  to  it)  induces  him,  under  divine  guidance 
and  co-operation,  to  come  to  me,  and  believe  on 
nie." 

Even  Origen  (rtfpi  n^^x^^^  '•'•  ^^)  noticed  both 
these  classes  of  texts,  and  said  that  they  should 
not  be  separated,  but  taken  together,  that  they 
might  not  contradict  one  another,  and  that  one 
sense  might  be  deduced  from  them  both.  And 
in  fact,  the  two  things,  the  earnest  clTorts  of  man 
and  the  assistance  of  God,  are  connected  in  the 
holy  scriptures,  Morus  therefore  observes,  very 
justly,  p.  2-25,  s.  1,  that  the  following  result  may 
be  deduced  from  the  various  toxts  of  scripture 
taken  together: — "  God  leads  us,  hy  means  of  his 
truth,  to  faith  and  repentance."  Truth  is  the 
means  whioli  God  employs  for  this  end.  So  the 
symbols  and  the  prolestant  theologians.  Vide 
ubi  supra,  note  5. 

(3)  Tlie  following  ideas,  though  variously  mo- 
dified, are  foimd  to  have  prevailed  crenerailv  in 
the  ancient  world — viz.,  that  all  life,  activity,  and 
motion  throughout  the  universe,  proceed  from 
spirits  or  invisible  beings.  And  even  the  extra- 
ordinary and  unusual  mental  excitements,  the 
talents,  acquisitions,  courage,  and  magnanimity 
which  appear  among  men,  were  derived  from  the 
inspiration  of  higher  spirits,  and  viewed  in  con- 
nexion with  them.  They  believed,  too,  very 
generally,  in  evil  spirits,  to  whose  influences 
(under  the  divine  permission)  they  ascribed  the 
wicked  purposes,  the  errors,  faults,  and  calami- 


ties of  men.  Cf.  s.  58,  II.  With  this  mode  of 
representation  the  holy  scriptures  plainly  agree 
throughout.  Vide  the  article  on  the  Angels. 
They  however  take  no  part  in  the  superstitious 
notions  which  heathen  antiquity,  and  even  the 
great  mass  of  the  Jews,  connected  with  this  re- 
presentation. From  all  these  they  keep  aloof. 
Hut,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Bible  is  equally  far 
from  agreeing  with  that  modern  mechanical 
philosophy  which  tends  to  set  aside  the  influ- 
ence of  spiritual  beings,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
that  of  God  himself.  According  to  the  Bible, 
there  are  good  and  evil  spirits,  which  in  various 
ways  operate  on  the  earth  and  on  man.  But 
there  is  especially  a  diinne  Spirit  ("•i-'i  ni">),  io 
an  eminent  sense,  which  operates  in  and  upon 
true  Christians,  as  it  did  in  the  times  of  the  Old 
Testament  upon  the  Israelites.  Christians  are 
indel)ted  to  Christ  for  this  S|)irit,  whence  he  is 
railed  rti/fvua  Xpi-jTov,  the  I'aracleius,  the  coun- 
sellor of  the  pious,  whom  Christ  semis  in  his 
own  stead  from  the  Father,  John,  xv.  16.  As 
soon  as  any  one  believes  in  Christ,  this  divine 
Spirit  begins  to  influence  his  heart,  and,  as  it 
Wire,  to  dwell  with  him.  And  all  the  good 
which  such  an  one  now  thinks  or  does — his 
knowledge,  his  holiness  and  happiness — he 
owes  solely  to  him.  He  it  is  whom  Christ 
truly  enlightens  in  his  understanding  and  guides 
into  all  the  truth.  Nor  can  he  accomplish  any- 
thing good  without  hin  agency.  He  does  not 
however,  exert  his  influence  upon  all  in  the  sam« 
manner.  He  renews  the  heart  and  all  the  dis 
positions  of  every  true  Christian  (dona  spiritus 
sancti  ordinnria) ;  but  upon  some  in  the  first 
Christian  church  he  exerted  a  peculiar  agency, 
enduing  them  with  the  gifts  of  teaching,  of 
working  miracles,  A:c.  (dona  extruordinaria.) 
Cf.  I  Cor.  xii.  4—1 1,  also  s.  39,  coll.  s.  19,  11., 
and  s.  9,  III.,  IV. 

To  the  great  bulk  of  mankind,  who  are  unac- 
customed to  the  arbitrary  and  mechanical  philo- 
so|)hy  of  the  schools,  and  who  are  unperverted 
by  if,  this  simple  and  truly  animating  represen- 
tation, which  is  everywhere  given  in  the  New 
Testament,  is  more  intelligible,  clear,  and  con- 
soling, and  has  more  influence  on  their  heart, 
and  is  more  conducive  to  their  moral  improve- 
ment, than  all  the  philosophical  and  metaphysit  al 
reasonings  on  Divine  Providence  and  co-opera- 
lion,  how  deep  soever  they  may  apparently  be. 

(4)  The  uniform  doctrine  of  the  holy  scrip- 
tures is,  therefore,  that  God  effects  the  moral 
change  and  renovation  of  the  human  heart,  not 
immrdifitely,  hut  mcdinfrh/,  and  that  liie  means 
which  he  employs  is  the  ('hri!>tiand"elrine  in  all 
its  extent,  its  doctrines,  precepts,  and  promises. 
Vide  No.  2,  ad  finem.  But  the  Bil)le  also 
teaches,  that  the  cause  of  the  effect  which  iv 
produced  by  this  divine  doctiine  ''es  twt  merely 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTLJN.       W7 


in  the  power  and  weight  of  the  arguments  by 
which  Christianity  is  proved,  or  of  the  truths 
which  it  exhibits,  but  principally  in  the  power 
and  agency  of  God,  who,  by  means  of  this  doc- 
trine, acts  in  the  souls  of  men.  Theologians 
say,  ^'■Divina  efficientia  a  doctrina  ipsa,  ejusque  vi 
et  efficacia  discernitur.^^  This  clearly  appears 
from  the  passages  before  cited,  especially  from 
1  Cor.  iii.  G,  7;  Phil,  ii,  12,  13;  2  Thess.  ii. 
15—17;  i.  11;  Ephes.  i.  IG— 20;  iii.  16—20; 
1  Pet.  i.  15;  Acts,  xvi.  14,  and  many  of  the 
discourses  of  Jesus,  especially  those  recorded  in 
John — e.  g.,  iii.  13 — 17,  &c. 

This  now  entirely  agrees  with  the  promise  of 
Christ,  (ff)  that  after  his  departure  from  the 
earth  he  would  support  by  his  constant  and  spe- 
cial assistance  ail  those  who  should  believe  on 
him,  even  to  the  end  of  life;  and  (b)  that  tiie 
Holy  Spirit  of  God  should  always  work  among 
them,  through  the  Christian  doctrine.  This  the 
apostles  everywhere  repeat.  And  so  they  de- 
scribe the  v/hole  moral  renovation  and  perfection 
of  man  as  the  work  of  God,  or  of  the  Holy 
Spirit;  Ephes.  i.  19;  James,  i.  5,  18;  where, 
however,  this  work  is  said  to  be  accomplished 
Xoyu  a\ri^Biai,  iii.  17,  seq.;  Heb.  xiii.  20,  21, 

When  this  doctrine  is  rightly  understood — 
(i.  e.,  in  such  a  way  that  human  freedom,  or 
the  moral  nature  of  man,  is  not  violated) — 
sound  reason  cannot  object  to  it.  For  it  affirins 
no  new  revelations  or  irresistible  influences. 
The  manner,  however,  in  which  this  influence 
is  exerted  carmot  be  understood  by  reason,  be- 
cause the  subject  belongs  to  the  sphere  of  things 
above  sense.  This  we  are  taught  by  Christ 
and  the  apostles.  When  Christ  (John,  iii.) 
had  told  Nicodemus  that  the  Holy  Spirit  effects 
a  moral  regeneration  in  men,  the  latter  thought 
the  doctrine  incredible,  and  was  unwilling  to 
believe  it.  Christ  replied,  (ver.  8,)  that  it 
would  be  unreasonable  to  consent  to  believe 
only  what  is  directly  perceived  by  the  external 
Benses,  and  the  whole  manner  of  whose  exist- 
ence and  operation  we  could  see,  as  it  were, 
with  our  own  eyes.  He  illustrates  this  by  a 
comparison  with  the  wind,  which  we  cannot 
see  and  follow  with  our  eyes,  but  of  whose  ac- 
tual existence  we  may  be  convinced  by  its  ef- 
fects;  as,  for  example,  by  the  sound  which  it 
makes.  And  such  is  the  fact  here.  And  there 
are  a  number  of  important  passages  of  the  same 
import,  in  the  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
chap.  i. — iii.,  and  especially  ii.  14.  Cf.  Morus, 
p.  237.  Here  ■^vx^xoi  ai'^purtoj  is  not  the  natu- 
ral man,  for  which  fveiixo^  would  be  the  word; 
but  the  carnal  man — i.  e.,  (where  objects  of 
kn.iwledore  are  spoken  of,)  one  who  will  ac- 
knowledije  and  receive  in  religious  matters  no 
higher  divine  instruction  and  guidance,  who 
will  believe  nothing  but  wliat  he  perceives  by 
58 


his  external  senses,  (aopxtzoj,)  one  who  has  no 
perception  of  the  truths  revealed  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  (ra  tov  7ivtv^a.to<i  ayiov.)  No  wonder, 
therefore,  that  he  does  not  yield  his  assent  to 
these  truths,  and  that  they  even  appear  foolish- 
ness (^upi'tt)  to  him.  For  such  doctrines  require 
to  be  differently  discerned  from  those  which  are 
merely  of  human  discovery  ;  they  must  be  dis- 
cerned rti'fv^arixwj.  We  reject  human  doc- 
trines, or  renounce  them,  when  they  do  not  in- 
struct or  satisfy  us.  But  since  God  cannot  err, 
the  truths  which  he  has  revealed,  and  which  we 
know  from  our  own  convictions  to  be  such, 
may  not  be  judged  of  by  us  in  the  same  man- 
ner. We  are  not  at  liberty  to  oppose  or  re- 
nounce them  because  they  may  chance  to  be 
displeasing  to  us,  or  because  they  may  be  hard 
and  unintelligible. 

(5)  But  the  scriptural  views  of  the  agency  of 
God  in  producing  the  moral  renovation  of  man, 
when  carefully  examined,  are  by  no  means  in- 
consistent with  the  pliilosnpby  of  the  day. 
They  agree  in  all  essential  points  with  the  doc- 
trine which  is  confiroied  by  experience  and 
reason,  respecting  the  providence  and  agency 
of  God..  For  («)  all  ability  and  power  which 
man  possesses  for  perceiving  the  truth,  and  for 
choosing  either  good  or  evil,  is  derived  solely 
from  God.  (i)  But  God  must  also  concur  by 
his  agency  in  the  use  and  exercise  of  these 
powers,  and  preserve  them  to  us  in  the  moment 
of  action.  Vide  s.  09.  (c)  We  owe  it  to  God, 
too,  that  we  have  opportunities  to  exert  our  fa- 
culties, and  objects  about  which  we  may  em- 
ploy them.  Through  the  divine  ordering  and 
ofovermnent,  we  have  teachers,  and  all  the  other 
internal  and  external  assistances  for  acquiring 
knowledge  of  the  truth,  and  for  making  progress 
in  goodness.  If  we  are  deprived  of  these  aids, 
we  are  not  in  a  case  either  to  understand  the 
truth,  to  practise  virtue,  or  to  do  anytiiing  great 
and  useful.  Vide  s.  70.  Everything  from 
without  which  contributes  to  our  moral  good  is 
ordered  by  Divine  Providence  and  is  employed 
by  God  for  the  promotion  of  his  designs;  so 
that  to  him  alone  are  we  indebted  not  only  for 
all  temporal,  but  also  for  all  spiritual  good; 
although  by  all  this  our  freedom  of  will  is  not 
in  the  least  impaired.  Vide  s.  70,  T.  But  being 
unable  to  fathom  or  comprehend  the  vutnner  of 
the  divine  government,  we  cannot  presume  to 
determine  positively  notv  God  can  or  must  con- 
trol us,  and  in  what  way  he  may,  or  may  not, 
exert  an  agency  in  promoting  our  moral  improve- 
ment. On  this  subject  we  must  confine  our- 
selves wholly  to  erperienCK.  and  especially  to 
the  instructions  of  the  holy  scriptures,  if  we 
make  them  the  ground  of  our  knowledge.  Nor 
must  we  renounce  this  doctrine  because  we  can- 
not understand  the  internal  modus  of  it. 
2  Q 


45B 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


SECTION   CXXXII. 

A  SKtTCH  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  THEORIES 
RKSPECTING  THE  OPERATIONS  OF  GRACE,  AND 
THE  FREEDOM  (oR  ABILITY )  OF  MAN  IN  SPI- 
RITUAL THINGS  ;  AND  THE  CONTROVERSIES  ON 
THIS  SUUJECT  IN  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 

I.   Opinions  of  the  earbj  Greek  Fathers. 

In  the  earli(^st  ages,  shortly  afler  the  time  of 
the  apostles,  tliere  was  no  controversy  on  this 
subject,  as  Aurrustine  himself  acknowledores. 
In  the  exhibition  of  this  doctrine  most  of  the 
first  teachers  contented  themselves  with  that 
simplicity  which  prevails  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. They  so  express  themselves,  that  while 
they  aiTirin,  on  one  side,  that  man  receives  as- 
sistance (^uuxilia)  from  divine  grace,  they  still 
allow  to  liim,  on  the  other  s'nie,  freedom  of  ac- 
tion. Nothinir  was  said  from  the  first  to  the 
third  century  about  irresistible  grace.  Vide  s. 
79,  in  the  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  Original 
Sin.  So  IrRnaJus  says  in  many  passages,  "  that 
God  com|)els  no  man;  that  we  are  free,  and  can 
choose  good  or  evil."  Clement  of  Alexandria 
says,  "  that  God  indeed  guides,  but  never  binds 
our  free  wills;  and  that  hence  to  believe  and  to 
obey  is  in  man's  power."  In  the  third  century, 
Origen  expressed  his  opinion  still  more  deii- 
nilely  than  the  fathers  who  had  preceded  him. 
In  his  work  rtfpi,  d^j;twi',  (1.  iii.  c.  I.)  he  says, 
we  are  indebted  for  faith  to  God  alone.  He 
gave  us  the  means  of  faith.  From  him  come 
botii  the  faculties  which  man  has  of  doing  right, 
and  the  preservation  of  these  faculties.  Hut 
the  use  of  these  faculties  bestowed  upon  us  de- 
pends upon  ourselves.  When  therefore  in  some 
passages  of  the  New  Testament  the  im|)rovement 
of  man  is  ascribed  solely  to  (iud,  and  in  others 
to  man  himself,  there  is  no  contradiction.  For 
even  that  which  depends  upon  our  own  free  will 
cannot  take  place  without  the  divine  assistance; 
and  God  does  not  work  in  us  without  our  own 
co-operation.  For  he  does  not  bind  the  free 
human  will.  With  these  sentiments,  Athana- 
sius,  H.isilius  the  Great,  Chrysostom,  and  other 
fathers  of  the  Greek  church,  perfectly  agree. 

\_N<ile. — The  early  Greek  fathers  were  led  to 
insist  thus  strongly  upon  avrf^oi^tov,  j Xf viifptai', 
TfpoaJpfoif,  (Jke.  sef-detrrminutinn,  freedom  of  the 
will,)  by  standing  in  immediate  contlict  with 
the  views  nf  man  prevailing  lliroughout  the  hea- 
then world,  and  especially  among  the  contem- 
porary (rnoslic  sects.  Before  ('hrislianity  was 
|)roinulgaleil,  it  had  become  almost  universal  to 
regard  man  as  acting  under  the  same  necessity 
to  wbioli  material  nature  is  subjected.  lOvil 
was  supposed  nither  to  belong  to  matter,  and  to 
be  inherent  in  the  hirnan  organisation,  or  to  re- 
biili  from  an  irresisiible  fate  and  necessity. 
Thus  the  free  and  accountable  agency  of  man 


was  theoretically  obscured,  and  practically  al90« 
as  far  as  the  image  of  God,  which  is  nevar 
wholly  elTriced,  can  be  obscured  by  theoretic 
error  and  moral  corruption. 

The  publication  of  Christianity  cast  new  liirht 
upon  the  condition  and  relations  of  man.  While, 
by  revealing  a  remedy,  it  implied  his  helpless- 
ness and  need,  on  the  other  hand,  by  otfering 
pardon,  it  implied  his  guilt  and  exposure  to  pu- 
uiskment,  and  by  appealing  to  the  divine  por- 
tion in  man  it  awakened  him  from  his  apathy 
as  to  moral  obligation  and  elfort.  The  whole 
nature  of  the  Christian  remedy,  consisting  not 
of  magical  or  physical  influences — which  would 
have  been  refjuisite  had  man  been  under  a  na- 
tural necessity  of  sinning — but  of  moral  means, 
calling  our  moral  faculties  into  exercise,  con- 
tained an  implied  contradiction  to  the  pagan  and 
-Manicliean  philosophy,  and  struck  at  the  root 
of  every  view  which  derives  evil  from  a  neces- 
sity of  nature  rather  than  from  the  perverted  use 
of  our  moral  powers. 

From  these  considerations  it  may  be  explain* 
ed  that  the  early  Greek  fathers  should  have  in- 
sisted so  disproportionately  upon  the  freedom 
of  the  human  will,  though  they  by  no  means 
went  into  the  Pelagian  excess  of  ascrit)ing  to  iJ 
an  independency  on  divine  grace.  Had  tiiej 
been  placed  in  as  immediate  contact  with  the 
stoical  or  pharisaical  doctrine  of  human  self-suf- 
ficiency, as  with  the  Pagan  and  (inostic  idea  of 
natural  necessity,  they  would,  doubtless,  have 
ffiven  to  man's  inability  and  dependence  on 
(Jod  that  place  which  human  freedom  and  power 
now  hold  in  their  system. 

As  it  was,  the  excess  to  which  the  Greek 
fathers  carried  this  point  laid  the  foundation  for 
the  divergency  between  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern churches,  which  will  appear  in  the  sequel 
of  this  sketch. 

With  regard  to  the  anthropological  views  of 
the  Greek  fathers  of  this  period,  cf.  Neander, 
Kircheiiijeschichte,  b.  i.,  Ablh.  iii.  s.  1019— 
lOtiO — Tr.] 

II.  Opinions  of  the  earli/  Latin  Fa/hers,-  aud  the 
Doctrine  of  I'tlagius. 
We  find  that  most  of  the  ancient  Latin  fa- 
thers agreed  with  this  simple  doctrine  of  the 
(ireek  church.  So  Hilary,  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury ;  nor  were  any  objections  made  to  him  he- 
fore  the  time  of  Augustine,  near  the  beginning 
of  the  fifth  century.  We  find,  however,  in 
Africa,  even  before  the  time  of  Augustine,  some 
traces  of  the  peculiar  expressions  and  senti* 
ments  which  were  afterwards  firmed  by  him 
into  a  system,  which  he  held  in  opposition  to 
that  of  Pelagius.  Tertullian,  who  in  the  rest 
of  his  system  does  not  ditfer  from  the  Greeks, 
opposes  gratium  divinam  to  tuilura,  and  says 
that  tiie  vis   gratix   is  poteiiiior   natura,    (the 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      459 


natural  powers  of  men,)  De  Anima,  c.  21.  He, 
however,  allows  to  man  liberi arbilrii poteslateni. 
Cyprian,  in  tiie  third  century,  comes  still  nearer 
to  the  opinions  of  Augustine.  And  indeed 
there  must  have  been  many  in  Africa  before 
and  at  the  time  of  Augustine  who  held  the  es- 
sentials of  his  system. 

This  induced  Pelagius,  (who  was  a  native  of 
Britain,  but  who  was  extensively  rend  in  the 
works  of  the  Greek  fathers,)  in  the  begirming 
of  the  fifth  century,  to  analyze  and  collate  the 
doctrines  of  the  Greek  fathers,  and  especially 
of  Urigen,  and  to  draw  consequences  from  tliem 
which  they  themselves  had  not  authorized.  He 
taught  that  three  things  should  be  distinguished 
in  man,  the  posse,  velk,  and  ufxere.  For  the 
faculty  or  power  to  do  good  men  are  indebted 
to  God  alone  [gratict'),  who  had  granted  it  to 
human  nature.  7'o  tt;/// and  to  act  depends  upon 
man  himself.  Still  men  are  so  assisted  by  the 
grace  of  God  that  their  willing  and  acting  is 
facilitated.  But  the  means  which  God  makes 
use  of  in  affording  his  aid  are  doctrinu  and  revc- 
lutio.  He  made  this  last  point  more  prominent 
than  any  of  the  teachers  who  had  preceded 
him  ;  and  this  was  well.  But  in  other  points 
he  deviated  from  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible — 
viz.,  («)  by  denying  natural  depravity;  (i)  by 
deriving  our  ability  to  do  good  solely  or  |)rihci- 
pally  from  tiie  power  with  which  our  nature 
was  originally  endowed  by  God;  (r)  and  by 
allowing  to  God  no  real  instrumentality  in  the 
conversion  and  sanctification  of  men.  Accord- 
ing to  this  system,  God  works  only  by  means 
of  the  Christian  doctrine — i.  e.,  he  is  the  author 
of  this  doctrine,  which  contains  more  powerful 
motives  than  any  other. 

Against  this  system  Augustine  contended.  In 
Africa,  councils  were  held  in  opposition  to  Pe- 
lagius, in  which  his  doctrine  was  condemned. 
The  Christians  of  the  Eastern  church,  of  Pales- 
tine and  elsewhere,  did  not,  however,  assent  to 
this  decision;  and  the  same  is  true  of  many  in 
the  Latin  churches  beyond  tiie  bounds  of  Africa, 
and  at  first  even  of  the  Roman  bishop  himself. 
This  was  owing,  partly  to  the  extravagant  zeal 
of  Augustine,  and  to  the  mixture  of  many  erro- 
neous opinions  in  his  system;  and  partly  to  the 
guarded  and  ambiguous  phraseology  of  Pela- 
gius, by  which  he  concealed  his  departures 
from  the  scriptural  doctrine.  But  at  length 
Augustine  succeeded  so  far  in  his  efforts,  that 
tiie  doctrine  'of  Pelagius  was  condemned,  and 
the  condemnation  confirmed  by  the  Emperor. 
And  thus  the  theory  of  Augustine  obtained  the 
predominance,  at  least  in  the  Wtst. 

III.  Augustine's  Doctrine  resperiing  Grace. 

(1)  He  held  that  human  nature  is  so  de- 
praved (s.  10)  that  it  no  longer  p  «ssesses  free- 
dom of  will  in  spiritual  things  [carere  libero 


arbitrio  in  spiritualibus) — i.  e.,  is  unable  to  un- 
derstand spiritual  things,  (the  truths  of  salva- 
tion contained  in  the  scriptures,)  or  to  act  con- 
formably with  them,  without  the  divine  instruc- 
tions contained  in  the  scriptures,  and  the  gracious 
assistance  of  God,  although  he  may  possess  free- 
dom in  natural  things  (^liberum  arbitrium  habere 
in  nnturulibus) — i.  e.,  he  may  learn  God  from 
nature  and  reason,  and  fulfil  many  of  his  duties. 
The  Bible,  too,  teaches  that  the  wicked  come 
at  length  to  such  a  habit  of  sinning  that  they 
become  the  slaves  of  sin,  (John,  viii.  3C,  3G ; 
iiorn.  vii.  23,)  and  that  they  can  be  delivered 
from  this  slavery  only  by  faith  in  Jesns  Christ 
and  by  divine  assistance.  Since  now  Angus- 
tine  was  led,  by  opposition  to  Pelagius,  to  ex- 
agsrerate  the  doctrine  of  natural  depravity,  (vide 
s.  71),  60,)  he  represented  the  assistance  afford- 
ed by  God  in  the  improvement  of  man  as  truly 
compulsory,  and  of  such  a  nature  as  to  infringe 
upon  human  freedom.  The  ancient  fathers,  on 
the  other  hand,  held  to  to  avri^ovcuov,  under- 
standing by  this  term,  or  the  term  liberum  arbi- 
trium, (which  TertuUian  first  borrowed  from  a 
term  in  Roman  law,)  the  power  of  man  to 
choose  good  or  er// freely  and  without  conipul' 
sion.  This  view  was  universally  held  in  the 
East,  and  in  the  West,  too,  before  the  Pelagian 
controversies. 

(•2)  Auufustine  made  a  careful  distinction  be- 
tween nature  and  grace.  Vide  s.  129,  II.,  and 
Morus,  p.  231,  note  2.  Grace  alone  can  renew 
man;  he  can  do  nothing  for  this  end  by  the 
powers  of  mere  nature.  And  it  is  true,  in  a  cer- 
tain sense,  according  to  the  Bible,  that  man 
alone  cannot  deliver  himself ;  that  by  his  ou'ix  un- 
aided  powers  he  cannot  renew  himself  But  Au- 
gustine went  further  than  this,  and  the  additir  is 
which  he  made  are  not  scriptural.  Mrm,  he 
said,  can  do  nothing  which  will  at  all  contribute 
to  his  spiritual  recovery.  He  is  like  a  lump 
of  clay,  or  a  statue,  without  life  or  activity. 
Hence,  he  denied  virtue  and  salvation  to  the 
heathen,  and  to  all  who  are  not  enlightened  by 
grace.     Vide  s.  121. 

(3)  This  divine  grace,  which  alone  is  ab'„  to 
renew  the  heart,  is  described  by  Augustine  aa 
ijficnx  and  stijficiefis — i.  e.,  alone  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  power  of  sin,  (in  which  Augus- 
tine was  right.)  and  also  as  in-esistibilis.  For 
he  conceived  grace  to  be  the  direct  operation  of 
divine  omnipotence,  acting  in  a  miraculous 
manner,  qua  voluntatem  hominum  indeclinabiii 
vi  ad.  bona  trahat. 

(4)  Augustine  made  a  threefold  division  of 
grace,  founded  on  the  doctrine  which  he  held  in 
opposition  to  Pelagius,  that  to  will,  to  be  able, 
and  to  perform,  depend  solely  on  divine  grace — 
viz.,  (ff)  gratia  excilans  or  iiicipiens,  that  grace 
which  renders  the  human  will  inclined  to  faith, 
excites  good  emotions,  and  p'oduces  the  begin- 


460 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ninars  of  faith.  Other  nimes  given  to  this  in- 
cipient grace  are,  pncvenictui,  puls'ttm,  tia/iens, 
vocftiis,  pnvparans.  (A)  Operans  or  fjjicitns,  that 
grace  which  imparts  faith  and  new  spiritual 
powers  for  the  performance  of  duty.  God  pro- 
duces gofKi  desires  and  determinations  in  man 
by  the  truths  of  the  Christian  religion,  (c)  Cu- 
vpcraiis,  perjiciens,  or  assisldii-s,  that  by  which 
the  believer  is  assisted  after  his  conversion,  so 
that  he  will  be  able  to  perform  good  works,  and 
to  persevere  in  faith. 

Augustine  differed  from  all  the  theologians 
who  had  preceded  him,  in  teaching  that  irrace 
anticipated  the  human  will,  (^prspvctiire  voluuta- 
lem.)  Tiiis  may  be  understood  in  a  very  just 
and  scriptural  sense.  But  Augustine  meant  by 
it  nothing  less  than  that  the  first  good  desires 
and  determinations  to  amend  are  miraculously 
produced,  or  infused  into  the  heart  by  divine 
grace;  whereas  the  earlier  theologians  had  uni- 
formly taught  that  (iod  gives  man,  in  the  use 
of  means,  opportunity  to  repent,  and  that  he 
guides  and  assists  in  this  work  by  his  own 
agency;  but  that  man  himself  must  be  active, 
and  must  form  the  resolution  to  repent,  and 
have  a  disposition  to  do  so;  in  which  case  di- 
vine mercy  will  come  to  his  relief,  {rjuud  volun- 
tas hoininutn  prxvcnial  auxilia  isruliic.)  To  this 
view,  however,  Augustine  could  not  consent, 
because  he  denied  all  power  to  the  human  will. 
In  this  work,  man,  in  his  view,  is  entirely  prm- 
sive.  Uut  many  of  his  followers  in  the  West 
differed  from  him  in  this  particular,  and  adhered 
to  the  more  ancient  representation.  Afterwards 
they  were  frequently  numbered  with  the  Semi- 
Pelagians,  and  in  the  sixth  century  their  doc- 
trine was  condemned. 

(5)  W  iih  respect  to  the  manner  in  which 
saving  grace  operates,  Augustine  believed  that 
in  the  case  of  those  who  enjoy  revelation,  grace 
commonly  acts  by  means  of  the  word,  or  the 
divine  doctrine,  but  sometimes  directly,  because 
God  is  not  confined  to  the  use  of  means.  On 
this  point  there  was  great  logomachy.  Real 
conversions,  even  in  such  extraonlinary  cases 
as  that  of  Paul,  are  effected  by  the  v:ord  of  God, 
and  the  believing  reception  of  it;  although  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  word  is  brought 
home  to  the  heart  may  be  extraordinary. 

((■>)  Augustine  connected  all  these  doctrines 
with  his  theory  respecting  the  uiuoiulilinnal  de- 
cree (f  God ;  res|)ecting  which  vide  s.  .3"2.  He 
tauirhl  that  the  anticipating  and  efficient  grace 
of  (iod  depend  not  at  all  upon  man  and  his 
worthiness,  (susceptibility,)  hut  solely  on  the 
decree  of  (iod.  God,  according  to  his  own  will, 
elected  some,  from  all  eternity,  from  the  whole 
mass  of  mankind,  in  order  to  make  them  vessels 
of  mercy,  (susceptible  of  his  grace;)  while  from 
others  he  withholds  this  renovating  grace,  that 
tiicy  may  be  vessels  of  wratii.     lie  imparts,  in- 


deed, to  all  the  anticipaling  s^aee ;  but  efficietilt 
'jrace  only  to  a  ftiv — viz.,  the  elect.  Of  this 
procedure  none  can  complain;  for  God  is  not 
bound  to  bestow  his  grace  upon  any.  'I'hus  the 
efficacy  (tfficacia)  of  grace  on  the  heart  is  made 
by  him  to  depend  on  the  unconditional  decree 
of  God,  {fib  clectione  Dei,')  and  also  the  op|iosi« 
tion  (^reaislentia)  of  men  :  the  latter  on  the  </c- 
crttuin  riprobtttionis.  For  God  does  not  will  to 
exert  the  whole  power  of  his  grace  upon  the 
heart  of  those  who  prove  reprobate,  ffhy  he 
does  not  we  are  unable  to  determine;  this  is 
one  of  the  unfathomable  mysteries  of  tiie  divine 
decrees.  Such  doctrines  as  these  are  distinctly 
expressed  in  many  of  the  writings  of  Augus- 
tine,— as  in  his  work,  J)e  predestinationt  Sane- 
torutn.  He  is  not,  however,  at  all  times  con- 
sistent with  himself;  and  feeling  how  hard  his 
doctrine  is,  sometimes  expresses  himself  less  se- 
verely. [For  a  more  complete  view  of  the  sys- 
tem of  Augustine,  cf.  the  Jan.  No.  of  Bib.  Repo- 
sitory, for  1833,  An.  Augustine  and  Pelagius.] 

IV.  Controversies  on  Particular  Points  in  the 
Augustinian  System. 

The  system  of  Augustine  respecting  grace 
was,  taken  as  a  whole,  made  fundamental  in 
the  Western  church  in  the  ages  succeeding  his. 
Some  adopted  it  entire,  others  finly  in  part; 
most,  however,  dissented  from  it  in  some  parti- 
culars, and  lowered  it  down,  so  to  speak.  They 
retained  many  of  his  terms,  but  employed  them 
in  a  more  just  and  scriptural  sense.  Others,  on 
the  contrary,  adopted  the  system  of  Ptdagius,  or 
endeavoured  to  compose  a  new  system  by  com- 
bining his  opinions  with  those  of  Augustine. 
The  principal  points  on  which  a  ditference  of 
opinion  existed  in  the  Latin  church  were  the 
following — viz., 

(I)  The  doctrine  of  predestination.  Although 
Augustine  believed  in  unconditional  decrees, 
this  doctrine  never  became  universal  in  the 
Latin  church.  Most  of  the  inemhers  of  this 
church,  until  the  ninth  century,  held  only  to 
those  passages  in  his  works  in  which  he  ex- 
pressed himself  with  less  rigour.  But  in  the 
ninth  century,  when  Golischalk  began  to  advo- 
cate unconditional  decrees  strenuously,  a  vehe- 
ment controversy  arose.  Vide  s.  3-2,  note.  His 
principal  opponents  were  Rahaniis  Maiirua, 
Ilinkmar,  and  otln-rs,  who  justly  derived  pre- 
destination from  God's  foreknowledge  of  the 
free  actions  of  men.  In  this  opinion  they  had 
many  followers,  though  a  large  number  still 
adopted  the  theory  of  Augustine,  al'ier  mode- 
rating and  moditying  it  in  various  ways.  To 
this  p.irty  Piter  of  Lombardy  ami  oihi-r  school- 
men belonged.  Luther  and  Melanclhon  (as 
w(  11  as  t'alvin  and  B<za)  were  at  first  strong 
Augustinians;  hut  they  aflerwar<ls  ahandoned 
his  doctrine  of  |iredeslinatiun,  wliile  C.ilvin  and 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       461 


Btza  still  adhered, to  it,  and  made  it  a  doctrine 
of  tlxnr  church.  Vide  the  sections  above  cited. 
Between  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centu- 
ries the  most  violent  controversies  on  tiiis  sub- 
ject raged  in  the  Romish  church,  between  the 
Janseiiists,  who  were  zealous  Augustiiiians, 
and  the  Jesuits  in  the  Netherlands  and  France. 
The  latter  agreed  very  nearly  in  sentiment  with 
Rabanus,  and  had  many  supporters. 

(2)  'I'he  doctrine  of  the  freedom  of  the  human 
will  and  its  relation  to  the  operations  of  grace. 
On  this  subject  there  are  three  principal  systems. 

Firat.  The  Jlugustinian,  which  allows  to 
man  no  freedom  of  will  in  spiritual  things,  ac- 
cording to  the  statement  above  made;  No.  iii. 
The  strenuous  adherents  of  Augustine  above 
named  entirely  agreed  with  him  in  this  particu- 
lar; and  the  doctrine  of  the  entire  inability  of 
man  in  spiritual  things,  in  the  sense  of  Augus- 
tine, was  zealously  advocated  by  the  Domini- 
3<ins,  who  in  this  followed  Thomas  Acpiinas. 
Out  of  this  arose  the  violent  controversy  which 
prevailed  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, de  auxiliis  graticE,  between  the  Domini- 
cans and  Netherland  theologians  on  tlie  one 
side,  and  the  Jesuits  and  their  adherents  on  the 
other,  and  afterwards,  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  between  the  Jesuits  and 
Jansenists.  Luther,  with  Carlstadt  and  some 
others  of  his  coadjutors,  belonged  at  first  to  this 
high  parly.  The  former  defended  this  doctrine 
in  liis  book,  De  servo  arbitrio,  against  Erasmus. 
Afterwards,  however,  his  views  became  very 
niuch  more  moderate,  and  he  retained  but  little 
more  of  the  doctrine  of  Augustine  than  the 
terms  in  which  it  was  expressed.  He  was  fol- 
lowed l)y  a  large  number  of  the  theologians  of 
his  church. 

Secondly.  The  scholastic  system.  Most  of  the 
schoolmen  endeavoured  to  moderate  the  theory 
of  Augustine.  They  taught  that  grace  is  indeed 
powerful  and  efficacious,  but  that  man  is  not 
compelled  by  it,  and  can  resist  it.  The  assent 
of  the  human  will  must  accompany  grace,  with- 
out whi(;h  it  is  inefficacious.  They  allowed, 
thereff)re,  the  freedom  of  the  will  in  a  certain 
sense.  They  held  that  the  will  of  man  crm 
either  follow  or  resist  grace;  while  still  they 
admitted  that  grace  has  a  certain  influeiiCf  lu 
the  renovation  of  man,  not  indeed  miraculous, 
but  yet  acting  physically  in  connexion  with  the 
divine  word.  They  were  followed  afterwards 
in  the  Romish  church  by  the  great  body  of  the 
Jesuits,  who  on  this  account  were  involved  in 
much  controversy  with  the  Dominicans,  Jansen- 
ists,  and  others,  who  were  strict  Augustinians, 
and  by  whom  they  were  accused  of  inclining 
to  Pelagianism.  At  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, in  the  sixteenth  century,  this  theory 
prevailed  far  and  wide  in  the  Romish  church, 
and  was  defended  by  Eck  and  Erasmus  against 


Luther.  It  was  adopted  by  Melancthon,  and 
expressly  avowed  by  him  after  the  death  of  Lu- 
ther, and  by  the  theologians  of  his  sch(jol  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  Others,  however,  would  not 
swerve  from  the  earlier  system  of  Luther, 
though  the  difference  which  now  existed  be- 
tween the  two  parties  was  more  in  words  than 
in  reality.  This  doctrine  was  called  by  the  lat- 
ter synergism,  and  its  advocates  syiicr gists,  be- 
cause they  taught  that  the  operations  of  grace 
are  accompanied  by  the  action  of  the  human 
will.  The  principal  advocate  of  this  synergism 
was  Victorin  Strigel,  and  its  principal  oppo- 
nent Flacius.  Since  that  period  the  opinions  on 
both  sides  have  assumed  a  much  more  mode- 
rate shape,  and  a  great  deal  of  logomachy  has 
ceased  ;  but  there  still  remains  a  difference  of 
opinion  on  this  point  in  the  protestant  as  well 
as  in  the  catholic  church. 

Thirdly.  The  .system  of  Felagiiis.  Many  think 
that  this  system  is  better  than  any  other  lo  re- 
move the  cimtradiction  between  human  freedom 
and  the  influences  of  grace.  Pelagius  entirely 
denies  any  physical  influence  of  grace,  and  any 
alteration  of  the  will  effected  by  means  of  it. 
God,  indeed,  operates  on  men,  but  merely 
through  the  (natural)  power  of  the  truths  of  re- 
ligion, of  which  he  is  the  author.  Man  has 
ability  both  to  understand  these  truths  and  live 
according  to  them,  and  also  ability  to  sin.  And 
this  is  the  freedom  of  will  essential  to  man. 
God  causes  the  renovation  of  the  heart,  but 
merely  through  the  influence  of  Christian  doc- 
trine, inasmuch  as  this  doctrine,  of  which  God 
is  the  author,  contains  more  powerful  motives 
to  improvement  than  any  human  systems.  Vide 
the  Estimate,  No.  ii.  ad  fin.  Many  modern 
theologians  have  received  this  system  entirely, 
and  some  have  undertaken  to  interpret  the  com- 
mon ecclesiastical  formulas  and  the  Augusti- 
nian  phraseology  in  conformity  with  it.  Re- 
specting these  controversies  and  systems  vide 
the  works  of  Vossius,  Sirmond,  Mauguin, 
Serry,  Norisius;  alsc  the  works  of  Setnler, 
Walch  (Ketzergeschichte),  Rosier  (IJibliothek 
der  Kirchenvater),  and  others.  [Cf.  Noander, 
Kirchengesch.  b.  ii.  Ablli.  iii  Bretschneider,  b. 
ii.  s.  60G.— Tr.] 

V.  Later  History  of  this  Doctrine. 

Since  the  seventeenth,  and  especially  since 
the  eighteenth  century,  many  theologians  of  the 
protestant  church  have  laboured  to  cast  light  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  operations  of  grace  and  the 
efficacy  of  the  divine  word,  and  to  exhibit  this 
doctrine  in  a  manner  correspondent  with  the 
principles  of  modern  philosophy.  Some  have 
declared  themselves  decidedly  in  favour  of  the 
Pelatrian  systf  m.  Others  have  adopted  it  only 
in  part,  or,  while  they  have  held  it,  have  dis- 
guised their  belief  bv  using  the  terms  of  the 
2q-2 


463 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


AufTiistinian  or  scholastic  theory  in  an  entirely 
dilTpfpnt  sense  from  what  l)elongs  to  them,  in 
reality  denyinnr  physical  influence.  In  this 
P'lint,  however,  the  protestant  chnrch  is  ajirped, 
that  the  Holy  f^pirit  does  not  act  immediately^ 
but  mediately,  throuirh  the  word,  s.  130,  II. 
So  clearly  do  the  symbols  teach.  Morus,  p. 
231,  n.  1.  Still  there  is  a  jrreat  diversity  of 
opinion  on  the  question  about  the  manner  in 
which  the  Holy  Spirit  acts  through  the  word, 
and  on  the  question  whether  these  operations 
may  be  denominated  supernatural^  and  in  ichnt 
seiuse.  On  these  points  there  are  two  principal 
theories  prevalent  in  the  protestant  church. 

(1)  Many  hold  that  although  grace  operates 
through  the  word,  there  is  still  connected  with 
the  word  a  special  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in 
enli^htenins;  and  converting  men.  This  power, 
however,  is  never  exerted  withnnt,  but  always 
in  connexion  with  the  word.  Cnnjuncttim  cum 
usH  doclrituT  aiixilium  Dei,  quod  ille  fcrt  utcnti- 
biis  en,  Morus,  p.  228,  note.  The  crreater  part, 
though  not  all  of  the  early  protestant  and  Lu- 
theran theologians,  were  of  this  opinion.  So 
Melancthon.  Some  gave  such  a  turn  to  this 
doctrine  that  they  were  suspected  of  fiinaticism. 
This  was  the  case  with  Herm.  Rathmann,  a 
L'ltlieran  preacher  in  Dantzig,  who  affirmed  in 
his  work,  ^^Giwdenrcich  Vhristi,''^  1()21,  that  man 
is  so  depraved  that  tlie  Word  of  God  can  by 
itself  exert  no  power  on  his  heart,  unless  the 
alinighty  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  connected 
with  it.  Upon  this  a  great  controversy  arose 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  Some,  too,  of  the 
party  of  the  pietists,  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
expressed  themselves  so  vaguely  on  this  j)oint 
that  they  were  suspected  of  fanaticism.  But, 
in  fact,  neither  their  opinions,  nor  that  of  Rath- 
mann, can  properly  be  called /ffn/7//c«/.  Fana- 
tics and  enthusiasts  believe  in  an  illumination 
and  renovation  of  man  elTected  immedialeli/  by 
God,  withnut  the  use  of  the  word,  or  the  truths 
of  the  holy  scriptures,  of  which  consequently 
they  speak  with  disregard.  So,  e.  or.,  the 
Quakers.  Vide  Morus,  p.  231,  s.  5,  for  a  brief 
view  of  their  system. 

Many  modern  theologians  have  entirely  de- 
parted from  these  views,  (vide  No.  2;)  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  many  have  adhered  to  the 
more  ancient  theory,  and  defended  it  aga\^t  all 
attacks.  K.  g.,  C  A.  Bertling,  Vor^lhmg 
was  die  Lutherische  Kirche  von  der  Kraft  der 
heiligen  Schrift  lehre  ;  Dantzirr,  ITSfi,  Ito.  The 
author  of  the  •»  Freundschaftlirhp  Unterredun- 
gen  uhf  r  die  Wirkungen  der  Gnade,"  2tp  Atistr. 
4  thl.;  Halle,  1771,  «vo.  Also  the  "  RriefV 
uber  die  Wirkungen  der  Gnade,"  by  the  same 
author,  which  is  the  best  work  in  fav.mr  of  this 
theory.  Gottl.  Christ.  Storr,  "  De  Spiritns 
Sancti  in  mentihus  nostris  efficientia,  et  de  mo- 
mento  eju8  doctrinae;"  Tubingen,  1777,  4to. 


Cf.  Gehe,  Diss,  inang.  de  argumenio  quod  ow 
diviniiate  religionis  (Christiana;  ab  cxperienlit 
ducitnr;  Gijltingen,  ll'JO. 

This  theory,  however  little  it  may  accord 
with  the  prevailing  principles  of  modern  philo- 
sophy, is  strongly  supported  by  many  passages 
of  scripture,  s.  130,*  s.  131,  H.  4. 

(2)  Others,  on  the  contrary,  hold  that  the 
divine  and  supertuitural  (though  they  do  not 
like  to  make  use  of  this  word)  power  of  the 
word  of  God,  by  which  man  is  converted,  is  not 
to  be  looked  for  in  connexion  with  the  word, 
but  as  belonging  to  the  word  itself.  They  thus 
consider  the  power  by  which  man  is  renewed 
and  made  holy,  to  be  in  no  sense  a  physical^ 
but  rather  a  loi^ico-moral  power.  This  opinion, 
which  is  fundamentally  Pelagian,  was  ingeni- 
ously defended  in  the  seventeenth  century  by 
C'laud  Pajon,  a  reformed  theologian  of  Orleans ; 
it  led,  however,  to  much  controversy.  This 
opinion  was  first  fully  exhibited  in  the  Lutheran 
church,  after  the  eighteenth  century,  by  Joh. 
Krnest.  Schubert,  in  his  "  IliUerriirht  von  der 
Kraft  der  heiligen  Schrift;"  Helinsti'uh,  I7o3, 
4to.  It  was  against  tliis  work  that  IJertling 
wrote.  Cf.  No.  I.  It  was  afterwards  defended 
by  Spalding,  "  Ueber  den  Werth  der  (Jetiihle 
in  Christenthum,"  and  by  Eberhard,  "  Apologie 
des  Sokrates,"  thl.  i.,  iii.  The  most  copious 
and  learned  work  on  this  subject  is,  .lunkheim, 
"Von  dem  Uehernaturlichen  in  den  (Jnadeii- 
wirkungen  ;"  Erlangen,  1775,  8vo.  This  the- 
ory has  been  adopted  by  most  modern  theolo- 
gians of  the  protestant  church,  and  essentially 
even  by  Morus.  They  frequently  employ,  in- 
deed, the  ancient  phraseology  and  formulas, 
but  in  a  diflTerent  sense  from  that  in  which  they 
were  originally  used — a  sense  which  is  consi- 
dered by  them  more  rational,  i.  e.,  more  con- 
formed to  the  philosophical  system  adopted  by 
these  modern  theologians.  We  shall  now  give 
a  brief  historical  account  and  illustration  of  this 
theory,  which  at  present  is  the  most  popular  and 
current  among  protestant  theologians,  adding, 
however,  a  criliquc  as  we  pass  along. 

SECTION  CXXXIII. 

EXHIHITION  OF  THE  MOPKRN  THEORV  RESPECTINO 
THE  niVIMTV  OF  THE  OPERATIONS  OF  GRACE,' 
AND  THE  POWER  OF  THE  WORD  OF  Gon.* 

I.  Hout  does  God  act  in  promotine;  tlie  Moral  Inf 
pruvemcnt  and  Vcrfcclion  of  Men  ?  and  in  whai 
consists  tlu  Divinity  of  the  Operations  if  Gractf 

(1)  God  does  not  act  in  such  a  way  as  to 


•  How  far  I  assent  to  this  theory,  ritbrr  on  scrip- 
tural or  other  t^roundii,  will  ap))rar  from  tlie  previoua 
sections.  Wliere  I  agree  with  it  entirely,  I  shall 
state  it  as  my  opinion ;  wherever  it  appeiirs  to  me 
erroneous — i.  e.  not  Jeinonstr;il)Io  from  the  Bible— 
I  shall  give  it  as  the  opinion  of  others. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       463 


infrinore  upon  the  free  will  of  man,  or  to  inter- 
fere with  the  use  of  his  powers.  Vide  Phil.  ii. 
12,  13.  Consequently,  God  does  not  act  on 
man  immediately,  producing  ideas  in  thf^r  souls 
without  the  proafhing'  or  reading  of  the  scrip- 
tures, or  influriicing  their  will  in  any  other  way 
than  by  the  understanding.  Did  God  operate 
in  any  other  way  than  through  the  understand- 
ing, he  would  operate  miraculously  and  irresisti- 
bly. And  the  practice  of  virtue  under  such  an 
influence  would  have  no  internal  worth  ;  it 
would  be  compelled,  and  consequently  incapa- 
ble of  reward.  But  experience  teaches  that  the 
work  of  reformation  and  holiness  is  not  effected 
violently  and  at  once,  but  by  degrees;  which 
could  not  he  the  case  if  God  acted  irresistibly 
and  miraculously.  Experience  teaches,  too, 
that  man  can  resist;  and  so  the  Bible  says  ex- 
pressly, Matt,  xxiii.  37 ;  Heb.  iii.  8,  seq. ;  John, 
vii.  17;  Acts,  vii.  51.  We  find,  also,  that  the 
moral  reformation  of  man  cannot  take  place  with- 
out earnest  and  zealous  effort,  (the  working  out 
of  salvation  with  fear  and  trembling,  Phil,  ii.,) 
or  the  vigorous  exercise  of  one's  own  powers; 
and  that  man  must  be  anything  rather  than  pas- 
sive and  inactive  in  this  matter.  The  Bible 
teaches  the  same  thing,  and  so  requires  of  men 
that  they  should  reform,  change  their  heart, 
Acts,  ii.  38;  viii.  22.  It  exhorts  them  to  in- 
crease in  knowledge  and  virtue,  Ephes.  ii.  10; 
Tit.  ii.  17  ;  1  Pet.  ii.  1,  2,  seq.  And  for  what 
purpose  has  God  given  to  man  the  direct  reve- 
lation of  his  will,  if  it  is  not  to  be  used  and 
employed  by  God  himself  in  promoting  the  sal- 
vation of  men  1  Hence  all  genuine  protestant 
theologians,  on  whatever  other  points  they  may 
differ,  are  agreed  in  this. 

(2)  The  divinity  in  the  operations  of  grace 
consists, 

(ff)  In  the  doctrine  revealed  by  God.  For  by 
means  of  this,  faith  is  excited  and  preserved  in 
men.  This  doctrine  could  not  have  been  dis- 
covered by  man  without  a  divine  revelation; 
and  God  is  the  author  of  all  the  effects  which 
result  from  it.  In  the  same  way  we  properly 
ascribe  to  a  discourse,  or  to  a  great  writer,  all 
the  beneficial  efliects  which  may  result  from  his 
discovery  or  writings,  and  regard  him  as  the 
author  of  these  effects.  All  this  is  true;  but 
this  is  not  all  which  the  Bible  teaches  on  this 
subject.  The  Bible  teaches  that  besides  this 
there  is  an  agency  of  God  connected  with  divine 
truth  and  accompanying  it;  or  that  there  is  con- 
nected with  the  divine  word  an  operation  of 
God  on  the  hearts  of  men,  having  for  its  end 
their  improvement  and  holiness.  Vide  s.  131, 
II.  4. 

(J")  In  the  vise  and  beneficent  external  institu- 
tioiui  XL'hich  God  has  established,  by  which  man 
is  led  to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth,  and  his 
heart  is   prepared  and   inclined   to  receive  it. 


Who  can  fail  to  recognise  the  divine  hand  in 
these  external  circumstances,  by  which  so  pow- 
erful an  influence  is  exerted  upon  us ;  and  which 
are  often  entirely  heyond  our  own  control  1 
How  much  does  the  moral  culture  and  improvj- 
inent  of  man  depend  on  birth,  parentage,  early 
instruction,  education,  society,  r-xninple,  na- 
tural powers,  adversity,  or  prosperity  !  Vide  s. 
131,  II.  4.  These  circumstances  are  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  Rom.  ii.  4,  seq.  Hence  it 
follows  that  God  has  made  wise  arrangements  for 
the  good  of  man,  which  may  properly  be  called 
grace,  inasmuch  as  they  are  proofs  of  his  unde- 
served goodness.  It  follows  also  that  God 
withholds  his  assistance  from  none,  and  that 
the  work  of  moral  renovation  is  effected  in  a 
manner  entirely  adapted  to  our  moral  nature, 
not  forcibly,  irresistibly,  instantaneously,  but 
gradually.     Vide  s.  126,  seq. 

Now,  so  far  as  the  end  which  God  has  in 
view,  in  wisely  ordering  these  circumstances 
and  appointing  these  means,  is  attained — i.  e., 
when  man  does  not  himself  resist  their  influ- 
ence, this  grace  may  be  called  efficacious.  Still 
it  is  exerted  in  such  a  way  that  no  one  is  eom- 
pelkd.  Grace  never  acts  irresistibly.  The  re- 
newal of  man  is  effected  by  God  through  the 
Christian  doctrine,  the  influence  of  which  can 
be  resisted,  because  it  acts  on  the  w  ill  through 
the  understanding;  and  the  will  is  not  nccessa- 
rily  determined,  hut  only  rendered  disposed  to 
determine  itself  for  a  particular  object.  In  the 
physical  world  the  law  of  sufficient  reason  and 
of  necessity  prevails  ;  in  the  moral  w  orld,  the 
law  o{  freedom.  God,  therefore,  who  himself 
has  given  this  law,  will  not  act  in  contradiction 
to  it.  Frequently,  however,  one  cannot  prevent 
the  good  impressions  and  emotions  which  arise 
on  hearing  or  reading  the  truths  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  ;  just  as  he  is  unable  to  prevent  the 
sensations  or  ideas  which  external  objects  pro- 
duce in  his  mind,  through  the  senses.  This 
observation,  which  is  founded  on  the  nature 
of  the  human  soul,  gave  rise  to  the  position 
which  was  taken  in  the  controversies  between 
the  Jansenists  and  Jesuits;  graliam  nan  esse 
irresistibilem,  sed  inevitabilem.  For  although 
man  cannot  prevent  in  every  case  good  impres- 
sions and  emotions,  he  is  able  to  prevent  the 
consiliences  of  them  in  actual  reformation. 


lM>l 


II.  Li%kat  manner  does  God  operate  on  the  heart 

of  man  through  the  Word,  in  promoting  his  Mural 

Improvement  ? 

On  this  point  theologians  are  divided. 

(1)  The  natural  power  of  truth  acts  first  on 
the  human  understanding.  The  Christian  doo 
trine  makes  us  acquainted  with  God,  with  his 
feelings  towards  us,  and  with  what  he  requires 
of  us.  It  delivers  us  from  ignorance  and  preju 
dice.   For  all  this  we  are  indebted  to  God.   GojJ 


464 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


jfave  U9  tlipse  instructions  that  they  might  have 
an  elTt'ct  upon  us — i.  e.,  that  they  iniglit  act 
powerfully  on  the  will,  and  exciiein  us  good  feel- 
ings and  resolutions.  Thus  the  consideration  of 
the  divine  promises  revealed  in  Christianity 
tends  to  lead  our  minds  to  repose  confidence  in 
God.  The  consideration,  too,  of  these  promises, 
and  the  examination  of  our  conduct  by  the  di- 
vine precepts,  produces  sorrow  and  repentance. 
These  prece|)ts  and  promises,  which  the  Chris- 
tian religion  makes  known,  are  adapted  to  pro- 
duce zeal  for  virtue  or  holiness.  At  first  our 
powers  for  goodness  are  weak;  but  by  exercise 
they  increase  in  strength  and  become  confirmed. 
Vide  Art.  xi.  All  this  lakes  place  according  to 
the  natural  laws  of  the  human  mind  ;  but  the 
effect  produced  does  not  cease  on  this  account  to 
be  the  work  of  God. 

(2)  But  the  New  Testament  always  ascribes 
to  the  Christian  religion  a  greater  power  and 
efficacy  in  rendering  men  virtuous  and  happy 
than  to  any  truth  ever  discovered  or  taught  by 
man,  or  supported  merely  by  arguments  of  hu- 
man wisdom.  Thus  Paul  says,  Romans,  i.  1(>, 
fvayyi7j.ov  Xpi/itov  is  hvvauii  Qiov  fij  flior/jptai' 
rtoiri  fu  TH.irivovcv.  In  1  Cor.  i.  and  ii.  he 
shews  that  the  gospel  had  produced  greater  ef- 
fects than  any  human  system  ever  did  or  could 
produce,  although  exhibited  in  the  most  eloquent, 
forcible,  and  convincing  manner.  Cf.  John, 
vi.  6.3,  and  John,  iii.  Experience  and  history 
confirm  this.  Philosophers  and  moralists,  who 
depend  upon  the  internal  strength  and  validity 
of  their  systems  derived  from  human  wisdom, 
have  never  been  able  to  accomplish  such  great 
and  wonderful  results  as  the  Christian  religion 
has  produced,  although  exhibited  without  elo- 
quence or  human  wisdom.  What  merely  human 
teacher  of  morals  could  ever  boast  of  so  great 
and  remarkable  an  effect  from  his  instructions  as 
we  read  of  in  Acts,  ii.  37,  and  viii.  -27 — 38  ?  And 
whence  is  all  this  ?  Some  have  thought  it  to  be 
owingto  the(/»(i;i€rti///i«r/7y  on  which  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine  is  published.  This  authority,  they 
Bay,  exert-i  more  influence  on  one  who  uchnow- 
ledu:etit,\\\u\  removes  doubts  and  difficulties  more 
easily,  than  the  most  convincing  arguments  and 
the  most  elo(|iient  address,  which  depend  on  no- 
thing more  than  mere  human  authority.  Hut 
why  hive  not  other  religions,  which  haj^also 
been  published  on  liirine  aulhurily,  piWiiced 
these  same  effects  1  This  diri'nc  ntilhnrily  can- 
not tlierefjn^  be  the  nnhf  gronnil  of  tlie  difference. 
With  ibi-!  must  be  connected  the  intcrnnl  excel- 
lence  of  the  reliirion  itself,  and  the  salutary  na- 
ture of  its  doctrines.  These  two  taken  together 
consiilutr  the  wlinle  c.iuse,  so  far  at  least  as  it  is 
extcrnallif  visible,  of  the  facts  under  considera- 
tion. But  even  tliese  do  not  saiisf,irt'>rlly  ac- 
coimt  for  all  the  effects  produced  by  the  ('bristian 
doctrine;  tliey  are  not  assigned  by  the  holy  scrip- 


tures as  the  principal  cause  from  which  these 
effects  are  explicable.  The  scriptures  teach 
that  the  cause  of  these  great  effects  d<ies  not  ii^ 
merely  in  the  power  and  weight  of  the  doctrines 
of  Christianity,  and  the  evidence  by  which  they 
are  supported,  bitt  principally  in  the  ahnit^hty 
power  and  injluence  of  God,  who  through  thft 
Christian  doctrine  works  in  the  souls  of  men. 
Vide  s.  131,  II.  4.  This  efficacy  of  the  divine 
doctrine  is  called  in  theology,  the  power  {vis, 
rjfuacia)  nf  the  divine  word. 

(3)  Inferences  drawn  from  the  preceding  state- 
ment. 

(«)  The  power  of  the  word  of  God,  or  the 
agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  is  not  physical  but 
lo<^ico-moral — i.  e.,  the  Holy  Spirit  acts  upon  the 
human  soul  in  a  manner  conformed  to  our  ra> 
tional  and  moral  nature.  This  inlluence  is 
founded  in  the  knowledge  of  the  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  of  the  motives  contained  in  it,  by 
which  the  human  will  is  drawn,  but  not  com- 
pelled.  To  tliis  is  added,  on  the  part  of  man, 
the  firm  conviction  of  the  divine  origin  and  au- 
thority of  this  doctrine,  and  of  the  divine  su- 
perintendence by  which  its  effect  on  him  is  in- 
creased. Power  to  convince  and  reform  is  im- 
parted to  and  connected  with  the  Christian  doc- 
trine in  the  same  way  as  power  to  germinate 
and  grow  is  given  to  seed,  and  power  to  heal, 
to  medicine. 

This  last  statement  is  in  itself  true  and  scrip- 
tural. Cf.  Mark,  iv.  23.  But  it  is  not  incon- 
sistent with  the  other  equally  scriptural  view  of 
the  influence  of  God  on  the  heart  of  man.  For 
he  does  not  act  on  us  otherwise  than  by  means 
of  the  Christian  doctrine,  and  consequently  not 
in  a  compulsory  and  irresistible  manner,  but  in 
a  manner  conformed  to  the  moral  nature  of  man, 
altliough  the  internal  modus  of  his  agency  may 
be  inexplicable  to  us.  And  who  can  explain  the 
internal  modus  of  the  effects  produced  by  God  ia 
the  natural  world?  John,  iii.  8.  Vide  s.  131, 
If.  4.  To  believe,  therefore,  that  there  is  an 
influTum  {vim  phyaicam,  or  as  others  express  it, 
more  guarded ly.;>//^,v/Crt-n;M;Aji,'«///,)  is,  according 
to  what  has  now  been  said,  uol  contrary  to  scrip- 
ture, but  conformed  to  it. 

(//)  But  however  powerful  the  operation  of  the 
divine  word,  and  of  (iod  by  means  of  his  word, 
may  be,  man  himself  must  not,  in  the  meantime, 
be  inactive  and  sluggish;  I'hil.  ii.  12,  13.  For 
the  effect  of  the  divine  influence  on  the  heart  of 
any  one  depends  on  his  making  a  right  use 
and  proper  application  of  the  divine  doctrine, 
and  on  his  whole  conduct  in  regard  to  these  di 
vine  influences.  If  he  disregards  these  infla 
ences,  and  neglects  to  improve  them  in  lh» 
proper  manner,  he  can  no  more  be  benefited  by 
them  than  one  can  be  satisfied  and  nourished 
without  the  use  nf  food.  Such  is  tite  uniform 
representation  of  the  Bible.     Vide  Mark,  iv.  20 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       465 


seq. ;  Luke,  viii.  15,  Katixftv  Xoybv  iv  jcapSta 
xaXrj  xal  aya^ii,  to  embrace  aiid  obey  the  truth 
with  an  upright  and  sincere  heart. 

(c)  Theologians  call  tlie  operations  of  grace 
supernatural.  By  this  tliey  cannot  mean  to  de- 
note a  direct,  and  of  course  irresistible,  agency 
of  God  in  the  soul  of  man,  or  anything  properly 
miraculuua.  This  term  cannot,  therefore,  be 
taken  here  in  that  strict  sense  in  which  philoso- 
phers use  it.  According  to  the  Pelagian  theory, 
these  influences  can  be  so  called  only  because 
they  are  exerted  through  the  divine  doctrine 
which  is  supernattirul/y  revealed,  (in  respect, 
tlierefore,  to  the  means  by  which  they  are  ex- 
erted ;)  and  hence  are  more  efficacious  than  mere 
unassisted  reason  could  be.  Tiius  we  call  super- 
natural knowledge,  that  for  which  we  are  in- 
debted to  divine  revelation,  and  natural,  that  to 
which  we  can  attain  through  our  own  reflection. 
According  to  the  theory  of  the  ancient  theolo- 
gians, which  is  more  accordant  with  the  holy 
>;criptures,  with  Christ,  and  the  apostles,  these 
influences  are  also  called  supernatural,  because 
they  cannot  be  explained  by  any  of  the  known  laws 
o/'nfl/ure,- John,  iii.  8;  1  Cor.  i.  2.  Vide  s.  131, 
II.  4.  In  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
influences  of  grace  are  exerted  on  the  human 
soul,  a  manner  entirely  suited  to  its  moral  na- 
ture, the  operaiions  of  grace  may,  indeed,  be 
denominated  natural,  as  they  are  by  Eberhard, 
in  his  "  Apologie  des  Socrates." 

(^)  Theologians  distinguish  between  nature 
and  grace.  In  this  ihey  follow  Augustine.  Vide 
s.  132,  II.  But  they  have  diHered  very  much 
in  determining  what  are  the  niotus  gratia;,  and 
what  the  nwtus  nalurx,  and  how  they  can  be  dis- 
tinguished. The  common  opinion  has  been,  tlrat 
the  doings  of  the  unconverted,  even  llieir  vir- 
tues, flow  from  their  nature,  and  therefore,  ac- 
cording to  Augustine,  are  not  pleasing  to  God, 
or  capable  of  reward.  Of  the  actions  of  the  re-* 
generate  only  can  it  be  said  that  they  are  accept- 
able in  liis  sight,  and  flow  from  the  influt^nces 
of  grace.  Vide  Spener,  Vom  Unterschied  der 
Natur  und  Gnade;  Erfurt,  1715.  But  there  are 
difficulties  attending  tiiis  opinion,  s.  125.  To 
determine  the  marks  by  which  nature  and  grace 
may  be  distinguished,  the  matter  can  be  stated 
as  follows: — Everything  which  we  owe  to  the 
right  use  of  the  Christian  doctrine,  and  to  the 
agency  of  God  through  his  truth,  is-  the  effect 
oi  grace ;  and  everything  in  us  wiiich  has  not 
its  origin  or  foundation  in  the  use  of  the  divine 
truth  is  the  efl'ect  of  nature.  If,  then,  we  can 
ascertain  how  much  we  owe  to  our  being  in- 
structed in  divine  truth,  and  to  the  influences  of 
God  by  its  means,  we  may  also  know  how  much 
we  owe  to  grace.  Proceeding  in  this  way,  we 
do  not  treat  nature  (or  that  essential  constitu- 
tion which  God  has  given  to  man)  with  con- 
temptuous disregard;  nor  are  we  compelled,  in 
59 


denying  grace  to  the  heathen,  to  deny  decidedly 
that  tliey  had  any  virtue,  or  can  attain  to  sal- 
vation. 

Note. — In  popular  religions  instruction  the 
teacher  should  confine  himself  to  such  clear  and 
scriptural  points  as  Morus  has  exhibited,  (pages 
230,  237,  note  4,)  illustrating  these  by  the  Bible 
and  experience,  and  selling  uside  all  learned 
theological  disputes  and  scholastic  terms. 

(1)  God  has  endued  man  with  revisim  and 
conscience.  By  the  aid  of  these  principles, 
man  is  enabled  to  learn  much  respecting  the  na- 
ture and  will  of  God,  and  to  act  conformably  to 
this  correct  knowledge,  Rom.  i.  19,  20;  ii.  14, 
15, seq. 

(2)  But  the  holy  scriptures  give  us  a  far  more 
perfect  knowledge  of  God  and  of  our  duty.  The 
revealed  religion  contained  in  them  has  much 
which  is  peculiarly  excellent,  and  which  is  not 
taught  in  natural  religion.  And,  according  to 
the  testimony  of  the  scriptures,  God  has  pro- 
mised his  special  assistance,  support,  and  guid- 
ance, to  those  who  possess  them,  and  obey  the 
precepts  contained  in  tliem.  And  this  promise 
is  confirmed  by  experience;  Rom.  i.  ii.  We 
ought  therefore  thankfully  to  receive,  and  faith- 
fully to  obey,  the  instruction  contained  in  the 
holy  scriptures. 

(3)  No  one  can  understand,  discern,  or  receive 
wilh  approbation  the  instructions  of  the  holy 
scriptures,  unless  he  is  taught  the  truths  con- 
tained in  them;  nor  can  any  one  obey  these  in- 
structions, unless  the  hindrances  which  stand  in 
the  way  of  bis  reception  of  them,  in  his  under- 
standing and  will,  are  removed,  1  Cor.  ii.  14. 

(4)  To  be  delivered  through  divine  instruction 
and  assistance  from  our  ignorance,  our  mistakes, 
prejudices,  and  from  our  evil  passions,  is  a  great 
and  invaluable  benefit;  and  we  owe  this  benefit 
to  none  but  God  and  the  Holy  Spirit.  Vide  the- 
texts  cited,  s.  130. 

(5)  There  are,  and  always  will  be,  great  diffi- 
culties and  hindrances,  both  within  and  without, 
by  v;hich  our  assent  to  the  truths  of  revelation 
will  be  weakened,  and  our  progress  in  holiness 
retarded;  and  these  difficulties  and  hindrances 
cannot  be  overcome  and  removed  without  the 
constant  assistance  and  support  of  God,  John, 
v.  44;  viii.  43,  seq.;  Ephes.  iv.  18,  and  other 
passages.     Vide  s.  130,  131. 

(Ii)  We  need  therefore,  in  commencing  and. 
continuing  a  life  of  piety,  the  help,  support,  and 
guidance  of  God.  We  ourselves,  however 
must  not  in  the  meantime  be  inactive,  but  must 
conscientiously  employ  the  means  which  God 
has  given  us,  and  faithfully  obey  the  instruc- 
tions and  directions  contained  in  the  Bible,  al- 
ways remembering  that  we  owe  these  means 
of  improvement  and  virtue  to  God  only,  and 
that  without  him  we  can  do  nothing  Phil 
ii.  12,  13. 


466 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


[iVi^/e. — ^Tne  opinions  of  the  Lutheran  theolo- 
gians since  the  time  of  our  author  have  been 
equally  diversified  as  when  he  wrote,  and  per- 
haps mora  so.  This  is  the  less  strange,  as  it  is 
now  a  conceded  point  that  their  own  estdbiished 
standards  are  at  variance  among  themselves  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  operations  of  grace.  Cf.  s. 
32,  Note.  Henke,  Eckerniann,  and  Wegschei- 
der,  follow  out  the  positions  of  Morus,  Junk- 
heiin,  Michaeiis,  Doederlein,  and  others,  to  the 
full  Pelagian  extreme,  and  make  the  grace  of 
God  in  conversion  to  be  only  that  general 
agency  by  which  he  has  endued  man  with  ra- 
tional powers,  written  the  law  upon  his  heart, 
instituted  Christianity,  and  caused  it  to  be  pro- 
mulgated, and  by  which,  in  his  providential  ar- 
rangements, he  gives  to  every  man  opportunity 
and  excitement  to  repentance.  Ammon  alsi 
(Summa,  s.  132,  133)  makes  the  renewing 
grace  of  God  to  consist  procuratione  ins/i/ntioms 
salularis,  excitatione  per  exempla  virtutis  il/tistria, 
paupertf/le,  cnlamitatibus,  admnnitiunibus  amico- 
ruin  et  inimicorum. 

All  these  writers  agree  in  making  the  opera- 
tions of  grace  merely  external,  in  the  way  of 
moral  influence,  and  in  denying  an  immediate 
agency  of  God  upon  the  human  mind.  In  this, 
tkeirsysteui  is  stamped  with  one  of  the  most 
essential  features  of  PeJagianism.  Cf.  Nean- 
der's  development  of  the  Pelagian  system  in 
Part  iii.  of  the  2nd  vol.  of  his  Church  History. 

There  is  another  class  who  are  distinguished 
from  the  former  by  admitting  an  immediate  di- 
vine agency  in  the  moral  kingdom,  though  they 
differ  among  themselves  as  to  the  relation  of 
this  influence  to  the  agency  of  man,  especially 
at  the  cotnmenccment  of  the  life  of  faith.  Uret- 
schneider  contends  strenuously  for  an  immediate 
divine  influence  as  indispensable  to  conversion. 
At  the  same  time,  he  suppose's  it  to  depend  upon 
the  character  and  state  of  the  individual  who  is 
the  subject  of  this  influence,  whether  grace  alone 
produces  faith  in  him,  or  whether  he  himself 
-contributes  anything  towards  it.  The  operations 
of  grace,  accordingly,  are  not  uniform,  but  as 
■various  as  the  states  in  which  it  finds  man,  from 
untutored  barbarism,  to  the  highest  degree  of 
illumination  and  refinement  enjoyed  in  Chris- 
tian lands.  Nearly  the  same  views  are  express- 
ed by  Ueinhard  in  his  Theology. 

Neander  and  Tholuck,  as  will  be  obvious  to 
any  atte'itive  reader  of  their  works,  hold  |iromi- 
nently,  that  even  in  faith  there  is  a  divine  ele- 
ment— that  it  can  by  no  means  result  from  the 
unaided  efl'orts  of  man  ;  that,  besides  the  gene- 
ral influence  of  Christianity,  there  is  an  internal 
influence  of  the  Spirit  of  (iod — a  drawing  of  the 
Heavenly  Father — but  that  man  also  is  active 
in  this  work;  and  that  it  is  an  unwarrantable 
assumption  to  undertakf!  to  settle  immovable 
limits  to  these  two  ccn^■piring  agencies,  or  to 


solve  the  mystery  belonging  to  the  secret  ope* 
rations  of  grace. 

Again:  Schleiermacher,  Marheiuecke,  and 
others  belonging  to  the  more  approp:i,itf  !v  phi- 
losophical school  of  theologians,  have  restored 
the  entire  system  of  Augustine  as  to  immediate 
and  efllcacious  grace,  and  the  absolute  and  un- 
qualified dependence  of  man  upon  God  for  the 
very  commencement  of  faith.  With  regard  to 
this  class,  it  is  remarkable,  that  while  Augus- 
tine and  Calvin  rested  the  proof  of  this  doctrine 
mainly  upon  scriptural  authority,  these  liave  been 
led  to  adopt  and  now  maintain  it  on  grounds 
purely  philosophical.  The  weight  of  the  names 
of  such  writers  has  raised  the  Augustinian  and 
Calvinistic  theory  of  grace  far  above  the  con 
tempt  and  reproach  with  which  it  was  hereto 
fore  treated  by  the  great  body  of  Lutheran  theO 
logians. 

A  few  extracts,  under  distincts  heads,  will 
shew  something  of  the  manner  in  wliich  this 
doctrine  is  treated  by  writers  of  this  class,  and 
how  much  importance  is  attached  by  them  to 
the  idea  that  the  divine  influences  are  immediate, 
and  not  merely  moral  and  external.  Our  ex- 
tracts are  drawn  from  two  of  the  more  lucid  and 
popular  writers.  The  statements  of  Schleier- 
macher and  others  of  the  same  school  upon  this 
subject,  though  still  more  decisive  on  the  point 
in  question,  are  so  intimately  interwoven  with 
the  whole  of  their  system,  and  receivi^  so  much 
colouring  from  it,  as  to  require  more  explanation 
to  render  them  perfectly  hitclligibla  than  the 
present  limits  will  allow. 

That  such  an  influence  is  tn  be  dr.-ired,  is  af- 
firmed by  Keinhard  in  the  following  passage 
from  the  '1th  vol.  of  his  ".Moral,'' s.  129: — 
"When  one  considers  the  innate  depravity  of 
which  man  is  conscious — the  weakness  of  his 
moral  powers  hence  resulting — the  iimumerable 
perversions  to  which  those  constitutional  feel- 
ings and  propensities  which  are  in  themselves 
good,  are  liable,  the  disordered  states  which 
arise  from  these  perversions,  and  whifji  more  or 
less  hinder  a  true  moral  development — in  fine, 
the  many  external  causes  which  nmirish  and 
strengthen  depravity,  and  render  genuine  refor- 
mation exceedingly  difficult, — when  f)ne  who  is 
in  earnest  in  the  work  of  improvement  considers 
all  this,  he  must  feel  the  wish  arise,  that  (Jod 
would  lighten  this  arduous  work,  and  come  in 
aid  of  his  elForts." 

Objections  having  often  been  made  to  the  poa- 
sihilifi/  of  such  influences,  by  Heimarus,  Les- 
sing,  and  others,  on  the  ground  that  violence 
would  thus  be  done  to  the  intellectual  and  moral 
nature  of  man,  Bretschneider  thus  re|)lies: — 
"'I'hat  God  has  power  to  act  inwardly  on  the 
souls  of  men,  and  to  awaken  ideas  in  their 
minds,  cannot  be  denied.  As  the  Creator  of 
spirits  he  knows  their  nature,  and  how  he  can 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       467 


operate  upon  ihem  ;  and  as  almighty,  he  must 
be  able  to  produce  in  his  creatures  any  effect 
wiiich  he  desires.  Does  any  one  deny  this 
power  to  God,  he  erects  between  him  and  the 
spiritual  world  an  insurmountable  wall  of  par- 
tition; and  in  order  to  be  consistent,  must  deny 
that  God  is  the  governor  of  the  world  in  gene- 
ral, any  more  than  he  is  of  the  spiritual  world. 
The  possibility  of  an  inward  agency  of  God 
upon  the  world  of  spirits  cannot  therefore  be  de- 
nied, although  the  manner  in  which  this  agency 
is  exerted  is  inscrutable:  which  indeed  is  true 
as  to  the  manner  of  all  the  divine  operations." 
*  *  "  With  what  truth  now  is  it  presupposed 
that  these  influences  must  hamper  the  free 
agency  of  the  mind,  and  reduce  the  subject  of 
them  to  a  mere  machine?  Does  not  the  very 
nature  of  the  case  require  that  reason,  the  reci- 
pient, should  actively  receive,  retain,  and  appro- 
priate that  which  is  given  itl  Does  not  the 
teacher  often,  in  giving  instruction  to  the  child, 
suddenly  interrupt  the  course  of  his  thoughts, 
and  put  him  on  an  entirely  new  train  of  ideas  1 
But  are  the  laws  of  mind  in  the  child  violated 
by  this  interruption'?  The  teacher,  it  is  said, 
makes  use  of  words.  But  cannot  God,  by  an 
adloqulum  internuin^  cause  new  thoughts  in  the 
souls  of  men  1  Or  are  words  the  only  possible 
way  by  which  a  Spirit  can  impart  his  light  to 
other  spirits,  and  teach  them."  Dogmatik,  b. 
i.  s.  IC'J,  ff. 

But  an  immediate  influence  of  this  kind  is  not 
only  desirable  and  possible,  but  also  highly  pro- 
bable.  Here  again  Bretschneider  remarks: — 
*' As  God  stands  in  connexion  witli  the  material 
world,  and  by  his  most  full  and  perfect  life  con- 
tinually operates  upon  it,  he  must  also  stand  in 
constant  connexion  with  the  moral  world,  other- 
wise there  could  be  no  moral  government." 
Dogmatik,  b.  ii.  s.  COO.  This  prvbabilily,  drawn 
from  the  co-operation  of  God  in  the  material 
v.'orld,  is  stated  still  more  strongly  by  Reinhard. 
If  there  is  an  immediate  concurrence  and  agency 
of  God  in  the  material  world,  as  generally  con- 
ceded by  German  philosophers  and  theologians, 
such  an  agency  is  much  more  to  be  expected  in 
the  moral  world,  since  this  is  a  far  more  conge- 
nial sphere  for  divine  operations.  "In  the  ma- 
terial sphere,  the  connexion  between  natural 
causes  and  effects  is  obvious  to  the  senses,  and 
must  therefore  be  principally  regard'ed  by  us, 
although  even  here  the  scriptures  commonly 
mention  only  the  highest  and  last  cause,  which 
is  God.  But  in  the  kingdom  of  freedom,  there 
is  no  such  mechanical  connexion  between  cause 
and  eflfect,  but  an  unimpeded  intercommunion 
of  beings  freely  acting;  here,  therefore,  there 
can  be  no  reason  why  we,  with  the  scriptures, 
should  not  conceive  of  an  immediate  influence, 
since  such  an  influence  is  far  more  adapted 
than  one  which  is  mediate,  to  the  sphere  of 


which  are  we  now  speaking."     Moral,  b.  iv. 
s.  258. 

But  while  these  writers  contend  for  th<!  fact 
of  immediate  divine  influences  in  promoting  the 
renewal  of  men,  they  are  careful  to  guard  agamst 
the  perversion  of  this  doctrine  by  enthusiasts 
and  fanatics.  ♦»  The  reality  of  these  influences," 
says  Bretschneider,  "cannot  be  proved  from  ex- 
perience. The  influences  of  grace,  as  such, 
cannot  be  distinguished  in  consciousness  from 
others;  because  our  consciousness  informs  us 
only  of  the  effect,  and  not  of  its  origin;  takes 
note  only  of  the  change  itself  which  passes 
within  us,  but  is  unable  to  feel  whether  it  comes 
from  God.  *  *  *  As  the  agency  of  God  in  the 
material  world  always  appears  to  us  as  natural, 
and  in  the  eff'ects  produced  we  never  discern  the 
supernatural  cause,  so  his  agency  in  the  moral 
world  will  always  appear  to  us  as  natural,  and 
conformed  to  the  laws  of  psychology,  and  we 
are  unable  in  our  consciousness  to  distinguish 
him  as  the  acting  cause."  Dogmatik,  b.  ii.  s. 
GOO.     Cf.  Reinhard's  "  Moral,"  b.  iv.  s.  264. 

In  this  manner  do  these  writers  contend  for 
the  fact  of  immediate  divine  influences,  by  argu- 
ments derived  from  the  need  of  man,  the  perfec- 
tions of  God,  and  the  analogy  of  his  agency  in 
the  material  universe ;  and  at  the  same  time 
guard  against  the  perversions  of  this  salutary 
opinion  by  enthusiasts  who,  in  the  words  of 
Tucker,  "think  they  can  see  the  flashes  of  illu- 
mination, and  feel  the  floods  of  inspiration  pour- 
ed on  them  directly  from  the  divine  hand,  and 
who  undertake  to  give  an  exact  history  of  all 
his  motions  from  the  very  day  and  hour  when 
he  first  touched  their  hearts." 

It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  Kant  conceded 
the  possibility  of  immediate  operations  of  grace 
for  the  conversion  of  man,  but  denied  that  they 
could  be  either  proved  or  disproved  from  philo- 
sophy. The  belief  in  such  influences  he  held 
to  be  useful  in  awakening  the  hope  that  God 
would  do  for  us  what  we  ourselves  might  be 
unable  to  accomplish  in  the  work  of  our  moral 
renovation. — ^Tr.] 


APPENDIX. 

OF  PUAYER  AS  A  MEANS  OF  GRACE. 

The  doctrine  respecting  prayer  is  commonly 
treated  in  systematic  theology  in  connexion  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  operations  of  grace.  But  as 
the  full  discussion  of  this  subject  belongs  rather 
to  Christian  ethics  than  to  theology,  it  has  by 
some  theologians  been  either  wholly  omitted,  or 
only  cursorily  noticed  in  their  systems.  On  this 
subject  we  shall  make  here  only  the  following 
remarks.  The  prayer  of  Christians  is  a  m<^an8 
of  grace  included  under  Christian  dotlnne,  and 


M8 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


not  to  be  sppnrated  from  it.  For  the  influence 
of  prayer  is  not  to  be  derived  from  the  mere  net 
of  those  who  pray.  It  stands  in  connexion  with 
the  power  of  the  religious  truths  to  v\  hich  prayer 
relates. 

(1)  Statement  of  tlie  philosophical  theory 
resperiinrj  prayer. 

The  following  is  the  theory  respecting  prayer 
which  has  been  adopted  in  modern  times,  espe- 
cially in  the  eightt-enth  century,  by  Mosheim 
and  Morus,  and  which  is  held  by  many  philo- 
sophical and  theological  moralists.  One  who 
institutes  a  merely  philosophical  examination  of 
prayer,  and  passes  by  all  the  positive  promises 
to  the  supplicant  contained  in  the  holy  scrip- 
tures, and  especially  in  the  Christian  system, 
will  yet  allow,  if  he  understands  the  nature  of 
man,  a  great  mural  influence  to  prayer.  For  it 
is  the  means  of  reminding  us  of  the  great  truths 
of  religion,  and  of  impressing  these  truths  deeply 
on  our  hearts.  It  excites,  moreover,  a  sure  ami 
grateful  confidence  in  God  and  his  promises,  and 
a  longing  desire  after  the  enjoyment  of  the  bless- 
ings wliich  he  has  promised.  It  is  therefore,  in 
itself,  of  a  most  beneficial  tendency,  and  has  an 
indescribable  influence  in  promoting  moral  im- 
provement, and  in  purifying  the  heart.  A  man 
is  not  prepared  for  the  blessings  which  the 
Christian  doctrine  ])romises,  and  is  not  capable 
of  free,  moral  iujprovement,  unless  he  acknow- 
ledges God  as  the  author  of  them,  and  has  a 
lively  p(;rception  of  these  benefits,  and  an  ear- 
nest desire  to  obtain  them.  Now  from  this  de- 
sire after  divine  blessings  springs  the  wish,  di- 
rected to  God,  that  he  would  bestow  them  upon 
us,  and  this  is  the  inward  prayer  of  the  heart. 
If  these  feelings  are  strong  and  vivid,  it  is  com- 
mon and  natural  to  us  to  express  them  in  worth 
and  in  the  form  of  an  address  to  God,  whom  we 
conceive  to  be  present  with  us,  and  acquainted 
with  our  thoughts  and  wishes.  (The  verbal  e\- 
pression  is,  however,  by  no  means  essential  to 
pnyer.  A  soul  directed  to  God  is  all  which  is 
requisite.)  By  the  very  act  of  prayer,  this  vi- 
vidness of  conception  is  very  much  heightened, 
and  in  this  way  our  desires  and  our  longings 
are  cherished  and  strengthened  by  prayer  itself. 
In  this  exercise  Gf)d  is  made,  as  it  were,  pre- 
sent with  us;  and  while  we  are  engaged  in  this 
duty,  we  feel  as  we  are  accustomed  to  feel  in 
direi^t  interrourse  with  a  person  who  is  near  at 
hand  listening  to  us,  and  who  by  our  words  and 
requests  is  n-ndered  favourable  towards  us  and 
beconies  intimate  with  us.  To  the  philosopher 
all  this  may  appear  illusion  and  imagination, 
but  if  he  looks  at  experience,  wiiieh  on  this  sub- 
ject is  worth  mr>re  than  all  sprculatjon,  he  will 
find  that  this  aid  is  indispensable  to  any  one 
who  means  to  make  religion  a  matter  of  serious 
and  lasting  interest.  Experience  shews  that 
■  good  thoughts,  purposes,  and  resolutions,  unac- 


companied by  prayer,  amount  to  nothing,  be 
cause  they  leave  the  heart  cold  and  the  mind 
unafllected. 

("2)  I'^aminaiion  ff  thin  view  of  prayer. 

It  is  true  that  prayer,  considered  merely  as  a 
means  of  improvement,  has  great  moral  advan- 
tages— i.  e.,  that  it  has  a  great  effi  ct  on  our 
moral  improvement,  that  it  withholds  from  evil, 
tranquillizes  the  soul,  and  is  in  every  way  l>ro- 
motive  of  the  interests  of  morality  and  sincere 
religion.  But  it  is  also  true,  that  it  would 
cease  to  produce  these  results  which  are  expect- 
ed from  it  if  we  should  content  ourselves  with 
this  theory  of  our  philosophical  moralists,  and 
did  not  confidently  hope  to  obtain  the  blessings 
for  which  we  ask.  One  who  considers  the 
often-repeated  assurances,  "  he  that  asks  shall 
receive,"  &c.,  as  delusive,  and  not  serious  or  sin- 
cere, will  find  that  he  wants  an  inward  impulse 
to  prayer.  He  can  exercise  no  earnest  desires, 
no  real  confidence,  and  no  hearty  gratitude.  It 
is  not  our  business  to  inquire  kuw  CJod  can  hear 
and  answer  our  supplicati.)ns  without  infringing 
upon  his  immutability,  or  altering  the  establish- 
ed course  of  nature.  We  are  to  be  satisfied 
with  knowing  that  he  can  do  more  than  we  un- 
derstand, and  that  he  can  and  will  do  every- 
thing which  he  has  promised.  Such  consider- 
ations, connected  with  personal  erperiencc,  are 
enough  to  secure  us  against  every  doubt.  Nei- 
ther Christ,  nor  the  other  early  teachers  of 
morals,  nor  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament, 
ever  made  use  of  the  motives  to  prayer,  so  often 
used  at  the  present  day,  derived  merely  from  its 
moral  atloanla/^es.  Their  great  motive  to  prayer 
is,  fhat  it  will  be  heard,  upon  which  they  could 
depend  as  confidently  as  the  child  does  upon  its 
fiUher,  when  it  requests  what  is  needful  for  it. 
This  is  the  great  motive  by  which  prayer  should 
be  inculcated  on  the  common  people  and  the 
young,  otherwise  they  easily  get  the  erroneous 
impression  that  prayer,  as  such,  is  of  no  advan- 
tage, and  in  reality  useless,  since  it  is  not  heard 
On  this  account  .lesus  and  the  other  teachers  of 
morals  and  religion  in  ancient  times  did  wisely, 
both  in  omitting  to  mention  the  motives  to  |>ray- 
er  derived  from  its  moral  uses,  and  in  inculcat- 
ing it  on  the  simple  ground  Ihnt  it  is  luarH, 
without  philosophizing  upon  the  question,  in 
what  way  it  haa  an  irijluence.  And  certainly 
(christians  do  well  in  holding  fast  to  the  doc- 
trine of  .lesus  and  of  the  holy  scriptures.  Cf. 
Craa)er,  Die  Lehre  vom  Gebet,  nach  Offenba- 
rung  und  Vernunft  untersucht,  u.  s.  w.;  Kiil 
und  llamburirh,  17H6,  )^vo;  and  Nitzsch,  Diss. 
inaugural.,  Ratio  qua  Christus  usus  est  in  com 
mendando  precandi  oflicio;  Viteherg,  ITI'O; 
also,  "  Nonnulla  ad  hisloriam  de  usu  religiosa 
jirecaiionis  morali  pertinentia,"  by  the  sau)c 
author,  and  published  at  the  same  place,  1790, 
4  to. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REI;EMPTION.       469 


Two  points  deserve  particular  consideration 
in  tlus  connexion. 

(a)  The  feeling  tiiat  prayer  is  necessary  is 
absolutely  universal.  The  history  of  all  nations 
who  have  had  any  religion  shews  that  prayer  is 
everywhere  recognised  as  an  auxiliary  to  piety, 
which  is  indispensable  and  founded  in  our  very 
nature.     Experience,  too,  teaches  that  those  re- 

igions  which  inculcate  frequent  prayer,  and  in- 
sist upon  it  as  a  duty  of  the  first  importance,  are 
the  most  practical,  and  can  enumerate  among 
their  followers  more  examples  of  men  eminent- 
ly religious  and  virtuous  than  other  religions 
which  make  prayer  of  less  importance,  and  at 
most  prescribe  certain  public  prayers  and  set 
formulas.  Next  to  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
religion,  the  Mohammedan  has  exerted  the 
most  influence  on  the  heart,  because  it  so  stre- 
nuously inculcates  prayer.  This  religion,  next 
to  the  Jewish  and  Christian,  has  had  the  great- 
est number  of  truly  religious  professors  and  de- 
vout worshippers  of  God.  [Cf.  the  work  of 
Tholuck  on  Ssuffismus,  or  the  doctrine  of  the 
SsufTis — a  INIohammedan  sect  in  Persia. — Tr.] 

[b)  Christ  makes  it  the  special  duty  of  his 
followers  to  supplicate  God  in  his  name,  and 
promises  to  them  a  sure  audience,  which  he 
would,  as  it  were,  procure  for  them,  John,  xiv. 
13 ;  xvi.  23,  24.  Tliis  duty  is  inculcated  by  the 
apostles  upon  all  Christians.  The  sentiment  of 
many  passages  taken  together  is  this:  Pray 
with  reference  to  Christ  and  his  work,  conse- 
quently in  belief  or  sure  confidence  in  him  and 
in  his  promises.  In  prayer  we  must  be  deeply 
convinced  that  he  is  the  author  of  our  salvation, 
that  even  now  he  is  mindful  of  our  interests,  and 
makes  the  things  for  which  we  ask  his  own,  and 
intercedes  with  God  to  hear  our  requests.  In 
this  respect  he  is  represented  as  our  Faracletus 
and  Advocate  with  God,  1  John,  ii.  1.  But  the 
blessings  which  Christianity  promises  to  us  are 
not  temporal,  but  spiritual.  Desire  to  obtain 
these  is  always  conformable  to  the  divine  will, 
and  as  far  as  they  are  concerned,  the  hearing  of 
prayer  is  certain. 


ARTICLE  Xlli. 


CS  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  SOCIETY 
OR  CHURCH. 


[The  common  order  is  to  treat,  first,  of  the  sacra- 
mfnts,  and  then  of  the  church  ;  l)ut  the  reverse  order 
is  in  many  respects  more  natural  and  proper;  for 
both  of  these  parts  of  divine  service  have  a  principal 
relation  to  the  church.  By  baptism  we  are  solemn- 
ly initiated  into  the  church;  and  by  the  Lord's  Sup- 
pe',  the  metiil)ers  of  the  church  solemnly  renew  and 
perpetuate  the  remembrance  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  of 


the  blessings  which  he  has  bestowed  upon  the  hu- 
man race.] 


SECTION  CXXXIV. 

what  is  meant  bv  the  chri.stian  church  ;  its 
object;  its  names;  and  the  divisions  of 
the  church  common  in  theology. 

I.  Idea  of  the  Christian  Church;  its  Object;  and 
an  Explanation  of  its  Scriptural  Names. 

The  Christian  church,  in  the  widest  sense, 
may  be  defined  to  be,  the  whole  number  of  Ihnge 
who  agree  in  worshipping  God  according  tn  I  he 
doctrine  if  Jesus  Christ.  In  this  wider  sejise  it 
agrees  with  the  word  Christendom,  Its  ibject 
is,  to  maintain  and perpeCuafe  th"  Christian  doc- 
trine, and  by  means  of  ordinances  and  exercises 
observed  in  common,  to  promote  the  practice  (fit. 
Such  is  the  great  body  of  mankind,  that  wivh- 
out  some  common  duties  and  soitie  external  or- 
dinances, the  Christian  religion  could  scarcely 
be  maintained  among  them;  certainly  it  could 
not  be  kept  from  totally  degenerating.  The 
government  and  preservation  of  the  church  are 
everywhere  properly  ascribed  to  Christ,  as  its 
head.  The  same  scriptural  principles  are  there- 
fore applicable  here  which  were  above  laid 
down  in  the  doctrine  respecting  the  kingdom  of 
Christ,  s.  98. 

The  scriptural  names  of  church  are, 

(1)  'ExxXiraia.  This  term  is  used  by  the 
Greeks  to  denote  an  assembly  of  men,  called 
together  on  the  authority  of  the  magistracy  ; 
from  ixxaXioi,  evoco,  convocn — e.  g..  Acts,  xix. 
32,  39.  The  Hebrew  S-ip  is  used  in  the  same 
way,  especially  in  the  books  of  Moses,  and  is 
commonly  translated  in  the  Septuagint  by  ix- 
x'Kr^aia.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Hebrew  N-if>r. 
The  term  ^np  (nin-),  denoted  secondarily  all 
those  who  belonged  to  the  Jewish  people,  and 
professed  the  Jewish  religion.  Christians  took 
the  word  from  the  Jews,  and  like  them  used 
ixxT.r^'jia.  to  denote  (r/)  particular  societies  of 
Christians  in  particular  cities  or  provinces—^, 
g.,  ixx7.rri{,a  ev  IfpogoXx'.Moij,  x:  t.  %.,  Acts,  viii. 
1 ;  (6)  the  religious  assemblies  of  these  societies, 
and  ihe places  in  which  they  met — e.  g.,  1  Cor. 
xi.  18;  xiv.  19,  28,  &c. ;  (c)  the  whole  sum  of 
those  who  profess  the  Christian  religion,  wher- 
ever they  may  he — e.  g.,  1  Cor.  xii.  28  ;  Matt, 
xvi.  18,  seq. 

(2)  SvvayioyTj  and  trftwi'aycoy*;"  and  these, 
too,  are  used  by  the  Septuagint  to  render  the 
words  Snp  and  n-?.  But  they  were  employed  ^ 
by  the  Grecian  Jews  about  the  time  of  Christ 
to  denote  their  places  of  prayer,  or  oratories,  and 
the  congregations  connected  with  them.  Vide 
Vitrinja,  de  Syna^oga  Velere.  And  so  we  find 
them  used  in  the  New  Tvstament.  to  denote  the 
religious   assemblies    of    Christians,   and    the 

2R 


470 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


plarps  where  they  held  ti.em — e.  <r.,  Heh.  x. 
25;  Jarnes,  ii.  2.  These  teniis,  liowpver,  were 
never  used,  like  the  preceding,  to  denote  the 
whid«  of  Christendom. 

(.3)  There  were  also  various  figurative  names 
employed — e.  g.,  jiaoiXfia  xCjv  otyaiLif,  or  rov 
0fou  So  frequently  in  the  discourses  of  Christ. 
Vide  s.  99,  I.  But  this  term  denotes  not  simply 
thi'  Christian  religion  and  church;  it  compre- 
hends all  to  whom  belong  the  rights,  duties, 
and  the  entire  blessedness  of  the  |)iou3  follow- 
ers of  Christ,  in  this  life  and  the  life  to  come — 
e.  g.,  John,  iii.  3;  Matt.  v.  3.  'ZCjfxa  Xpi^rou 
(of  which  he  is  the  xf<paXri) — a  figurative  ex- 
pression used  to  denote  tlie  intimate  connexion 
between  believers  and  Christ,  and  to  impress 
upon  them  the  duties  of  mutual  harmony  and 
brotherly  love;  Rom.  xii.  5.  Me  is  the  head, 
we  the  members,  Eph.  i.  22,  also  cha|).  iv.  and 
V.  N'aoj  0;ou,  1  Cor.  iii.  16,  17, — used  to  de- 
scribe the  disrniiy  and  holiness  of  Christians, 
and  the  inviolableness  of  their  rights,  O/xoj 
0*oi},  1  Pet.  iv.  17,  seq.  Besides  these,  all  the 
terms  used  to  designate  the  Israelites  as  the 
peculiar  vmd  favourite  people  of  God  are  trans- 
ferred lo  Christians  in  the  \ew  Testament — e. 
g..  Xaoj  rtfiJtovoioj,  Titus,  ii.  14;  ^005  fij  rtfpi- 
Tioir^'jiv  (rtfpirtotjjTfuj),  1  Pet.  ii.  9;  tx^ixToi,,  x. 
T.  7..  The  Israelites  were  the  aucitui people  of 
GihK  (under  the  naXaia  hialir^xr^,)  in  opposition 
to  the  new  peirple  of  God,  (under  the  xaivr;  6ia- 
^/;xr;.)  And  this  ancient  i>eo|)le  is  always  re- 
garded as  the  slock  from  which  the  new  sprung, 
Rom.  xi.  17,  seq.;  Acts,  xv.  IG.  And  on  this 
very  account  P.uil  earnestly  warns  Christians, 
in  the  passage  cited,  against  despising  or  un- 
dervaluing the  .lews. 

II.  Divi.iluns  of  the  Church. 

(1)  Into  unii'cnialiunl  particular.  The  church 
universal  comprehends  within  itself  all  who 
profess  the  Christian  doctrine,  No.  I.  But  since 
all  (-hristians  cannot  agree  respecting  doctrines 
and  forms  of  worship,  it  is  natural  thai  those 
wlio  do  agree  in  these  respects  should  enter  into 
8  more  intimate  connexion,  tience  have  arisen 
particular  churches,  dilVeriug  according  to  place 
and  li  ue,  doctrine,  firms,  &c.  Hence  the  ilivi- 
sinn  of  the  church  into  the  lOistern,  Western, 
Roman,  African,  Papal,  Lutheran,  Calvinistic. 
&o.  Again;  these  particular  churches  are  sub- 
divided into  eeelrsiic  ni nfrularcs.  by  which  are 
understood  the  separate  couununions  belonginir 
to  Olio  particular  church,  since  ev.n  thi'se  often 
differ  according  to  lime  and  place,  and  even 
wiih  reipect  to  dortrines  and  usatfes.  Thus  we 
h  ive  the  Lutheran  church  in  Saxony,  Hrimlen- 
burg,  Swed'u  ;  the  Rel'ormiMl  church  in  Eng- 
land and  Swii/erlanil,  (cc. 

(2)  Into  the  true  church  and  fil'r  e/iurchcs, 
and  their  subdivisions.     Tiiis  division  must  be 


retained  in  ab.stracio,  althongh  it  should  be  ap- 
plied very  cautiously  in  coi.crtto,  or  to  partioular 
cases.  We  may  see,  in  general,  that  that  Chris 
tian  church  deserves  eminently  the  name  of  the 
true  church  in  whidi  there  is  an  entire  agree- 
ment with  the  doctrine  of  Jesus  an(i  the  apos- 
tles. Tlie  more  it  obeys  Christ  in  everything 
which  he  has  commanded,  the  more  worthy  is 
il  of  this  name,  Eph.  v.  23,  21.  But  there  has 
never  been  a  church  respecting  all  whose  mem- 
bers this  could  be  said  ;  nor  was  there  any  such, 
even  duriiitj  the  times  of  ihe  apostles,  as  we  see 
from  their  writings  ;  there  has  never  been  a  par- 
ticular church  wholly  free  from  errors  and  devi- 
ations from  the  doctrine  of  Jesus.  Clirist  him- 
self declares  that  in  his  church  on  earth  there 
will  always  be  error  and  truth,  good  and  evil 
mingled  together.  Vide  s.  135,  II.  It  is  there- 
fore better  to  say  that  is  the  true  church,  or, 
more  properly,  has  the  must  truth,  in  which 
there  is  found  a  nearer  agreement  with  the  doc- 
trine of  Jesus  and  the  apostles  than  in  other 
churches. 

On  this  subject  the  opinions  of  Christians  are 
so  divided  that  it  is  impossil)le  to  ijive  any  ue- 
nerul  churucliriilic  murhs  of  the  true  church 
wliieh  Would  be  approved  hy  all.  The  defiui- 
lion  of  the  true  ehureh  will  always  depend  upon 
the  individual  belief  and  conviction  of  every 
Christian;  and  each  one  reijards  that  church  as 
true  which  is  most  accorilant  with  his  own 
views.  'I'he  following,  principles,  however, 
may  be  of  some  practical  importance: — 

(fl)  No  one  church  is  in  the  exclusive  pos- 
session of  the  truth.  There  are  in  every  church 
faults,  defects,  and  errors;  and  so  it  was  at  the 
time  of  the  apostles,  and  so  it  is  in  all  human 
societies  and  institutions. 

(/»)  Nor  is  there,  on  the  other  hand,  any 
Christian  church  which  is  wholly  wanting  in 
the  truth,  or  wliich  does  not  profess  many  use- 
ful and  important  truths,  although  mixed  more 
or  less  with  error.  We  cannot  in  this  matter 
judge  of  the  particular  members  of  a  church 
from  the  estahli>hed  and  received  doctrines  of 
their  church  without  doing  the  greatest  injus- 
tice. In  this  resjMict  wrong  is  often  done;  for 
ex|)erience  leaches  that  there  are  often  good 
Christians  in  a  church  which  professes  many 
errors,  and  which  has  a  had  constitution;  and, 
on  the  contrary,  that  there  are  often  connected 
with  very  excellent  diurch-esiahlishmenls  those 
who  are  unworthy  of  the  t?hrislian  name.  These 
observations  have  given  oecasion  to  the  di'-'ision 
of  the  church  into  pure  and  iiufiure,  according 
as  more  or  less  errors  or  f.ilse  principles  are  em- 
braced. We  also  speik  of  a  c  irrupt  church,  by 
which  is  meant  particularly  a  i-hnrch  in  wliich 
false  moral  principles,  oxertiiiu  an  injurious  in 
lliience  upon  ihe  life  and  C'lirislian  walk,  are 
mingled  with  Ciiristian  doctrine.     It   remains 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMITION.       471 


tlurefore  true,  t^at  the  separate  Christian  com- 
niunions  are  of  different  value  and  excellence 
according  to  their  greater  or  less  purity  in  doc- 
trine, and  according  to  the  greater  or  less  adapt- 
edness  of  their  external  polity  and  forms  to  pro- 
iKcte  moral  improvement.  It  cannot  therefore 
be  in  itself  an  indifl'erent  matter  to  which  of 
these  one  belongs.  No  one,  however,  should 
desire  to  make  his  own  individual  conviction 
the  unconditional  rule  for  all  others,  and  despise 
and  condemn  those  who  do  not  agree  with  him- 
self. 

(c)  If  there  is  no  church  in  which  the  system 
of  doctrine,  the  regulations,  forms  of  worship, 
&c.,  are  perfect  and  incapable  of  improvement, 
it  follows  that  improvements  may  and  ought  to 
be  made  in  them  whenever  and  wherever  there 
is  a  necessity  for  it,  and  that  it  is  an  entirely 
false  maxim  to  adhere  invariably  to  what  is  an- 
cient, and  never  to  alter.  It  does  not  belong, 
however,  to  any  particular  member,  not  even  lo 
a  public  teacher,  to  urge  his  supposed  improve- 
ments upon  the  church.  And  correct  as  is  the 
principle  de  reformatione  ecclesisc,  in  the  abstract, 
its  practical  application  is  attended  with  very 
great  difficulties. 

((/)  To  unite  externally  all  the  different 
churches  is  not  practicable ;  and  even  if  it  could 
be  done,  would  occasion  more  injury  than  bene- 
fit. And  notwithstanding  all  the  difference  as 
to  opinion  and  form  in  religious  matters,  mutual 
love  and  toleration  may  still  exist.  This  is 
proved  by  tiie  history  of  the  church  in  ancient 
and  modern  limes. 

(3)  The  church  is  divided  into  visible  and  in- 
visible.  This  division  is  entirely  rejected  in 
several  of  the  new  systems — e.  g.,  in  those  of 
Gruner,  Doderlein,  and  others.  They  seem, 
however,  to  have  taken  otTence  merely  at  the 
terms.  These  are,  indeed,  new  ;  and  have  come 
into  use  since'the  Reformation.  But  the  thing 
itself  whicii  is  intended  by  these  terms  is  well 
supported,  and  is  as  ancient  as  the  Christian 
church  itself,  and  was  acknowledged  as  true  by 
Christ  and  the  apostles  and  the  whole  early 
church.  These  terms  came  into  use  in  the  fol- 
lowing way: — Luther  denied  that  the  Romish 
church,  according  to  the  doctrine  and  polity 
which  it  then  professed,  is  the  true  church.  It 
was  then  asked,  ll'h'.re  then  was  the  true  church 
before  him?  'To  which  he  answered,  that  it 
was  invisible — i.  e.,  before  the  Reformation 
those  Cliristians  had  constituted  the  true  church., 
and  held  the  pure  doctrine,  who,  without  re- 
garding the  authority  and  commandment  of 
men,  had  followed  the  scriptures  according  to 
their  own  views,  had  lived  piously,  and  kept 
themselves  free  from  the  errors  of  the  public 
religion;  and  such  persons  there  always  had 
been,  even  at  the  most  corrupt  periods,  although 
they  had  not  always  been  known.   It  was  from 


this  just  observation  that  this  division  arose. 
Cf.  Confess.  August.,  Art.  vii.  anu  viii.,  and 
Apol.  A.  C. 

Protestants  understand  by  the  iwisible  church 
true  Christians,  who  not  only  know  the  precepts 
of  Christ,  but  from  the  heart  obey  tnem.  Matt, 
vii.  21.  This  church  is  not  always  clearly  seen; 
indeed,  to  speak  justly,  it  is  known  only  to  God, 
Col.  iii.  3;  while  from  the  eyes  of  men,  who 
judge  only  according  to  the  external  ajjpearance, 
it  is  wholly  concealed.  On  the  contrary,  the 
visible  church  consists  of  all  who  by  profession 
belling  externally  to  the  church — i.  e.,  attend 
public  Wdrship,  partake  of  llie  sacraments,  &:c.; 
for  wherever  the  Christian  doctrine  is  proclaim- 
ed, and  the  rites  prescribed  by  it  are  observed, 
there  the  visible  church  is.  Not  every  one, 
therefore,  who  belongs  to  the  visible  church, 
even  if  it  be  one  of  the  best,  does  on  this  account 
belong  also  to  the  invisible  church.  For  in  the 
visible  church  there  are  often  wicked  men  and 
hypocrites.  This  is  not,  then,  a  division  generis 
in  species,  but  eadetn  res  dircrso  respectu.  The 
same  is  true  with  respect  to  other  societies— 
e.  g.,  the  republic  of  the  learned. 

'i'here  are  not  wanting  passages  in  the  New 
Testament  in  which  this  distinction  is  plainly 
made,  although  it  is  not  exjiressed  in  this  man- 
ner. For,  first,  the  word  exxXrj'sia  in  many  texts 
denotes  the  whole  number  who  make  an  outward 
profession  of  Christianity,  without  having  any 
reference  to  their  inward  state — e.  g.,  1  Cor.  i. 
2,  &c.  Vide  No.  I.  But,  secondly,  in  other 
passages  such  predicates  are  given  to  the  church 
as  do  not  apply  to  all  who  profess  Christ,  but 
only  to  that  better  and  nobler  part  which  is 
called  the  invisible  church — e.  g.,  Eph.  v.  27, 
ayta,  a./.iuiy.oi,  jUjj  tj^ovaa  ani^ou  ^  pt)Tt8a,  &C. 
Here  belongs  the  remarkable  passage,  Mark,  ix. 
3S — 40,  w  here  the  disciples  of  Jesus  would  not 
acknowledge  a  person  to  be  a  genuine  follower 
of  Christ,  because  he  did  not  belong  to  their 
society,  their  external  church,  and  was  not,  as 
it  were,  enrolled  as  belonging  to  their  corpora- 
tion;  on  which  point  Christ  sets  them  right. 
Cf.  Malt.  XV.  22,  seq.  That  in  the  visible 
church  {j3aaiKeia  rav  ovpavHjv)  the  evil  and  the 
good  are  mingled  together,  and  cannot  be  exter- 
nally separated  without  injury  to  the  whole,  is 
taught  by  Christ  in  the  excellent  parable.  Matt, 
xiii.  24 — 30.  The  wicked  are  compared  with 
the  tares,  although  they  belong  to  the  external, 
visible  church;  but  the  good,  who  belong  both 
to  the  visible  and  invisible  church,  aie  compared 
with  the  wheat.  Cf.  the  text.  Matt.  vii.  21, 
above  cited. 

3'„/£. — Christ  regards  all  who  from  the  heart 
believe  in  him  (the  members  of  the  invisible 
church)  as  a  present  which  God  has  given  him, 
and  so  calls  them  ;  and  upon  them,  he  says,  he 
bestows  eternal  life.     Vide  John,  vi.  37;  xrii. 


472 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


2,  6.  The  hetter,  pious  part  of  mankind  are 
spoken  of  as  belonging  to  God, — they  are  his 
children;  and  this  his  possession  he  gives  over 
to  tlie  charge  of  Christ,  to  le;id  iheni  to  eternal 
life.  This  is  a  great  and  heart-affecting  idea; 
and  if  such  a  thought  had  been  found  in  Plalo 
or  Xenophon,  there  would  h:ive  been  no  end  of 
praising  it;  but  in  the  holy  scriptures  it  is  less 
regarded. 

(4)  The  church  is  divided  again  into  militant 
and  triuinphiint.  By  the  church  militant  is 
meant  Christians  in  the  present  life,  so  far  as 
they  have  to  contend  with  many  internal  and 
external  sufferings,  adversities,  and  persecu- 
tions. By  the  church  triumphant  is  meant  the 
society  of  Christians  in  heaven,  so  far  as  they 
are  freed  from  all  these  trials,  and  enjoy  tiie 
most  perff^ct  rest  and  blessedness.  The  church, 
however,  is  here  used,  in  the  narrower  sense, 
for  the  invisible  church  and  its  menibirs.  This 
division  was  taken  principally  from  the  text, 
Rev.  xii.  7,  seq.,  though  this  is  rather  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  rest  to  which  the  church  will  be  re- 
stored here  upon  the  earth,  after  long  persecu- 
tions and  calamities.  It  is  also  derived  from 
those  passages  in  which  the  dangerous  and  toil- 
some life  of  Christians  is  compared  with  a  strife 
and  conflict,  which  will  soon  he  over — e.  g.,  2 
Tim.  iv.  7.  Here  too  must  be  mentioned  the 
text,  Hcb.  xii.  22,  2.3,  where  the  noble  thought 
is  exhibited,  that  we  compose  but  one  society 
with  the  host  of  blessed  angels  and  the  company 
of  the  saints  now  rewarded  in  heaven  (rfrfXfiw- 
(livui  fitxcu'wr),  of  whom  Jesus  is  t!ie  Head  ;  and 
that  wiien  we  have  completed  our  course  here 
below,  we  shall  join  this  upper  society  in  our 
native  land. 

Xote, — Among  the  writings  of  the  older  pro- 
testant  theologians,  in  which  this  division  and 
the  other  topics  introduced  in  this  section  are 
treated  very  thoroughly,  that  of  Jo.  Musreus,  f)e 
Eeclraia,  (Jeuaj,  IG75,)  deserves  j)articular  men- 
tion. 

SECTION  CXXXV. 

ATTRIBl'TKS  or  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH;  THK 
ECCLKSIASTICAL  TKRMS  COVMONI.Y  EMI'l-OVKU 
TO  DESIONATK  THKM,  AND  TIIKIH  SUiMKlCA- 
TION. 

It  has  been  common,  in  imitation  of  the  an- 
cient confessions,  to  predicate  of  the  true  ciiurch 
the  four  attributes,  una,  sanela,  calhulica,  npuxtn- 
liea.  In  the  apostolic  ayinbol  it  is  called  a  hnlij 
Christian  church,  the  micirty  if  the  saints ;  in  the 
Nicen"  8ymb(d,  one  only,  hnly.  Christian,  apon- 
tolie  church.  Most  of  these  terms  are  taken  from 
the  New  Testament,  though  they  are  there  used 
in  a  different  sense  from  that  in  which  they  are 
employed  in  the  later  ecclesiastical  pbr.iseology. 
And  this  difference  should  be  carefully  noted. 


It  must  be  remarked  in  general  that  all  these  al»' 
tributes   properly   apply   only   to   the   invisible* 
church,  although  many  of  them  may  be  pred**' 
cated  also  of  the  f i'aj ft /c  church,  when  rigiitly  ex- 
plained.    The  doctrine  of  the  perpetuity  of  the 
church  may  be  most  conveniently  considered  in 
connexion  with  these. 

I.   Unity  of  the  Church. 

This  predicate  has  an  entirelj'  different  mean- 
ing in  the  New  Testament  from  that  which  it 
bears  in  the  common  ecclesiastical  phraseology. 
Its  two  significations  will  therefore  be  se|)arately 
considered. 

(I)  When  the  unity  of  the  church  is  spoken 
of  in  the  New  Testament  it  is  a  moral  unity 
which  is  intended.  The  import  of  this  term  is, 
that  all  who  worship  God  according  to  the  doc- 
trine of  Jesus  should  regard  themselvt'S  as  mem- 
bers of  one  society,  and  as  such  should  exercise 
niuuial  brotherly  love;  that  notwithstanding  all 
differences  of  birth,  condition,  knowledge,  opi- 
nions, and  forms,  they  should  still  constitute 
but  one  church,  or  religious  society,  worshipping 
one  and  the  same  Lord,  even  Christ,  and  par- 
taking in  common  of  the  blessings  promised  to 
his  followers.  That  there  should  he  such  a 
union  among  his  followers  was  the  last  will,  the 
testament  of  Christ;  John,  xiii.  3t,  coll.  xv,  1, 
seq.  And  in  or<ler  to  this,  it  is  not  essential 
that  there  should  be  a  full  and  entire  agreement 
of  opinion  on  every  particular  doctrine.  Chris- 
tians,  though  differing  as  to  their  mode  of  think- 
ing, their  particular  opinions  and  forms,  and 
though  divided  into  particular  communions, 
ought  to  regard  themselves  as  constituting  still 
hut  one  church,  and  so  to  live  together  in  unity 
of  spirit.  This  is  the  true  spirit  of  Christianity  ; 
it  infuses  feelings  of  toleration.  And  the  more 
one  has  of  the  mind  of  Christ  the  more  tolerant 
will  he  be  to  others;  and  especially,  because  he 
knows  that  not  only  his  Lord,  but  his  brethren, 
see  much  in  him  which  reipiires  fjrbearance. 
Vide  Tit.  iii.  3—5. 

This  unity  of  the  church  is  mentinnpd  in 
those  passages  in  the  New  Testament  in  which 
warnings  are  given  against  disturbers  of  the 
peace  and  against  controversies;  and  in  those 
also  in  which  it  is  taught  that  it  is  the  design  of 
Christianity  to  remove  all  distinction  between 
Jew  and  Gentile,  and  to  unite  all  nati  ms  in  a 
common  religion;  respecting  which  vide  sec. 
lis.  II. 

The  principal  proof-texts  here  are,  John, 
xvii.  20,  Tia  rta'vTff  'v  .Vii"  John,  x.  16,  "  onf 
fold,  one  shepherd  ;"  and  Ephesians,  iv.  3—^, 
and  ver.  13,  tiof>^j  rtveiuam^,  because  nil  wor 
ship  one  God  and  one  Christ,  have  one  haptisni 
and  one  doctrine.  The  norry  rtiirruj  in  ver.  IS 
is  one  and  the  same  Christian  doctrine,  professed 
alike  by  Jews  and  Gentiles  who  believe  in  Christ, 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       473 


who  ought  therefore  to  love  each  other  as  bre- 
thren. Galatians,  iii.  28,  ftdiitti  £15  Iv  X\nar(j). 
Rom.  xii.  5,  ttoXXoi  ev  Ouj^a  iafiiv,  coll.  ver. 
13;  X.  17;  1  Cor.  i.  12,  13  ;  viii.  G.  The  true 
spiritual  unity  of  Christians  is  therefore  placed 
by  Christ  himself  in  this,  that  they  believe  in 
the  only  true  God,  and  in  Jesus,  as  the  Saviour 
of  the  world;  that  they  love  him,  and  from  love 
to  him  obey  his  commandments,  and  especially 
that  they  love  one  another.  By  this  only  can 
the  true  disciples  of  Christ  be  known;  not  by 
external  names  and  forms,  but  by  faith,  work- 
ing by  love — the  love  of  Ciirist  and  our  neigh- 
bour. 

(2)  But  there  gradually  arose,  after  the  second 
and  third  centuries,  an  entirely  different  concep- 
tion of  the  unity  of  the  church.  It  first  origin- 
ated among  the  fathers  in  the  West,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  transferring  to  Christianity  cer- 
tain incorrect  Jewish  ideas  which  were  disap- 
proved by  Jesus  and  his  apostles,  and  which  had 
the  most  injurious  results.  The  unity  of  the 
church  was  placed  by  them  in  an  entire  external 
agreement  as  to  those  doctrines  and  forms  which 
were  handed  down  froiti  the  times  of  the  apos- 
tles, through  the  churches  founded  by  them,  and 
in  the  external  connexion  and  fellowship  of  the 
particular  societies  founded  upon  this  agree- 
ment. 

The  most  ancient  passages  relating  to  this 
subject  are  found  in  Irenfeus,  (i.  10,)  Tertuliian 
(De  Praescript.  Ha?ret.  c,  20,  ad  fin.)  and  Cy- 
prian, (in  his  Book,  "DeUnitate  Ecclesiae.") 
'i'he  object  contemplated  in  this  external  con- 
nexion of  churches  was  at  first  very  good  ;  it  was 
designed  by  this  means  to  set  bounds  to  the  ever 
encroaching  corruption  in  doctrine  and  life,  and 
to  remove  false  teachers.  But  when  the  rulers 
of  the  churches  no  longer  possessed  the  genuine 
spirit  of  Jesus,  then,  through  these  principles 
and  the  consequences  derived  from  them,  the 
hierarchy  was  gradually  established;  and  into- 
lerance and  the  spirit  of  persecution  and  anathe- 
matizing became  very  prevalent.  Even  the  pa- 
pal hierarchy  rests  entrirely  upon  these  princi- 
ples, and  originated  from  them.  The  principal 
bishops  now  established  a  kind  of  college  or  se- 
cret society;  and  this  unilyofthcchurchwAS  made 
dependent,  first,  upon  many  heads,  then,  upon 
one  visible  head  of  the  church.  And  whoever 
ventured  to  dissent  from  the  doctrine  or  the  ordi- 
nances of  the  principal  bishops,  who  held  toge- 
ther and  governed  their  churches,  was  excluded 
from  church-fellowship  and  declared  a  heretic. 
Even  Cyprian  derived  the  one  true  church  in 
the  West  from  Peter,  because  he  taught  at  Rome, 
and  because  the  church  there  was  the  mother  of 
most  of  the  churches  in  the  West.  The  bishops 
regarded  themselves  therefore  as  the  successors 
of  the  apostles,  and  as  the  representatives  of  God 
and  of  Christ;  and  whoever  was  excluded  by 
GO 


them  from  church-fellowship  was  excluded  by 
God  himself;  and  it  was  early  believed  and 
taught  that  he  was  at  the  same  time  excluded 
from  salvation.  Vide  s.  128,  II.  Hence  even 
Cyprian  states  in  his  book  the  principle,  extra 
ccc/esiam  illam  unicam  et  verain  [^exitrnam  or 
visibileni]  non  dart  salutetn — a  principle  from 
which  so  many  false  doctrines  vrere  afterwards 
deduced.     Vide  s.  121,  II. 

Upon  these  supports  does  the  whole  false 
system  of  the  hierarchy  in  the  Romish  church 
depend.  Vide  Henke,  De  Unitate  Ecclesia^,  in 
his  "Opuscula."  But  there  is  no  such  suci^tas 
Christiana,  nor  ought  there,  according  to  the  de- 
sign of  Jesus,  to  be  any  which  shall  resemble 
civil  societies;  for  this  leads  to  a  hierarchy,  and 
all  the  evil  consequences  which  flow  from  the 
collision  of  secular  and  spiritual  power. 

Protestants  have  never  had  properly  one 
church,  but  churches,  (^cccksias.)  Sucli,  at  least, 
is  the  language  employed  iu  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession, Art.  vii.,  and  in  the  other  public  instru- 
ments, even  in  the  peace  of  Westphalia;  and  it 
is  in  this  that  protestantism  is  distinguished  from 
consolidated  popedom.  The  Roinan-cathnlic  idea 
of  the  church  is  vindicated  in  a  very  subtile  and 
plausible  manner  in  the  work,  "Idea  Biblica 
EcclesisR  Dei,"  by  Franc.  Oberthiir,  vol.  i.; 
Salzburg,  1790,  8vo,  vol.  ii.  1799.  He  pro- 
ceeds on  the  definition,  Quod  sii  ccclesia  schola 
quadain,  quam  Dens  erexerit,  nutriendm  ac  pro- 
riioveiidw  internas  religionis  causa,  in  which, 
however,  there  does  not  seem  to  be  anything 
insidious. 

II.  The  Sanctity  of  the  Church. 

This  is  twofold — viz., 

(1)  External ;  and  this  is  predicated  of  the 
church  so  far  as  it  is  distinguished  from  other 
religious  societies  (e.  g.,  Jewish  or  Gentile)  by 
the  superior  excellence  of  its  religious  princi- 
ples. In  this  wider  sense,  even  the  Jews  are, 
in  the  Old  Testament,  often  denoniinated  holy  ,• 
and  taken  in  this  sense,  the  visible  Chris- 
tian church  may  justly  be  called  holy  ;  for  it  is 
not  the  moral  character  of  the  members  which 
is  designated  by  the  term  in  this  wider  sense. 
And  so  all  Christians,  even  those  who  are  such 
merely  by  external  profession,  are  often  deno- 
minated ayioL  in  the  New  Testament.  Vide  s. 
126,  IV.;  also  1  Pet.  ii.  9. 

(2)  Internal,  or  moral.  The  whole  object  of 
the  establishment  of  the  church,  and  the  instruc- 
tion communicated  in  Christian  doctrine,  is  to 
bring  the  members  of  the  church,  under  divine 
guidance,  to  this  internal  holiness.  This  is  said 
by  Paul  in  the  passage  cited.  Epbes.  v.  26,  27, 
coll.  Tit.  ii.  1  1.  But  this  ohjeci  is  not  actually 
attained  in  respect  to  all  who  belong  to  the  ex- 
ternal visiltle  church,  but  only  in  those  who 
belong  to  the  invisible  church.    It  can  thertfore 

2r2 


474 


CKRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


be  truly  said  only  of  the  invisible  church,  that 
it  id  hnh/  in  this  internal,  moral  sense. 

Many  have  been  led,  by  confounding  these 
different  meanings,  and  by  inisunderstandinq; 
those  passatrcs  in  which  it  is  made  the  duty  of 
every  Cliristian  to  be  holy,  to  adopt  the  princi- 
ple that  even  the  external  or  visible  church  must 
be  a  socie-ty  consistinjr  only  of  renewed  persons 
•  or  saints,  and  that  a  church  which  tolerates 
within  itself  uniioly  or  unregenerate  persons 
cannot  be  a  true  church,  and  so  is  to  be  ex- 
cluded from  Christian  fellowship.  It  was  on 
these  principles  that  the  Novatians  proceeded 
in  the  third  century,  and  the  Donatists  in  the 
fourth  and  fifth.  And  they  were  still  more  fre- 
quently maintained  by  the  Anabaptists  and 
other  fanatical  sects  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  same  principles  have  been  revived  in  still 
more  modern  times  by  the  quakers,  and  many 
other  fanatics  and  separatists. 

But  they  do  not  consider  that  in  all  external 
human  societies  (jood  and  evil  must  be  mixed, 
and  that  often  the  Omniscient  only  can  discern 
and  distinofuish  the  hypocrites,  who  are  much 
more  injurious  than  the  openly  vicious.  And 
so  Christ  pronounced  that  the  external  church 
could  never  be  pure  from  evil,  and  that  the  tares 
and  the  wheat  must  be  suffered  to  grow  to<re- 
ther;  Matt.  xiii.  3,  seq.,  ver.  24—31,  47 — 50; 
and  so,  too,  lie  iiimself  endured  Judas  ainong  his 
apostles.  Too  irreat  severity  often  terrifies  the 
good  and  keeps  them  at  a  distance;  and  wicked 
ancestors  often  have  descendants  who  are  good 
and  useful  members  of  the  church,  but  who 
would  not  have  been  so  if  their  ancestors  bait 
been  excluded.  The  external,  visible  church 
cannnt,  therefore,  be  a  society  consisting  of 
pious  CMiristians  only;  it  is  rather  a  mimery 
(^seinlnariiiin),  designed  to  raise  up  many  for 
tiie  invisible  kiiig<lom, 

Ntill,  however,  it  is  always  ri^ht,  and  cer- 
tainly according  to  the  spirit  of  Christ,  for  like- 
minded  Chrisiians  to  associate  together,  and  to 
estaljlish  among  themselves  institutions  which 
they  may  deem  promotive  of  i>iety,  or  even  to 
form  stnaller  societies,  in  which  they  will  permit 
those  c  ily  to  participate  who  have  a  like  object 
and  possess  similar  dispositions  with  them- 
selves, excliifiing  all  others,  the  teelrsiohr  in  ecc/e- 
</a  of  which  Spener  spoke.  They  should  beware, 
however,  against  running  in  this  way  into  spiri- 
tual pride,  against  holdinij  themselves  to  be  bet- 
ter than  others,  and  against  regarding  those  who 
do  not  ioin  them,  and  are  not  enrolled  ainonir 
them,  as  worse  Christians  than  themselves. 
It  does  not  belong  to  llie  government  to  interdict 
such  associations,  if  they  do  not  disturb  civil 
peace  and  order,  any  more  than  to  forbid  and 
hinder  otlier  private  associations  of  citizens  for 
other  lawful  objects.  The  reasons  for  and 
a<:a:'nst   these    associations    are  canvassed   in 


Burkhardt's  "Geschichte  der  Melhodiftten;* 
Nurnberg,  1795,  s.  1-23,  f.  The  history  cf  th« 
church  teaches  that  these  smaller  associations 
have  had,  upon  the  whole,  a  highly  beneficial 
effect.  In  times  of  ignorance  and  unbelief  they 
have  been  the  depositories  of  uncorrupied  Chris- 
tianity. Without  the  Waldenses,  the  Wick- 
lifites,  and  the  Hussites,  the  Ueformation  would 
never  have  taken  place. 

III.  17ie  Catholic  ami  Apostolic  Church. 

A  different  idea  is  attached  to  the  term  catho- 
lic in  modern  times,  and  especially  in  the  pro- 
testant  church,  from  that  which  anciently  b^ 
longed  to  it.  Catholic  is  now  used  in  its  etymo- 
logical sense,  and  is  synonymous  with  universal. 
And  the  church  is  said  to  be  univers,il,  because 
all  in  the  whole  earth  who  profess  ('hrist  belong 
to  it,  and  because  Christianity  is  not  merely  a 
national  religion,  or  the  religion  of  a  country, 
but  one  whicii  may  be  professed  by  all  men 
without  distinction.  The  church  is  called  apoa- 
iolical,  because  tlie  members  of  it  profess  to 
adopt  the  doctrine  taught  by  the  apostles,  and 
contained  in  their  writings;  according  to  Eph. 
ii.  20,  "built  upon  the  foundation  of  the  apos- 
tles." But  anciently  xo^wnxoj  was  synony- 
mous with  op^dSo^oj,  and^f/es  cuthoiica  was  the 
same  as  fuks  orthodoxa,  which  was  the  faith 
held  in  opposition  to  heretics,  because  it  was 
supposed  that  the  true  faith,  which  accords  with 
the  will  of  Christ  and  the  apostles,  must  be  the 
universal  faith  of  all  Christians,  and  be  found 
in  all  the  churches  established  by  the  apostles. 
Hence  rccltsia  cnlholicn  is  that  qux  huhtt  Jiilem 
sii'c  veritnlem  cathnlicnin — i.  e.,  the  right  and 
pure  doctrine  and  constitution,  in  opposition  to 
those  churches  which  have  not  the  pure  aposto- 
lic doctrine,  but  belong  to  the  heretics.  They 
proceeded  on  the  principle  that  there  is  only  one 
true  church,  (vide  \o.  I.,)  and  in  ordt-r  to  es- 
tablish and  maintain  this,  the  principal  churches 
and  their  bishops  throu<rhoiit  the  Roman  empire 
(xa^'  uXrv  olxm\uivrv)  had  gradually  formed  a 
separate  church  union.  Whatever  agreed  with 
tliis  was  xa^^Xixoi',  otherwise  al^)fTtx6v.  The 
genuine  apostolic  doctrine  was  supj)osed,  how- 
ever, to  be  found  in  those  churches  which  the 
apostles  themselves  had  founded.  To  these 
churches,  and  to  the  doctrine  handed  down  in 
them  from  the  times  of  the  apostles,  the  appeal 
was  therefore  made,  in  the  controversies  ir. 
which  the  catholic  fathers  were  enjraired  with 
the  heretics;  and  it  was  by  this  appeal,  an  ap- 
peal to  trnitilinn,  that  they  confuted  them.  Vide 
Introduction,  s.  7,  HI.  But  the  whole  body  of 
(Christian  churches  professing  the  orthodox  doc- 
trine handed  down  in  the  apostolir-  churches 
were  called  the  erithoUc,  orfJimlo.r,  or  npnstolie 
church,  because  they  all  agreed  in  the  doctrines 
and  regulations  prescribed  by  the  apostles  to 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       475 


the  (h  irches  founded  by  them — e.  g.,  by  Peter 
to  the  churcii  at  Rome,  by  Paul  to  that  at  Ephe- 
•sus,  &c.  The  earliest  passages  relatiii<j  to  this 
suliject  are  found  in  Irenaeus,  Adv.  Hajres,  1. 
ill.,  and  especially  in  Tertullian,  De  Prescript. 
User.,  c.  20,  21.  It  is  there  said,  for  example, 
Xot  ac  tantx  ecclesias,  una  est ,-  ilia  ah  apnslolis 
prima,  ex  qua  omnes.  Sic  omnespriinx,  tt  omncs 
aposlulicx  duia  una;  omnes  prubant  uriitaiem, 
etc.     Vide  the  Essay  of  Henke  before  cited. 

iVo/e. — The  infallibility  of  the  church  was 
not  believed  during  the  first  centuries.  Between 
the  ppriod  of  the  Nicene  Council  in  the  fourth 
century,  and  Gregory  the  Seventh,  many  traces 
of  tills  opinion  appear.  From  Gregory  the 
Seventh  until  the  Western  schism  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  it  was  placed  mostly  in  the  in- 
fallibility of  tiie  pope.  From  that  period  until 
the  Council  at  Trent,  the  idea  prevailed  that 
only  liie  church  collected  in  general  council  is 
infallible.  Since  that  period,  the  opinions  of 
catholic  theologians  have  been  divided  on  this 
point.  Some  (the  genuine  Romanists)  make  the 
pope  the  subject  of  this  infallibility  ;  others  (and 
among  these  even  Febronius)  suppose  the  cecu- 
mcnical  councils  alone  infallible;  others  still 
(and  jirincipally  the  French  theologians  since  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century)  attribute  in- 
fallibility only  to  the  church  dispers«'d  at  large. 
At  present  this  doctrine  is  wholly  abandoned 
by  some  of  the  more  liberal  catholic  theologians. 
Vide  the  excellent  book  (written  by  a  catholic,) 
entitled  Kritische  Gescbicbte  der  kirchlichen 
I'nfehlbarkeit,  ziir  Befijrderung  einer  freyern 
Priifungdes  Katholicismus,  Frankf.  a.  M.  171)2, 
6v().  Cf.  also  the  very  learned  and  liberal 
work,  entitled  "Thomas  Freykirch,  oder  Frey- 
miilhige  Untersuchung  von  einem  katholischen 
Goltesgelehrten  viber  die  UntVlilbarkeit  der  ka- 
tholischen Kirche,  Ir.  b. ;  Frankf.  und  Leipzig, 
1792,  8vo. 

IV.  The  PerpeUiity  of  the  Church. 

Christ  himself  teaches,  with  the  greatest  as- 
surance, that  the  religious  society  and  constitu- 
tion founded  by  him  will  never  cease,  but  be 
perpetual.  All  the  powers  of  decay  and  destruc- 
tion shall  not  <;et  advantage  over  it,  7tv>.at  abov 
(where  all  which  perishes  or  is  destroyed  upon 
the  earth  is  collected)  ov  xari^;tv<Jov'it»'  ovtjJj, 
Matt.  xvi.  18.  It  is  the  doctrine  of- the  New 
Testiiment  that  Christ,  as  the  Ruler  of  the 
church,  is  now  actively  employed  in  heaven  for 
its  giinfl,  and  that  he  will  continue  until  the  end 
of  the  world  to  support  and  enlarge  it.  Vide 
Matt,  xxviii.  20 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  25,  c^.U.  Ephes.  iv. 
16,  and  s.  98,  respecting  the  kingdi>in  of  Christ. 
This,  however,  is  not  to  be  so  utu'erstood  as  to 
imply  th;it  the  particular  forms  of  d.  ctrine  which 
prevail  at  any  parti  jular  time,  an!  the  particu- 
lar chjrch  communions  originating  from  them, 


will  be  of  perpetual  duration.  Changes  must 
necessarily  here  take  place.  The  history  of  the 
church  teaches  that  one  mode  of  cliurch  polity 
succeeds  another,  and  that  yet,  however  great 
these  changes  may  be,  Christianity  siill  sur- 
vives. External  constitutions  and  economies 
resemble  the  scaffolding,  which  aid  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  building,  but  are  not  the  build- 
ing itself.  They  may  be  taken  down  and  broken 
to  pieces  when  they  have  answered  their  pur- 
poses, and  the  building  will  then  proceed  in  a 
dilferenl  way.  That  this  is  so,  is  proved  by  the 
history  of  the  church.  It  has  been,  however,  a 
coinmon  mi.stake  for  the  members  of  certain  par- 
ticular churches — e.  g.,  the  catholic,  Lutheran, 
and  others,  to  suppose  that  if  their  particular 
constitution  should  cease  the  whole  Christian 
church  and  Christianity  itself  would  perish. 
So  most  in  ail  the  separate  communions  still 
think,  and  always  have  thought;  and  yet  the 
Christian  doctrine  and  church  have  hitherto 
been  perpetuated,  notwithstanding  the  greatest 
revolutions  in  slates  and  in  ecclesiastical  poli- 
ties; and  this  beyond  a  doubt  would  still  be  the 
case,  even  if  the  particular  churches  and  e.sta- 
hlishments  now  existing  should  perish.  The 
spirit  and  essential  nature  of  Christianity  may 
remain,  however  much  its  external  form  may  be 
altered.  Christianity,  however,  is  not  so  con- 
nected with  any  one  place  or  nation  that  it  must 
necessarily  be  perpetuated  there,  nor  has  any 
one  church  a  promise  that  its  descendants  shall 
be  Christians.  We  know  from  the  history  of 
the  church,  that  where  Christianity  was  onc6 
most  flourishing,  it  has  since  been  expelled, 
either  by  superstition  or  unbelief,  and  it  has 
thence  travelled  to  other  regions  which  were 
formerly  sunk  in  the  deepest  night  of  ignorance. 
Let  the  reader  call  to  mind  the  former  flourishing 
condition  of  the  Eastern  churches,  and  then  com- 
pare with  it  their  present  state.  Every  church 
should  make  the  use  of  this  fact  which  is  sug- 
gested in  Rev.  ii.  5. 

SECTION  CXXXVI. 

OF  THE  HEAD  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH  ;  AND 
OF  THE  INSTITUTIONS  ESTABLISHED  TO  MAIN- 
TAIN AND  EXTEND  IT,  ESPECIALLY  THROUGH 
THE  OFFICE  OF  PUBLIC  TEACHING. 

I.  The  Head  of  the  Church. 

The  only  true  Head  and  supreine  Lord  of  the 
Christian  church  is  Jesus  Christ,  according  to 
the  uniform  doctrine  of  Christ  himself  and  the 
apostles.  Vide  Morus,  p.  278,  s.  2.  Those 
who  profess  his  doctrine  are  brethren,  and  as 
such  have  equal  rights.  Vide  Matt,  xxiii.  8. 
Hence  he  is  called  o  n.oifxrv,  ttppfinotur,*',  x.  t.  X. 
.John.  X.  12;  1  Pet.  v.  4;  Heb.  xiii.  20;  and 
xtifoxri  f  xxTijjsios,  Ephes.  i.  22,  iv.  15  ;  Col.  ii 


476 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


10.  Nor  is  he  called  by  these  titles  merely  in 
a  figurative  sense,  but  because,  in  his  exalted 
state,  he  exercises  unwearied  ami  watchful  care 
over  men,  and  especially  over  his  church  and 
its  members.  Vide  s.  98,  respecting  the  king- 
dom of  Christ. 

Christ  therefore  by  no  means  wished  that  his 
apostles  should  exercise  a  lordly  dominion  over 
other  Christians,  Luke,  xxii.  21,  and  tliey  never 
assumed  such  authority,  but  expressly  protested 
against  it.  Vide  1  I'et.  v.  I — 3;  1  Cor.  v.  C, 
seq.  Nor  was  it  his  will  that  one  of  the  apos- 
tles, or  his  successors,  should  possess  supre- 
macy and  magisterial  power  over  the  church, 
like  what  is  asserted  in  the  Romish  church  re- 
specting Peter  and  his  successors,  of  which 
there  is  not  a  trace  in  the  New  Testament  or  in 
the  first  cnturies,  as  appears  from  churcii  his- 
tory. Tht^  text,  Matt.  xvi.  IR,  upon  this  rock  I 
xoill  build  my  church,  relates  indeed  to  Peter  and 
his  merits  in  dilfusing  the  Christian  faith.  For 
history  teaches  that  he  really  laid  the  first  foun- 
dation of  the  ^rent  buildim^  of  the  houne  of  God 
after  the  departure  of  Christ,  both  from  the  Jews, 
Acts  ii.,  and  from  the  Gentiles,  Acts  x. — a 
building  which  is  firmly  based  (built  on  a 
rock,)  and  which  will  endure  until  the  end  of 
the  world,  whence  he  is  always  pre-eminent 
among  the  n|)ostles.  But  nothing  is  said  in  this 
oassage  respecting  his  own  supreme  and  judi- 
cial power  over  the  church,  or  that  of  his  suc- 
cessors. Peter  is  here  spoken  of  as  a  disciple, 
ind  not  as  a  ruler  and  governor.  Moras  ex- 
plains this  passajje  very  well,  (p.  2S  t,  seq.  n.  .3.) 

It  is  therefore  justly  affirmed  in  the  protestant 
thurch  that  (Christ  has  constituti'd  no  visible 
\.'.nd  of  the  whole  church  who  is  to  hold  his 
j>lace  upon  the  earth,  and  to  act  and  make  de- 
crees as  his  representative  and  in  his  name. 

It  is  quite  another  question,  JVhrlhcr  the 
Clirintian  church  hnx  not  (he  riahl  to  commit  to 
some  o)\r  thi-  change  and  •'ovrrniiient  if  its  txtcr- 
iutl public  ciinccrns?  'I'his  riffht  the  church  cer- 
tainly has;  anil  if  good  order  is  to  be  preserved, 
it  must  be  exercised,  because  all  the  members 
of  the  ciinrch  cannot  take  part  in  its  govern- 
ment, 'liitjs  it  was  in  the  apostolic  church. 
But  the  oi.t,  or  the  many,  who  are  ap])ointed  to 
this  duly,  w.id  who  constitute  an  ecclesimn  re- 
pr.tnenlntiPu  i,  possess  this  pre-eminence  not 
jure  diviniy  hut  numnno.  They  ought  not 
therefore  to  ^'ive  out  their  decretals  as  divine, 
and  in  the  name  o»  wod.  Their  enactments  are 
merely  human,  ai  .•  ought  to  have  no  more  than 
human  authority  »ney  may  be  altered,  im- 
proved, &c. 

Since,  moreovei,  n  every  well-organized  so- 
ciety there  must  be  Jut)ordi  nation,  no  good  rea- 
son can  be  aiven  wK  f  this  should  not  be  intro- 
duced among  the  o.tirers  and  teachers  of  the 
Christian  church,  anii  why  one  should  not  have 


more  authority  than  another.  In  tkis  way,  at  a 
very  early  period,  a  great  pre-eminence  over  the 
other  occidental  bishops  was  ascribed  to  the 
Roman  bishops,  and  he  was  called  the  head  of 
the  (occidental)  church,  while  as  yet  there  wa3 
no  absolute  dominion  or  magisterial  power  over 
the  church  allowed  him.  But  for  a  further  ac- 
count of  this  matter  we  must  refer  to  canon  law 
and  church  history. 

II.  T/ie  OJ/ice  of  Teaching  in  the  Church, 

Every  Christian  has  the  right,  and  indeed  is 
under  obligation,  to  do  all  in  his  power  to  main- 
tain and  promote  Christian  knowledge  and  feel- 
ing. Vide  Rom.  xv.  14;  Gal.  vi.  1;  Eph.  v. 
19  ;  vi.  4;  1  Thess.  v.  14.  But  since  all  Chris- 
tians have  not  the  time,  talents,  or  other  (pialifi- 
cations  requisite  for  this  work,  some  were  set 
apart  by  Christ,  whose  appropriate  business  and 
calling  it  should  be  to  tench  and  counsel  those 
committed  to  their  charge;  and  these  were  to 
he  the  instruments  through  whom  he  designed 
that  his  doctrine  should  he  maintained  and  trans- 
mitted, and  the  practice  of  it  promoted.  Paul 
therefore  derives  the  institution  of  the  different 
kinds  of  officers  and  teachers  in  the  church  di- 
rectly from  God  and  Christ,  and  says  that  each 
received  a  different  office  and  employment,  ac- 
cording to  his  talents  and  gifts;  I  Cor.  xii.  28; 
Eph.  iv.  11,  1-2;  and  in  the  latter  passage  he 
says  that  this  arranijement  was  made  for  the 
perfection  and  edification  of  the  Christian 
church,  (j(^->oi  xara^itLiuov — (i^olxohnur^v  iw«oroj 
X()i'5roO.)  They  are  hence  called  {?t>;,)tTaj  and 
hiaxovoi  0fov  and  X|)i'irou — those  who  st;iii<l  in 
the  service  of  God  and  Christ,  and  are  employed 
by  them  as  instruments.  They  are  also  called 
fellow  ivor/:er.-<  with  God,  (ivifpyoi,)  1  Cor.  iii.  9. 

The  Christian  office  of  leaching  was  therefore 
appointed  by  Jesus  Christ  himself  as  an  insti- 
tution desiijned  for  the  maintenance  and  spread 
of  the  gospel  through  all  ages.  And  he  had 
the  rii{ht  to  do  this,  as  being  commissioned  and 
authorized  by  God  himself  to  be  the  founder 
and  head  of  bis  church.  No  one  of  his  follow- 
ers can  therefore  consistently  undervalue  this 
institution,  or  wilfully  withdraw  himself,  on  any 
pretence,  from  the  assemblies  of  Christians  for 
the  purpose  of  religious  instruction.  Matt, 
xxviii.  18 — 20;  Eph.  iv.  11,  seq.;  Hrb.  x.  25, 
lint  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  obviate  various 
abuses  and  mistakes,  that  we  should  here  more 
particularly  illustrate  some  points  relating  to  the 
office  of  teaching. 

(1)  The  apomtlet  were  set  apart,  as  public 
teachers  and  as  founders  of  Chrislian  cliurches, 
dinctli/  by  {lhri<!t  himself;  and  they  again,  as 
anibassidors  for  Christ,  appointed  a  perpetual 
office  of  teaching,  and  the  public  assembling  of 
•  'lirisiians  for  worship,  and  other  institutii  iis, 
calculated  to  imparl  strength  and  perpetuity  to 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      477 


the  church.  Cf.  the  first  chapters  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles.  Cf.  also  Spalding,  Vom  VVerth 
und  Nutzeii  des  Predigtamts,  2ie  Ausg. ;  Berlin, 
17T3,  8vo. 

The  teachers  in  the  apostolic  church  are  di- 
vided into  urdinary  and  exlraordinary.  Among 
the  Irtiier  are  included  the  apuslles  themselves, 
the  evangelists,  (who  were  missionaries  and  as- 
sistants of  the  apostles,)  and  in  general  all  who 
were  not  appointed  as  permanent  teachers  over 
particular  cliurches,  but  who  were  employed  in 
extending  Christianity,  and  in  founding  new 
churches.  Among  the  former — the  ordinary  and 
permanent  officers  and  teachers  of  each  particu- 
lar church — were  iniaxortoi,  rtpf(j,3vrfpot.,  no^- 
^♦'"fj,  6t6uazaXoi,  (of  which  the  general  name  is 
jjyov^fi'ot,  officers,  rulers  of  the  church,  Hebrews, 
xiii.  7,  17,  21.)  Some  of  these  had  more  to  do 
with  the  external  concerns  of  the  church,  {pres- 
byteri  regcntes,  noifiivii,)  and  others  were  more 
especially  employed  in  instruction,  {presbyleri 
ducentes,  bi-buaxaXoi,.)  But  for  a  more  particular 
account  of  this  matter  we  must  refer  to  church 
history. 

These  officers  and  teachers  were  not  appointed 
immediately  by  Christ  himself;  and  in  the  first 
church  ihey  were  not  always  appointed  in  the 
same  way  and  by  the  same  persons;  certainly 
no  rule  was  given  respecting  this  point  which 
should  be  binding  in  all  places  and  at  all  times. 
The  apostles  never  imposed  teachers  upon  any 
church,  but  left  to  the  churches  the  enjoyment 
of  the  rij^rbt  belonging  to  them  of  choosing  their 
own  teachers.  This  right  of  choosing  their  of- 
ficers was  sometimes  exercised  by  the  churches 
— e.  g.,  Acts,  vi.  2,  3,  5;  2  Cor.  viii.  I'J;  and 
sometimes  they  left  it  to  the  apostles,  or  persons 
commissioned  by  them,  to  whom  was  committed 
the  care  of  the  public  affairs  of  the  church — e. 
g.,  2  Tim.  ii.  2;  Tit.  i.  5,  seq. 

But  all  these  teachers  and  overseers,  appoint- 
ed either  by  the  churches  or  their  rulers  and  re- 
presentatives, were  regarded  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  appointed  by  (iod,  or  the  Holy  Ghost, 
or  Christ — e.  g..  Acts,  xx.  28;  Col.  iv.  17;  be- 
cause thrir  consecration  took  place  on  his  autho- 
rity, and  according  to  his  will.  It  is  common 
to  denominate  the  naming  and  consecration  of 
any  one  to  the  office  of  teaching.  Wis  calling  (ro- 
eutio),  because  N-\p  and  xaXflv  are  used  in  the 
scriptures  with  respect  to  the  designation  of 
prophets  and  other  teachers,  and  the  divi  je  com- 
missions entrusted  to  them.  And  this  calling, 
even  in  application  to  the  teachers  of  religion  at 
the  present  day,  may  be  denominated  divine,  so 
far  as  it  is  accordant  with  the  divine  will,  and 
with  the  order  which  God  has  established ;  in 
the  same  way  as  the  institution  of  government 
is  called  divine,  Romans,  xiii.  1.  At  the  present 
time,  however,  this  calling  is  never  imiutdiately 
from  G\^a.     And  every  teacher  may  be  sure  that 


he  has  a  divine  call  (i.  e.,  one  in  accordanc« 
with  the  divine  will)  when  in  a  regular  manner 
he  has  received  a  commission  to  his  office  from 
those  who  have  the  right  to  induct  him,  and 
after  careful  examination,  in  the  presence  of 
God,  has  found  that  he  can  hope  to  discharge 
its  duties  with  the  divine  approbation.  The 
characteristics  of  a  teacher  who  is  acceptable  to 
God  and  to  Christ  are  briefly  enumerated,  1 
Tim.  iii.  2 — 7;  2  Tim.  ii.  24  ;  Titus,  i.  5 — 9; 
1  Pet.  v.  2,  seq.;  and  by  these  each  one  may 
examine  himself. 

That  a  teacher  of  religion  should  be  solemnly 
consecrated  to  his  office,  or  ordained,  is  a  regula- 
tion which  is  indeed  useful  both  to  the  teacher 
himself  and  to  the  church  ;  but,  in  itself  consi- 
dered, it  is  not  a  matter  juris  dii'ini ;  it  is  no- 
where expressly  commanded  by  (iod,  and  con- 
tributes nothing,  considered  as  an  external  cere- 
mony, to  efficiency  and  activity  in  the  sacred 
office.  Luther  himself  pronounced  ordination 
not  to  be  necessary,  and  said  that  a  rightful  call- 
ing is  sufficient  to  make  any  one  a  rightful 
teacher,  and  this  is  the  consecration  of  God. 
And  this  is  very  true;  for  the  right  to  teach 
does  not  properly  depend  upon  ordination,  but 
upon  vocation.  On  protestant  ])rinciples,  (he 
ordination  of  a  teacher  is  nf)thing  else  than  a 
public  approval  and  confirmation  of  his  calling 
to  the  office  of  teaching;  so  that  thenceforward 
he  rnay  begin  his  work,  and  enjoy  his  rights 
Morus,  p.  262,  n.  3. 

The  act  which  is  now  called  ordination,  and 
which  is  still  retained  in  the  protestant  church, 
is  something  very  different  from  ordination  ac- 
cording to  the  use  of  the  ancient  church,  and  the 
old  ecclesiastical  Latinity.  Ordinatio  was  there 
the  same  as  ;^f  tporoi-ta,  and  was  taken  from  mili- 
tary life  among  the  Romans,  like  the  word  or- 
dines ;  for  Christians  were  called  niililes  Christi. 
It  was  therefore  synonymous  with  constitulio, 
consliluere  ad  inunus publicum,  and  was  the  same 
with  viicare.  But  afterwards  they  made  a  sepa- 
rate order  of  the  clergy,  and  allowed  them  en- 
tirely peculiar  privileges,  and  an  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction,  and  then  called  them  ordo.  in  the 
same  sense  in  which  the  Roman  senate  is  called 
ordo,  ordo  senatorius,  with  which  it  was  com- 
pared ;  and  when  any  one  was  received  into 
this  order  by  special  consecration,  he  was  said 
ordinari. 

The  right  of  ordaining,  according  to  protest- 
ant principles,  is  not  confined  to  particular  per- 
sons— e.  g.,  bishops;  but  it  can  be  performed 
by  any  one  who  is  conmiissioned  to  do  it  by  the 
church,  or  by  their  functionaries  and  representa- 
tives. The  imposition  of  hands  in  the  inductioa 
of  teachers  into  office  is  mentioned — e.g.,  1  Tim. 
iv.  14;  Acts,  xiii.  3;  and  is  a  ceremony  bor- 
rowed from  the  .levvlsh  church,  where  it  was 
practised  with  regard  to  all  to  whom  any  office 


/8 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


was  siven,  to  whom  anythirifj  was  promised,  or 
for  wliom  any  blessing  was  implored  from  God, 
as  a  siirn  of  blessing,  invocation,  ice. — aymbo- 
hmi  colluliunia. 

There  is  one  practice  in  the  protestant  church 
with  reference  to  this  subject  which  is  a  real 
remnant  of  popery— viz.,  that  an  ordained  per- 
son may  still  teach  and  administer  the  sacra- 
ments, even  when  he  no  longer  properly  fills  an 
ofhce  as  a  teacher  of  religion,  as  if  ordination 
put  a  character  indelcbilis  upon  a  person;  while 
the  trulh  is,  that  the  permission  and  the  right  to 
discharge  these  duties  depend  upon  a  person's 
vocation  to  the  sacred  oflice,  and  not  upon  his 
ordination.  In  this  respect,  therefore,  the  prac- 
tice of  the  protestant  church  is  inconsistent  with 
its  theory,  and  many  evil  consequences  are  the 
result. 

(2)  Of  the  rights  of  Christian  teachers. 

Fird.  As  to  the  rights  of  teachers,  they  have, 
merely  as  teachers,  no  other  than  to  instruct  and 
counsel  that  part  of  the  church  entrusted  to  their 
care,  to  perform  the  services  of  public  worship, 
and  in  return  to  expect  tiieir  maintenance  from 
the  church  ;  1  Pet.  v,  2,  3  ;  Acts,  xx.  2S  ;  1  Cor. 
ix.  G — 14.  The  church  and  the  government  may, 
liowever,  if  they  see  it  to  be  best,  confer  still 
other  rights,  privileges,  and  immunities  upon 
teachers. 

Xiite. — As  to  the  manner  in  which  the  church 
shall  be  governed,  and  by  what  sort  of  [)ersons, 
a. Ill  how  instruction  "shall  be  provided  for,  there 
are  no  precepts  given  in  the  Bible.  Properly, 
all  Christians  have  a  right  to  teach — every  fa- 
ther his  own  family;  and  even  to  administer  the 
sacraments,  as  even  Terlullian  truly  observes. 
There  is,  theref  >re,  truly  ^jus  laicorum  sacirdu- 
tale,  as  Grotius,  Salmasius,  Bijhmer,  and  Spener 
have  maintained.  Even  among  the  .lews  the 
teachers  of  the  people  were  not  priests,  but  lay- 
men ;  and  any  one  who  had  proper  (lualitications 
might  teach  in  the  synagogue  or  in  the  temple. 
Among  the  ancient  Israelites  the  |)rnphets  were 
commonly  not  froin  the  order  of  the  priesthood, 
but  for  the  most  ]>art  from  other  tribes,  classes, 
and  orders  of  the  pRO[)le.  But  for  the  sake  of 
good  order,  the  business  of  teaching  and  of  |)er- 
forming  the  services  of  public  worship  must  ne- 
cessarily be  entrusted  to  some  particular  persons; 
otherwise  irregularities  and  abuses  are  inevita- 
ble; as  may  be  seen  from  the  exam|>le  of  some 
sects  which  allow  every  one  to  teach,  I  Cor.  xii. 

SccnuiUy.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before 
other  rights  and  privileges  were  conferred  upon 
the  teachers  of  the  ('hristian  church  ;  partly  such 
as  had  belonged  to theyeit'j«A /)r/V.v/:*  (with  whom 
Christian  teachers  were  compared)  and  even  to 
the  hcntkcn  priests  within  the  Roman  empire, 
and  partly  such  as  were  given  to  the  extraordi- 
nary teachers  in  the  first  Christian  church,  and 
especially  to  the  apostles.     To  these  extraordi- 


nary teachers  Christ  promised  extraordinary 
(jifis  of  the  Spirit,  and  many  of  their  peculiar 
privileges  anri  rights  were  founded  upon  these 
gilts,  and  could  not  be  claimed  ijy  their  succed- 
sors,  to  whom  these  gifts  were  not  imparted. 

Among  these  is  especially  the  njficc  or  the 
power  if  the  keys,  (^pultslas  clufium.)  This  in- 
cludes the  power  of  forgiving  or  not  forgiving 
sins,  like  what  is  common  in  the  protestant 
church  at  confessions,  or  at  the  preparation  for 
the  Lord's  Supper;  (against  which  there  is  no- 
thing to  be  objected,  if  it  is  understood  that  this 
absolution  is  not  collatioa,  but  merely  ihclarativa 
or  hypothetica  ,•)  and  also  plenipotenli-iry  power, 
either  to  exclude  any  one  from  church  fellow- 
ship, or  to  receive  him  again ;  so  th;it  the  entire 
administration  of  church  discipline  is  called  njji- 
ciuin  claciuin.     Vide  Morus,  p.  'Z^d — 2-^3. 

But  with  regard  to  this  there  are  more  mis- 
takes than  one  which  need  to  be  answered. 

(ff)  In  all  the  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment which  are  appealed  to  in  behalf  of  the 
power  of  the  keys,  the  apostles  only — the  extrw 
ordinary  teachers  of  the  church — are  spoken  of. 

(Jb)  In  the  passages  .Matt.  xvi.  ID  and  xviii. 
IS,  nothing  is  said  about  forgiving  or  not  for- 
giving sins,  but  about  binding  and  loodng, 
which  in  such  a  connexion  always  mean,  in  the 
Syriac,  Chaldaic,  and  the  Rabbinical  writers, 
to  forbid  zn6  to  allow.  Cf.  Lightfool  and  Wet- 
stein  on  these  texts.  The  meaning  is — "You, 
as  my  ambassadors,  shall  have  power  in  the 
Christian  church  (xX.<tj  ^iaiiXfiaj  rwv  ovpafwi') 
to  make  regulations  and  to  give  precepts,  to 
allow  and  to  forbid  ;  and  God  will  approve  these 
your  appointments,  and  they  shall  be  regarded 
by  men  as  if  they  were  from  God."  For  the 
apostles  had  special  gifts  of  the  Spirit,  and 
were  the  ambassadors  of  God  and  of  Christ. 
The  doctrine  of  the  apostles  should  therefore  be 
to  all  Christians  the  rule  of  what  they  should 
do  and  what  they  should  leave  undone.  The 
same  is  taught  in  other  words,  .Matt,  xviii,  18. 
This  is  somewhat  ditVerenlly  explained  by  Mo- 
rus, p.  'Z^A,  287. 

(c)  In  John,  XX.  23,  Christ  gives  to  his  apos- 
tles, as  ambassadors  of  God,  full  power  to  for- 
give sins,  or  to  withhold  forgiveness.  The  rea- 
son of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  gifts  of  the 
Spirit  promised  ver.  22.  The  apostUs  did  not 
indeed  become  omniscient  and  infallible  by  the 
possession  of  these  extraordinary  gifts ;  but  they 
received  power  to  free  men  from  certain  evils, 
which  were  regarded  as  punishments  of  sin, 
especially  from  sicknesses  ;  and  it  is  this  power 
which  seems  to  be  here  spoken  of,  and  therefore 
not  83  much  dc  remissione  pcccalurum  verbali, 
(as  theologians  call  it,)  as  de  reniissiune  reali. 
Thus  the  healing  of  the  lame  man.  Matt.  ix.  G, 
is  derived  from  the  power  which  the  Messiak 
possessed  of  forgiving  sins. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      479 


((/)  The  right  to  receive  any  one  into  the  fel- 
lowsliip  of  the  church,  or  to  exclude  him  from 
U,  cji(i  not  belong  to  the  apostles  or  to  other 
teachers  exclusively.  Nor  did  the  apostles  ever 
exercise  it,  or  claim  it  for  themselves;  but  they 
left  the  exercise  of  it  to  the  churches.  Vide 
1  Cor.  v.  13  ;  2  Cor.  ii.  6—10.  That  the  church 
not  only  have  the  right,  but  are  under  obliga- 
tion, to  provide  for  the  support  of  their  doctrine 
and  constitution,  and  to  see  to  it  that  nothing  is 
done  contrary  to  them,  is  indeed  unquestionable. 
And  this  is  the  foundation  of  Christian  disci- 
pline— i.  e.,  of  all  those  public  regulations  and 
appointments  by  which  the  Christian  doctrine 
and  constitution,  and  a  correspondent  demean- 
our in  the  members  of  the  church,  are  promoted 
and  preserved.  And  this  is  according  to  scrip- 
ture. But  respecting  the  manner  in  which 
Christian  churches  shall  administer  this  disci- 
pline, no  general  rules  are  given.  This  must 
depend  upon  the  situation  and  circumstances  of 
each  particular  church.  The  church  may  allow 
this  right  to  be  exercised  by  some  particular 
persons — e.  g.,  by  its  teachers;  but  these  in 
such  a  case  do  not  possess  this  right  in  and  of 
themselves,  but  in  the  name  of  the  church  and 
as  its  representatives.  In  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession and  the  Apology  there  is  a  particular 
chapter  on  the  power  if  the  church  as  exercised 
through  its  teachers.  But  many  protestant  teach- 
ers are  dissatisfied  with  having  their  power 
limited  to  mere  teaching  and  counselling.  It  is 
moreover  a  maxim  in  the  protestant  church,  that 
church  discipline  should  not  have  the  form  and 
effect  of  civil  punishments.  Vide  Morus,  p. 
285,  s.  8. 

If  therefore  the  phrase,  the  power  of  the  keys, 
is  to  be  retained,  and  this  power  is  to  be  consi- 
dered as  belonging  to  the  office  of  teaching,  it 
must  be  understood  to  denote  the  right  and  duty 
of  the  teacher  earnestly  to  exhibit  before  the 
impenitent  and  unconverted  the  consequences 
of  their  sins,  the  divine  punishments;  to  ad- 
monish them,  to  counsel  and  exhort  them  to  re- 
pentance ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  to  comfort  and 
console  the  penitent,  and  to  convince  them,  with 
reasons  drawn  from  the  Christian  system,  of 
the  mercy  of  God,  and  the  forgiveness  of  their 
sins.  This  right  is  derived  from  the  very  object 
of  their  office,  and  cannot  be  denied.  Cf.  the 
texts  relating  to  this  subject,  as  cited  by  INIorus, 
p.  383,  n.  2,  and  p,  287,  No.  2.  And  to  these 
points  are  the  rights  and  duties  of  teachers 
limited,  according  to  the  principles  of  the  pro- 
testant church. 

Note  1. — The  more  extended  investigation  of 
the  doctrines  of  church  government,  of  the 
primacy,  of  the  rights  of  the  church  and  its 
teachers,  the  relation  of  the  church  to  the  state, 
&c.,  which  were  formerly  introduced  into  the 
theological  systeiis,  belong  rather  to  canon  law 


or  to  church  history.  It  will  be  sufficient  here 
to  make  this  one  additional  remark,  that  the 
uniting  of  persons  in  an  ecclesiastical  society 
produces  no  alterations  in  their  lawful,  civil, 
and  domestic  relations.  Vide  1  Cor.  vii.  20 — 24. 
The  church  is  not  a  society  which  is  opposed 
to  the  state;  it  rather  cimiributis  t*  advance 
the  good  ends  of  civil  society.  HtMict^  the  mem- 
bers of  the  church  are  always  directed  to  yield 
the  most  perfect  obedience  to  the  government. 
Vide  Luke,  xx.  25;  Rom.  xiii.  1;  1  Pet.  ii. 
13 — 17.  The  true  Christian  should  not  indeed 
conform  to  the  world  (the  great  body  of  unre- 
newed men),  and  ought  to  keep  himself  unspot- 
ted from  the  world;  still  he  should  not,  of  his 
own  accord,  relinquish  his  worldly  station  and 
calling,  so  far  as  it  is  not  sinful. 

[^Note  2. — On  the  general  subject  of  this  arti- 
cle, cf.  Hahn,  s.  CIS,  ff.  Neander,  Kircheng. 
i.  b.  1  Abth.  s.  346.  Bretschneider,  b.  ii.  s. 
785,  ff.— Tr.] 


ARTICLE  XIV. 

OF  THE  TWO  SACRAMENTS— BAPTISM  AND 
THE  LORD'S  SUPPER. 


SECTION  CXXXVII. 

OF  THE  SACRAMENTS  tN  GENERAL. 

I.  Different  uses  of  the  term  "  Sacramtntum." 

(1)  In  the  earliest  times  of  the  church.  Even 
TertuUian  employed  the  term  sacra metittim  with 
reference  to  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  (sa- 
cramentum  uqux  d  eueharistx),  and  many  of  the 
Latin  teachers  after  him.  But  neither  Tertnllian 
nor  the  other  ancient  fathers  employ  it  exclu- 
sively with  reference  to  these;  but  they  were 
accustomed  also  to  apply  it  to  other  things,  to 
such  especially  as  they  elsewhere  called  mysiC' 
ria.  Hence  we  find  that  in  TertuUian  the 
terms  niysterium  and  sacramentum  are  used  to 
denote  the  whole  Christian  religion  and  its  par- 
ticular doctrines.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
of  the  Incarnation  of  Christ,  &c.,  are  called  al- 
ternately mysterium  and  sacramentum.  The 
same  is  true  of  all  the  rites  and  ceremonies 
practised  by  Christians,  so  far  as  they  are  the 
types  of  spiritual  things,  and  have  a  special  sig- 
nificancy,  or  a  secret  sense,  or  are  kept  private. 

But  from  ivhenee  is  this  use  ff  sapramentcm 
derived?  Not  from  the  ancient  Latin  significa- 
tions of  this  word,  according  to  which  it  denotes 
the  military  oath,  or  a  sum  of  money  deposited, 
but  from  the  ancient  Latin  versions  of  the  Bible 
— e.  g.,  the  Vulgate.  In  these  the  Greek  uva- 
rrpiov  is  frequently  rendered  by  the  word  saera^ 
meiitum.     And  since  this  Greek  term  wa-s  -ised 


4)0 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


respecting  all  secret  and  unknown  things,  aixl 
oesignated  ilie  iiigher  reli^rious  truths,  the  secret 
sense  of  a  tiling,  inic.  (vide  Introduction^  s.  G), 
the  term  sacra mentutn  was  employed  in  ecclesi- 
astical Latiniiy  in  all  these  senses.  And  it 
was  ado|ited  the  more  willingly  by  the  fathers, 
because  they  were  accustomed  to  compare  the 
doctrines  and  rites  of  Christianity  with  the  doc- 
trines and  ceremonies  of  the  pagan  mysteries, 
in  order  to  secure  for  them  a  higlier  regard  and 
authority  among  the  heathen.  The  texts  of  the 
Vulgate  on  which  this  use  is  founded  are  the 
following — viz.,  Uan.  ii.  18,  30,  where  Ne- 
buchadnezzar's unknown  dream  is  called  sacru- 
tnentum,  Tob.  xii.  C,  7  ;  B.  of  Wisdom,  ii.  22  ; 
Ephes.  iii.  3,  9,  where  it  stands  for  the  Chris- 
tian system,  and  its  particular  doctrines.  Ephes. 
V.  32 ;  Rev.  i.  20 ;  xvii.  7,  &c.  The  fathers  now 
called  everything  standing  in  any  relation  to 
religion,  sacramenlum,  and  extended  it  espe- 
cially to  all  religious  rites  which  have  a  secret 
sense  or  anything  symb(dical,  and  which  are 
the  external  and  sensible  signs  of  certain  spiri- 
tual things  not  cognizable  by  the  senses.  Re- 
specting the  meaning  of  this  term,  cf.  G.  J. 
Vossius,  Uisp.  XX.  de  Baptismo;  Amst.  IGlfi. 
Gesncr,  Thesaur.  Lat.  h.  v.  Windorf,  Index 
Latin.  Tertull.  t.  vi.  p.  500.  The  primary 
sense,  therefore,  of  the  term  sacramentum,  is, 
as  .Moras  justly  observes,  sacrum  signum,  or 
tignificaliu  rci  sacrsc. 

(2)  The  rites  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per have  always  been  justly  regarded  in  the 
Christian  church  as  the  most  important  acts  of 
religious  service,  and  as  possessing  a  peculiar, 
mystical  elFicacy.  But  to  many  other  utsages 
which  have  gradually  become  prevalent  in  the 
church,  and  which  were  not  instituted  by 
Christ  himself,  a  great  significance  and  elli- 
cacy  was  attributed;  and  tliey  were  supposed 
to  contain  deep  religious  mysteries.  To  all 
these  the  term  siicramenlum  was  applied,  in  the 
sense  in  which  it  was  used  by  Augustine — viz., 
Satramenlnin  rut  visible  si;^nuin  rti  sacrw,  sivc 
ret  divi'uc  iiwisibilis.  In  this  way  all  the  rites 
of  tlie  church  might  be  reckoned  as  belonging 
to  llie  sacraments,  and  this  was  actually  done. 

Now  after  the  twelfth  renlury  the  schoolmen 
began  to  contend  aliout  tlie  number  of  the  sa- 
craments, and  at  length  most  of  them  settled 
•jpon  tcvin  (as  a  sacred  number),  which  they 
regarded  as  the  most  important  and  ellieacious, 
and  to  which,  by  wny  of  eminence,  they  gave 
the  name  sacrumenli,  These  were  first  dis- 
tinctly stated  by  I'etet  of  Lombardy,  in  the 
twelfth  century,  as  bnplism,  the  LunCi  Supper, 
eaujirination,  (cnn/iriiuttii)  cnttcumciutruin),  itnii- 
nation,  crlrrnie  unclian,  auricnlur  cnnftssinn  {^su- 
trainentum  jxrnilriitiic),  and  i«u//«c/t.  lie  wns 
followed  in  this  by  must  of  the  teachers  in  tlic 


Romish  church,  and  they  endeavoured  to  sup 
port  their  opinion  even  from  the  Bible.  Thia 
doctrine  was  not,  however,  publicly  acknow- 
ledged until  the  Council  at  Trent,  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  It  must  be  acknowledged  that 
tliis  selection  does  not  reflect  much  credit  upon 
the  sagacity  of  the  one  who  made  it;  and  it 
proved  tiie  occasion  of  a  great  accumulation  of 
ceremonies,  and  confirmed  the  people  in  the  de- 
lusion that  Christianity  consists  essentially  ia 
ecclesiastical  rites,  and  that  those  invented  by 
men  have  equal  authority  with  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper,  which  depend  upon  divine  ap- 
pointment, and  possess  equal  power  and  etli- 
cacy. 

(3)  These  perversions  induced  the  protestant 
tiieologians  of  the  sixteenth  century,  especially 
those  of  the  Lutheran  church,  to  use  the  word 
sacramenlum  in  a  more  liiiiit(;d  sense  than  that 
in  which  it  had  been  previously  taken,  and  so 
to  determine  its  meaning  that  it  should  no  more 
include  all  the  rites  which  had  been  formerly 
denominated  sacramenlu,  but  merely  ba|)tism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Hence  the  doctrine  of 
seven  sacraments  was  publicly  established  in 
the  Romish  church  by  the  Council  at  Trent,  in 
opposition  to  the  proteslanls;  and  it  was  there 
maintained  that  all  the  seven  were  instituted  by 
C'hrist,  and  were  sacraments  in  the  same  sense 
witii  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  is 
however  expressly  said,  in  the  Apology  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession  by  Melancthon,  that  no- 
thing depends  upon  the  use  of  the  ivorJ,  or 
upon  the  7iumber,  if  the  thing  itself  is  only 
rightly  understood,  and  human  institutions  are 
not  made  of  equal  authority  with  those  of  C«od. 
Xemo  vir  pruJctis  de  nomine  cl  numcro  rixabttur. 
Cf.  Morus,  p.  27ti,  s.  5. 

The  Lutheran  theologians  have  adhered  close- 
ly to  the  use  of  this  word  in  the  narrower  sense 
adopted  in  the  sixteenth  century.  But  the  re- 
formed theolonians  have  often  used  it  in  the 
wider  sense,  after  the  ancient  manner — e.  g., 
tliey  frequently  call  the  Leviiical  ceremonies 
and  all  the  tyjies  of  the  Old  Testament,  sacra- 
iiicnis.  Many  among  the  catholics  (Bellarmin, 
and  more  latily  Oberthiir)  have  expressly  al- 
lowed that  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  are 
the  most  general  and  i.nportant  of  the  sacra- 
ments, and  that  tiiey  therefore  approached  the 
protestants  more  nearly  than  the  Council  at 
Trent.  Oberthiir  (in  his  Lita  Dibl.  Kcclcs.  Deis 
vol.  ii.)  confesses  that  Christ  expressly  and 
immediately  appointed  only  two  sacraments, 
but  insists  that  he  conferred  upon  the  church 
and  the  priesthood  tlie  power  to  add  others 
The  assertion  made  by  some  that  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper  are  even  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment denominateil  ^var»;)>ia,  is  without  founda- 
tion.     I'or  liie  utjcriiouoj  flv^rr,^ll.u>^^  0»ov  (I  Cof 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       481 


(v.  1),  is  one  who  teaches  the  doctrines  which 
God  has  revealed  to  men,  and  of  which  they 
were  before  ignorant.     Vide  chap.  ii.  7. 

II.  Development  of  the  idea  which  is  connected  in 
the   Lutheran   church   with   the  term    "Sacra- 
ment /"  and  the  marks  by  which  Sacraments  are 
distinguished  from  other  cereinonies. 
(1)  By  the  word  sacraments  is  understood,  in 
the  Lutheran  church,  those  religious  rites  and 
ceremonies  which  God  himself  has  instituted  in 
the  holy  scriptures,  by  which  certain  spiritual 
blessings  are  represented  and  actually  communi- 
cated.    Luther  defined  a  sacrament,  in  this  nar- 
rower sense,  as  follows: — //  is  an  observance 
ap/joinled  by  God,  in  which  one  makes  use  of  a 
visible  thing,  which  has  the  divine  word  of  com- 
7nand  and  of  promise.     Cf.  Morus,  p.  274,  s.  2, 
n.  1. 

The  essential  characteristics  of  a  sacrament 
are  therefore  the  following — viz., 

(fl)  Sacraments  are  external  religious  acts. 
Ip)  They  are  among  those  acts  which  are;5o- 
silively  instituted — i.  e.,  they  are  such  as  stand 
in  no  essential  connexion,  from  their  internal 
nature,  with  religion  and  the  welfare  of  men, 
like  prayer,  for  example.)  And  all  the  reli- 
gious acts  which  have  these  two  characteristics 
are  called  ceremonies. 

(c)  They  are  instituted  and  appointed  by  God 
himself. 

{d)  They  serve  not  only  to  exhibit  or  repre- 
sent to  the  senses  the  spiritual  blessings  which 
flow  from  God  and  Christ,  but  actually  to  com- 
municate them. 

In  every  sacrament,  therefore,  there  are  two 
parts; — the  visible  thing  (^materia,  or  res  ierres- 
tris),  whith  affects  the  senses,  as  the  bread, 
wine,  and  water;  and  the  invisible  thing  (^res, 
or  materia  ctc/estis),  which  is  typified  and  im- 
parted by  the  external  sign.  But  respecting 
the  manner  in  which  the  sacraments  exert  their 
power  and  produce  their  effect,  protestant  theo- 
logians have  not  agreed  ;  nor  have  even  the  Lu- 
theran theologians  agreed  among  themselves. 
In  this  point,  however,  they  coincide,  that  the 
sacraments  do  not  exert  a  mechanical  or  miracu- 
lous power,  as  some  catholics  and  enthusiasts 
have  maintained ;  for  in  that  case  they  nmst  act 
irresistibly  ;  but  some  of  them  contend  that  they 
have  aphyaical  power,  or  a  power  analogous  to 
physical  [physico-atialogam  vim)  ;  while  others 
say,  that  they  have  merely  a  moral  effect.  It 
is  the  same  here  as  in  the  controversy  respect- 
ing the  power  and  efficacy  of  the  divine  word. 
These  religious  services  stand  in  the  most  inti- 
mate connexion  with  the  essential  doctrines  of 
the  Christian  system,  and  they  can  in  themselves 
produce  no  effect  upon  those  who  have  no 
knowledge  of  these  doctrines,  or  no  conviction 
of  their  truth — i.  e.,  no  faith.  The  truths  of 
61 


religion  which  are  herein  represented,  and 
which  should  be  deduced  from  itiese  ceremo- 
nies, produce  their  effect  in  the  same  way  (oi 
rather  the  Holy  Ghost  produces  through  them 
an  effect  in  the  same  way)  upon  the  heart  of 
man,  as  they  are  accustomed  in  otlier  cases  to 
do,  when  they  are  heard,  read,  &c. ;  ■ 'ty  in 
these  sacraments  they  are  not  taught  by  rds, 
but  in  different  ways  are  rendered  obvious  to 
the  senses.  All  which  has  been  before  said 
respecting  the  operations  of  grace  throiigli  the 
Word  of  God,  s.  121),  seq.,  is  therefore  equally 
applicable  to  this  subject.  Cf.  especially  with 
reference  to  the  Biblical  doctrine,  s.  131.  Me- 
lanctiion,  therefore,  well  observed  in  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  Art.  vii.,  that  Augustine  truly 
said,  Sucramenlum  esse  verbum  visibile ;  for,  he 
adds,  rilus  oculis  accipitur  (td  ntoveal  cordn),  et 
est  quasi  piclura  verbi,  idem  iii^nificrins  quod  v  r- 
bum.  Now  in  the  same  way  in  which  God  ex- 
erts his  power  through  the  word,  when  it  is 
heard  or  read,  in  the  very  same  way  does  he 
act  through  the  Word  (the  truth),  when  in 
other  ways  and  by  external  riles  it  is  repre- 
sented to  the  senses. 

(2)  Inferences  from  this  represcnlolion  of  the 
Lutheran  theologians.  From  this  limilaiion  of 
the  idea  of  sacramentum  it  follows  that  only 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  can  properly  he 
regarded  as  sacraments.  For  the  characteristics 
of  the  sacraments  have  been  so  settled  that  they 
can  all  apply  only  to  these  two;  and  other  ce- 
remonies are  excluded  from  the  number.  By 
these  distinctions  are  excluded, 

(a)  The  five  other  sacraments  of  the  Romish 
church,  because  the  third  and  fourth  of  the  cha- 
racteristics above  mentioned  do  not  belong  to 
them  ;  or  at  least  one  or  the  other  of  these  tw& 
characteristics  is  wanting.  Morus  shews  this 
particularly  with  regard  to  each  one  of  the  five 
Romish  sacraments,  p.  275,  s.  4,  in  the  Note. 

(6)  The  washing  of  feet  (^pcdilavium),  which 
was  regarded  by  some  as  a  religious  rite  ap- 
pointed for  all  the  members  of  the  Christian 
church  in  all  ages,  because  Christ  washed  hi» 
disciples'  feet,  (.lohn,  xiii.  5.)  and  because  it 
appears  from  1  Tim.  v.  10.  that  this  rile  was- 
practised  in  the  first  Christian  church.  But 
this  act  was  symbolical,  and  Christ  designed  by 
it  to  inculcate  upon  his  disciples,  after  the  ori- 
ental manner,  the  duty  of  Christian  love,  con- 
descension, and  readiness  to  serve  others 
Vide  ver.  12,  seq.  It  was  never  appointed  by 
the  apostles  as  a  rule  for  all  Chrisiians  in  all 
ages.  By  degrees,  as  customs  altered,  anil 
another  mode  of  thinkin?  prevailed,  it  fell  into 
disuse  in  most  of  the  Western  churches.  Still 
it  was  long  retained  in  the  Eastern  churche*,, 
and  in  some  of  them  is  common  to  this  day. 
Even  in  the  West,  it  has  been  revived  by  some 
of  the  smaller  churches— e.  g.,  by  a  pan  of  ih« 
SS 


483 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Mennonites;  and  it  is  now  practised  hy  some, 
tlioui{h  not  all,  belonging  to  the  society  of 
United  Brethren.  They,  however,  do  not  in- 
sist that  it  is  an  essential  Christian  rite,  which 
must  be  observed  by  all  Christians,  and  which 
eliould  again  be  introduced  into  all  Christian 
churches,  after  it  has  now  fallen  into  disuse; 
but  they  leave  every  one  to  his  own  judgment 
respecting  it, 

(c)  The  Jewisn  religious  rites,  such  as  olTer- 
ings,  sacrifices,  &c.  For  Paul  says  that  they 
did  not  effect  the  forgiveness  of  sin  before  God, 
although  they  were  instituted  by  him,  Heb.  ix. 
9;  X.  11.  So  far  as  they  typified  spiritual  bless- 
ings, (vide  s.  00,  111.  7,)  they  might  be  called 
sacraments  in  the  old  sense. 

((/)  Especially  have  circumcision  and  the 
passover  been  considered  as  sacraments,  and 
called,  by  way  of  distinction,  sacramenta  Vete- 
rix  TcntamenH,  and  compared  with  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper.  But  many  modern  theolo- 
gians have  decided  that  they  cannot  be  called 
sacraments  in  the  sense  of  the  Lutheran  church. 
For  although  they  were  commanded  by  God. 
they  were  attended  by  no  promise  of  spiritual 
blessings.  Circumcision  related  merely  to  ex- 
ternal good,  the  possession  of  Canaan,  the  pos- 
terity of  Abraham,  &c.,  Gen.  xvii.,  and  not  to 
the  forgiveness  of  sins,  &c.  On  the  contrary, 
it  is  assigned  as  the  object  of  baptism,  the  ini- 
tiatory rite  of  the  Christian  religion,  to  promote 
the  circumcistori  of  the  heart,  or  moral  improve- 
ment. Vide  Col.  ii.  11,  12.  The  passover  was 
instituted  merely  to  commemorate  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  Jews  from  Egypt.  Still,  although 
it  is  not  declared  in  the  scriptures  that  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper  have  come  into  tiie  place 
of  circumcision  and  the  passover,  yet  both  of 
the  latter  may  be  regarded  as  sacraments,  so 
far  as  they  typified  spiritual  blessings.  For  it 
was  expressly  said  to  Abraham  at  his  circumci- 
sion, that  the  great  promises  made  to  him  and 
his  posterity  should  be  fulfilled,  (Gen.  xvii. 
21,)  and  among  these  were  .syxW/i/^/ blessings. 
And  all  the  offerings  and  festivals  of  the  Jewish 
religion,  and  especially  these  two,  which  were 
the  most  solemn,  are  said  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment to  have  a  fiirurative  sense.  Vide  1  Cor. 
V.  7;  John,  xix.  3(1;  and  s.  90.  Cf.  Hcilmann, 
Definiciula  jusia  sacra mentorum  notione,  in  his 
*'0pu8cula,"  th.  i.  s.  433. 

III.  77ie  Object  of  Cltrint  in  instituting  these  two 
Sacraments. 
(1)  The  utility  and  necessity  of  religious  rites 
may  be  inferred  from  the  constitution  of  our  na- 
ture. Man  is  not  a  mere  spirit,  but  a  being  com- 
posed of  reason  and  sense.  And  on  this  account 
there  must  be  something  in  religion  which  will 
appeal  to  his  senses,  excite  and  sustain  his  de- 
votion, and  strengthen  his  zeal  in  piety.     The 


sensible  representation  "f  the  truths  cf  religion 
often  makes  a  stronger  impression  up.  n  men, 
as  experience  shews,  than  mere  instruction  ;  be- 
cause their  feelings  are  apt  to  be  more  strongly 
excited  by  anything  which  appeals  to  the  senses 
than  by  that  which  addresses  simply  the  under- 
standing. Hence  our  religious  services  cannot 
be  merely  spiritual.  Even  ceremonies  of  human 
appointment  have  a  great  effect,  and  far  more 
those  which  have  divine  authority,  and,  like 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  are  accompa- 
nied with  special  promises. 

Religious  rites  in  general  contribute  much 
also  to  the  support  of  religion  itself;  since  by 
their  means  the  solemn  and  public  professioo 
of  religion  is  renewed,  and  even  children  are 
from  their  youth  up  accustomed  to  them,  and 
are  bound  to  their  observance.  A  religion  with- 
out external  religious  rites,  and  without  the 
aids  of  sensible  exhibitions  of  its  truths,  would 
be  as  liable  to  become  obsolete,  as  the  different 
systems  of  philosophy.  The  truth  of  this  re- 
mark is  confirmed  by  the  history  of  the  church. 
In  the  oriental  church,  Clirisiianity  was  indeed 
very  early  disfigured  by  many  false  doctrines; 
but  the  profession  of  Christ,  and  the  essentials 
of  his  religion,  still  continued,  until  Moham- 
med and  his  adherents  succeeded  in  abolishing 
Christian  worship,  together  with  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper.  It  is  therefore  very  neces- 
sary that  these  religious  rites  should  .le  main- 
tained ;  and  the  opponents  of  Christi mity  pro- 
ceed very  wisely  when  they  endeavour  to  bring 
them  into  disuse  and  contempt.  For  the  doc- 
trines to  which  they  relate  must  soon  share  the 
same  fate. 

(2)  But  it  is  equally  important,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  religion  should  not  be  overloaded 
with  external  rites,  and  that  they  should  be  as 
few  as  possible;  for  when  tliey  are  multiplied 
their  effect  is  weakened,  and  they  are  soon  re- 
garded with  indifference  and  contempt.  This 
is  proved  by  the  example  of  all  relii;ions,  and 
even  of  the  Christian  religion,  when  it  lias  been 
burdened  with  ceremonies.  Christ  ende.ivoured 
by  his  doctrine  to  withdraw  men  more  and  more 
from  what  is  external  and  sensible,  and  to  pro- 
mote internal,  spiritual  worship,  as  an  affair  of 
the  heart.  Cf,  John,  iv,  23,  21.  Hence  he 
appointed  but  few  ceremonies.  An  additional 
reason  for  this  was,  that  at  the  time  when  Chrie- 
tianity  was  founded,  the  religious  ceremonial 
both  of  the  Jews  and  of  the  heathen  nations  was 
looked  upon  with  coldness,  or  even  with  con- 
tempt, by  the  more  cultivated  and  thinking  part 
of  the  public,  on  account  of  the  great  muliipli- 
city  of  its  rites,  and  the  superstition  with  whicn 
it  was  attended.  Even  a  great  portion  of  the 
religious  Jews  at  that  time  felt  the  burden  of 
the  Jewish  ceremonial  law  to  be  very  ojipres- 
sive.     Cf.   Acts,  xv.  10;    .Matthev*',  vxiii.   4 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      48^ 


A  new  religious  institution,  therefore,  prescrib- 
ing but  few,  simple,  and  easy  rites,  would  on 
this  very  account  commend  itself  to  the  Jews 
and  the  heathen.     Cf.  Matt.  ix.  14 — 17. 

Considered  in  this  respect,  these  two  sacra- 
ments of  Christ  have  great  advantages.  They 
are  natural,  simple,  and  universally  applicable. 
They  are  therefore  peculiarly  appropriate  to  an 
institution  which  is  designed  to  be  universal. 
It  is  otherwise  with  the  Jewish  ritual,  which  is 
not  adapted  to  all  men,  countries,  and  times. 
Indeed  it  was  not  designed  by  God  for  all  men, 
but  only  for  a  particular  period,  and  that  for  a 
limited  time.  Christ,  however,  has  not  forbid- 
den the  introduction  of  other  religious  usages; 
for  an  increase  of  them  may  often  be  indispen- 
sable to  the  maintenance  of  united  religious 
worship.  But  he  has  left  thfs  to  the  discretion 
of  his  church,  which  may  appoint  and  modify 
them  according  to  the  circumstances.  Those, 
however,  which  Christ  has  instituted  should 
serve  as  models  and  patterns,  in  point  of  sim- 
plicity, for  all  other  Christian  ceremonies. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE  DOCTRINE  OF  CHRISTIAN  BAPTISM. 

SECTION  cxxxvni. 

NAMES,  INSTITUTION,  AND  ORIGIN  OF  CHRISTIAN 
baptism;  with  observations  on  JOHN  THE 
BAPTIST  AND  THE  JEWISH  BAPTISM  OF  PROSE- 
LYTES. 

I.  Names  of  Baptism  in  the  Bible. 

(1)  To  ^dritidfia.,  from  /3ortti^ftr,  which  pro- 
perly signifies  to  immerse,  (like  the  Germ. 
taufen,)  lo  dip  in,  to  wash,  (by  immersion.)  In 
the  Syriac  and  Chaldaic  (which  Christ  used) 
this  is  denoted  by  the  words,  Var,  n^o'^,  "713.:, 
(Buxtorf,  Lex.  Chald.  p.  849,  850.)  Hence  the 
washing  of  vessels  with  water  is  called  j3artrt5- 
ixoi,  Mark,  vii.  4.  And  instead  of  vC'^vtai,  in 
ver.  3  of  the  same  chapter,  we  have  in  ver.  4, 
jSartncwiraf  SO  also  of  the  washing  of  hands, 
Luke,  xi.  38,  seq.  (In  the  New  Testament  the 
form  o  |3artrtcT/i6j  is  never  used  for  the  religious 
rite  of  baptism,  either  of  John  or  of  Chiist;  but 
always  ■^6  jidrcttnua..)  Hence  it  is  often  used 
tropically,  (a)  For  what  flows,  or  is  communi- 
cated, to  any  one  in  full  measure;  as  in  Latin, 
perfundere,  imbuere,  &c.^-e.  g..  Acts,  i.  5. 
{b)  For  severe  sufferings  which  befal  any  one — 
e.  g..  Matt.  XX.  22,  23 ;  for  these  are  often  com- 
pared with  waves  which  overflow  any  one;  Ps. 
Ixix.  2,  3.  So  among  the  Latins, ^t<c/us  mi- 
scrix,  mergi  malis.  Hence  martyrdom  is  called 
by  the  ancients,  baptisma  sanguinis.     In  the 


classics, — e.  g.,  in  Plato, — a  drunken  person  is 
said  to  be  |3artri9^f  15,  vino  imbutus,  mersus. 

(2)  Ka^a,u/j|u65,  John,  iii.  25;  because  by 
washing  purification  is  effected,  and  baptism 
represents  purification  from  sins,  and  is  design- 
ed to  promote  this  end  in  the  one  who  is  bap- 
tized. Hence  Josephus  (xviii.  7)  employs  ix- 
zo^at'pftv  in  respect  to  the  baptism  of  John. 
Perhaps,  too,  2  Peter,  i.  9,  (xa^oftT,«6j  tw» 
TtaXat,  a^apritov,  coll.  Eph.  v.  2(5)  belongs  in 
this  connexion. 

(3)  To  v5iop,  because  baptism  was  adminis- 
tered with  water;  John,  iii.  5,  coll.  Acts,  x.  47; 
Eph.  v.  2G,  seq. 

(4)  Among  the  church  fathers  one  of  the 
oldest  names  was  ^t<;ri5ud{,  from  the  instruction 
which  the  subject  of  this  rite  received  in  con- 
nexion with  his  baptism,  as  Justin  the  Martyr 
(Apol.  i.  61)  explains  it.  The  Syriac,  too, 
translates  tohi  arta|  ^uirif^ivta^  (Heb.  vi.  4), 
those  once  baptized,  which  version  Michaelis 
follows,  though  it  is  a  doubtful  rendering.  Bap- 
tism is  moreover  called  by  the  church  fathers, 
ofpayc.'?,  sigillum,  (^character  Chrisliani,)  ;^uptj, 
XapLrsy-O;  ivbv/xa  d^^aptjiaj,  x.  t.  X. 

II.  Institution  of  Baptism,  and  the  principal  texts 
relating  to  it. 
Jesus,  even  during  his  life  upon  the  earth, 
required  those  who  wished  to  become  his  dis- 
ciples to  be  baptized  by  his  apostles;  John,  iii. 
22,  coll.  ver.  5  of  the  same  chapter,  and  chapter 
iv.  1,  2.  But  at  that  time  none  but  Jews  were 
received  into  his  church  and  baptized;  as  was 
the  case  also  with  John  in  his  baptism.  Shortly 
before  his  ascension  to  heaven,  he  first  gave  the 
commission  to  his  apostles  to  admit  all  (.tavro 
X^vr^  into  the  Christian  church,  and  to  baptize 
them  without  distinction  ;  Matt,  xxviii.  IS — 20, 
cf.  INIark,  xvi.  15,  16.  They  were  to  be  made 
disciples  of  Jesus  Christ,  or  professors  of  his 
religion  (^iia^rj ivfiv^  in  a  twofold  manner— 
viz.,  by  baptism  and  by  instruction.  They  were 
to  be  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Spirit — i.  e.,  by  baptism  they  were 
to  be  obligated  to  accept  and  obey  the  doctrine 
which  acknowledges  and  receives  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Spirit.  Whoever,  therefore,  is  bap- 
tized, declares  by  this  rite  that  he  acknowledges 
Father,  Son,  and  Spirit  for  his  God,  that  he 
will  obey  his  laws,  and  that  he  expects  protec- 
tion and  blessing  from  him;  and  God,  on  the 
other  hand,  promises  and  grants  to  him  the  en- 
joyment of  all  the  benefits  which  the  gospel  of 
Christ  enjoins  upon  us  to  expect  from  the  Fa- 
ther, Son,  and  Holy  Spirit.  For  a  more  full 
explanation  of  this  formula,  vide  s.  35,  I.,  and 
Morus,  p.  275,  s.  2,  3.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
some  that  Christ  did  not  design  in  this  passage 
so  much  to  prescribe  a  precise  formula, — in 
which  case  he  would  rather  have  said,  •'  Bap- 


484 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


tize  ye,  and  say,  I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of  t)u 
FuLhtr,  Sun,  and  lluly  Spirit,'''' — but  that  lie 
merely  intended  to  teach  what  is  the  meaning 
and  ol)ject  of  this  rite.  That  this  command  of 
Christ  was  obeyed  by  the  apostles  may  be  seen 
,  from  the  Acts  and  Episth^s.  The  other  i  in  port- 
ant  passages  concerning  the  object,  design,  and 
effect  of  baptism— e.  g.,  John,  iii.  5;  Titus,  iii. 
5;  Acts,  xxii,  IG;  Gal.  iii.  27;  Rom.  vi.  3,4; 
Ephes.  V.  StJ;  1  Pet.  iii.  21,  &c.,  will  be  ex- 
plained in  the  following  sections. 

in.   Origin  of  Christian  Baptism  ,■  the  Baptism  of 
John,  and  the  Jewish  Baptism  of  Proseti/tes. 

(1)  John  baptized  before  Christ  appeared 
publicly  as  a  teacher,  and  Christ  even  suffered 
himself  to  be  baptized  by  him.  The  baptism 
of  John  is  (lescril)ed,  equally  with  the  baptism 
of  Christ,  as  a  divine  institution,  and  as  per- 
formed under  divine  authority;  John,  i.  3.3, 
(God  sent  him  to  baptize,)  and  Luke,  vii.  30, 
where  it  is  called  a  divine  institution  (jiov\ri 
idtov),  and  Matt.  xxi.  25,  seq. 

(2)  But  although  this  is  a  divine  institution, 
we  nmst  siiil  seek  among  the  prevailing  prac- 
tices and  expectations  of  the  Israelites  the  more 
immediate  reason  why  just  this  and  no  other 
form  of  initiation  was  then  introduced  by  John 
and  Christ.  From  the  passage,  John,  i.  25,  it 
is  manifest  that  the  Jews  (the  Sanhedrim  and 
the  Pharisees)  expected  that  the  Messiah  and 
his  herald  Elias  would  baptize.  Cf.  Lightfoot 
on  this  text.  And  so,  many  even  among  the 
learned  (the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees)  suffered 
ihemsclves  to  be  baptized  by  John  (Matt.  iii. 
7);  which  probably  would  not  have  been  the 
case  if  baptism  had  been  to  them  a  strange  and 
unheard  of  thing.  The  Israelites,  like  many 
other  nations,  had  different  forms  of  lustration 
and  washings  with  water,  which  were  clearly 
prescribed  by  their  law,  by  means  of  which  they 
sanctified,  consecrated,  and  cleansed  themselves 
from  impurities.  Vide  Wetstein  on  Matt.  iii. 
C.  As,  now,  the  Messiah  was  to  bring  about 
a  general  reformation,  and  to  estahlish  a  new 
constitution,  into  which  every  one  must  be  so- 
lemnly initiated,  and  to  which  he  must  be  con- 
secrated ;  as,  moreover,  it  was  the  universal 
expectation,  according  to  the  prophets,  that  he 
would  cleanse  men  from  their  sins,  which  was 
exactly  typified  by  the  washings  in  the  Levi- 
lical  law;  it  does  not  seem  unnatural  that  just 
this  form  of  initiation  should  have  been  expect- 
ed by  the  Jews,  and  should,  in  fact,  have  been 
chosHii  by  John  and  ('hrist,  according  to  divine 
appointment. 

If,  DOW,  the  baptism  of  proselytes  was  custom- 
arj  among  the  Jews  at  or  before  the  time  of 
Clirist.  many  things  could  be  explained  still 
more  clearly  from  this  circumstance  The  Tal- 
mud and  its  interpreters  relate  that  the  prose- 


lytes, as  well  circumcised,  as  uncircumcised, 
were  initiated  by  baptism  into  the  worship  of 
the  one  true  God,  and  that  this  was  a  symbol 
of  purification  from  sin,  and  of  the  renunciatioo 
of  heathenism;  and  that  they  were  then  consi- 
dered as  born  a^ain — exactly  the  expression 
used  by  Christ  (John,  iii.)  and  by  Paul  (Tit. 
iii.)  respecting  Christian  baptism.  Vide  3. 
12t;,  II.  The  Talmudists  make  this  practice 
very  ancient,  and  place  it  as  far  back  as  the 
time  of  Moses,  and  even  further,  (which  pro- 
bably is  going  too  far,  as  their  way  is.)  The 
oldest  passage  respecting  a  religious  cleansing, 
or  sort  of  baptism,  occurs  in  Jacob's  history, 
(Gen.  XXXV.  2,)  when  he  puts  away  the  idols 
in  his  house,  and  builds  an  altar  to  Jehovah. 
This  passage  may  certainly  have  induced  the 
Israelites  to  adopt  this  custom.  So  much  is 
certain,  that  as  early  as  the  second  century  pro- 
selyte baptism  must  have  been  very  customary; 
since  in  the  Dissertations  of  Epictetus  (ii.  9), 
published  by  Arrian,  /Sfpa/i^fvoj  -signifies  a 
Jewish  proselyte,  and  rtajmiartriTj^fij,  one  who 
had  not  sincerely  embraced  Judaism.  Others, 
however,  are  inclined  to  think  that  Christiana 
are  here  meant,  and  that  Epictetus  confounded 
them  with  the  Jews.  For  these  reasons,  Dantz 
firmly  maintained  that  the  b^iptism  of  proselytes 
was,  as  it  were,  the  prelude  of  the  baptism  of 
John  and  of  Christ;  and  he  is  followed  by  Mi- 
chaelis.  Less,  and  others.  Cf.  his  treatise  de 
antiquitale  baptismi  initiationis  Israel,  in  Meu- 
schen's  N.  T.  c  Talmudc  illustrato,  p.  133,  f. 
and  Wetstein  on  Matt.  iii.  G. 

There  is  much  for  and  much  against  the 
opinion  that  proselyte  baptism  was  customary  in 
the  first  century,  and  even  earlier,  (o)  .h^ainst. 
There  is  not  found,  even  to  the  present  time, 
one  distinct  evidence  of  it  in  any  writer  before, 
at,  or  shortly  after,  the  time  of  Christ;  not  in 
Philo, — not  in  Josephus,  even  when  he  spea'ks 
of  the  conversicm  of  the  Iilumeans,  under  John 
llyrkan,  to  Judaism  (xiii.  D),  where  he  simply 
mentions  circumcision, — not  even  in  the  Chal- 
daic  paraphrases.  Zeltner  firmly  opposes  to 
Dantz  this  stubborn  silence  of  the  writers  near 
the  ago  of  Christ,  (^b)  In  favour.  The  unani- 
mous testimony  of  all  the  Rabbins, — the  univer- 
sality of  this  practice  among  the  Jews  of  the 
second  century,  since  it  can  scarcely  be  thought 
that  they  would  have  borrowed  it  from  the 
Christians,  who  were  so  hated  and  despised  by 
them, — the  striking  similarity  of  the  Jewish  ex- 
pressions, concerning  the  baptism  of  proselytes, 
with  those  which  occur  in  tlie  New  'I'estament 
respecting  the  Christian  rile  (^rmcneratio), — also 
ttie  circumstance  that  Josephus,  in  his  account 
of  Joiin  the  Baptist,  does  not  ex|)ress  the  least 
surprise  at  this  practice  as  a  new  and  unwonted 
cereinoiiy.  This  last  arjii  ment.  however,  is 
invalidated  by  the  remark,  that  it  is  known  to 


STATE  INtA  which  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      4fl5 


have  been  expected  that  the  precursor  of  the 
Messiah  would  baptize.  Besides,  it  appears 
that  the  baptism  of  John  did  excite  amonw  the 
Jews  some  degree  of  surprise.  This  is  s«en 
from  the  question,  why  haptizesi  thou  then?  and 
from  W\she'\f\^  cwWeA  the  B'lpHst.  Ziegler  has 
lately  maintained,  with  very  probable  reasons, 
that  the  antiquity  of  the  Jewish  baptism  of  pro- 
selytes ascends  beyond  the  orijjin  of  Christian- 
ity. Cf.  his  Theoloarical  P^ssays,  part  ii.  (Cot- 
tingen,  1801,)  Num.  3,  "Concerning  the  Bap- 
tism of  John  as  the  unaltered  application  of  the 
Jewish  Baptism  of  Proselytes,  and  concerning 
the  Baptism  of  Christ  as  the  continuation  of  that 
of  John."  But  although  much  may  be  advanced 
in  support  of  this  opinion,  it  cannot  be  relied 
upon  with  certainty,  since  it  is  entirely  destitute 
of  clear  contemporary  evidence. 

IV.   Was  the  Baptism  of  John  different  from 
Christian  Baptism? 

Many  theologians  of  the  Romish  church  for- 
merly maintained  that  there  is  a  difference,  but 
protestants  usually  take  the  opposite  side,  al- 
though some,  especially  the  more  modern,  have 
again  adopted  the  former  opinion.  The  follow- 
ing observations  may  serve  to  settle  the  mat- 
ter:— 

(1)  The  object  of  John's  baptism  was  the  same 
tvilh  that  of  Christian ;  and  from  this  it  may  be 
at  once  concluded  that  it  did  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  latter.  John  exhorted  the  per- 
sons baptized  by  him  to  repentance  (uftarota) 
and  to  faith  in  the  I\Iessiah  who  was  shortly  to 
appear,  and  made  these  duties  obligatory  upon 
thetfi  by  this  rite,  Matt.-  iii.  11;  Luke,  iii.; 
Mark,  i. ;  John,  i. ;  Acts,  ii.  38.  And  as  soon 
as  Jesus  publicly  appeared,  John  asserted  in  the 
most  forcible  manner  that  he  was  the  Messiah, 
and  so  required  of  all  whom  he  had  then  or  be- 
fore baptized,  that  they  should  believe  in  Jesus 
as  the  Messiah.  Now  in  Christian  baptism, 
repentance  and  faith  in  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  are 
likewise  the  principal  things  which  are  required 
on  the  part  of  the  subjects  of  this  rite. 

(2)  The  practice  of  the  first  Christian  church 
confirms  the  point  that  the  baptism  of  John  was 
considered  essentially  the  same  with  Christian 
baptism.  For  those  who  acknowledged  that 
they  had  professed,  by  the  baptism  of  John,  to 
believe  in  Jesus  as  the  Christ,  and  who  in  con- 
sequence of  this  had  become  in  fact  his  disci- 
ples, and  had  believed  in  him,  were  not,  in  a 
single  instance,  baptized  again  into  Christ,  be- 
cause tliis  was  considered  as  having  been  already 
done.  TIence  we  do  not  find  that  any  apostle  or 
•iny  other  disciple  of  Jesus  was  the  second  time 
baptized;  not  even  that  Apollos  mentioned  in 
Acts,  xviii.  25,  because  he  had  before  believed 
in  Jesus  as  Christ,  altliough  he  had  received 
Oftly  the  baptism  of  John. 


(3)  But  all  those  disciples  of  John  who  had 
not  before  acknowledged  this  trutli,  and  had  re- 
ceived the  baptism  of  John  or  his  successfT>  in 
an  entire!}' different  signification,  were  pro|n-rly 
considered  at  the  time  of  the  apostles  as  ni  i  be- 
ing baptized,  or  as  wrongly  baptized,  and  ill 
such  were  therefore  required  to  be  baptized  >  x- 
pressly  into  Christ  as  the  Messiah,  This  w  iS 
the  case  with  the  Jews,  who,  according  to  Acts, 
ii.  41,  were  baptized  into  Jesus,  among  whc m 
were  many  whom  John  had  baptized,  hut  who 
had  not  then  recognised  Jesus  as  the  Messinh, 
and  had  even  taken  part  in  his  crucifixion,  Tiiis 
was  likewise  the  case  with  those  persons  w  horn 
Paul  (Acts,  xix.  1 — 5)  permitted  to  be  bai'iized 
at  Ephesus,  although  they  had  already  rue-ived 
the  baptism  of  John.  The!<-  is  in  this  place 
nothing  that  needs  to  be  artificially  explained. 
The  meaning  is,  "That  when  they  heard  from 
Paul  thai  it  was  essential  to  baptism  that  one 
should  believe  in  Jesus  as  the  Lord  and  Christ, 
(which  they  hitherto  had  not  done,  since  the 
disciples  of  John  who  baptized  thein  had  said 
nothing  to  them  about  it,)  they  were  then  will- 
ing to  suffer  themselves  to  be  solemnly  obli- 
gated by  baptism  to  the  acknowledgment  of 
Jesus."  Vide  Bengel's  Gnomon,  ad  h.  1.  and 
Semler,  Diss,  ad  Acts,  xix.  1,  seq.  This  was 
the  more  necessary  at  that  time,  as  many  of  the 
disciples  of  John  had  entirely  separated  them- 
selves from  the  Christians.  These  false  disci- 
ples of  John  still  continued  to  practise  John's 
baptism  into  the  approaching  Messiah,  but  de- 
nied that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah.  Even  to  the 
present  day  there  are  remnants  of  this  sect  in 
Syria  and  Arabia.  Vide  Norberg,  Von  der  Re- 
ligion und  Sprache  der  Zabier,  and  Walch,  De 
Sabaeis,  in  the  Comment.  Soc.  Gott.  1780  and 
1781.  There  is  much  directed  against  the  false 
disciples  of  John  in  the  accounts  given  by  the 
Evangelists  respecting  John  the  Baptist.  Vide 
Storr,  Ueber  den  Zweck  der  evang.  Gesch.  und 
der  Briefe  Johannis;  Tubingen,  1786,  8vo;  2d 
ed.  1809.  There  is  nothing  therefore  in  the 
passages  Acts  ii.  and  xix.  which  favours  the 
doctrine  that  those  who  had  been  baptized  by 
John  were  required  to  be  re-baptized,  in  order 
to  admission  into  the  church  of  Christ. 

SECTION  CXXXIX. 

HOW  AND  BY  WHOM  BAPTISM  IS  TO  BE  ADMI.VI3 
TEUED;  and  RESPECTINCr  THE  OPTIONAL  AND 
UNESSENTIAL  THINGS  ATTENDING  THE  OBSERV- 
ANCE OF  THIS  RITE. 

I.  Concerning  Immersion,  Affusion,  and  Sprinkling 
with  Water. 

(1)  It  is  certain  that  in  Christian  baptism, 
as  in  the  baptism  of  John,  only  water  was  used 
by  Christ  and  his  apostles.     Vide  John,  iii   5 
2s2 


486 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


E|)hes.  V.  26.  But  after  baptism  in  itself  con- 
sidered, and  simply  as  an  optis  opiratiim,  came 
to  lie  regarded  as  essential  to  salvation,  the 
question  was  started,  Whether,  in  the  want  of 
water,  baptisin  could  be  performed  with  any 
oth'T  material— e.  g.,  wine,  milk,  or  sand  ]  The 
question  must  be  answered  in  the  negative, 
since  to  do  this  would  be  contrary  to  the  insti- 
tution of  Christ.  For  any  one  to  be  prevented 
n*'<-essarily  from  being  ba|)tized  does  not  subject 
him  to  condemnation,  but  only  the  wilful  and 
criminal  refusal  of  this  rite. 

("2)  I/nmerxion  is  peculiarly  agreeable  to  the 
institution  of  Christ,  and  to  tiie  practice  of  tiie 
ajiostolical  church,  and  so  even  John  baptized, 
and  immersion  remained  con)mon  for  a  long 
time  after;  except  that  in  the  third  century,  or 
perhaps  earlier,  tlie  bap.tism  of  the  sick  (bap- 
tisinn  c/inieoruni)  was  performed  by  sprinkling 
or  atTusion.  Still  some  would  not  acknowledge 
this  to  be  true  baptism,  and  controversy  arose 
concerning  it,  so  unheard  of  was  it  at  that  time 
to  baptize  by  simple  afTusion.  Cyprian  first 
defended  baptism  by  sprinkling,  when  necessity 
called  for  it,  hut  cautiously  and  with  much  limi- 
tati'jn.  By  degrees,  however,  this  mode  of  bap- 
tism became  more  customary,  probably  because 
ii  was  found  more  convenient;  especially  was 
this  the  case  after  the  seventh  century,  and  in 
the  Western  church,  but  it  did  not  become  uni- 
versal until  the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  Yet  Thomas  Aquinas  had  approved 
and  promoted  this  innovation  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  before.  In  the  Greek  and  Eastern 
church  they  still  held  to  immersion.  It  would 
have  been  better  to  have  adhered  generally  to 
the  ancient  practice,  as  even  IjUther  and  Calvin 
allowed.  VideSlorr,  Docl.  Christ.  Pars  iheoret., 
p.  2'Jl.  If  it  is  asked,  however,  if  immersion 
is  so  essential  that  one  who  has  been  only 
sprinkled  is  not  to  be  considered  as  properly  a 
baptized  person,  it  may  be  answered,  No  !  No- 
thing more  is  essential  to  the  external  part  of 
baptism  than  that  water  be  used,  (Acts,  x.  47; 
John.  iii.  5,)  and  thai  tlie  subject,  by  the  solemn 
use  of  this  rite,  be  consecrated  to  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Spirit,  and  be  pledged  to  obey  the 
Christian  doctrine.  Malt,  xxviii.  19.  The  wash- 
ing with  water  is  considered  as  the  symbol  of 
the  purification  of  sins,  and  this  can  be  siirnified 
as  well  by  afl'usion  as  by  immersion.  Hence, 
even  in  allusion,  the  external  siijnificancy  of  the 
rite  is  retained.  And  this  is  the  reason  why 
many  in  the  Western  church,  and  even  in  the 
protestant  church,  have  contended  thai  this  riH' 
should  be  administered,  not  prr  ndsptraiontm, 
but  pvr  Ifir^iorem  nqu;e  offuslniirui. 

(r{)  There  is  no  command  given  concerning 
tl*'  ijiiesiiun,  whether  immersion  or  alTusion 
shouhl  lie  performed  only  once,  or  more  than 
ojice;  this  therefore  is  in  itself  optional.     In 


the  Greek  church  we  find  the  thrc(f>-)ld  imme^ 
sion  earlier  and  more  prevalent  than  in  the  La- 
tin; whence  the  Greeks  objected  to  the  Latins, 
liasilius  and  Hieronymus  say  that  tl.-is  was 
practised  in  conformity  with  an  ancient  tradi- 
tion ;  and  if  it  was  not  common  in  the  first 
church,  perhaps  the  controversies  with  the 
Antilrinitarians  in  the  third  century  might  have 
given  the  first  occasion  for  it.  In  the  African 
church  it  was  already  common  in  the  times  of 
TertuUian  and  Cyprian,  and  in  the  apostolical 
constitutions  it  was  so  ordained.  At  the  fourth 
church  council  at  Toledo,  in  the  year  633,  this 
threefold  immersion  was  first  established  by 
ecclesiastical  authority  in  the  Latin  church,  in 
opposition  to  the  Arians. 

(4)  It  is  also  optional  whether  the  head,  the 
forehead,  or  the  breast,  be  wet  with  the  water; 
and  in  this  respect  the  one  who  administers  this 
sacrament  must  govern  himself  according  to  the 
usages  of  his  own  particular  church. 

II.  On  the  use  of  FormtUas  in  Baptism. 

The  formulas  used  in  administering  baptism 
have  always  been  very  diflerent.  In  the  Greek 
church  it  is  still  common  to  say,  as  formerly, 
Baptizdur  hie,  or  hfic  {scrvtis,  or  sirva  Dei)  in 
nomine,  &c.  In  the  Latin  church  the  subject  is 
addressed,  I  baptize  thee  in  the  name,  &c.  The 
formula  adopted  by  some  of  baptizing  in  the 
name  '^  (fGon  the  Father,  Con  l/ie  Sun,  and  iioo 
the  IJi'hj  Gliost,''^  is  liable  to  be  misunderstood, 
as  it  might  be  interpreted  to  mean  thai  there  are. 
three  gods.  It  has  appeareil  str.wige  to  some 
that  we  lind  in  the  New  Testament  no  passage 
from  which  it  plainly  appears  that  the  words 
useii  Matt,  xxviii.,  in  the  name  nf  the  Father, 
&c.,  were  used  in  the  apostolical  church.  Foi 
we  always  find  only,  n<;  X|)nro»'  or  '\rr,oiv. — ftj 
ufoua  Ki'|)(ov  or  'Iriov — e.  g.,  Hom.  vi.  3;  Gal. 
iii,  -27;  Acts,  ii.  38;  x.  48;  xix.  5.  The  opi- 
nions on  this  subject  are  not  unanimous.  (I) 
We  might  say,  with  some,  that  although  the 
formula  in  Matthew  xxviii.  were  not  used  in 
the  apostolical  church,  but  it  was  merely  snid 
in  the  name  nf  Jesus — i.  e.,  into  the  profession 
of  Christ  and  his  doctrine — yet  this  was  entirely 
the  same  with  the  other,  because  it  compre- 
hended ihc  profession  of  the  Father  and  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  since  whoever  was  baptized  into 
Jesus  by  this  act  professed  his  belief  in  the 
whale  doctrine  of  Christ,  and  therefore  in  that 
which  be  tau<rht  concerning  the  Father,  SoOi 
and  Holy  Spirit.  Basilins  endeavoured  to  ex- 
plain the  ihiiig  in  this  way.  (2)  Others  (and 
among  the  rest,  Facundus  Hermianensis.  De 
Tribus  C.ipit.  i.  3)  are  of  opinion  that  it  does 
not  follow  fiom  these  j)laces  that  they  did  not 
fully  employ  ilie  prescribeil  formulas  in  bap- 
tism; but  that  Christian  baptism  was  so  namfd 
in  distinction   from  the  baptism  of  Join,  and 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       487 


from  the  Jewish  proselyte  baptism,  since  one 
who  had  received  this  proselyte  baptism,  or  had 
wron<(ly  understood  that  of  John,  was  not  bap- 
tized into  Christ.  This  can  be  reconciled  very 
well,  at  least  with  Acts,  xix.  5,  and  with  some 
other  places.  Vide  s.  138,  II.  But  in  addition 
to  these  there  is  a  third  reason.  (3)  In  the  an- 
cient Christian  church  immediately  after  the 
time  of  the  apostles,  the  words  prescribed  by 
Christ  at  the  establishment  of  this  rite  were  cer- 
tainly used,  (Just.  M.  Ap.  1,  80.)  It  may  there- 
fore be  rjffhtiy  inferred  that  it  was  the  same  at 
llie  time  of  the  apostles ;  and  that  it  is  right  and 
proper  to  continue  in  this  use.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, forbidden  to  unite  with  this  other  formulas 
which  are  suitable,  and  which  serve  to  explain 
the  desiijn  of  this  rite,  and  to  excite  pious  feel- 
ings. The  teacher  will  of  course  govern  him- 
self in  this  matter  according  to  the  circumstances, 
the  constitution,  and  usages  of  the  particular 
church  to  which  he  may  belong. 

III.  By  whom  is  Baptism  to  he  administered? 

In  ordinary  cases,  certainly  by  the  teachers 
of  religion:  for  it  is  their  appropriate  business 
and  calling  to  lead  disciples  to  Christ,  {(.io^r,- 
rsvuv,)  and  this  duty  is  also  couimitled  to  them 
by  the  church  and  government.  We  find,  there- 
fore, that  baptism  in  the  apostolical  church  was 
always  administered  by  the  teachers.  Vide 
John,  iv.  2;  Acts,  x.  48;  1  Cor.  i.  16.  But 
although  ihis  ^a^i^TfiifU'  is  the  appropriate  busi- 
ness of  teachers,  still  they  have  no  exclusive 
right  to  it,  as  this  is  nowliere  given  to  them  in 
the  New  Testament.  But  in  case  of  necessity, 
and  when  no  teachers  can  be  obtained,  baptism 
may  be  administered  by  any  Christian,  and  is 
valid  if  it  is  performed  according  to  the  institu- 
tion of  Christ.  Vide  s.  ISfi,  II.  2.  This  has 
been  the  doctrine  and  practice  which  has  univer- 
sally prevailed  in  the  church. 

IV.  How  far  a  knowledge  of  Christian  Doctrines  is 
essential  in  the  subjects  of  Baptism. 
This  knowledge  must  certainly  be  presup- 
posed in  adults  before  they  can  be  baptized.  For 
how  could  they  solemnly  profess,  as  they  do  in 
baptism,  to  believe,  and  pledge  themselves  to 
obey,  a  doctrine  respecting  which  they  were 
wholly  isjnorant?  We  find,  therefore,  even  in 
the  writings  of  the  New  Testament,  that  the 
candidates  for  baptism  were  previously  instruct- 
ed. But  this  instruction  was  by  no  means  par- 
ticular; it  was  confined  to  the  main,  funda- 
mental trutlis  of  Christianity  ;  the  doctrine  of  one 
God;  the  principal  articles  respecting  Christ ; 
that  he  is  the  Messiah ;  and  that  through  him 
we  receive  forgiveness  from  God  ;  also  concern- 
ing the  Holy  Spirit  protnised  to  Christians,  and 
the  indispensable  necessity  of  repentance  and 
lujlincss :  these  are  the  principal  truths  in  which 


the  candidates  for  baptism  were,  briefly  instruct- 
ed. When  they  were  sufliciently  acciuainied  with 
these  truths,  and  had  professed  them  from  the 
heart,  they  were  allowed  baptism,  and  received  af- 
terwards more  complete  instruction  both  in  these 
and  the  other  Christian  doctrines.  Cf.  Acts,  ii. 
41;  viii.l2,36,seq.;ix.l7,  18;x.34 — 18,  where 
in  the  words  of  Peter  we  have  an  example  of 
the  instruction  commonly  given  before  baptism. 
Cf.  Heb.  vi.  1,  seq.  In  the  great  addition  of 
new  converts  in  the  first  period  of  Christianity, 
this  preparatory  instruction  could  not  possibly 
be  very  long  or  particular,  especially  as  the 
teachers  of  religion  were  yet  few.  Accordingly, 
the  confessions  of  faith  to  be  made  in  baptism 
were  at  first  very  short  and  simple;  such,  for 
example,  was  the  symbolum  aposlolicum,  so  call- 
ed ;  but  this  was  gradually  enlarged  by  the  ad- 
dition of  new  distinctons,  by  wtiieh  the  orthodox 
endeavoured  to  distinguish  themselves  from  he- 
retics. 'J''he  instruction  of  catechumens  and  the 
time  of  probation  preceding  baptism  were  by 
degrees  increased  and  prcdonged;  and  for  this 
there  was  good  reason.  For  as  the  number  of 
Christian  proselytes  constantly  increased,  and 
multitudes  were  pressing  into  the  church, 
greater  caution  became  necessary  in  admitting 
them.  This  led  to  the  appointment  of  fixed 
periods  for  the  probation  of  new  converts  before 
baptism. 

V.  Usages  incidental  to  Baptism,  but  not  essential 
to  its  Validity. 

Many  of  these  are  very  ancient,  but  they  may 
all  be  dispensed  with  without  atlecting  the  vali- 
dity of  Christian  baptism,  because  they  are  not 
commanded  by  Christ.  In  Christian  archaeo- 
logy and  church  history  they  are  more  fully  ex- 
hibited than  they  can  be  here.  We  mention 
only  some  of  those  which  are  still  common 
among  us. 

(1)  The  sign  of  the  cross  appears  to  have 
been  first  introduced  in  connexion  with  baptism 
in  the  fourth  century,  and  is  intended  to  be  a 
solemn  memorial  of  the  death  of  Christ;  Rom. 
vi.  3. 

(2)  The  imposition  of  a  name;  this  was  also 
done  in  connexion  with  Jewish  circumcisions. 

(3)  The  laying  on  of  hands,  as  a  symbol  of 
the  confimunication  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  or  of  the 
gift  of  sanctification,  which  in  this  way  is  so- 
lemnly sought  of  God  for  the  subject  of  baptism, 
and  promised  to  him.  This  is  mentioned  even 
by  Tertullian. 

(4)  Sponsors  at  baptism.  Tertullian  (De 
Bapt.  ch.  18)  menti"ns  these  as  being  present 
at  the  baptism  of  children;  but  they  were  also 
concerned  in  the  performance  of  this  rite  for 
adult  persons;  just  as  sponsors  were  called  in 
at  the  rite  of  circumcision  among  the  Jews. 
Such  only,  however,  as  belong  to  the  Christian 


488 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


church  can  be  employed  for  this  servicp;  hea- 
thens, Jews,  Mahommedans,  and  ollie.s  who 
are  not  members  of  the  Christian  church  may 
be  present  at  the  rite,  but  not  as  valid  sponsors. 

(5)  The  subjects  of  baptism  must  renounce 
Satan.  Tiiis  denoted  originally  an  entire  renun- 
ciation on  their  part  of  heathenism  and  of  hea- 
then superstitions,  and  also  of  the  entire  dispo- 
sition which  had  bt  fore  prevailed  within  them, 
as  far  as  it  was  opposed  to  Christianity. 

(())  Exorcism.  The  first  traces  of  this  prac- 
tice appear  in  Africa,  in  the  third  century,  as  we 
learn  from  Cyprian's  letter,  although  a  founda- 
tion for  it  was  laid  as  early  as  the  second  cen- 
tury. It  had  its  rise  in  various  opinions,  in  a 
great  measure  superstitious,  respecting  the  phy- 
sical agency  of  the  devil  upon  men,  and  in  the 
idea  that  evil  spirits  may  be  driven  off  by  the 
use  of  formulas  and  certain  charmed  words.  It 
was  at  first  practised  only  at  the  baptism  of  hea- 
then, who  were  regarded  as  persons  possessed 
by  the  devil ;  but  it  came  afterwards  to  be  em- 
ployed at  the  baptism  of  the  children  of  Chris- 
tian parents.  Vide  Kraft,  Ausfiirhliche  Historic 
des  Exorcismus ;  Hamburg,  1750.  Concern- 
ing the  oiher  usages  in  baptism,  vide,  besides 
the  ancient  authors,  (e.  g.,  Vosii  Disertatt.  cf. 
6.  137,  I.  I,)  Calixtus,  Diss,  de  Antiq.  Ritibus 
Bapt. ;  Helmstildt,  KiSO;  Noesselt's  historical 
investigation  and  illustration  of  the  usages  com- 
mon in  baptism,  published  in  the  weekly  "  An- 
zeiger"  at  Halle,  1764,  No.  28—32. 

Nole. — The  rite  of  exorcism  has  been  pro- 
perly abandoned  in  most  places  in  the  proteslant 
church.  Although  it  is  well  explained  in  the 
Lutheran  church,  as  a  confession  of  the  natural 
corruption  of  indwelling  sin  and  of  redemption 
from  it,  and  in  various  other  ways,  still  it  is  cal- 
culated to  promote  superstition  and  serious  error 
in  the  community  at  large;  and,  what  is  most 
important,  to  excite  contempt  among  the  lightly 
disposed.  Morus  gives  the  same  opinion,  (p. 
257,  note  3.) 

It  may  bo  remarked,  in  general,  that  some  of 
the  usages  common  in  many  places  at  infant 
baptism  are  not  at  all  suitable  to  children,  and 
have  been  transferred,  without  mucii  judgment, 
to  their  baptism,  from  that  of  ad\ilt  ])ersons. 
Among  these  inappropriate  services  we  may 
place  the  confession  nffiiilh,  and  the  renunciation 
of  tiie  devil.  Instead  of  these,  it  would  be  more 
appropriate  and  profitable  to  have  a  sincere 
prayer,  in  which  the  new  member  of  the  Chris- 
tian church  should  be  commended  to  the  care 
and  blessing  of  God  ;  and  at  the  sanje  time  a 
feeling  exliortati(m  to  parents  and  other  specta- 
tors, in  which  they  should  be  impressively  re- 
minded of  the  duties  which  tiiey  owe  as  Chris- 
tians to  their  children,  and  those  entrusted  to 
their  watchful  care.  Much  depends  in  things 
of  this  nature  upon  the  teacher,  who,  even  where 


the  rites  are  not  exactly  suitable,  can  obviate 
mistake  and  remove  ignorance  by  proper  expla- 
nations. Even  the  best  formulary  in  baptism 
will  alTect  spectators  but  little  if  they  see  that 
the  teacher  uses  it  without  any  emotion,  and  re- 
peats it  with  a  heartless  voice  and  manner.  The 
teacher  needs  to  be  on  his  guard  against  per- 
forming the  duties  of  his  office — especially  those 
which  frequently  recur,  as  the  Lord's  Supper  and 
baptism — in  a  merely  mechanical  way.  When 
he  performs  religious  services  with  a  cold  heart, 
it  cannot  be  expected  that  others  present  should 
engage  in  them  with  warm  devotion.  A  teacher 
who  discharges  his  duties  in  this  manner  must 
lose  in  the  good  opinion  of  his  hearers;  and  the 
blame  is  his  own  if  he  at  last  becomes  con- 
temptible in  their  view. 

SECTION   CXL. 

OBJECT,  USES,  AND  EFFECTS  OF  CHRISTIAN 
BAPTISM. 

The  uses  and  effects  of  baptism  are  divided, 
as  in  the  sacraments  in  general,  into  internai 
and  external. 

I.  External  Advantages  and  Effects  of  Baptism. 

By  means  of  this  rite  we  are  received  as  mem- 
bers of  the  visible  Christian  society,  and  conse- 
quently become  partakers  of  all  the  privileges 
belonging  to  Christians.  It  is  therefore,  consi- 
dered in  this  light,  the  solemn  initiatory  rite  of 
admission  into  the  Christian  church,  {sncrn- 
inentum  iniliationis.)  This  is  mentioned  ex- 
pressly in  the  New  Testament  as  the  design 
and  object  of  baptism.  As  soon  as  a  person 
was  baptized  he  was  considered  as  a  member 
of  the  church,  (aytoj,  fta^trjr^,  rttirfvwv,)  Acts, 
ii.  41,  44,  and  entitled  to  all  the  rigliis  of  other 
('hristians.  1  Cor.  xii.  13, '*  Whether  we  be 
.lews  or  Gentiles,  whether  we  be  bond  or 
free;  tij  'iv  owua  £,3artri'f!^>;ufv" — i.  e.,  we  are 
united  by  baptism  into  one  church,  and  have, 
as  members  of  it,  equal  rights.  Viile  ver.  12, 
27.  Whence  Paul  says,  Eph.  iv,  1,  5,  there 
is  tV  ,3u'rtri'Jjua,  (one  common  baptism.)  and  iV 
fiCjua,  (one  church,)  and  uiofXrtij  of  (-hristians; 
and  (»al.  iii.  27,  "As  many  of  you  as  have  been 
baptized  into  Christ,  have  put  on  (Mirist" — i.  e., 
are  Christians,  belong  to  the  schonl  of  Christ, 
and  are  therefore  obligated  to  confess  him  foi 
your  Lord  and  Master,  to  obey  him,  and  to  fol- 
low his  example. 

II.   The  Internal  Advunta'^es  ami  Effects  of 
Buptistn, 

(1)  In  the  old  ecclesiastical  writers  we  find 
many  extravagant  and  unscri()iural  assertions  re- 
sjiecting  the  effect  of  baptism,  esj)ecially  in  the 
instructions  which  they  gave  to  catechumens  and 
new  converts — e.  g.,  in  Gregory  of  Na/iac/.en, 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       489 


Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  even  earlier,  in  Irenaeus 
and  Tertullian.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  went  so 
far  as  to  say  that  the  water  became  changed 
{ficeaatoi.%eiovc^(u),  by  the  divine  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  into  an  entirely  different  element. 
All  this,  indeed,  admits  of  being  explained  ac- 
cording to  scripture;  but  it  is  still  apparent  that 
Christians  began  very  early  to  attribute  to  bap- 
tism a  magical  efficacy,  by  which  it  produces  its 
effect  through  its  own  inherent  virtue,  and  inde- 
pendently of  the  use  of  the  word  of  God,  and  by 
which  it  acts,  not  only  upon  the  soul,  but  upon 
the  body  also.  Hence  they  made  use  of  it  in 
order  to  heal  sicknesses,  to  banish  evil  spirits, 
&c.  During  the  middle  ages,  these  superstitious 
notions  prevailed  more  and  more,  and  were  even 
adopted  by  the  schoolmen  into  their  systems. 
We  find,  e.  g.,  in  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  doctrine 
that  a  character  iiuklibilis  is  acquired  in  baptism 
— an  opinion  which  Augustine  had  before  held  ; 
also  the  scholastic  doctrine  that  by  baptism  na- 
tive depravity  is  so  far  done  away  that  only  con- 
cupiscenlia  remains,  and  that  even  this  loses  the 
form  of  sin.  Protestants  have  in  every  way 
endeavoured  to  separate  the  scriptural  doctrine 
from  these  superstitious  nolions;  yet  there  are 
not  wanting  incautious  expressions  on  this  sub- 
ject even  among  some  protestant  theologians. 

(2)  In  the  New  Testament  this  magical  effect 
is  nowhere  ascribed  to  baptism,  as  if  faith  were 
imparted  to  man  by  baptism  without  his  being 
himself  active  in  obtaining  it;  as  if  he  received, 
through  this  external  rite,  the  forgiveness  of  sins, 
readiness  in  good  works,  and  eternal  salvation. 
Neither  has  Luther  taught  such  a  doctrine.  On 
an  adult  person,  who  has  no  knowledge  of  the 
word  of  God  or  of  the  Christian  doctrine,  baptism 
can  have  no  efficacy  simply  as  an  opus  nperatum. 
Its  effect  on  adults  depends  on  their  being  in- 
structed in  the  divine  word,  and  the  connexion 
of  baptism  with  this  instruction.  To  this  divine 
word,  and  the  divine  efficacy  connected  with  it, 
(s.  130,  131,)  does  the  power  properly  belong 
to  renew  the  heart  of  man,  and  to  make  it  sus- 
ceptible of  the  benefits  and  privileges  which 
Christianity  promises,  and  not  the  mere  exter- 
nal rile  of  baptism.  This  we  are  distinctly 
taught  in  the  holy  scriptures.  So  Peter  (Acts, 
ii.  38)  exhorts  his  hearers  to  suffer  themselves 
to  be  baptized  fiy  a^r^niv  d,uaprtoJr,  but  he  ex- 
pressly requires,  as  an  essential  condition,  the 
^fravofiv,  (which  is  effected  by  God  through 
the  use  of  Christian  doctrine;)  and  it  is  the 
same  in  the  baptism  of  John,  Mark,  i.  4,  seq. 
So,  Acts,  xxii.  16,  Paul  was  called  upon  to  be 
baptized  and  to  be  washed  from  his  sins;  but 
the  condition  was  iftixaXtncifitvoi  to  ovoua  tov 
Kvfiiov.  Several  texts  relating  to  this  point 
should  be  here  more  particularly  considered. 

fa)  John,  iii.  5,  "Whoever  is  not  born  of 
water  and  of  the  Spirit  cannot  enter  into  the 
62 


kingdom  of  heaven" — i.  e.,  whoever  does  not 
t.ike  upon  himself  the  obligation  to  live  in  an 
entirely  altered  and  renewed  temper  of  mind* 
which  is  effected  through  baptism  by  the  aid  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  has  no  part  in  the  saving  bless- 
ings of  Christ's  spiritual  kingdom,  (forgiveness 
of  sins  and  eternal  blessedness.)  Vide  s.  12G,  II. 

(i)  Titus,  iii.  5,  where  Paul  means  to  say- 
God  had  bestowed  salvation  upon  them  (cduafi') 
by  leading  them  to  embrace  Christianity.  We 
become  participators  in  these  Christian  bless- 
ings in  a  twofold  way  ;  first,  6ta  ^jovy^mv  rtaXiy- 
yeveaiai'  so  baptism  is  called  as  far  as  one  ex- 
ternally receives  it,  and  especially  as  far  as  he 
is  engaged,  by  means  of  it,  to  lead  a  new  life, 
and  receives  strength  for  this  end  :  secondly,  xoh) 
5itt  avaxaivcLatuf  IXwijuaros  ayfov — i.  e.,  through 
that  entire  change  and  renovation  of  heart  which 
we  owe  to  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  renewal  he 
effects  through  the  Christian  doctrine,  s.  130, 
131.  The  meaning  is,  "the  renovation  of  our 
hearts,  which  is  effected  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  is 
bestowed  upon  us  by  the  free  and  undeserved 
grace  of  God.  He  assists  us  to  obtain  this 
blessing  by  means  of  Christian  baptism,  in 
which  we  become  obligated  to  lead  a  new  life, 
and  receive  strength  so  to  do,  and  also  by  the 
entire  renewal  of  our  hearts,  which  we  owe  to 
his  Spirit." 

(c)  1  Pet.  iii.  21.  It  is  said  concerning  bap- 
tism, that  it  delivers  or  frees  us  from  the  pu- 
nishment of  our  sins,  (ciu,cfft;)  not,  however, 
as  an  external  washin<f,  hut  inasmuch  as  we 
pledge  ourselves  in  this  rite,  and  are  assisted 
by  it,  to  maintain  a  good  conscience,  and  inas- 
much as  it  is  the  means  by  which  we  receive 
and  appropriate  to  ourselves  the  gracious  pro- 
mise of  the  forgiveness  of  sins  througii  Christ, 
which  is  elsewhere  called  ixetuvoia  ayaoavvr;. 

The  scriptural  doctrine  of  the  internal  advan- 
tages and  effects  of  baptism  may  be  embraced 
in  the  following  points: — 

First.  When  we  are  received  by  baptism 
into  the  number  of  the  followers  of  Jesus 
Christ,  we  sacredly  bind  ourselves  to  believe 
his  doctrine  in  its  whole  extent,  its  commands, 
and  its  promises;  to  embrace  it  as  true,  and 
therefore  punctually  to  obey  it  in  ail  parts,  to 
live  pious  and  godly  lives,  according  to  his  pre- 
cepts, and  to  imitate  his  example.  For  he  only 
who  does  this  is  worthy  of  the  name  of  a  Chris- 
tian, and  can  lay  claim  to  the  blessedness  pro- 
mised to  believers.  Vide  1  John,  ii.  4  ;  iii.  3. 
Peter  calls  this,  in  his  first  epistle,  chap.  iii.  21, 
ivviiSri(jioii  aya%tii  irtFpJ^Trj.ia  (Li  Qfov,  and  makes 
this  one  object  of  baptism.  'Krtfpwrraa  is  pro- 
perly stiptilatio,  and  so  denotes  any  solemn  ohti- 
<;ation  which  one  assumes  (Ji'fore  God).  IIen»:,6 
the  meaning  here  is:  "By  baptism  we  take 
upon  ourselves  the  sacred  obligation,  in  the 
presence  of  God,  to  maintain  a  good  C(  nscience. 


490 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


t)  be  watchful  against  sin,  and  to  strive  after 
lioliness."  The  passanre,  Romans,  vi.  3,  4, 
Bpq.,  toiiclies  the  same  thinjj,  coll.  Col.  ii.  12, 
13,  "We  are,  like  Christ,  buried  as  dead  per- 
sons by  b.iptism,  and  should  arise,  like  him,  to 
a  new  life" — i.  e,,  by  baptism  we  obtain  the 
assuranci^  of  the  pardon  of  sin  on  account  of  the 
death  of  Christ;  and  so,  when  we  are  baptized, 
take  upon  ourselves  the  obli<jalion  to  die  to  sin 
in  a  spiritual  manner,  as  Christ  died  and  was 
buried  bodily,  &:c.  The  image  is  here  taken 
from  baptized  persons  as  they  were  ivimerr^ed, 
(^buried,)  and  as  they  emericed,  {rose  ai^nin;)  so 
it  was  understood  by  Chrysostom.  Since  im- 
mersion has  been  disused,  the  full  significance 
of  this  comparison  is  no  longer  perceived.  So 
then  by  baptism  we  profess  to  receive  Christ  as 
our  teacher.  Saviour,  and  Lord — i.  e.,  we  thus 
bind  ourselves  to  embrace  and  obey  his  doc- 
trine, confidently  to  trust  his  promises,  to  ex- 
pect from  him  all  our  spiritual  blessedness,  and 
to  rei.  ler  him  a  dutiful  obedience.  This  is 
what  is  meant  in  the  New  Testament  by  being 
baptized  in  the  name  if  Christ.  Vide  Morus,  p. 
216,  s.  1.  But  since  now  all  these  blessings 
which  we  owe  to  Jesus  as  Messiah,  or  Saviour 
and  Lord,  are  blessings  which  God  bestows — 
blessings  which,  according  to  the  Christian 
doctrine,  are  derived  from  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Spirit ;  so  in  baptism  we  bind  ourselves  to  be- 
lieve in  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  as  our 
God,  to  look  for  our  salvation  from  them,  and 
to  acknowledge  and  adore  them  as  the  only  au- 
thors of  it.  Hence  the  command  of  Jesus  to 
baptize  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Spirit,  is  designed  to  express  the  reli- 
gious connexion  in  which  we  stand  to  them, 
and  our  duly  to  pay  thfni  reliirious  homage. 

Secondly.  Throutjh  baptism  we  receive  the 
assurance  that  the  divine  blessings  which  the 
Christian  doctrine  promises  concern  even  us, 
and  that  even  we  may  participate  in  them;  or, 
in  otiier  words,  these  blessings  are  by  this  rite 
particularly  applied  to  our  own  personal  state, 
and  we  learn  in  faith  to  appropriate  them  to 
ourselves.  As  any  one,  on  beinij  formally  ad- 
mitlfd  as  a  citizen  of  a  town,  in  taking  the  oatli 
of  citizenship,  and  in  going  through  the  other 
riles  of  initiation,  receives  the  confident  assur- 
ance that  he  has  now  a  title  to  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  citizenship;  so  it  is  with  the 
Christian  in  bajitisin.  It  is  the  same,  in  this 
view,  with  baptism  as  with  circumcision.  This 
Paul  calls  (RoMi.  iv.  II)  a  nrutinv  and  q<^,>o-y tila 
for  Abraham  and  his  posterity — i.  e.,  a  token 
of  assurance  and  a  proof  that  (iod  was  favour- 
ably disposed  towards  him,  and  justified  him 
on  aecount  of  his  faith.  So  baptism  is  to  every 
one  the  token  of  assurance  that  he  may  partake 
iir  ail  those  spiritual  blessings  which  ('lirisiian- 
ily  promises.     Whoever,  therefore,  is  baptized 


receives  the  assurance  that  his  gins  are  foigiren 
him  for  the  sake  of  Christ — that  God,  for  the 
sake  of  Christ,  looks  upon  him  with  favour  and 
regards  him  as  a  child,  and  that  he.  in  faithful 
obedience  to  the  commands  of  Jesus,  (and  by 
enjoying  the  constant  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
which  is  promised,)  may  securely  expect  eter- 
nal blessedness;  Acts,  ii.  38;  Gal.  iii.  27; 
Mark,  xvi.  16.  Hence  Peter,  in  his  first  epis- 
tle, chap.  iii.  21,  compares  the  water  of  baptism 
to  the  water  of  the  deluge,  (as  the  Jews  also 
called  their  washings  and  |)urificalions  spiritual 
floods ;  kvtitvrto^,  imai^e,  likeues-sA  Kven  as  the 
pious  at  the  time  of  the  deluge  (ver.  20)  were 
bodihj  delivered  ;  so  are  those  who  are  baptized 
with  water  spiritually  delivered  from  sin  and 
its  penalty. 

Conclusions  from  the  foresnins;,  and  some  re- 
marks  desit^ned  to  illustrate  certain  Ihcoloixical  dis- 
tinctiiins  and  terminologies  respecting  baptism. 

(o)  It  is  justly  maintained  that  baptism  tends 
to  awaken,  enlarge,  and  confirm  our  I'aith,  and 
that  by  means  of  it  we  receive  power  and  im- 
pulse for  a  new  spiritual  life.  This  effect  is 
produced  in  regard  to  both  the  ot)ject3  which 
belong  to  Christian  faith,  the  laiv  ami  the  go»' 
pel.  Still  this  is  not  wrought  throuirh  any  mi- 
raculous or  madical  influence  of  baptism,  or  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  in  baptism;  for, 

(i)  Tliis  eflTect  of  baptism  depends  upon  the 
Word  of  God  united  with  baptism  ;  or  the  di- 
vine truths  of  Christianity  and  the  divine  power 
inherent  in  and  connected  with  them.  Cf. 
Ephes.  v.  2G,  "Christ  purifies  and  sanctifies 
the  members  of  the  church  in  baptism  through 
the  Word" — i.  e.,  the  whole  gospel  system  in 
its  full  extent,  its  pnccpls  and  promises.  The 
latter  are  made  to  us  in  baptism ;  and  at  the 
same  time  we  pledge  ourselves  to  obey  the  for- 
mer, and  receive  strength  so  to  do.  The  means, 
therefore,  by  which  baptism  produces  these  ef- 
fects, or  rather,  God  through  baptism,  is,  the 
Word.  It  is  the  same  in  the  Lord's  Supper. 
It  is  accordingly  rightly  said  that  "  God,  or  the 
Holy  Spirit,  operates  in  baptism  upon  the  hearts 
of  men;"  excites  good  feelinirs,  resolutions, 
&c. — namely,  through  the  JVord.  Hence  the 
efllect  of  baptism  is  properly  an  effect  which 
God  produces  through  his  word,  or  through  the 
contents  of  the  Christian  doctrine,  which  is  visi- 
bly set  forth,  represented,  and  appropriated  to 
us  in  baptism,  for  the  sake  of  making  a  stronger 
im|)ression  upon  our  heart.  Uaptism  may  be 
thus  called,  vcrbum  Dei  visibile.  Vide  s.  137, 
H.  In  the  same  manner,  therefore,  as  God  ope- 
rates upon  our  hearts,  throucjh  the  Word  and  in 
llie  use  of  it,  when  we  hear  or  read  it,  does  he 
also  operate  in  this  visible  presentation  of  the 
same  truth,  by  the  external  rites  of  baptism  and 
the  Loril's  Supper.  And  so  we  may  apply  to 
i  this  subject  all  which  is  said  in  the  twelfth 


TATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       491 


arti(  le  respectinfj  the  operations  of  grace,  both  in 
the  statement  of  the  Biblical  doctrine  (s.  130, 
131)  and  of  the  ditTerent  theories  of  theologians 
in  the  succeedinff  sections.  But  this  effect  is 
not  miraculous,  not  magical,  not  irresiatible,  but 
suited  to  our  moral  nature. 

(c)  According  to  the  ancient  scholastic  divi- 
sion, two  things  must  be  considered  in  baptism, 
rna/tria  (better,  re.s)  terrestris,  that  which  strikes 
the  senses  externally — the  ivaier  ,•  and  materia 
calestis,  the  invisible  thing  which  is  represented 
by  the  visible  sign,  and  conveyed  through  it. 
This  is  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  his  power  and 
agency;  or,  more  definitely,  it  is  that  which  in 
baptism  is  effected  in  us  by  God,  or  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  through  the  divine  Word. 

Note. — Augustine  expresses  himself  very 
justly  concerning  the  efficacy  and  power  of 
baptism,  (De  Bapt.  i.  13,  18,)  "It  has  indeed 
the  power  to  effect  regeneration  (change  of 
heart)  in  men  ;  but  it  does  nothing  for  man's 
salvation,  if  there  is  in  him  any  hirulratice,  {ab- 
ataculiini.y^  Luther  too  follows  him  in  this, 
and  says,  very  appropriately  and  justly,  espe- 
cially in  his  large  catechism,  "that  the  divine 
word  and  instruction  must  not  be  separated  from 
baptism,  and  that  without  the  former,  and  faith 
in  it,  the  water  is  nothing  but  water,  and  can  in 
nowise  benefit  the  subject."  Vide  Morus,  p. 
250,  n.  A. 

(rf)  Baptism  is  frequently  represented  as  a 
.tovenant  which  is  established  between  God  and 
men;  hence  the  expression,  to  stand  in  his  cove- 
nant of  baptism,  and  others  of  the  same  kind. 
This  name  is  derived  from  circumcision,  and  the 
covenant  of  God  with  Abraham  established  by 
it;  also  from  1  Peter,  iii.  21,  where  trtfpiorr.ua 
is  translated  coveiwnt  by  Luther.  Cf.  Heh. 
viii.  10,  seq.  The  thing  intended  by  this  name 
is  true,  if  it  is  rightly  understood.  God  so- 
lemnly promises  to  men,  in  baptism,  the  enjoy- 
ment of  all  the  blessings  which  are  promised  in 
the  Christian  doctrine ;  and  man  solemnly  binds 
himself  in  the  same  rite  to  yield  obedience  to 
God  and  the  Christian  doctrine;  and  in  order 
to  this,  receives  strength  and  assistance  fron) 
God.  Any  one,  therefore,  who  has  not  broken 
this  engagement,  or  forfeited  this  gracious  as- 
sistance which  is  promised,  stands  still  in  the 
covenarit  of  baptism.  P'or  baptism  is  the  testi- 
mony, the  assurance  of  pardon — the  pledge  and 
proof  of  this  and  all  other  Christian  blessings. 

SECTION  CXLI. 

OF    THE    NECESSITY    OF    BAPTISM,  AND    WHETHER 
IT  MAY  BE  REPEATED. 

I.  The  Necessity  of  Baptism. 

(1)  Ax  internal  and  al)solute  necessity  of 
baptism  cannot  be  aflirmed.     P"or  the  water  of 


baptism,  in  and  of  itself,  and  the  rite  itself,  as 
an  external  act,  have  no  power  to  renew  or  save 
men.  This  effect  depends  solely  upon  the 
agency  of  God,  through  the  Christian  doctrine, 
united  with  baptism.  Since,  then,  it  is  one  of 
the  positive  rites  established  by  Christ,  and  has 
no  internal  or  essentia!  efficacy,  it  is  no  other- 
wise necessary  than  because  it  has  been  com- 
manded (jiccessitas  prscccpli.)  But  Christ  has 
commanded  that  all  who  would  be  his  disciples 
should  be  baptized.  Any  one,  therefore,  who 
acknowledges  Jesus  Christ  as  a  divine  messen- 
ger, and  regards  his  authority,  is  under  obliga- 
tion to  obey  iiis  precept.  Christ  brought  a 
charge  against  the  Pharisees,  (Luke,  vii.  30,) 
that  they  had  rejected  the  divine  appointment 
(SovXYj  @ioi)  concerning  the  baptism  of  John. 
He  required  baptism  of  Nicodemus,  (John,  iii. 
3,5,7,)  and  commanded  the  apostles  tobr.ptize 
all  whom  they  would  make  his  disciples,  (Matt, 
xxviii.;  Mark,  xvi.) 

It  would  be  false,  however,  to  assert  that 
baptism  is  absolutely  essential  to  each  and  every 
man  in  order  to  salvation.  Theologians  there- 
fore hold,  with  truth,  that  if  a  man  is  deprived 
of  baptism  without  any  fault  of  his  own,  his 
salvation  is  not  endangered  by  this  omission. 
Even  that  familiar  passage,  Mark,  xvi.  16, 
"Whoever  believes  and  is  baptized  is  saved, 
but  he  that  believes  not  is  punished,"  is  not 
against,  but  in  favour  of  this  view.  Frr  punish- 
ment is  here  threatened  only  to  ttie  unbelieving, 
who  wilfully  reject  Christian  truth,  and  not  to 
those  who,  without  their  own  fault,  remain  un- 
baptized  ;  hence  j3anrif^^eii  is  not  repeated  in 
the  second  member.  For  an  unbeliever  should 
not  be  baptized;  and  even  if  he  should  be,  it 
could  do  him  no  good.  Just  so  it  is  in  John, 
iii.,  where  yfvD^oij  fx  rtvfv^oroj  is  represented 
as  the  principal  thing  (ver.  6 — 8),  and  the  yiv 
vr^nii  ix  vhatoi  as  useful  only  so  far  as  it  tends 
to  promote  the  former. 

(2)  Sketch  nf  the  history  of  this  doctrine.  The 
most  opposite  opinions  have  prevailed  from  the 
earliest  times  respecting  the  necessity  of  bap- 
tism. 

{a)  Already  in  the  second  century  some  de- 
nied that  baptism  is  necessary  for  every  Chris- 
tian, and  that  it  is  tlie  will  of  Christ  that  each 
and  every  one  should  he  baptized.  They  main- 
tained, that  those  who  have  otherwise  sufficient 
faith  have  no  need  of  bajitisin.  Of  these  Ter- 
tnirian  speaks,  (De  Bapt.  ch.  12 — 14.)  Some 
Smiinians  agreed  with  these,  and  maintained 
that  baptism  is  not  prnpprly  applied  to  such  as 
are  born  of  Christian  parents,  but  that  it  is  an 
external  rite  of  initiation,  by  which  those  of 
other  religions  are  to  be  introduced  into  the 
Christian  church — an  opinion  to  which  many 
who  are  of  a  Pelagian  way  of  thinking  assent. 
It  is  true,  indeed,  that  there  is  an  entire  want 


402 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


o^"  express  testimony  and  evidence  from  the 
apostolical  a<re  concerning  the  baptism  of  those 
bom  of  Christian  parents.  This  inquiry  has 
been  lately  revived;  and  Teller  (Kxcurs.  i.  on 
Burnet,  "  Ue  fide  et  officiis")  is  of  the  opinion 
that  those  descended  of  Christian  parents  were 
not  baptized,  but  were  considered  as  born  with- 
in the  lap  of  the  church.  That  this,  however, 
was  done,  is  implied  in  the  whole  design  of 
baptism,  as  expressed  hy  Jesus  and  the  apos- 
tles, s.  110,  and  may  also  be  concluded  from 
the  analogy  of  circur/icision,  and  the  uniform 
practice  of  tiie  ancient  church  after  the  aposto- 
lical times.  There  is  a  work,  in  which,  with 
a  boldness  not  to  be  found  elsewhere,  the  entire 
needlessness  of  baptism  is  maintained,  its  esta- 
blishment by  Christ  denied,  and  the  whole  thing 
given  out  as  an  invention  of  Peter,  for  the  sake 
of  making  himself  pleasing  to  the  Jews;  it  is 
entitled,  "  Die  Taufe  der  Christen,  ein  ehrwiir- 
diger  (tebraiich,  und  ki-in  Ges«tz  Cliristi,"  pub- 
lished 17TJ.  The  author  was  C.  C.  Reiche. 
An  answer  to  this  was  written  by  J.  K.  Tro- 
schel,  "Die  VVassertaufe  ein  Gesetz  Christi;" 
Berlin,  111  I. 

(i)  Among  the  old  catholic  fathers  in  the 
Christian  church  there  always  prevailed  very 
high  ideas  respecting  the  necessity  and  advan- 
tages of  baptism.  They  were  accustomed,  how- 
ever, to  defer  baptism  as  long  as  possible  (pro- 
cradinnn)  ;  and  this  is  recommended  even  by 
Tertullian,  De  I3apt.  c.  18;)  and  many  would 
not  be  liapiized  until  just  before  their  death — e. 
g.,  Constaiitine  the  Great.  They  supposed  that 
baptism  remf)ves,  in  a  kind  of  miraculous  way, 
all  the  sins  previously  committed;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  sins  committed  subsequently 
to  baptism  could  he  forgiven  only  with  great 
ditficulty,  or  not  at  all ;  and  so  they  imagined 
that  one  baptized  shortly  before  death,  or  one 
who  dies  a  martyr,  (for  martyrdom,  in  their 
view,  has  the  same  efliracy,)  goes  out  of  the 
world  as  a  man  without  sin,  and  is  saved.  They 
therefore  delayed  very  much  the  baptism  of  new 
convt-rts,  and  prevented  theni  from  the  enjoy- 
ment of  this  sacrament,  entirely  contrary  to  the 
appoirUini'nt  and  meaning  of  tiie  a|)ostles,  who 
baptized  new  converts  immediately,  and  often 
many  thousands  in  one  day,  respecting  whose 
conduct  and  integrity  they  could  not  possibly 
have  been  thoroughly  informed  before;  Acts, 
ii.  11;  xvi.  15,  3.3,  coll.  Arts,  viii.  13.  Vide 
Uauingarten,  I)e  procrastinatione  baplismi  apud 
veteres;  Halle,  IH7, 

(c)  When  now  the  position, er/rafcc/ctiV/ffj  pi'm'- 
bilem  nonJfi't  salutcni,  with  all  its  consequences, 
become  more  and  more  prevalent,  especi.illy  af- 
ter the  time  of  Augustine,  and  in  the  Western 
church  (vide  s.  MA,  II.  and  13.),  I.),  they  began 
to  maintiin  the  doctrine  of  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  baptism  in  order  to  salvation;  because 


baptism  is  the  appointed  rite  of  initiation  ol 
rece|)tion  into  the  church ;  and  they  gave  out, 
that  whoever  is  not  baptized,  and  so  is  no^  a 
member  of  the  visible  church,  could  not  become 
partaker  of  eternal  happiness.  So  Augustine 
had  before  judged,  not  only  respecting  the  hea- 
then and  the  children  of  heathen  parents,  but 
also  the  children  of  Christian  parents  who  die 
before  baptism.  He  was  followed  by  the  school- 
men. After  this  time  they  began  very  much  to 
hasten  the  baptism  of  children;  and  now,  for 
the  first  time,  the  so-called  baptism  if  vtcesi>ily 
(administered  when  a  child  was  ihouglii  in  dan- 
ger of  dying)  became  common.  It  happened 
also  not  unfrequently,  that  the  children  of  un- 
christian parents  (e.  g.,  of  Jews)  were  forcibly 
baptized  against  their  own  and  their  })arents' 
will,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  thus  put  into 
the  way  of  salvation;  of  this  we  find  many  ex- 
amples in  earlier  times.  That  this  is  ci>ntrary 
to  the  sense  and  spirit  of  the  holy  scripturea 
may  be  seen  from  this,  that  circumcision  was 
appointed  on  the  eighth  day,  ami  one  who  died 
before  was  not  considered,  on  this  account,  as 
shut  out  from  the  people  of  God. 

II.  Is  Cliristian  Baptism  to  be  Jlepeated? 

(1)  The  doctrine  now  prevalent  in  the  church 
is  entirely  just,  that  baptism  is  not  to  be  repeat- 
ed when  one  passes  over  from  one  Christian  sect 
or  particular  communion  to  another.     For, 

(a)  Baptism,  considered  as  an  external  reli- 
gious rite,  is  the  rite  of  initiation  and  solemn 
reception  into  the  Christian  church  in  general. 
The  subject  of  baptism  pledges  himself  to  the 
profession  and  to  the  obedience  of  the  doctrine 
of  Jesus  in  general,  and  not  to  any  one  particu- 
lar church.  No  one  of  these  particular  commu- 
nions (such  as  they  have  always  been)  is  ia 
exclusive  possession  of  the  truth  (vide.  s.  134, 
H,  2)  ;  but  in  this  all  agree,  that  tin  y  hold  them- 
selves pledged  to  profess  the  pure  Christian 
doctrine  (i.  e.,  what  they,  according  to  their 
views,  understand  as  such.)  Every  sect  hinds 
its  own  baptized  to  this  ;  and  hence  it  is,  in  this 
view,  the  same  thing,  wherever  and  by  whom- 
soever one  is  baptized.  And  Paul  tauiiht  the 
same  thing  when  he  said,  1  Cor.  i.  1*2,  seq., 
that  one  is  not  pledged  by  baptism  to  any  man 
or  to  any  sect,  but  to  the  profession  of  Christ. 

(6)  The  power  or  efficacy  of  baptism  depends 
not  upon  the  sect  or  the  man  by  whom  it  is  ad- 
ministered ;  man  can  neither  increase  nor  dimi- 
nish this  elfrcacy.     Vide  I  Cor.  i.  12. 

(c)  We  find  no  example  during  the  times  of 
Christ  or  the  apostles  to  prove  that  proper  Chris- 
tian baptism  was  ever  repeated;  although  we 
find  some  examples,  even  at  that  time,  of  great 
sinners  and  of  persons  excommunicated. 

(f/)  We  do  not  even  find  that  the  baptism  of 
John  was  repeated,  (although,  at  the   present 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       493 


time,  the  Sabeans  in  the  East  yearly  repeat  it;) 
■nd  the  same  Is  true  of  Jewish  proselyte  bap- 
tism. The  examples  Acts  ii.  and  xix.  do  not 
bear  upon  this  point.     Vide  s.  138,  IV. 

(e)  Finally,  the  uniform  phraseology  of  the 
holy  scriptures  teaches  clearly  the  same  thing, 
since  it  is  always  said  concerning  Christians 
who  were  received  into  the  church,  that  they  had 
been  baptized  {haptizatos  esse),  because  it  took 
plare  once  for  all ;  not  merely  that  they  were  bap- 
tized (Jiaptizari ;)  Rom.  vi.  31  ;  Gal.  iii.  27.  It 
is  a  thing  which  had  been  performed.  It  is 
different  with  the  Lord's  Supper:  this  is  a  rite 
to  be  repeated  ;  I  Cor.  xi.  25,  seq.  Therefore, 
only  when  an  essential  mistake  has  been  com- 
mitted— when,  e.  g.,  anything  belonging  to  the 
essentials  of  baptism,  as  the  use  of  water,  or 
proper  instruction. concerning  the  object  of  this 
rite,  has  be^n  neglected  or  altered,  or  if  it  has 
been  administered  by  one  not  a  Christian;  vide 
Acts  ii.  and  xix.,  s.  138,  IV. ;  in  such  cases  only 
must  it  be  renewed,  as  baptism  then  ceases  to 
be  true  Christian  baptism. 

(2)  The  opinions  respecting  repeating  bap- 
tism were  different  even  in  the  ancient  Chris- 
tian church.  Already  in  the  second  century 
they  were  accustomed  in  Africa  (as  appears 
from  Tertullian,  De  Pudic.  c.  19;  De  Bapt.  c. 
15,)  to  rebaptize  heretics,  and  the  same  was 
done  in  many  provinces  of  the  East.  This 
was  not  the  case,  on  the  other  hand,  in  Rome, 
and  in  the  other  European  churches;  here 
they  simply  laid  hands  upon  those  who  were 
restored,  when  they  were  received  back;  and 
appealed  for  this  to  the  apostolic  tradition,  that 
whoever  has  been  baptized  according  to  the 
command  of  Christ  is  riglitly  baptized,  although 
it  may  have  been  done  even  by  a  heretic.  In 
the  third  century  there  arose  a  vehement  con- 
troversy on  this  point  between  Stepiianus,  Bi- 
shop of  Rome,  and  the  African  party,  whose 
usage  Cyprian  zealously  defended.  But  they 
could  not  agree,  and  each  party  still  adhered  to 
its  previous  usage.  These  opinions,  however, 
were  abandoned  by  degrees  in  the  African 
church,  as  in  most  others;  they  were,  however, 
revived  in  the  fourth  century  by  the  Donatists, 
and  other  fanatics  of  the  succeeding  century, 
v/ho  would  acknowledge  no  baptism  as  valid 
which  was  administered  by  a  heretic,  or  any 
teacher  who  did  not  stand  in  fellowship  with 
them.  The  same  opinion  was  revived  by  the 
enthusiastic  sect  known  by  the  name  of  .inahap- 
Ctsts,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  They,  however, 
altered  tlieir  theory  afterwards  to  this,  that  they 
merely  rejected  infant  baptism,  and  admitted 
only  adult  persons  to  baptism;  and  this  is  still 
the  doctrine  of  the  Mennonites  and  the  other 
Anabaptists;  hence  they  rebaptize  those  who 
were  baptized  in  infancy,  because  infant  baptism 
is  not  regarded  by  them  as  valid,  and  tiiose  bap- 


tized in  this  way  only  are  considered  by  thetn 
as  not  ba|ilized.  They  therefore  reject  the  name 
of  Jiiabaptisis,  (JViederlaiiftr.)  Tlie  opinions 
of  all  Anabaptists  of  ancient  and  modern  times 
flow  partly  from  unjust  ideas  of  the  power  and 
efficacy  of  baptism,  and  partly  from  erroneous 
opinions  respecting  the  church.  It  is  true,  in- 
deed, that  many  who  have  denied  that  baptism 
should  be  re|)eated  have  held  these  same  erro- 
neous opinions,  but  they  would  not  admit  the 
consequences  which  naturally  result  from  them. 

(a)  'I'he  Africans  of  the  second  and  third 
centuries  held  this  point  in  common  with  their 
opponents,  that  forgiveness  of  sin  and  eternal 
happiness  are  obtained  by  means  of  baptism, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost  by  means  of  the  laying  on 
of  the  hands  of  the  bishop ;  and  indeed  both 
imagined  that  a  sort  of  magic  or  miraculous  in- 
fluence belongs  to  these  rites.  Vide  s.  139, 
IV.  The  Africans  concluded  now,  that  as 
heretics  do  not  hold  the  true  Christian  doctrine 
they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  Christians, 
and  consequently  that  their  baptism  is  not 
Christian  baptism,  and  that  they,  therefore,  like 
unchristian  persons,  are  not  susceptible  of  the 
Holy  Ghost. 

(6)  The  Donatists,  now,  maintained  plainly 
and  decidedly  that  the  church  can  consist  only 
of  holy  and  pious  persons,  and  that  tliis  genuine 
Christian  church  could  be  found  only  among 
themselves,  (vide  s.  135,11.;)  wherefore  they 
rebaptized  all  who  came  over  to  their  sect.  For 
they  maintained  that  the  gratia  baptisnii  does 
not  exist  among  heretics ;  that  the  ordination  of 
teachers  outof  their  own  communion  is  invalid  ; 
that  others  have  not  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  can- 
not therefore  baptize  in  a  valid  manner; — in 
short,  it  was  their  opinion  that  the  efficacy  of 
the  ordinances  depends  on  the  worthiness  of 
him  who  administers  them. 

(c)  Tiie  Anabaptists  of  the  sixteenth  century 
proceeded  from  the  same  position,  that  the 
church  is  a  community  of  mere  saints  and  re- 
generated persons.  They  and  their  followers 
therefore  rejected  infant  baptism,  as  it  could  not 
be  known  as  yet  concerning  children  wiiether 
they  would  live  pious  or  ungodly  lives;  nor 
could  children  promise  the  church  that  they 
would  live  righteously.  Adults  only,  in  their 
view,  might  therefore  be  baptized.  Cf.  the  work 
written  by  an  Anabaptist,  entitled  "  Uebtr  die 
moral ischen  Zvvecke  und  Verpflichtungen  der 
Taufe,"  which,  aside  from  this  point,  contains 
much  which  is  good  ;  translated  from  the  Eng- 
lish;  Leipzig,  1775 — 8.  Vide  also  D.  A.  J. 
Stark,  Gescliichte  der  Taufe  und  der  Taufge- 
sinnten;  Leijizia',  1789,  8vo. 

[3o/f. — On  the  general  subject  of  baptism, 

cf.   Bretschneider,  Dnrfinatik,   b,  ii.  s.  072,  ff. 

Hahn.  Lehrhuch,  s.  55fi,  s.  122,  fl!".    'I'he  lilera* 

ture  of  ihis  doctrine  is  here  very  fully  exhibited. 

2T 


494 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


For  the  early  history  of  this  doctrine,  cf.  Nean- 
der,  K.  r.psch.  b.  i.  Abth.  ii.  s.  533—63;  also 
b.  ii.  Abth.  ii.  8.  682,  ff. ;  for  the  more  recent 
history,  cf.  Plank,  Gesch.  der  protest.  Lehrb. 
b.  V.  th.  1.— Tr.] 

SECTION  CXLII. 

OP  THE  BAPTISM  OF  INFANTS. 

Manv  of  the  nnrients  and  moderns  have  dis- 
approved of  infant  baptism.  It  was  first  ex- 
pressly dissuaded  by  Tertullian  (De  Bapt.  c. 
IH),  althonorh  he  docs  not  entirely  reject  it,  as 
it  was  at  that  time  in  common  use.  But  it  was 
also  quite  common  then  to  f/f/«jy  baptism  ;  and 
those  who  approved  of  this  could  not  at  the  same 
time  approve  of  infant  baptism.  Vide  s.  141,  I. 
Infant  baptism  was  also  rejected  by  the  Anabap- 
tists of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  their  follow- 
ers, for  reasons  mentioned  in  s.  141,  ad  finem. 
Mich.  Servelu'?,  too,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
would  have  no  one  baptized  under  thirty  years 
of  acre.  There  is  no  decisive  example  of  this 
practice  in  the  New  Testament;  for  it  may  be 
objectMd  against  those  passafjes  where  the  bap- 
tism of  whole  families  is  mentioned — viz..  Acts, 
X.  42,  48;  xvi.  15,  33;  1  Cor.  i.  IG,  that  it  is 
doubtful  whether  there  were  any  children  in 
these  families,  and  if  there  were,  whether  they 
were  then  baptized.  From  the  passaore  Matt, 
xxviii.  19,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that 
Christ  commanded  infant  baptism;  (the  jua^>;- 
Tfvftv  is  neither  for  nor  asrainst;)  nor  does  this 
follow  any  more  from  .John,  iii.  5,  and  Mark, 
X.  14.  1(5.  There  is  therefore  no  express  com- 
mand for  infant  baptism  found  in  the  New  Tes- 
ment;  as  Morus  (p.  215,  s.  12)  justly  concedes. 
Inf  uU  baptism  has  been  often  defended  on  very 
unsatisfactory  (i  priori  orrounds — e.  jr.,  the  ne- 
cessity of  it  has  been  contended  for,  in  order 
that  children  may  obtain  by  it  the  faith  which 
is  necessary  to  salvation,  ^c.  It  is  sufficient  to 
shtnv,  (1)  'i'hat  infant  ba|)tism  was  not  forbid- 
den by  Christ,  and  is  not  opposed  to  his  will 
and  the  principles  of  his  reiiirion,  but  entirely 
suited  to  both.  (2)  That  it  w:\<i  pnibr i hi i/  prac- 
tised even  in  the  apostolic  church.     (3)  That 

it  is  not  without  advantages. 
I 

I.  Proofs  of  the  Lawfulness  and  Antiqiiily  of 
J II f nut  litiplisin. 

(1)  That  infant  baptism,  considered  as  a 
solemn  rite  of  initiation  into  the  church,  cannot 
be  opposed  to  the  desitrn  and  will  of  (Ihrist, 
may  be  concluded  from  his  own  declaration. 
Matt.  X.  14,  "Su(T<r  little  children  to  come  unto 
me  and  ff)rbid  them  not,  xCjv  yap  rotoi'-ruv  inriv 
r^  llttiiXfta  Tov  0fov."  This  is  indeed  no  com- 
mand for  infant  baptism ;  but  if  children  may 
and  ouijht  to  have  a  share  in  the  Christian 
church,  and  in  all  Christian  privileges  (^^a/3t».tia 


0fov),  it  cannot  be  improper  to  introduce  them 
into  the  Christian  church  by  this  solemn  rile  of 
initiation.  Indeed,  if  it  is  accordinij  to  the  de- 
sign of  (.'hrist  that  children  should  h.ive  a  share 
in  the  rites  and  privileges  of  Christians  frona 
their  earliest  youth  up,  it  must  also  be  agreeable 
to  his  will  solemnly  to  introduce  them,  by  this 
rite  of  initiation,  into  the  nursery  of  his  people. 
Cf.  1  Cor.  vii.  14. 

(2)  Christian  baptism  is  so  far  similar  to  cir- 
cumcision as  that  the  one  was  the  rite  of  irtiiia- 
lion  into  the  ancient  church,  the  other  into  the 
new;  s.  137,  II.  ad  finem,  and  Morus,  p.  253, 
note.  But  Christian  baptism  represents  and 
imparts  far  greater  spiritual  benefits  than  cir- 
cumcision. Now  we  know  that  the  sons  of 
.lews  and  proselytes,  according  to  divine  com- 
mand, were  circumcised  on  the  eighth  day,  when 
they  certainly  had  as  yet  no  idea  of  the  intent 
and  meaning  of  this  religious  rite.  Accord- 
ing to  this  analogy,  children  among  Christians 
may  be  baptized,  even  during  those  years  when 
tliey  cannot  as  yet  understand  anything  of  the 
design  of  the  rite,  or  make  any  profession  of 
their  faith.  At  least,  this  analogy  must  have 
been  very  clear  to  the  first  Christians,  and  to  the 
apostles,  who  themselves  were  .lews.  When 
therefore  in  the  times  of  the  ap'jstles  a  whole 
family  was  baptized,  would  not  the  children  be 
baptized  too?  And  did  not  Paul  say  without 
limitation  that  all  were  baptized,  at  a  time  when 
there  were  those  grown  up  in  the  Christian 
society  who  were  born  of  Christian  parents? 
Vide  1  Cor.  i.  and  xii.,  and  Gal.  iii.  Again; 
were  it  entirely  decided  that  Jewish  proselyte 
baptism  was  common  during  the  life  of  Christ, 
this  circumstance  would  establish  the  position 
still  more;  for  the  children  of  proselytes  were 
also  baptized.  But  even  if  proselyte  baptism 
was  not  introduced  until  the  end  of  the  second 
or  beginning  of  the  third  century,  and  was  then 
adopted  in  imitation  of  Christian  baptism,  even 
in  this  case  it  might  still  be  concluded  that  at 
that  time  the  baptism  of  infants  must  have  been 
common  among  Christians. 

(3)  The  most  decisive  reason  is  the  follow- 
ing: Christ  did  not  indeed  ordain  inl'anl  bap- 
tism expressly ;  but  if,  in  his  command  to  bap- 
tize all,  he  had  wished  children  to  be  excepted, 
he  must  have  expressly  said  this;  Matt,  xxviii. 
Since  the  first  disciples  of  Christ,  as  native 
Jews,  never  doubted  that  children  were  to  be 
introduced  into  the  Israelitish  church  by  circum- 
cision, it  was  natural  that  they  should  include 
children  also  in  baptism,  if  Christ  did  not  ex- 
pressly forl)id  it.  Had  he  therefore  wished  that 
this  should  not  be  done,  he  would  have  said  so 
in  definite  terms. 

(4)  That  infant  baptism  was  very  common 
shortly  after  the  times  of  the  apostles,  both  in 
the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  admits  of  no 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       495 


doubt,  if  all  the  historical  data  are  compared. 
Vide  Morns,  p.  251,  not.  ad  s.  10.  Some  have 
endeavoured  to  find  evidence  for  this  practice 
even  in  the  writings  of  Justin  the  Martyr  and 
Ireuajus;  lnU  lliry  are  not  sufficiently  decisive 
on  this  point,**  The  most  weighty  evidence 
that  can  be  produced,  from  the  oldest  church 
fathers  and  from  church  history,  is  the  follow- 
ing— viz., 

(a)  From  Tertnllian  (De  Bapt.  c.  18)  it  is 
clearly  seen,  that  already  in  his  time  the  bap- 
tism of  infants  was  very  customary  in  Africa 
and  elsewhere,  although  he  himself  does  not 
speak  favourably  of  this  practice. 

(b)  In  the  time  of  Cyprian,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, there  arose  a  controversy  concerning  the 
day  when  the  child  should  be  baptized,  whether 
before  the  eighth  day.  But  there  is  no  question 
on  the  point  whether  children  ought  to  be  bap- 
tized ;  in  this  they  were  all  unanimously  agreed. 

(c)  Augustine  calls  infant  baptism  aposlulica 
traditio,  and  says,  tolain  ecekaiain  id  traditum 
ienere. 

(f/)  But  far  more  important  is  the  testimony 
of  a  much  earlier,  and  therefore  more  valuable 
witness — viz.,Origen,  of  the  third  century,  who 
says  in  his  Comm.  in  Ep.  ad  Rom.  vi.,  that  the 
church  had  received  this  as  a  tradition  from  the 
apostles,  {ftapuboaLi  artoato'KLxri.)  Here  it  might 
indeed  be  objected  that  the  church  fathers  ap- 
peal much  too  freely  to  apostolic  tradition,  for 
the  sake  of  giving  to  their  own  opinions  and  to 
the  appointments  of  the  church  the  more  autho- 
rity. But  if  infant  baptism  was  not  practised 
in  the  oldest  church,  it  is  hardly  conceivable 
how  it  siiouid  have  become  so  general  a  short 
time  after,  and  this  too  without  any  controversy 
or  contradiction.  When  Origen  was  born,  about 
the  year  185,  it  was  universally  prevalent  in  the 
Christian  church,  and  he  was,  as  he  says  him- 
self, a  bapcized  child.  If  it  was  not  customary 
at  the  time  of  the  apostles,  we  must  suppose  that 
afterwards  single  individuals  or  churches  began 
to  baptize  children.  But  in  those  times  in 
which  they  adhered  so  strictly,  even  in  the 
smallest  trifles,  to  ancient  \isage,  such  an  inno- 
vation could  not  possibly  have  taken  place  with- 
out great  excitement,  controversy,  contadiction, 
and  without  occasioning  many  councils.  These 
effects  were  produced  by  some  very  insignificant 
matters,  but  we  cannot  find  the  least  trace  of 
opposition  to  the  first  practice  of  infant  baptism. 
There  can,  then,  he  no  time  mentioned  in  which 
the  baptism  of  infants  was  first  introduced  after 
the  death  of  the  apostles.  Therefore  it  must 
liave  existed  from  the  beginning.  Neither  Ter- 
tullian  nor  Pelagius  knew  of  a  later  origin  of  it, 


•  [The  evidence  from  Irenteus  is  thought  valid  and 
incontrovertible  by  Neander;  vide  K.  Gesch.  b.  ii. 
Abth.  ii.  s.  549,  550.— Tb.] 


when  the  former  censured  it,  and  the  latter  de- 
nied that  it  is  necessary  to  procure  the  forgive- 
ness of  sins  for  children.  For  the  history  of 
infant  baptism  and  its  opponents,  vide  Guil. 
Wall,  Historia  Baptismi  Infantum,  and  John 
Walch,  Historia  Psdobaptismi,  Saec.  iv  pri» 
orum;  Jena:,  1739. 

II.  The  Uses  and  Effects  of  Infant  Baptism. 

Although  children  at  the  time  of  their  bap- 
tism know  nothing  respecting  this  rite,  and  are 
not  capable  of  any  notion  of  it,  and  can  make 
no  profession,  (and  these  are  the  principal  ob- 
jections on  the  other  side,)  still  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  infant  baptism  is  without  advantages, 
any  more  than  that  Jewish  circumcision  was. 
It  has  twofold  advantages: 

(1)  Fur  the  children  Ihentsehes.  The  advan- 
tages to  them  are  both  present  znd  future. 

(a)  The  present  effect,  as  far  as  it  appears 
clearly  to  us,  is  principally  this,  that  by  this 
means  they  are  admitted  into  the  nursery 
of  the  church,  and  even  while  children  en- 
joy its  rights  and  privileges,  as  far  as  they 
are  capable  of  so  doing.  This  is  sufficient; 
and  there  is  no  need  of  adopting  the  doctrine 
about  a  children''s  faith,  so  far  at  least  as  that 
implies  anything  which  can  exist  without  com- 
prehension and  capability  of  using  tiie  under- 
standing. Vide  s.  1-21,  II.,  and  Morus,  p.  249. 
In  the  general  position,  that  just  as  far  as  they 
have  subjective  capacity,  and  as  soon  as  they 
have  this,  God  will  work  in  them  that  which  is 
good  for  their  salvation,  there  is  not  only  no- 
thing unreasonable,  but  it  is  altogoiher  rational 
and  scriptural.  It  is  also  certain  that  we  can- 
not surely  tell  how  soon,  or  in  what  way  and 
by  what  means,  this  subjective  capacity  may 
be  shewn  and  developed. 

(b)  As  soon  as  their  mental  powers  begin  to 
unfold  themselves  in  some  degree,  children  are 
capable  of  an  obvious  inward,  inornl  effect  of 
baptism,  or  of  God  in  and  through  baptism.  In 
the  Christian  instruction  imparted  to  them  they 
must  therefore  be  continually  referred  to  this 
event;  it  must  be  shewn  them  that  they  too 
have  obtained  by  baptism  a  share  in  all  the 
great  and  divine  blessings  and  promises  which 
are  given  to  Christians,  and  that  they  are  so- 
lemnly obligated  by  baptism,  through  God's 
assistance  and  guidance,  to  fulfil  all  the  condi- 
tions on  which  Christians  receive  these  great 
promises.  In  the  youthful  age  this  means  is 
exceedingly  eflicacious  in  exciting  pious  re- 
flections, and  it  operates  upon  the  whole  suc- 
ceeding life.  It  is  on  this  account  (as  ^Nlorus 
well  observes)  a  very  suitable  and  commend- 
able practice  in  the  protestant  church,  that  the 
children,  before  they  approach  the  Lord's  Table 
for  the  first  time,  are  thoroughly  instructed  in 
the  doctrinal  and  practical  truths  of  Christianity, 


496 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


to  the  acceptance  and  obedience  of  which 
they  are  obligatfd  by  baptism.  This  is  called 
the  conjirinalion,  (of  the  covenant  of  baptism.) 
It  has  upon  many,  as  experience  leaches,  the 
most  salutary  efficacy  throucrh  their  whole  life, 
and  it  is  the  duly  of  the  evangelical  teacher  to 
lay  out  all  his  slrengtli  upon  this  instruction, 
and  to  make  it,  as  far  as  he  can,  appropriate 
and  practical.  And  if  in  some  the  advantages 
of  it  do  not  appear  immediately,  still  in  late 
years  they  are  often  seen.  The  good  seed  sown 
in  the  heart  often  lies  a  long  time  concealed  be- 
fore it  comes  up.  Baptism  cannot  indeed  exert 
any  cumpulxian  upon  children,  any  more  than 
when  one  is  cnniiled,  as  a  child  to  a  canonry, 
or  as  an  acafiemic  citizen.  They  must  act  ac- 
cording to  tiieir  own  conscientious  conviction, 
choice,  and  determination,  after  they  come  to 
the  exercise  of  tlieir  understanding. 

(•i)  F'lr  the  parents,  relatives,  or  nruardi'ans  if 
the  children.  To  these,  too,  is  the  b.iptism  of 
infants  eminently  useful  in  many  respects;  and 
it  may  be  said  that  this  advantage  alone  is  a 
sufficient  reason  for  instituting  infant  baptism. 
For  (a)  the  assurance  is  given  by  this  rite  to 
parents,  in  a  solemn  and  impressive  manner, 
that  the  great  privileges  and  promises  bestowed 
upon  Christians  will  be  imparted  to  their  chil- 
dren also,  and  thus  religious  feelings,  pious 
tlioughts  and  resolutions,  are  awakened  and 
promoted  in  them,  (b)  By  this  rite  they  are 
engaged  and  encouraged  to  educate  their  chil- 
dren in  a  Christian  manner,  in  order  that  their 
children  may  receive  the  privileges  bestowed 
upon  them,  and  attain  one  day  to  the  actual  ex- 
ercise and  enjoyment  of  them.  These  duties 
should  be  urged  upon  parents  by  the  Christian 
teacher,  especially  at  the  time  when  tlu-ir  chil- 
dren are  baptiz-d  ;  and  he  may  find  instruction 
respecting  the  manner  in  wiiich  this  should  he 
done  in  the  passages  above  cited.  liespeoting 
the  usau'fs  properly  ctmnected  with  infant  bap- 
tism, vide  s.  l'.i'J,  ad  finem. 


ClI  Al'THR    II. 
ON  THF,  DOCTUIM;  oK  Till:  I,()HI)-.S  SUPPER. 

SP:CTI0N  (  XMII. 

or  THE  NAMES  or  TIIK   l.(llll)'s  si  IM'Kli;    AM)  TOC 
OCCASION  AM)  OHJKfT  OK  ITS  ISSTITLTION. 

I.  A'amat  of  the  I^rrJ'g  Supper. 

(\)  The  Kriptural  names.  («)  Kvpiaxitv  i'ltt' 
pov,  the  festival  which  Christ  appointt*d,  and 
whi«;h  is  held  in  his  honour,  and  is  commemo- 
rative of  him.  I  Cor.  xi.  20.  Hence  the  coiii- 
moa  appellations,  tlu  Lord's  Supper ,  carta  do' 


mini,  or  sacra  ewna,  because  it  was  instituted  at 
supper  time.  Kntireiy  synonymous  with  this 
is  the  phrase  (i)  Tpartf ^o  Kvaiov,  I  Cor.  x.  Ssl, 
where  we  also  find  the  name  norr^.nov  Kvp/ov. 
With  these  the  term  xxa^ij  rov  a,jTov,  Acts,  ii. 
42,  is  frequently  meniioned.  iJut  this  seems 
rather  to  apply  to  ihe  fiads  nj  luve,  (Agape,) 
after  which  the  sacrament  of  the  .Supper  was 
frequently,  though  not  always,  administered  in 
the  primitive  church.  Cf.  ver.  40,  jufro?xi«3o- 
vnv  Tpo<l)rj.  The  term  6wpfa  irtoviiaitoj,  Heb. 
vi.  4,  is  rendered  by  Michaelis  heavenly  manna, 
and  applied  to  tlie  Lord's  Supper.  'I'his  term 
seems,  however,  to  denote  more  generally  the 
unmerited  divine  favours  conferred  upon  the 
primiiire  Christians. 

(i2)  The  eccleaiaslical  names  nf  this  sacrament. 
These  are  very  many  :  some  of  the  principal  are 
the  foUosving: — 

(fl)  Kou'wi-ia,  communio — a  festival  j'h  enm 
man.  'I'll is  name  is  borrowed  from  1  Cor.  x. 
16,  where,  however,  it  denotes  the  profession 
which  (/hristians  make,  by  partaking  incowwon 
of  the  Supper,  of  their  interest  in  Christ,  of  the 
saving  efficacy  of  his  death  for  them,  and  their 
own  actual  enjoyment  of  its  consequences. 

(b)  EixoLpiatia  and  ivv>yia,  (for  these  terms 
are  synonymous.)  This  sacrament  is  so  called 
because  it  is  designed  to  promote  a  thanliful  re- 
membrance of  Christ,  and  of  the  divine  favours 
bestowed  upon  us  through  him.  He  himself 
commenced  the  Supper  by  a  prayer  nf  thankt, 
which  has  always  been  justly  retained  in  admi- 
nistering this  ordinance.  The  appellation  cucha' 
ri.slia  (eucharist)  was  used  even  by  Ignatius, 
Justin  the  Martyr,  Irenaeus,  and  Tertullian. 
[This  name  seems  also  to  be  of  scriptural  ori- 
gin, and  to  be  taken  from  the  phrase  rtorijpiw 
fvXoyittf  (i  fiXoyoruf »-,  used  by  Paul. — Tr.] 

(c)  2via|ij.  Tvio^tf  nyia.  This  signifies,  pri- 
marily, a  ciilkcliiin  ;  then,  a  collection  fur  cele- 
bratins;  the  Lin-d''s  Supper,  and  finally,  the  Lirrd^t 
Supper  itself.  This  name  was  probably  taken 
from  1  Cor.  xi.  18,  20,  i^wi px^uivt^v  iuCjv. 

((/)  Afirovpyia  [primarily,  minintcriHnt'],\\\cn, 
the  sacrament  nf  the  Sujrjicr,  as  the  principal  act 
of  reliirious  service,  especially  on  account  of  the 
sacrifice  of  (Mirist  which  is  there  commemorated, 
eince  XnToiyyi'tt  signifies,  by  way  of  eminence, 
that  part  of  religious  service  which  consists  in 
sacrifice. 

(e)  MvTr»;|-)toi',  erma  mystica  and  missn ;  80 
this  sacrament  was  railed,  because  the  catechu- 
mens were  excluded  from  it,  and  none  who  wera 
not  (Christians  could  be  present  when  it  was  ad- 
ministered. They  were  sent  away  by  the  dea- 
cons with  the  words,  Itc,  missii  est,  (icrlesia.) 
Missa  siifnilies  properly  dismissio  catcchuiueno 
rum  el  pi  ttilrntiuni. 

(/)  There  are  other  names,  which  were  taken 
from  saerijiees,  and  the  offcrini^  of  sacrinces— 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION. 


4n 


e.  g.,  ^pocr<})opa,  ohlatio,  ^aia,  >uai'a  a,vai,uaxtoi, 
allure,  sucramenlum  altaris,  &c.  Many  such 
names  are  found  in  the  ancient  liturgies.  Vide 
Morus,  pajre  271,  note  2.  Christ  instituted  the 
Supper  chiefly  in  commemoration  of  his  death, 
or  his  offering  up  of  himself  for  man;  and  he 
employs  in  doing  this  the  terms  borrowed  from 
sacrifices.  Now  it  was  customary  for  the  Chris- 
tians who  had  most  possessions  to  bring  food 
and  drink  to  their  love-festivals,  and  from  the 
remnants  of  these  gifts  (rfpoa^opd)  they  held  the 
Supper  in  commemoration  of  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ.  This  gave  the  first  occasion  for  com- 
paring this  sacrament  with  annffering  i  and  this 
^•as  done  the  more  willingly  by  Christians,  as 
it  was  often  objected  against  them,  by  Jews 
and  heathens,  that  they  had  no  sacrifices.  And 
by  degrees  they  became  accustomed  to  regard 
the  Lord's  Su|)per  not  merely  as  a  festival  in 
memory  of  the  sacrifice  of  Clirist,  but  as  an  ac- 
tual repetition  of  this  sacrifice — an  idea  which 
gave  rise  afterwards  to  the  grossest  errors.  The 
first  traces  of  these  opinions  are  found  in  Justin 
the  Martyr,  Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  and  still  more 
in  Cyprian,  Augustine,  and  others.  Vide  Er- 
nesti  in  "  Antiniuratorius,"  in  his  "Opusc. 
Theol."  p.  80;  and  with  respect  to  these  eccle- 
siastical names  in  general,  Casaubon,  Exerc.  in 
Baron. — Ex.  16,  p.  445. 


II.  Texts  relating  to  the  LorcTs  Supper,  and  the 
occasion  and  object  of  its  Institution. 
(1)  The  institution  of  the  Supper  is  described 
in  the  following  texts — viz..  Matt.  xxvi.  20 — 28  ; 
Mark,  xiv.  22—24  ;  Luke,  xxii.  19,  20.     Luke 
is  more  full  and  distinct  in  his  narrative  than 
the  others;  in  John  there  is  nothing  said  re- 
specting it,  since  he  presupposed  it  as  already 
well  known.     Paul,  liowever,  gives  an  account 
of  the  institution  of  the  Supper,  and  agrees  most 
nearly  will)  Luke,  I  Cor.  xi.  23—25.     He  is 
speaking  of  the  disorders  wliich  had  crept  into 
the  Corinthian  church  in  their  observance  of  tlie  \ 
Agapa;,  and  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  connexion 
with  them;  and  takes  this  opportunity  to  dis- 
course at  large  (in  the  entire  passage  from  ver. 
I7th  to  34th)  respecting  the  design  and  the  efli- 
cacy  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Supper,  and  the 
proper  mode  of  celebrating  it.     Cf.  1  Cor.  x. 
IG,   17.     Theologians   are   not  agreed   among 
themselves  whether  the  passage,  John,  vi.  50, 
seq.,  where  Christ  speaks  of  the  eating  of  his 
flesh  and  drinking  his  blood,  relates  to  this  sacra- 
ment.    Viilc  Morus,  p.  2G9,  note  D. '   As  the 
Reformed    tlieologians   often   appealed    to   this 
pass-.ige  in  belialf  of  their  theory,  the  Lutherans 
(e.  g.,  even  Ernesti)  would  not  allow  that  it 
could  be  used  to  explain  the  language  in  which 
the  Supper  was  instituted.     So  much  is  certain, 
that  nothing  is  said  in  this  passage  itself  respect- 
ing the  Lord's  Supper,  since  this  was  not  yet  in- 
63 


stituted.  But  the  terms  here  used  have  a  striking 
resemblance  with  those  employed  at  tlie  institu- 
tion of  the  Supper;  and  since  this  discourse  of 
Jesus  produced  at  the  time  a  great  sensHtion  on 
account  of  its  remarkable  pltraseology,  it  can 
hardly  be  supposed  that  his  disciples  would  for- 
get it,  or  that  it  should  not  have  occurred  to  their 
minds  when  terms  so  similar  were  employed  at 
the  institution  of  the  Supper.    Tiiey,  doubtless, 
could  explain  many  things  in  this  whole  trans- 
action from  their  recollections  of  this  discourse. 
This  will  appear  the  more  probable  if  we  con- 
sider that  these  words  of  Jesus,  rec<>r<ied  by  John 
(chap,  vi.),  were  spoken  shortly  before  the  pass- 
over,  (ver.  4  ;)  that  tlie  images  employed  by  him 
were  taken  from  the  custom  of  eating  the  flesh 
of  the  victims  at  the  festivals  attending  the  sa- 
crifices, and  e>ptn'ially  at  the  passover,  the  most 
solemn  of  them  all;  and  that  it  was  exactly  at 
the  passover  that  the  Supper  was  instituted  by 
Christ.     But  allowing  that  these  words  may  be 
used  to  illustrate  those  employed  by  Christ  on 
the  latter  occasion,  the  Lutheran  opinion  is  not 
invalidated.    For  every  Lutheran  will  allow  that 
it  was  a  great  object  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  to  remind  us,  in  an  impressive 
manner,  of  the  body  of  Jesus  offered,  and  his 
blood  shed  for  us,  and  to  exhibit  and  convey  to- 
ns the  great  blessings  which  we  owe  to  him. 
Now  in  John,  oa'p^  and  ol/ua  XpiSTOv  plainly  d.'-- 
note  the  doctrine  of  Jesus  so  far  as  he  offered  up 
his  body,  and  shed  his  blood  for  the  good  of 
man.     Vide  John,  vi.  51,  03.    To  eat  znd  dri nil 
of  this  body  and  blood  is  the  same  as  mortiivif 
fii  Xpirrroj'  iotavpay-tvov.     Vide  ver.  47,  50,  51, 
50.     What  food  and  drink  are  to  the  body,  as 
contributing  to  its  nourishment  and  vigour,  the 
same  is  a  living  faith  in  this  doctrine  to  the  soul ; 
spiritual   nourithniefit,  pabulum    aninii.     This- 
laniruage,  then,  is  to  be  understood  to  denote- 
"the  truth  of  Christ's  sacrifice  or  atonement* 
and  the  inward  experience  of  its  benefits."    And 
this  was  the  very  object  of  the  Lord's  Supi)er — 
viz.,  to  preserve  the  memory  of  the  death  ot 
Christ,  visibly  to  set  it  forth,  and  to  convey  its 
benefits  to  those  who  partake  of  this  sacrament. 
It  cannot,  therefore,  be  denied  that  the  passage 
in  John  (so  far  as  it  is  figurative  and  symbolical) 
serves  to  illustrate  the  language  in  which  the 
Lord's  Supper  was  instituted,  and  indeed  the 
whole  nature  of  this  ordinance.     Cf.  especially 
Storr,  Doctrinse  Christiana;  pars  theoretica,  p. 
314,  seq. 

(2)  What  was  the  occasion  of  Christ's  insHtui- 
ing  this  festival?  What  tvas  the  iw  mediate  cause 
of  his  doing  it?  He.was  accustomed  to  take  oc- 
casion, from  the  circumstances  by  which  he  was 
surrounded,  to  give  instruction  ;  and  at  the  pass- 
over  everything  was  symbolical,  and  the  father 
of  the  family  ('the  character  which  Christ  now 
sustained  among  his  disciples)  referred  every- 
2t2 


498 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


thing  hack  to  the  events  in  the  life  of  the  ances- 
tors of  the  Jewish  nation.  It  seems  now  that  this 
Jewish  passover  gave  tlie  first  occasion  to  Christ 
for  insiiiuting  his  Supper. 

((/)  Christ  abolished  the  ancient  dispensation, 
{na./.ai(i.i' 6ia^r,xr;v :)  consequently  all  the  Jew- 
ish festivals,  sacrifices,  and  the  solemnities  con- 
nected with  them,  were  set  aside,  and  among 
these  tlie  passover,  one  of  the  principal  festivals 
of  the  Jewish  church.  This  was  done,  as  we 
are  taught  everywhere  in  the  New  Testament, 
by  the  death  of  Christ.  Still  it  could  not  be 
denied  that  this  and  other  Jewish  festivals  had 
many  advantages,  and  that  they  tended  to  keep 
alive  a  sense  of  the  divine  benefits,  and  to 
awaken  pious  feelings.  Vide  s.  137,  III.  1. 
Besides,  it  was  altogether  customary,  both 
among  the  Jews  and  the  heatheo  nations,  to 
have  sacrificial  festivals  standing  in  immediate 
connexion  with  religion;  hence  Paul  objects  to 
it  that  Christians  who  drink  from  the  cup  of  the 
Lord,  and  eat  at  the  table  of  the  Lord,  should 
drink  from  the  cup  and  eat  from  the  table  of 
idols,  1  Cor.  X.  15 — ^I.  Still  it  cannot  be  pro- 
perly said  that  the  common  sacrificial  festivals 
among  the  Jews  and  heathen  furnished  Christ 
the  principal  or  only  inducement  to  institute  his 
Supj)er,  as  was  asserted  by  Cudworth,  in  his 
work,  *»  Drt  vera  notione  sacrsj  ccenae,"  which  is 
found  in  his  "  Syslema  Intellecluale,"  accom- 
panied by  Mosheiiii's  remarks — an  opinion  to 
which  VV.irburton  and  others  have  acceded.  It 
is  also  false  to  assert  that  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
properly  a  mcrijicial  ftstival,  like  the  Jewish 
passover,  although  it  is  a  cnrna  religiosa,  or  sacra, 
and  although  it  may  be  compared,  and  is  in  fact 
compared  by  Paul  (1  Cor.  x.,)  with  these  fes- 
tivals. Vide  Morus,  p.  261,  note  ;  and  p.  271, 
note  2.  It  U  more  just  to  say  that  Christ  merely 
took  occasion  from  the  Jewish  sacrificial  festi- 
vals, and  especially  from  the  passover,  all  of 
which  were  now  abolished,  to  institute  this  fes- 
tival, to  maintain  among  Kis  followers  the  me-" 
mory  of  his  offering  up  of  himself.  But  in  en- 
tire conformity  with  tlie  spirit  of  his  religion, 
and  of  all  his  other  institutions,  he  left  it  unde- 
termined at  what  times  it  should  be  held ,  and  how 
often  it  should  be  repeated.  He  simply  said. 
Do  this,  as  oft  as  ye  do  it,  in  remembrance  of  me, 
1  Cor.  xi.  25. 

(/;)  The  passover  was  designed  to  commemo- 
r^ito  the  rescue  of  the  Israelites  from  Kgypt,  and 
their  deliverance  from  many  atflictiins;  and 
was  to  be  repeated  by  their  descendants  as  an 
occasion  for  thankful  remembrance  of  the  di- 
vine favours.  Vide  Kxodus,  xiii.  9,  coll.  xii. 
20,  27.  It  took  its  name  from  this  circumstance 
—viz.,  VQ":,  feast  of  tlelit'crancc,  or  rescue.  In  the 
Baine  way  was  the  Christian  festival  dosignod  to 
promote  the  grateful  rerrembrance  of  Christ,  on 


account  of  the  delivemncc  from  sin  and  '.ta  pa. 
nishment,  and  all  the  cilier  spiritual  birss-insrs 
which  we  owe  to  him,  and  it  was  to  be  repeated, 
(tj  ■trjv  i/xriv  avufii'ri'jiv ;  Luke,  xxii.  ID;  1  C  ir. 
xi.  21,  2G.  Hence  Paul  says,  1  Cor.  v.  7,  tit 
ttd-ixo-  Jf,"'-'*'  vrtfp  r^fiZiV  f'rij^j;,  Xptd-foj.  He 
does  not,  indeed,  here  mean  the  Ijord's  Suppei 
itself;  but  still  it  is  ver}'  easy  to  see  from  this 
passage  the  intimate  connexion  of  these  ideas. 
The  words,  however,  by  which  the  Supper  was 
instituted.  Tins  is  my  body,  &c.,  cannot  be  ex- 
plained from  the  formula  used  at  the  celebration 
of  the  passover,  Tins  is  the  bread  of  suffering 
which  our  fathers  ate,  &c. ;  for  this  formula  was 
not  adopted  until  after  the  destruction  of  the  se- 
cond temple;  neither  can  it  be  foi.nd  in  the 
Talmud,  as  Schottgen  has  shewn,  (Hor.  Tal- 
mud, ad  Matt.  xxvi.  26,)  and  also  Deyling, 
(Obs.  Miscell.  P.  i.  Exerc.  iv.  p.  221.)  The 
words  of  Christ  on  this  occasion  are  rather  to  be 
compared  with  the  Mosaic  formula  employed  at 
the  solemn  sanctioning  of  the  law,  at  which 
time  sacrifices  were  also  olTered  ;  Exod.  xxiv.  8, 
Behold  the  bluod  of  the  covenant,  which  tlic  Lord 
hath  made  with  you.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  260,  note  2. 
(c)  Christ  did  not  institute  his  Supper  during 
the  continuance  of  the  passover,  but  after  it  was 
finished,  in  order  to  give  his  new  ordinance  an 
additional  solemnity  from  its  connexion  with  the 
passover,  and  at  the  same  lime  to  make  it  entirely 
distinct  from  the  latter.  This  example  was  so 
far  imitated  by  the  ancient  Christians,  that  while 
they  celebrated  the  sacrament  of  tlie  Supper  in 
connexion  with  the  jltrapx,  or  feasts  if  love,  they 
yet  observed  it  as  a  separate  festival,  after  the 
former  was  ended.  At  the  social  festivals  of  the 
Jews,  at  the  passover,  &c.,  a  cup  was  passed 
round,  over  which  thanks  were  s.tid,  while  the 
cup  was  drank  to  the  praise  of  God — a  custom 
which  we  find  in  other  ancient  nations.  Cf. 
Psalm  cxvi.  13;  1  Chron.  xvi.  1,  seq. ;  also  the  « 
rtorjjjHOi'  baifiovioii',  1  Cor.  x.  21.  It  was  with 
this  ceremony  that  Christ  concluded  the  pass- 
over,  Luke,  xxii.  17.  A-nd  now,  after  they  had 
eaten,  (ta^i,6i'r<^v  airHtv,  according  to  Matthew 
and  Mark,  or  ftira  to  6firti>-'i(u,  according  to 
Luke  and  Paul,)  he  again  otlered  a  prayer  of 
thanks,  as  was  customary  at  the  cominenceiiient 
of  a  festival  (fv;taj)^(5T>;^a5,)  in  order  lo  distin- 
guish this  ordinance  from  the  one  which  had  pre^ 
ceded,  and  then  distributed  the  bread  and  passed 
round  the  cup  the  second  time.  He  took  the 
materials  for  this  sacrament  from  what  remained 
of  bread  and  wine  (as  the  ordinary  drink  of  th« 
table)  after  they  had  eaten.  And  this  was  eo* 
tirely  conformed  to  his  design,  that  the  rite  com* 
memorative  of  him  should  be  as  simple  as  po#» 
sible,  and  such  that  it  could  be  often  observed, 
and  in  any  place,  without  much  trouble  or  diffi- 
culty.   In  this  respect  the  Lord's  Supper  difiera 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      499 


widely  from  the  Jewish  passover,  where  every- 
thing was  complicated  and  circumstantially  ar- 
ranged.    Vide  Exod.  xii.  3,  seq. 

^'„/e._Christ  recommended  the   observance 
of  the  Supper,  not  merely  to  the  apostles,  but  to 
all  Ciiristians.     Vide  Morns,  p.  259,  s.  1,  ad 
finern.   Nor  was  it  his  meaning  that  they  should 
merely  sometimes  remember  him  at  their  ordi- 
nary social  meals,  and  while  they  partook  of  the 
bread  and  wine  on  the  table,  think  of  his  death ; 
on   the   contrary,  the   apostles  understood   the 
words,  Do  this  in  remeinhrance  (f  tne,  to  relate  to 
all  Christians  ;  and  they  distinguished  this  fes- 
tival from  all  other  social  festivals,  and  intro- 
duced the  observance  of  it  into  all  the  Christian 
"hurches.     This  appears  especially  from  1  Cor. 
xi.  23,  24,  coll.  X.  IG,  where  it  is  also  described 
as  an  ordinance  of  Christ,  and  indeed  as  one 
which  Paul  himself,  as  well  as  the  other  apos- 
tles, had  received  immediately  from  Christ.     It 
is  said  expressly,  ver.  26,  that  this  ordinance 
should  be  observed  until  the  end  of  the  world, 
(o;^pij  ov  tX^j;  o  Krpioj.)     The  Supper  was  de- 
sicrued  to  be  a  perpetual  sermon  on  the  death  of 
Christ  until  he  shall  come  again  to  bring  his 
followers  into  the  kingdom  of  the  blessed;  and 
every  one  who  partakes  of  it  is  supposed  hereby 
to  profess  that  he  believes  Christ  died  even  for 
him.     There  have  always,  however,  been  some 
who  have  supposed  that  this  institution  is  need- 
less, or  that  the  precept  to  observe  it  does  not 
extend  to  all  Christians:  the  Pauliciani,  e.  g., 
supposed  that  bread  and  w/tie  are  here  figurative 
\  terms,  denoting  the  doctrines  of  Christ,  which 
nourish  the  soul.     So  the  Socinians,  and  seve- 
ral fanatical  sects. 

(3)  More  particular  explanation  of  the  object 
of  Christ  in  iiutituting  the  sacrament  of  the  Sup- 


(fl)  The  chief  object  of  Christ.  From  what  has 
been  already  said,  it  appears  that  this  festival 
was  designed  to  be  in  commemoration  of  Christ, 
— of  all  the  blessings  for  which  we  are  indebted 
to  him,  and  especially  of  his  death,  from  which 
these  other  benefits  all  proceed.   This  is  evident 
from  the  very  words  in  which  this  ordinance 
was  established,  aa^a  vrtsp  i'lxCjv  StSofisvov,  (or, 
as  Paul  has  it,  xXwjutiof,  -»3r,  laidere,  vulnerare, 
to  which  the  Jrea^ni^' of  the  bread  alludes,)  and 
alj-ia  vrtsf)  v/twv,  (or  rtepi  rtoXXwv,  according  to 
Mark  and  Luke,)  ixxv^'outvov,  tiiifiaiv  a^apri^v. 
Christ  often  repeated  these  words  during  the 
eating  and  drinking  of  the  Supper,  and  inter- 
changed them  with  others  of  the  same  import; 
and    hence  we  may  account  for  the  different 
phraseology  recorded  by  the  different  evange- 
lists.    The  same  thing  is  evident  from  the  ex- 
press declaration  of  Paul,  1    Cor.  xi.  2G,  "So 
often  as  ye  partake  of  this  festival,  you  profess 
yourselves  among  the  number  of  those  who  be- 
lieve that  Christ  suffered  death  for  their  sakes," 


Qxivatov  Kvpioi)  xatayyiXiti.)  Cf.  1  Cor.  X.  16, 
and  also  the  fine  paraphrase  of  this  passage 
given  by  Morus,  p.  259,  s.  3,  n.  1. 

But  this  needs  more  particular  explanation. 
On  the  day  of  Christ's  death  the  ancient  Mosaic 
dispensation  ceased,  and  the  new  covenant,  or 
the  new  dispensation  instituted  by  God  through 
Christ  for  the  salvation  of  men,  commenced. 
The  memorable  event  of  that  day,  which  had 
such  vast  consequences,  he  and    his  apostles 
celebrated  by  this  festival,  and  he  commaiuled 
them  to  continue  to  observe  it  in   future  time. 
It  is  therefore  the  uniform  doctrine  of  the  apos- 
tles that  the  new  dispensation  of  God  (xati^ 
Sio^r^xri)  began  with  the  death  of  Christ,  and 
was    thereby   solemnly   consecrated.     Cf.   the 
texts  cited  s.  118,  II.  I.   Hence  Paul  says,  Heb. 
ix.  14,  15,  that   even   as  Judaism   was   inau- 
o-urated  by  sacrifices,  so  was  Christianity  also, 
by  the  sacrifice  of  Jesus  Christ.     And  now  as 
Moses,  Exod.  xxiv.  8,  calls  the  blood  of  the  sa- 
crifice by  which  the  Mosaic  laws  and  the  whole 
Mosaic  institute  was  consecrated  and  received  a 
solemn  sanction,  the  blood  of  the  covenant,  so  does 
Christ,  with  a  most  indisputable  reference  to 
this    expression,   denominate   his    death, — his 
blood  which  he  shed,  the  blood  (f  the  new  cove- 
nant ;    and   the   words  to  o.lua  xairrji  bia^r^xrjf 
(or,  as  Luke  and  Paul  plainly  have  it,  to  rcot-^ 
ptov  (iatt,)  7}  xaivTi  hia^rxri  iv  tq  ai|Uar(,  ^ov)  are 
to  be  regarded  as  explanatory  of  the  words  rovfo 
iati.  to  au)/ta  juov,  to  alfid  fxov. 

The  meaning  therefore  is,  "  ye  celebrate,  while 
ye  eat  this  bread  and  drink  this  wine,  the  me- 
mory of  my  body  offered  up,  and  of  my  blood 
shed  for  you,  by  which  the  new  covenant,  the 
new  dispensation  for  the  good  of  the  world, 
whose  founder  I  am,  is  consecrated."  The  sa- 
crament of  the  Supper  is  therefore  a  significant 
sermon  on  the  death  of  Jesus,  and  requires,  in 
order  to  a  proper  celebration  of  it,  a  personal 
experience  of  the  benefits  of  this  death. 

Christ  says,  "drink  ye  all  of  it;  for  it  is  my 
blood."  By  this  he  means  that  they  should  so 
divide  the  wine  among  themselves  that  each 
should  receive  a  portion  of  it.  He  himself  did 
not  partake  of  the  sacramental  bread  and  wine; 
for  his  body  was  not  offered,  nor  his  blood  shed, 
for  his  own  sake;  and  those  only  for  whom  this 
was  done  should  eat  and  drink  of  it.  The  toito 
iati  aCjua  and  a^a  refers,  therefore,  prmcipally 
to  the  act  itself,  like  the  following  tovto  noi- 
fiT-f—i,  e.,  this  act  (which  you  shall  hereafter 
repeat)  shall  serve  to  impress  your  minds  with 
the  great  importance  of  my  body  offered  up  for 
the  good  of  men,  and  of  my  blood  shed  for  their 
sake,  and  shall  remind  you  of  all  the  salutary 
consequences  flowing  from  my  death,  and  shall 
convey  these  benefits  to  you  personally.  It  is 
not,  therefore,  the  then  present  and  living  body 
of  Jesus  which  is  here  spoken  of,  but  tiie  body 


500 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


which  was  sacrificed — i.  e.,  Christ,  so  fjr  as  he 
died  for  us.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  formula 
used  liy  Moses  respeetinor  ihe  passover,  Exod. 
xii.  11,  27,  Nn  nsi: — i.  e.,  by  tliis  act  you 
Bolemuly  c(iinme(norate  the  deliverance  from 
E|fypi.  And  as  the  passover  was  appointed 
and  first  celebrated  shortly  before  this  deliver- 
ance, so  was  the  sacrament  of  the  Supper  insti- 
tuted and  celebrated  just  before  the  death  of 
Christ;  and  as  the  former  was  to  be  repeated  in 
commemoration  of  the  great  event  on  account 
of  which  it  was  first  instituted,  and  for  the  sake 
of  awakenin^f  ijraieful  and  religious  feelings,  so 
it  was  also  with  the  latli;r.  This  analogy  seems 
to  have  been  perfectly  understood  by  the  apos- 
tles, and  hence  they  do  not  inquire  of  Christ, 
83  they  were  accustomed  to  do  in  other  cases. 

(i)  But  in  connexion  with  this  principal  ob- 
ject, Christ  had  also  others  in  view,  all  of 
which,  however,  are  related  to  this,  and  depend 
upon  it.  Especially  does  it  appear  to  have  been 
an  object  with  Christ  in  this  ordinance  to  make 
[>!ain,  and  impressively  to  recommend  to  his  dis- 
ciples tliat  great  precept  of  his  religion,  Love 
one  another,  an  I  also  have  loved  you,  I  Cor.  X. 
17;  xii.  13.  He  designed  that  by  this  symbol 
his  disciples  should  mutually  pledge  their  cor- 
dial love.  It  is  a  thing  well  known  by  old  ex- 
perience that  friendships  are  founded,  cherished, 
and  sustained  by  social  festivals.  Of  this  fact 
many  of  the  ancient  legislators  and  the  founders 
of  religions  availed  themselves  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  festivals;  and  this  was  also  done  by 
Moses.  In  many  of  the  Oriental  nations,  there- 
fore, the  guest  who  had  but  once  eaten  with 
them,  even  if  it  had  been  only  bread  and  salt, 
and  who  had  drunken  willi  them,  was  considered 
as  a  pledged  and  unalterable  friend ;  and  it  was 
in  this  way  that  the  league  of  friendship  and  of 
mutual  service  was  contracted. 

'I'his  noble  custom  was  now  made  more  ge- 
neral, and,  as  it  were,  consecrated,  by  religion, 
or  the  association  of  religious  ideas.  All  the 
followers  of  Christ  were  to  unite  in  this  cele- 
br  iiion,  and  to  hold  this  festival  in  common, 
and  without  any  distinction,  in  memory  of  their 
great  bcnifaiior  and  Saviour.  For  the  follow- 
ers of  (yhrist  were  required  to  love  each  other 
as  brethren,  and  ihis/or  ChrisCs  sake — i.  e.,  be- 
cause it  is  the  will  and  the  command  of  Christ, 
their  common  Lord.  Vide  Job.  (Jtiltl.jb  Worb, 
I'eher  die  liundes-und  Freundsohaftssyinbole 
der  Morgenlander;  Sorau,  17y"2,  8vo. 

But  we  must  remember,  in  connexion  with 
this,  the  uniform  doctrine  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, that  Christ  in  his  exalted  state  is  as  near 
to  all  his  followers,  at  all  periods,  even  until 
the  end  of  the  world,  (Matt,  xxviii.  20.)  and 
that  he  equally  guides  and  supports  them  as 
when  he  was  with  his  disciples,  by  his  visible 
presence,  upon  the  earth.    Vide  8.  1>8.    lie  was 


visibly  present  when  he  first  held  this  festival 
with  his  disciples  then  living,  and  lie  then  took 
the  lead.  But  while  he  commands  all  his  foU 
lowers  to  coniitiue  to  observe  this  rile  until  his 
visible  return,  he  gives  them  the  assurance  that 
they  stand  equally  under  his  inspection,  and  en- 
joy eijually  his  care,  with  those  who  lived  with 
him  while  he  was  upon  the  earth.  Tlieologians 
say  trul}',  Christ  us  prvcsentiam  suum  suia  in  sacra 
CiCna  decliirut  adspectabili  pi^iwre.  So  cer- 
tainly as  they  see  the  bread  and  the  wine,  even 
so  certain  should  it  be  to  them  that  he  still 
lires,  and  that  he  is  especially  near  to  them,  as 
he  was  formerly  to  his  disciples  while  upon 
earth. 

Xole. — From  what  has  now  been  said,  it  ap- 
pears (a)  that  the  theory  of  the  substantial  pre- 
sence of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  in  the 
sacramental  symbols  is  not  essential,  or  is  not 
to  be  looked  upon  as  the  great  point  in  this  doc- 
trine, and  that  it  cannot  be  decisively  proved 
from  the  words  of  Christ.  The  reformed  theo- 
logians take  ilvai,  here  in  the  sense  oi'  siaiiify' 
iiig,  shewimr  forth — a  sense  in  which  it  is  indeed 
often  used — e.  g.,  Sept.  Gen.  xii.  2G,  27;  Gal. 
iv.  21 ;  Rev.  i.  20.  Christ  himself  uses  iati  in 
a  similar  connexion,  instead  of  ar^fj.a.ivhi.,  John, 
XV.  1.  The  objections  to  this  explanation  which 
are  of  any  weight  may  be  seen  in  Storr's  '*  Doc- 
trina  Christiana,"  p.  305,  seq.  Cf.  also  s.  146. 
This  particular  theory  ought  never  to  have  been 
made  an  article  of  faith,  but  rather  to  have  been 
placed  among  theological  problems.  Vides.  146. 

It  also  appears  from  the  foregoing  that  we  are 
not  to  suppose  in  the  sacrament  any  actual  of- 
fering up  of  the  body  of  Christ,  repeated  every 
time  the  sacrament  is  observed.  This  false  idea 
became  gradually  prevalent  in  the  Romish 
church.  Vide  No.  I.  of  this  section,  ad  finera. 
This  sacrament  may  indeed  be  called,  as  it  is 
by  the  fathers,  a  sacrifice,  but  only  in  a  figura- 
tive sense.  For  Christ  olTered  up  hiutself  once 
for  all,  Heb.  ix.  25 — 28  ;  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
is  the  means  of  approj)riating  to  each  one  the 
benefits  of  this  one  sacrifice.  It  is  taught,  how- 
ever, by  the  Romish  church,  that  the  priest  of- 
fers to  God,  as  a  literal  atoning  sacrifice,  both 
for  the  dead  and  the  living,  the  sacramental 
symbols,  which  become,  by  consecration  and 
transubstantialion,  the  real  body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  From  this  doctrine  respecting  masse* 
many  other  false  ideas  have  originated. 

SECTION  CXLIV. 

OF  TFIE  niSTINCTIOW  BETWKKN  WHAT  IS  ESSEN- 
TIAL AND  UNESSKNTIAI.  IN  THE  CELEBRATION 
OF  THE  OnniNANOE  OF  THE  SVPPER. 

Some  things  pertaining  to  this  ordinance  are 
ex»cnlinl — i.  p..  of  such  a  nature  that  without 
them  the  whole  act  would  not  be  the  true  Lord's 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      501 


Supper;  others  Tire  unessential,  or  confingetif.  The 
latter  depend  upon  the  circumstances  of  time, 
place,  society,  &c. ;  and  with  regard  to  these 
things  we  feel  ourselves  justified  in  deviating 
even  from  that  which  was  done  on  the  first  in- 
stitution of  the  Supper,  since  these  are  regarded 
as  indifferent  matters,  Christ  having  given  no 
txpress  precepts  respecting  them.  Thus  all 
agree  that  the  iinie  of  ike  day  in  which  it  is  ob- 
served is  unessential,  although  Christ  observed 
it  in  the  evening;  the  same  as  to  the  posture  at 
(able,  whether  silling  or  lying  ,•  and  with  re- 
spect to  the  place,  whether  it  be  a  public  or  a 
private  house;  and  other  things  of  the  same 
kind. 

But  on  some  points  opinions  are  divided.  In 
the  protestant  church  the  use  of  the  bread  and 
wine  (^materia,  or  res  terresiris,  elementa,  symbo- 
la)  is  reckoned  among  the  essential  things;  and 
the  use  of  them  too  in  such  a  way  that  each  of 
the  elements  shall  be  separately  (^scparatim) 
taken.  Protestants,' too,  contend  that  none  but 
real  Christians  may  partake  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per. Other  things  are  regarded  by  them  as  un- 
essential. These  points  will  now  be  briefly 
considered,  and  illustrated  by  some  historical 
observations. 

I.  Tlie  use  of  Bread  and  Wine  in  ike  Lord's 
Supper. 

(1)  With  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  bread  to 
be  employed  in  this  sacrament,  the  opinions  of 
theologians  have  been  diverse. 

(a)  It  has  been  asked  whether  the  bread 
should  be  leavened  or  unleavened,  or  whether 
this  is  z  point  of  indifference.  In  the  protestant 
church  the  latter  opinion  is  itiainlained,  and 
justly,  since  Christ  left  no  precept  respecting 
this  point.  So  much  is  beyond  doubt,  that  at 
the  institution  of  the  Supper  Christ  made  use  of 
unleavened  bread,  because  no  other  was  brought 
into  the  house  during  the  celebration  of  the  Jew- 
ish passover,  still  less  was  any  other  kind  eaten. 
W^e  have  indeed  no  express  information  respect- 
ing the  custom  of  the  primitive  Christians  in 
this  respect;  but  from  all  circumstances  it  ap- 
pears that  they  regarded  it  as  a  matter  of  indif- 
ferance  whether  leavened  or  unleavened  bread 
is  employed.  They  came  together  almost  daily 
to  partake  of  the  Supper,  and  they  carried  with 
them  the  bread  and  wine  for  this  festival.  In 
this  case  they  took  the  bread  which  was  used 
at  common  meals,  and  this  was  leavened  bread. 
Epiplianius  (Haer.  30)  notices  it  as  something 
peculiar  in  the  Ebionkes,  that  once  in  the  year, 
at  the  time  of  the  passover,  they  celebrated  the 
Lord's  Supper  with  unleavend  bread.  It  was 
customary  at  a  subsequent  period  in  the  Oriental 
church  to  make  use  of  leavened  bread,  yet  not 
always  and  in  all  places.  In  the  Western 
cliurch,  on  the  contrary,  unleavened  bread  was 


more  commonly  (though  not  always)  emplrjv- 
ed  ;  and  Rabanus  Maiirus,  in  the  ninth  century, 
declares  this  to  be  an  apostolical  tradition  in  the 
Romish  church.  There  was,  however,  at  this 
time,  no  laio  upon  the  subject,  either  in  the 
Eastern  or  Western  church.  But  in  the  ele- 
venth century  a  controversy  arose  on  this  point 
between  the  two  churches,  as  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  Michael  Cerularius,  reproachi-d 
the  Western  church  for  the  use  of  unleavened 
bread,  and  made  it  heresy.  After  this  period  it 
was  contended  in  the  Romish  church  that  no 
other  than  unleavened  bread  should  be  iisi  d, 
and  this  was  so  established  by  many  papal 
decretals.  The  opposite  ground  was  tak-n  by 
the  Greek  church,  and  is  still  maintained  at  the 
present  day.  Vide  Job.  (Ji.unitd  IK-rrmann, 
Historia  Concertationum  de  Pane  Azymo  et 
Fermentato  in  Ccena  Domini ;  Leipzig,  1737, 
Svo, 

(i)  Another  thing  which  must  be  considered 
unessential  is  the  breahing  of  the  bread,  which 
was  done  at  the  first  institution  of  the  Supper, 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  .Tews,  who  baked 
the  bri^ad  thin,  and  were  accustomed  therefore 
to  break,  instead  of  cutting  it.  We  see,  how- 
ever, from  1  Cor.  xi.  21,  (coll.  x.  17,  fij  ciproj, 
from  which  pieces  were  broken  (ff,)  tliat  this 
custom  was  retained  in  the  primitive  Cliristian 
church,  and  was  regarded  as  emblematical  of 
the  wounding  and  breaking  of  the  body  of 
Jesus.  It  would  have  been  better,  therefore,  to 
have  retained  this  custom  afterwards,  for  the 
same  reason  that  the  custom  of  immersion  is 
preferable  in  performing  the  rite  of  baptism. 
Luther  at  first  declared  in  favour  of  the  breaking 
of  bread,  though  he  afterwards  altered  his  opi- 
nion. It  has  been  customary  in  the  Romish 
church,  especially  since  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  to  cut  the  host  or  holy  wafer 
in  a  peculiar  way,  so  as  to  represent  upon  it  the 
crucified  Saviour,  and  to  make  the  pieces  more 
and  more  small,  that  no  one  might  receive  too 
much  of  this  costly  food. 

(2)  In  respect  to  the  wine,  it  has  been  com- 
monly supposed  that  Christ  used  such,  in  the 
institution  of  the  Supper,  as  was  mingled  with 
water.  For  it  was  very  customary  with  the 
orientalists  to  drink  mingled  wine  at  tabic,  and 
one  was  regarded  as  quite  intemperate  who 
drank  pure  wine,  (^merum.)  Still  this  is  very 
uncertain,  since  water  and  wine  were  frequently 
drunk  separately  at  table.  In  the  ancient  cliurch, 
however,  the  custom  prevailed  in  most  places 
of  mingling  water  with  the  sacrament^il  wine. 
It  was  also  determined  how  much  wine  shf>uld 
be  taken;  though  this  was  variously  settled. 
Diverse  allegorical  significations  were  given  to 
the  mingling  of  these  two  elements.  E.  g.,  it 
was  said  that  the  wine  is  the  symbol  of  the 
soul  of  Christ,  and  the  water  of  the  people  who 


MS 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


«re  united  with  him,  &c.  Such  allecrorizing  is 
seen  even  in  llie  writings  of  Cyprian.  Cle- 
ment HI.  expressly  enacted  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury that  the  wine  sliould  be  mingled  with 
water.  This  was  not  insisted  upon  by  Luther, 
on  account  of  the  superstition  connected  with 
it.  The  ciiliiur  of  the  wine  is  also  indifferent, 
nor  is  it  certain  that  Christ  used  the  red  wine. 

(3)  In  order  to  the  rii;ht  celebration  of  the 
Li.rd's  Supper,  neither  tlie  bread  nor  the  wine 
uu-^t  be  taken  witlioiit  the  other,  but  both  must 
be  i.sed,  {communio  mih  ulraijnc  xpfch;)  though 
one  separately  from  the  other,  {sejiuralim.) 

(n)  As  to  the  latter  puint,  it  is  probable  from 
the  insiitulicn  of  the  Supper  by  Ciirisi  that  he 
distributed  each  of  the  eleuienls  aejtaralcly  to 
his  disciples.  But  we  find  that  in  some  of  the 
Oriental  churches  an  exception  was  made  in 
behalf  of  souie  sick  persons,  and  that  bread 
merely  dit)pt'd  in  wine  was  given  them.  The 
sauie  thing  was  done  in  the  West,  especially 
during  the  tenth  century,  where,  in  some  places, 
the  bread  only  was  consecrated,  and  then  dipped 
in  the  wine,  ami  so  given  to  the  communicants — 
a  practice  which  was  justly  condemned. 

(6)  It  is  also  a  well-founded  opinion,  that  the 
cup  should  not  be  withholden  from  any  who 
partake  of  this  sacrament.  Vide  Morus,  p.  •i~2, 
n.  3. 

From  1  Cor.  xi,  2G ;  x.  Ifi,  21,  it  appears, 
undeniably,  that  in  the  apostnlic  church  all 
Christians  partook  both  of  the  bread  and  the 
wine.  And  this  was  tiie  practice  throughout 
the  whole  Christian  church  during  the  first  ttn 
centuries.  The  Manicheans,  who  abstained 
wholly  from  wine,  did  not  use  it  even  at  the 
Lord's  Supper;  but  they  were  strongly  opposed 
by  the  teachers  of  all  other  parties — e.  g,,  Hie- 
ronymus,  Leo  the  Great,  &c.  Particularly  im- 
pr>rtant  is  a  decree  of  Pope  Gclasius  I.,  of  the 
fifth  century,  against  some  sectarians,  who 
used  only  bnad  in  the  celebration  of  the  Supper. 
He  calls  their  practice  i^riindc  ndcrHei^iu/u,  and 
is  very  strong  in  his  opposition  to  it. 

But  when  the  d<jctrine  of  tra!isu!)slantiation 
began  to  prevail  in  the  West,  especially  after 
the  eleventh  century,  the  schoolmen  suggested 
tliM  fjuestion  whether,  consid<'riiig  that  the  bread 
18  changf^l  into  the  body  of  Christ,  the  blood  is 
not  also  there,  and  so,  whether  it  is  not  enough 
to  partake  merely  of  the  bread  ]  This  question 
was  answered  in  the  afrirmative;  and  it  was 
suggested  as  an  additional  reason  in  behalf  of 
this  opinion,  that  drink  may  be  easily  spilled, 
and  thai  it  is  more  dilli'Milt  lo  losi;  any  portion 
of  the  l)read.  This  ground  was  tiken  even  in 
till'  twelfth  century  by  Hugo  of  Si.  Victor  and 
Pfler  of  Loiuh.irdy,  and  in  the  thirtcHinh  cen- 
tury was  defended  v»ilh  great  Zeal  by  Thomas 
Aquinas.  Some  chur^'hes  in  the  West  hcjan. 
therclore,  to  introduce  the  cusluin  of  wiihhuidin;; 


the  cup  from  the  laity,  and  giving  it  only  lo  tl>« 
clergy.  The  first  examples  of  tiiis  occurred  ia 
some  English  churches  about  the  mii'die  of  tlie 
twelfth  century.  The  scarcity  and  clearness  of 
wine  in  northern  Lurupe  during  this  period  may 
have  furnished  an  additional  motive  for  this 
practice.  It  was  not  until  the  thirteenth  century 
that  these  examples  were  followed  in  France 
and  Italy.  Still  this  observance  did  not  become 
universal  either  in  this  or  the  following  ctnlury, 
alihoiigii  it  was  becoming  un^re  and  more  pre- 
valent in  the  churches  in  tiie  West.  Tliis  doc- 
trine (le  communiiHie  sub  iitia  was  zealously  op- 
posed by  Wicklilfaiid  Huss  and  their  adherents; 
and  this  led  the  Council  at  Costnitz,  1415, 
wholly  to  interdict  the  use  of  the  cup  by  the 
laity.  It  was  established  by  that  Council, 
"that  in  each  of  the  two  elements  the  whole 
body  of  Christ  is  truly  contained."  This  doc- 
trine has  been  maintained  in  the  Uomish 
church  ever  since  this  period,  although  many 
theologians,  and  even  some  of  the  popes,  have 
objected  lo  it.  Luther  and  Zuingle  adopted  tiie 
principles  of  W  icklill  and  Huss,  and  introduced 
again  the  general  use  of  the  cup  into  their 
churches,  and  tience  the  decisions  of  the  Coun< 
cil  at  Cosliiilz  were  re-enacted  by  ilie  Council 
at  Trent  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Besides  the 
older  works  of  Leo  Allaiius,  Schinid,  Calixtus, 
on  this  subject,  cf.  Spittler,  Ceschichte  des 
Kelch's  im  Abendmahl ;  Lemgo,  1780,  8vo. 

II.  Bi/  whom  sliould  the  Lord's  Supper  be  uhnrved? 

who  should  adininisler  it?  aud  may  it  be  ctle- 

bratcd  in  the  Private  Dwellings  of  Christians  ? 

These  questions  come  under  the  general  in- 
(]uiry  respecting  what  is  essential  and  not  t:s- 
sential  in  the  observance  of  the  Lord's  Sujiper. 

(I)  .None  but  actual  members  of  the  Christian 
church  can  take  part  in  tlie  Lord's  Supper; 
those  who  are  not  Christians  are  excluded  fnuu 
it.  On  this  point  there  has  b(>en  an  universal 
agreement.  For  by  this  rite  we  profess  i-ur 
interest  in  the  Christian  church,  and  our  belief 
in  C'hrist.  Vide  I  Cor.  x.  17;  xi.  2t>.  Tlifl 
passage,  Heb.  xiii.  2l),  seems  also  to  belonir  in 
this  connexion.  Every  actual  member  of  the 
church  may  therefore  be  admitted  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  this  ordinance,  without  distinction  (.f 
regenerate  and  unregenerate  perscms,  (thouuU 
this  is  lienied  by  some.)  This  is  evident  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  the  object  of  the  Supper  to 
make  an  external  profession  of  Christian  f.iith, 
(vide  8.  115.  I.:}  and  because  it  may  be.  and 
is  designed  to  be,  a  means  iif  promoting  a  chant(d 
of  heart,  and  often  produces  this  elTecU  As  uii« 
regenerate  persons  are  not  excluded  from  liear* 
ing  the  divine  word,  neither  should  they  he  front 
partiking  of  lliis  sacrament.  Nor  do  wc  lind 
ih  it  persons  who  <rave  ni>  rvidenc«'  of  a  reixeno- 
rale  mind,  and  who  weru  yet  aiciubers  of  Uia 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THK  REDEMPTION. 


iOZ 


visible  church,  were  excluded  from  the  sacra- 
ment in  the  primitive  Christian  church ;  although 
such  persons  were  advised  to  abstain  from  the 
sacrament,  so  long  as  their  hearts  were  not  in  a 
proper  frame,  still  it  was  left  to  their  own  con- 
sciences. Since,  therefore,  a  mixed  multitude 
of  oood  and  evil  must  be  allowed  in  the  visible 
church,  it  is  the  same  as  to  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Christ  himself  admitted  Judas  to  the  first  cele- 
bration of  this  ordinance;  and  thus  taught  us 
our  duty  with  regard  to  this  subject.  Many 
have  indeed  denied  that  Judas,  the  betrayer  of 
Christ,  partook  of  this  sacrament  with  the  other 
disciples;  but  from  Luke,  xxii.  20 — 22,  the  fact 
appears  too  plain  to  be  denied.  This  is  admit- 
ted even  by  Augustine  on  the  third  Psalm. 
This  fact  is  important,  since  many  conscientious 
Christians,  and  even  teachers,  have  had  great 
doubts  as  to  uniting  with  unconverted  men  in 
this  ordinance,  and  have  become  separatists. 

In  respect  to  children,  however,  it  is  main- 
tained that  they  are  excluded  from  partaking 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  was  common  in  Africa, 
in  Cyprian's  time — i.  e.,  in  the  ihiKd  century — to 
give  the  sacramental  elements  even  to  children  ; 
and  this  custom  was  gradually  introduced  into 
other  churches.  But  in  the  twelfth  century  this 
practice  fell  into  disuse  in  the  West,  although 
in  the  East  it  continues  to  the  present  day. 
The  passage,  John,  vi.  53,  is  appealed  to  in  be- 
half of  this  practice.  Vide  Peter  Zorn,  Historia 
Eucharistiae  Iiifantium;  Berlin,  173G,  8vo.  It 
cannot  be  said  that  the  exclusion  of  children  is 
expressly  commanded  by  Christ,  because  there 
is  nothing  about  this  subject  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, nor  do  we  read  that  in  the  apostolic 
church  they  were  excluded  from  the  sacrament. 
(The  children  of  the  Israelites  were  not  ex- 
cluded from  the  feast  of  the  passover.)  Yet  as 
children  were  not  admitted  during  the  first  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  church,  (except  in  Africa 
in  the  third  century,)  we  judge  that  they  cannot 
have  been  admitted  in  the  apostolic  church ;  for 
in  that  case  this  practice  would  not  certainly 
have  been  disused  in  all  the  churches.  The 
cause  of  the  exclusion  of  children  is,  plainly, 
that  they  cannot  as  yet  understand  the  import- 
ance of  the  transaction,  and  must  be  unable  to 
distinguish  this  religious  festival  from  a  com- 
mon meal ;  I  Cor.  xi.  29.  It  would  thus  be- 
come to  them  a  merely  formal  and  customary 
tliiiiCT,  and  make  no  salutary  impression. 

(2)  Bt/  whom  should  the  Lorc^s  Supper  be  ad- 
miniiftercd?  As  the  administration  of  the  oilier 
religions  rites  of  the  church  is  entrusted  to  the 
teachers  of  religion,  it  is  proper  and  accon'.ing 
to  good  order  that  this  also  should  be  adminis- 
tcied  by  them.  This,  however,  is  by  no  means 
their  right  exchmveiy  and  necessarily,  but  only 
ordinis  et  dtcori  catisa,  as  Morns  well  observes, 
p.  272,  ad  fin.     In  extreme   cases,  therefore, 


where  no  regular  teachers  can  be  obtained,  tnis 
sacrament  may  be  administered  by  other  Chris- 
tians to  whom  this  duly  is  committed  by  the 
church.  ■  Vide  s.  13G,  II.  2  ;  s.  139,  III.  This 
has  been  uniformly  maintained  by  Luther  and 
other  protestant  theologians.  In  the  ancient 
Christian  church  it  was  as  regularly  adminis- 
tered by  the  teachers  as  baptism.  Justin  the 
Martyr  (Apol.  i.  85,  seq.)  says  that  the  «^o' 
farwTfj  consecrated  and  distributed  the  ele- 
ments; and  TertuUian  (De  Cor.  Mil.)  says 
7iec  de  aliuruiii  munu  quam  prjESIDEntium  sumu 
r/ius. 

(3)  The  question  has  been  asked,  Whethei 
private  communions  (e.  g.,  in  the  case  of  sick 
persons)  may  be  permittee^,  and  whether  they 
accord  with  the  objects  of  the  Lord's  Supper? 
This  has  been  denied  by  some  modern  writers, 
particularly  by  Less,  in  his  "  Praktische  Dog- 
riialik,"  and  by  Schulze  of  Neustadt,  "  Ueber 
die  Krankencommunion;"  1791.  Cf.  the  work 
'•  Ueber  die  Krankencommunion,  mil  besonderei 
Minsicht  auf  ihren  Missbrauch  und  ihre  Schad- 
lichkeit;"  Leipzig,  1803,  8vo;  in  which,  how- 
ever, the  practice  is  not  wholly  rejected.  These 
writers  have  been  led  to  make  their  objections 
by  seeing  the  fre<iuent  abuse  of  private  commu- 
nions, by  knowing  thai  they  are  frequently  re- 
sorted to  from  pride,  or  from  some  su[)ersiilious 
ideas  with  regard  to  their  effuMcy.  Hence  they 
have  been  led  to  maintain  that  it  is  essential, 
in  order  to  a  right  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  that  it  should  be  held  in  common  by 
tiie  mixed  society  of  Christians  constituting  a 
church,  and  that  private  communions  cannot  be 
regarded  as  constituting  the  Lord's  Supper. 

'i'his  opinion,  however,  has  been  justly  re- 
jected by  many  theologians — e.  g.,  by  Doeder- 
lein.  The  following  reasons  have  been  urged 
against  it — viz., 

(rt)  It  is  doubtless  true  that  in  the  apostolic 
church  the  Lord's  Supper  was  commonly  and 
regularly  celebrated  in  ihe  pubJic  assemblies  of 
Christians;  1  Cor.  xi.  20 — 34.  And  this  must 
always  remain  the  rule,  from  which  there  can 
be  no  exception  in  respect  to  those  Christians 
who  are  able  to  attend  the  public  meetings,  but 
who  refuse  so  to  do,  either  from.pride  or  self- 
will.  There  may,  however,  be  an  exception 
made  in  behalf  of  Christians  who  are  neces- 
sarily detained  from  attending  on  the  public  or- 
dinances of  divine  service — e.  g.,  in  the  case 
of  sick  persons.  And  it  would  be,  as  Morus 
well  remarks,  inconsistent  with  the  rule  of 
love,  which  is  one  of  *he  chief  commands  of 
Christ,  if  sick  persons  should  be  prevented  from 
partaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  their  own 
houses. 

(i)  A  public  place  cannot  be  made  essential  to 
the  proper  observance  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  for 
it  was  held  at  its  first  institution  in  a  private 


504 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


house;  nor  is  the  number  of  Christians  present 
at  all  important,  since  it  was  first  celebrated 
only  by  a  seU-cl  few  of  the  five  hundred  disci- 
ples of  Christ  then  living;  but  everything  de- 
pends upon  the  feelinu^s  and  character  of  the 
communicants.  The  Christian  who  in  this  act 
commemorates  the  death  of  Jisus,  professes  his 
relation  to  the  church,  and  forms  pious  resolves 
and  purposes — he  truly  celebrates  the  Lord's 
Supper  whether  he  performs  this  act  in  public 
or  private. 

(c)  Kven  in  a  private  dwelling  a  profession 
rnay  be  made,  by  liiis  act  of  faith  in  the  death 
of  Christ,  before  the  teacher  and  others  present, 
1  Cor.  xi.;  and  persons  not  present  still  learn 
that  such  a  profession  has  been  made.  Tiiis 
object  of  the  Lonl's  Supper  is  therefore  attained 
even  by  the  private  celebration  of  it.  There 
was  a  regulation  among  the  Bohemian  brethren 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  (about  the  year  14GI,) 
that  when  a  sick  person  desired  the  Lord's 
Supper,  other  members  of  the  church  should 
partake  of  it  with  him,  in  order  that  it  ini<^ht  he 
a  true  communion — an  example  which  is  worthy 
of  imitation!  And  even  among  us  this  might 
be  done  without  great  notoriety,  by  admitting 
the  near  relations,  acquaintances,  or  friends  of 
the  sick  person,  or  those  occupying  the  same 
U'luse;  and  they,  too,  might  perhaps  receive  a 
salutary  impression  from  such  a  celebration  of 
this  ordinance.  The  assertion  of  Less,  that  pri- 
vate communions  were  unheard  of  in  earlier 
Christian  antiquity,  is  not  true.  Justin  the 
Martyr  says  (Apol.  2),  "  that  the  deacons  first 
distributed  bread  and  wine  to  those  present,  and 
then  carried  it  to  the  absent." 

III.  Unessential  Kites  in  the  Administration  of 

the  Supper. 
It  is  important  that  the  Lord's  Supper,  so  far 
as  it  is  an  ertenuil  rite,  should  be  so  adminis- 
tered as  to  distinguish  it  from  common  and  or- 
dinary repasts,  as  a  special  festival  in  comme- 
moration of  Christ.  This  is  called  by  Paul,  2 
(/or.  xi.  19,  6(ax|)ir»iv  to  owua  rou  Kvfjiov.  This 
may  indeed  be  done  without  any  external  cere- 
monies;  and  it  cannot  therefore  be  said  that 
such  external  rites  and  usages  are  essential  to 
the  ordinance.  .Still  it  is  wise,  and  adapted  to 
promoi^e  the  ends  for  which  the  Supper  was  in- 
stituted, to  employ  such  external  solemnities  as 
will  remind  the  communicants  of  the  great  ob- 
ject of  this  festival,  and  give  it  an  obvious  and 
marked  distinction  from  other  meals.  Here, 
however,  caution  musY  be  used,  lest  supersti- 
tion should  be  encouraged  by  the  inlroduetiim 
of  these  ceremonies,  and  they  thould  be  sup- 
posed to  possess  some  special  power. 

Christ  disiinijuished  this  ordinance  from  the 
passover,  which  inmiediately  preceded,  by  of- 
fering up  a  prayer  of  thanks,  (*v;tap(aT>;oaj,  or 


f  vioyjj'^aj,)  which  was  probably  one  of  the  Drief 
thanksgivings  common  among  the  Jews,  ab 
neither  of  the  evangelists  have  thought  neces- 
sary to  record  the  words.  He  then  stated  briefly 
the  object  of  this  ordinance.  In  both  of  these 
particulars,  the  example  of  Ciirist  is  properly 
followed  in  the  administration  of  the  Supper. 
It  is  customary  to  otfer  thanks  to  God,  briefly 
to  state  the  object  of  this  ordinance,  and  thus 
solemnly  set  apart  the  bread  and  wine  to  this 
sacred  use.  Vide  I  Cor.  x.  16,  norr^iov  «tXo- 
yiaj,  o  lixoyovuev — i.  e.,  the  wine  in  the  cup, 
which  we  consecrate  to  this  use  by  the  prayer 
of  thanks.  It  is  also  said  elsewhere  respecting 
those  who  thank  God  for  the  enjoyment  of  other 
food,  that  they  partake  of  it  ^.tr'  fvXoyiaj,  1 
Tim.  iv.  5;  Luke,  ix.  IG. 

This  solemn  opiming  of  the  .Su))per  with 
prayer  and  reference  to  the  command  of  Jesus, 
is  called  consecration,  and  is  proper  and  accord- 
ing to  the  will  of  Christ.  Omsccratinn,  there- 
fore, in  the  Lord's  Supper,  consists  properly  ia 
a  solemn  reference  to  the  object  of  the  Supper, 
and  in  the  devout  prayer  accompanying  this, 
and  not  in  the  repetition  of  the  words,  this  ia 
my  body  and  this  is  my  blood.  Tiiese  words  are 
uttered  merely  in  order  to  make  the  nature  and 
object  of  the  ordinance  then  to  be  celebrated 
properly  understood;  so  our  symbolical  books 
uniformly  teach.  Hence  these  words  were  fre- 
(|uenlly  repeated  by  Christ  during  the  celebra^ 
lion  of  the  ordinance,  and  were  used  alternately 
with  other  expressions.  This  consecration  is 
not  to  be  supposed  to  possess  any  magical  or 
miraculous  power.  Nothing  like  this  was  at- 
tributed to  this  rite  by  the  older  church  fathers, 
who  used  eotuccrarc  as  synonymous  with  wyul- 
i,nv  and  sanclijlcare,  to  set  apart  from  a  common, 
and  consecrate  to  a  sacred  use.  IJy  degrees,  how- 
ever, a  magical  eflect  was  attributed  to  conse- 
cration, and  it  was'supposed  to  possess  a  pecu- 
liar power.  This  was  the  case  even  with  Au- 
gustine. And  when  afterwards  the  doctrine 
of  iransubstantiaiion  prevailed  in  the  Homish 
church,  it  was  supposed  that  the  chanire  in  the 
elements  was  effect(?d  by  pronouncing  over  them 
the  blessing,  and  especially  the  words  of  Christ, 
this  is  my  body,  &c. 

Besides  this,  there  are  various  othe-  contin- 
gent and  arbitrary  usages,  Rome  of  wliich  are 
good,  and  adapted  to  promote  the  ends  of  this 
ordinance,  and  others  are  extiemely  liable  to 
become  perverted  into  means  of  superstition. 
More  full  information  on  this  point  may  be  ob- 
tained from  Christian  Anti(|uities.  Many  of 
the  rites  introduced  by  the  li.imisii  church  have 
been  retained  in  ttit^  Lutheran  church,  such  as 
the  singing  of  the  words  of  conseeraiion,  the 
marking  of  the  bread  and  wine  with  the  cross, 
ilie  holding  a  cloth  beneath,  fee.  'I'hese  and 
other  usages  originated  for  the  most  part  in  the 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       503 


doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  the  extrava- 
gant opinions  respecting  the  external  holiness 
of  the  symbols  resulting  from  this  doctrine. 
They  admit,  however,  of  a  good  explanation; 
and  where  they  are  customary,  and  must  be  re- 
tained, they  ought  to  be  so  explained  by  the 
religious  teacher.  Marking  with  the  cross,  e. 
g.,  should  remind  us  that  this  ordinance  is  held 
in  commemoration  of  Christ  crucified,  &c. 

SECTION  CXLV. 

OF  THE  USES  AND    THE  EFFICACY  OF    THE    LORD's 

supper;  and  inferences  from  these. 

We  must  here  presuppose  much  of  what  was 
said,  s.  140,  respecting  baptism.  The  uses  and 
efficacy  of  tlie  Lord's  Supper,  as  of  baptism,  are 
twofold — viz.,  external  and  internal,  and  may 
be  easily  deduced  from  the  design  of  this  ordi- 
nance, as  stated  s.  143. 

I.  External  Uses  and  Efficacy. 
By  celebrating  the  Lord's  Supper,  a  person 
publicly  professes  himself  to  be  a  member  of 
the  external  Christian  church,  and  as  such  re- 
ceives and  holds  all  the  rights  belonging  to 
Christians,  to  the  enjoyment  of  which  he  is  in- 
troduced by  baptism.  For  Christ  enjoined  this 
sacred  duty  only  upon  his  followers.  Every 
one,  therefore,  who  partakes  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  bj'  so  doing  professes  that  he  is  a  real 
moiiiber  of  the  external  church,  that  he  believes 
in  Christ,  and  yields  him  reverence.  Hence 
Paul  says,  1  Cor.  x.  16,  that  bread  and  wine 
are  xowi^via  aiuato^  xal  (jiiwaroj  Xpiorov.  Paul 
here,  and  in  this  whole  passage,  teaches  that 
the  symbols  (bread  and  wine)  stand  in  the  most 
intimate  connexion  with  the  body  of  Christ 
slain  on  the  cross  for  our  sins,  and  are  the 
means  by  which  we  become  partakers  of  the 
benefits  of  this  death,  and  testify  our  interest 
in  them.  The  meaning  is.  Whoever  celebrates 
the  Lord's  Supper  becomes  partaker  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ,  and  professes  the  same; 
or,  By  this  ordinance  he  gives  it  to  be  under- 
stood that  he  believes  in  Christ,  and  especially 
that  he  believes  that  Christ  offered  up  his  bcdy 
and  shed  his  blood  for  him ;  and  he  thus  be- 
comes partaker  of  the  benefits  of  this  sacrifice. 
The  terms  zoiruroi  ^rsi.a'itr^piov,  spoken  of  those 
offering  sacrifice,  ver.  18  of  the  same  chapter; 
also  xoivuivoi  baiuoviiov,  ver.  20,  are  used  in  the 
same  way,  and  are  explained  ver»21,  by  the 
phrase  niriyji-v  rpartt^rj  Kvp(ov  xa.1  6ot^iov(tov. 
The  opposite  of  this  is  seen  ver.  14,  "flee  idol- 
atry," have  no  fellowship  with  idolaters!  and 
ver.  17,  "  while  we  all  eat  of  one  and  the  same 
bread,  (a  portion  of  which  is  broken  for  each,) 
we  profess  to  he  all  members  of  one  body" — i. 
e..  of  one  church.  The  same  is  taught  by  the 
passage  1  Cor.  xi.  26,  ♦'  for  as  often  as  ye  par- 
64 


take  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  tov  ^uva-tov  Kvpt'ow 
xaTayy£7.Xffs,"  i.  e.,  you  thus  profess  your- 
selves to  be  of  the  number  of  those  who  believe 
that  Christ  died  for  the  salvation  of  man. 

II.  Internal  Uses  and  Efficacy. 

(1)  W^ith  regard  to  the  effects  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  as  well  as  of  baptism,  there  were  vari- 
ous mistakes,  even  among  the  earlier  fathers. 
Vide  s.  140,  II.  The  opinion  is  very  ancient, 
that  the  holy  spirit  so  unites  himself  with  the 
symbols  when  they  are  consecrated,  that  they  are 
transmuted  {jittar^toixiioiKS^aA,,  irans-elementari,) 
into  an  entirely  different  element,  become  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  possess  a  power 
and  efficacy  which  cannot  be  expected  from  mere 
bread  and  wine.  These  thouglits  occur  even 
in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  in  Irena?us,  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem,  Basilius  the  Great,  Ambrosius, 
and  others.  It  was  on  this  account  that  the 
invocation  (fnt'xXr/cttj)  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was 
introduced  in  many  places  before  the  holding  of 
the  Supper.  Vide  Morus,  p.  202,  n.  2,  6.  They 
say  also  that  the  bread  and  wine,  through  the  in- 
vocation of  the  name  of  Christ,  and  by  the  power 
of  the  same,  are  sanctified,  so  that  they  no  more 
continue  what  they  were,  but  receive  a  special 
spiritual  and  divine  power.  So  say,  e.  g.,  Theo- 
dotus,  (as  quoted  by  Clemens  of  Alexandria,) 
Tertullian,  and  others.  Hence  we  often  find  in 
the  ancient  liturgies,  both  oriental  and  occi- 
dental, frequent  invocations  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
of  God  and  of  Christ,  in  which  they  were  en- 
treated to  unite  themselves  with  the  bread  and 
wine,  and  to  communicate  to  them  this  pf)wer. 

At  a  very  early  period,  therefore,  a  kind  of 
magical  and  miraculous  effect  was  ascribed  to 
this  ordinance,  and  it  was  supposed  that  as  an 
external  act  it  has  a  mechanical  agency,  not 
only  upon  the  soul  for  the  remission  of  guilt  and 
punishment,  but  also  upon  the  budy.  It  is  very 
often  said  by  some  of  the  fathers  after  the  fourth 
century,  in  conformity  with  this  latter  opinion, 
that  this  sacrament  has  power  to  heal  the  sick, 
to  secure  one  against  magical  arts  and  the  as- 
saults of  the  devil,  and  even  to  effect  the  salva- 
tion of  the  souls  of  those  who  are  dead.  Hence 
originated  the  missx  pro  dtfunclis,  and  innu- 
merable other  superstitious  opinions  and  prac- 
tices, which  fruitfully  multij>lied,  especially  in 
the  Western  church,  during  tlie  dark  ages,  and 
which  were  then  brought  by  the  schoolmen  into 
a  formal  system. 

(2)  This  magical  or  mechanical  oflicacy  is 
never  ascribed  in  the  New  Testament  to  the 
Lord's  Supper.  The  opinion  that  man  obtains 
faith,  remission  of  sin,  and  new  spiritual  power, 
merely  by  the  external  celebration  of  this  ordi- 
nance, as  an  opus  operalum,  and  by  an  external 
participation  in  the  sacramental  symbols,  with- 
out beino-  himself  active  in  repentance  and  faith, 

2U 


M6 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


receives  no  countenance  from  the  sacred  writers. 
The  same  is  true  respectinpf  baptism  and  the 
other  means  of  ^uce.  The  enicacy  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  upon  the  human  heart  stands  in  intimate 
connexion  with  the  divine  word,  and  with  the 
power  inherpnt  in  liie  truths  of  tlie  Christian 
doctrine.  Without  the  iinowledge  and  the  pro- 
per use  of  the  word  of  God,  tliis  ordinance,  in 
itself  considered,  and  as  an  external  rile,  has  no 
efficacy.  And  so  the  elfect  which  the  Lord's 
Supper  has  upon  the  imman  heart  is  not  ma- 
gical, miraculous,  and  irresistible,  but  in  ac- 
cordance with  our  moral  nature;  exactly  as  we 
have  represented  it  to  be  with  baptism,  s.  140, 
coll.  Art.  xii.  s.  i;i3. 

Il  is  therefore  truly  said  that  the  Holy  Spirit 
acts  upon  the  hearts  of  men  through  the  Supper, 
or  through  the  bread  and  wine,  and  that  he  by 
this  means  produces  faith  and  pious  dispositions. 
But  he  produces  tliis  elTect  through  the  word, 
or  through  the  truths  of  Christianity  exhibited 
before  us  and  presented  to  us  in  this  ordinance. 
The  etfect  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is,  therefore,  an 
an  elfect  which  is  produced  by  God  and  Christ, 
through  his  word,  or  the  truths  of  his  doctrine, 
and  the  use  of  the  same.  In  the  sacrament  of  the 
Supper  the  most  important  trutlis  of  Christian- 
ity, svhich  we  commonly  only  hear  or  read,  are 
visibly  set  before  us,  made  cognizable  to  the 
senses,  and  exhibited  in  such  a  way  as  power- 
fully to  move  the  feelings,  and  make  an  indeli- 
ble impression  on  tlie  memory.  Hence  this  sa- 
crament is  justly  called  vcrUum  Dei  visibile. 
Some  of  the  most  weighty  doctrines  of  religion 
which  are  couiiuonly  taught  us  by  audible  words, 
through  the  outward  ear,  are  here  inculcated  by 
exUriuil  visiblt  si'^us  and  actions. 

A-nong  the  doctrines  more  especially  exhi- 
bited in  tlie  Lord's  Supper  is  the  doctrine  of  the 
redempiion  of  man  by  the  death  of  Christ,  and 
•he  universal  love  of  (iod  shining  forth  from  this 
event,  (({oinans,  viii.  3-2;  John,  iii.  IG,)  and  all 
ihe  duties  both  to  Christ  and  our  fellow-men 
whicli  result  from  it.  The  contemplation  and 
application  of  these  important  truths,  to  which 
we  are  exrited  by  the  Lord's  Supper,  awaken  in 
the  hearts  of  pious  Christians  the  deepest  love 
and  gratitude  to  (Jod  and  Ciirist,  and  a  readiness 
to  comply  cordially  with  tlieir  requirements. 
And  it  is  only  when  we  possess  this  di-sposition 
and  this  temper  of  mind  that  we  are  truly  sus- 
ceptii)le  of  the  influences  of  divine  grace  through 
the  word,  s.  i:50,  131  ;  it  is  then  only  that  we 
can  expei-t  to  enjoy  tliat  special  i)resence  and 
aid  of  Ciiri'<t  whieh  he  has  promised  at  his  Sup- 
per. Vide  8.  113,  ad  finem.  These  are  the 
things  which,  according  to  the  scriptures,  are 
essential  to  the  proper  eiricacy  of  the  Lord's  Suj)- 
per;  and  we  nei'd  not  trouble  ourselves  with  in- 
quiries respecting  the  manner  of  the  presence  of 
the  body  and  blood  uf  Chribl  in  the  symbols. 


Hence  it  appears  that  the  internal  efficacy  of  tha 
Lord's  Supper,  or  of  the  word  of  God  through  th« 
Supper,  is  twofold. 

KiRST.  'I'his  ordinance  is  the  means  of  exciting 
and  strengthening  the  faith  of  one  who  worthily 
celebrates  it,  so  far  as  he  refers  to  the  divine 
promises,  and  stands  firm  in  the  conviction  of 
their  certain  fulfilment.  Vide  s.  r23.  For  we 
are  ren)inded  by  this  ordinance, 

(a)  Of  the  death  of  Christ.  He  instituted  this 
ordinance  on  the  day  of  his  death,  and  the  break- 
ing of  the  bread  and  pouring  out  of  the  wine 
represent  the  violence  done  to  his  body  and  the 
shedding  of  his  blood.     Vide  s.  1 14,  I.  1. 

(i)  Of  the  causes  and  the  salutary  results  of 
his  death — the  founding  of  a  new  dispensation, 
the  forgiveness  of  sins,  and  our  title  to  everlast- 
ing happiness.     Vide  Heb.  viii.  6,  seq. 

(c)  Of  the  special  guidance  and  assistance 
which  Christ  has  promised  to  his  disciples  until 
the  end  of  the  world.     Viile  s.  143,  ad  finem. 

((/)  Any  one  who  from  theheprt  believes  these 
great  truths  of  Christianity,  obtains  in  the  Lord's 
Supper  the  personal  ai)propriation  of  these  be- 
nefits procured  through  Christ's  death — i.e.,  he 
receives  in  the  Lord's  Supper  the  most  solemn 
assurance  and  pledge  that  Christ  shed  his  blood 
for  him  and  on  his  account,  and  that  he  therifor, 
may  participate  in  all  the  salutary  results  of  hi, 
death. 

This  is  the  xowiovia  aiuatoi  and  autfiatof 
X^urstoii,  1  Cor.  x.  16,  or  the  spiritual  enjoyment 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  It  should  be  as 
certain  to  us  as  that  we  see  the  bread  and  wine, 
that  Christ  died  for  us,  and  tlial  he  still  cares  for 
us,  as  he  did  formerly  for  his  disci|)les  while  he 
was  upon  the  earth,  and  still  promotes  our 
eternal  welfare.  This  is  the  true  inward  enjoy- 
ment which  ujay  be  experienced  at  the  table  of 
the  Lord. 

Secondly.  In  this  way  does  this  ordinance 
contribute  to  maintain  and  promote  piety  among 
believers.  The  contemplation  of  the  death  of 
Christ,  of  its  causes,  and  the  great  and  beneficial 
results  which  flow  from  it,  fills  our  hearts  with 
gratitude  and  love  to  God  and  Christ,  and  makes 
us  disposed  and  ready  to  obey  his  precepts.  In 
liiis  frame  we  are  prepared  to  enjoy  those  divine 
influences  upon  our  hearts,  and  that  assistance 
of  Christ,  which  it  is  promised  we  shall  enjoy 
at  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Again;  Christ  inculcates  the  love  of  God  and 
the  love  of  our  neighbour  as  the  two  great  pre- 
cepts of  his  doctrine.  Of  both  these  duties  we 
are  reminded  by  this  sacred  rite,  and  derive  from 
it  new  motives  to  perform  them.  All  C^hristiana 
without  disiiiiciion  are  required  to  participate  in 
this  rite — high  and  low,  rich  and  poor,  to  eat  in 
couimon  of  one  bread  and  drink  of  one  cup.  As 
followers  of  .lesus  they  are  all  brethren,  and 
all  equal,  and  mutually  bound  to  liye  in  peace, 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       507 


friendship,  and  brotherly  love.  All  share  equally 
in  the  rights  which  Christ  purchased  for  them. 
Christ  is  the  Lord  and  Master  of  theni  all,  and 
's  the  same  yesterday,  to-day,  and  for  ever.  Cf. 
1  Cor.  X.  17  ;  xii.  1 3,  "  For  whether  we  be  Jews 
or  Greeks,  bond  or  free,  we  are  ail  baptized  into 
one  body,  and  made  to  drink  into  one  spirit  (ino- 
■rioi>?;^f»')" — i.  e.,  we  partake  of  one  festival,  so 
that  we  compose  but  one  church  (tij  tv  oii^a), 
and  are  mutually  obligated  to  cherish  the  most 
cordial  brotherly  love  and  harmony  of  feeling, 
iv  ivi,  rtwvauroj.  Cf.  1  Cor.  vi.  17;  E|)hes.  iv. 
3,  4.  It  was  one  object  even  of  the  Mosaic  sa- 
crificial feasts  to  bind  more  strongly  the  band 
of  friendship  and  brotherly  love  among  the  Is- 
raelites. But  here  we  have  sepfirToi/tj  trtayyf  Xtai. 
Vide  s.  143,  I.  3, 

From  these  remarks  respecting  the  object  and 
efficacy  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  several  important 
prnclical  cumequenecs  may  be  derived. 

(I)  Whoever  partakes  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
takes  upon  himself  the  sacred  obligation  to  live 
in  all  respects  conformably  to  the  rule  given  in 
the  gospel,  and  there  made  the  condition  of  en- 
joying the  salutary  consequences  of  the  atoning 
death  of  .lesus.  Theologians  therefore  say  that 
in  enjoying  the  Lord's  Supper  a  covenant  is  made 
with  God,  since  man  engages,  on  his  side,  to 
yield  obedience  to  the  divine  precepts,  and  God, 
on  his  part,  promises,  assures,  and  actually  im- 
parts to  men  his  benefits ;  as  it  is  in  baptism,  s. 
140,  ad  finem. 

(•2)  Since  the  uses  and  the  effects  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  are  not  magical,  miraculous,  or  irresisti- 
ble, but  entirely  adapted  to  the  moral  nature  of 
man,  he  only  can  derive  the  proper  benefits  from 
this  rite  who  falls  in  with  the  moral  order  above 
mentioned.     Therefore, 

(3)  Whoever  devoutly  contemplates  the  great 
truths  of  salvation  represented  and  made  present 
to  us  in  the  Lord's  Sup^per,  and  suffers  himself 
to  be  excited  l)y  these  means  to  feelings  of  lively 
gratitude  to  God,  to  diligence  in  the  pursuit  of 
holiness,  and  to  a  truly  Christian  temper  in  all 
respects,  he  fulfils,  on  his  part,  the  design  of 
this  rite.  It  follows  from  this,  of  course,  that 
this  festival  in  commemoration  of  the  death  of 
Christ  can  be  properly  celebrated  only  in  the 
exercise  of  a  grateful  heart,  and  of  pious  rever- 
ence. 

But,  on  the  other  side,  the  communicant  must 
endeavour  to  remove  from  his  mind  all  supersti- 
iionsfear  and  scrupulous  anxiety  abaut  this  ordi- 
nance. These  fears  are  often  cht-rished  by  the 
incautious  expressions  which  reli'jious  teachers 
sometimes  use;  and  even  by  theolounans  has  this 
rite  been  called  tp.kmendum  mysierium.  Re- 
verence and  love  for  God  do  indeeil  go  together; 
and  in  this  sense  such  representali'iis  are  proper. 
But  anxiety  and  slavish  fear  ari-  inconsistent 
with  love,  »1  John,  iv.  19,  (fd.Joj   ov*   ioriv  iv 


ayurtrj.  The  celebration  of  this  festival  should 
rather  be  a  cheerful  occasion  ;  and  it  should  pro- 
niote  pious  and  thankful  joy,  since  it  brings  to 
our  mind  an  event  so  fraught  with  happy  conse- 
quences for  us. 

What  Paul  says  on  this  subject,  1  Cor.  xi. 
27 — '2'J,  and  34,  is  very  true,  but  often  misunder- 
stood. He  speaks  here  of  the  external  conduct 
of  the  communicants,  so  far  as  it  indicates  his 
internal  disposition  or  state  of  heart.  Many  of 
the  Corinthians  partook  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
without  thinking  at  all  of  its  great  object.  They 
did  not  regard  it  as  a  religious  rile,  hut  rather  as 
a  common  meal,  (jirj  Siaxptvofrtj  (jCjfxa.  Kupiov, 
ver.  20.)  They  permitted  themselves  those 
disorders  and  excesses  in  which  many  think  it 
right  to  indulge  at  common  meals, — quarrels, 
gluttony,  drunkenness,  &c. ;  ver.  17 — 2-2.  This 
is  called  by  Paul  ava^iu>i  ia^iiiv  xau  mviiv — i.  e., 
indecore,  in  an  iitibtcomin'^,  iiiipmper  manner,  so 
as  to  shew  by  one's  conduct  an  irn-ligious  dis- 
position, an  indifference  with  regard  to  this  im- 
portant rite,  and  a  contempt  for  it.  Paul  pro- 
nounces this  to  be  in  the  highest  degree  wrong, 
and  therefore  deserving  nf  punislunent,  tvoxo^ 
trstac  adiuatof  xai  ai^oroj  Kvptov,  ver.  27 — i.  e., 
worthy  of  punishment  on  account  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  undervalued  by  hiin;  and 
ver.  2'J,  (coll.  ver.  34,)  xpiua  tavTo  tcr^tfi  xai, 
jtCvii,  he  draws  upon  himself  divine  judgments 
on  account  of  his  improper  observance  of  this 
ordinance. 

(4)  The  observance  of  the  Lord's  Supper  does 
not  require,  therefore,  in  the  pious  Christian,  any 
severe  and  atwioas  preparation ;  he  m.iy  part.\ke 
of  it  at  any  time  with  advantage,  as  he  may  at 
any  time  die  happily.  And  the  unconverted  man 
has  no  other  exercises  and  preparations  to  go 
through  than  those  wliich  in  general  he  must  go 
through  in  order  to  his  conversion,  (ufrai/ota.) 
It  is  rtilh  reason,  however,  that  Paul  makes  it 
the  duty  of  every  Christian  carefully  to  examine 
his  feelings  and  his  conduct  before  approaching 
the  table  of  Christ.  1  Cor.  xi.  28,  boxtfiau^irut 
ar^ptortoj  tavTor,  xai  ovrtoj)  i.  e.,  after  he  has 
examined  himself)  ix  rov  apron  fo^arto*  cf.  ver. 
31.  The  meaning  is,  "  Let  iiim  examine  him- 
self, to  see  whether  he  approaches  the  Lord's 
Supper  with  pious  feelings,  really  designing  ta 
do  what  this  action  implies" — viz.,  make  a  pro- 
fession of  the  death  of  Christ  in  the  t'ullest  sense 
of  this  term. 

JVote. — ^Times  for  confession,  or  rather,  for  pre- 
paralion  for  the  Lord's  Supper,  may  and  should 
be  employed  for  the  purpose  of  liiis  personal 
self-examinaiion.  These  occasions  sliould  also 
be  improved  for  the  purpose  of  shewing  the 
evils  which  result  from  a  thoughtless  partaking 
of  the  sacramental  Supper,  according  to  1  Cor. 
xi.  It  must  not.  however,  be  said  that  every 
unconverted  man  receives  the  Lord's  Supper  to 


508 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


his  own  eternal  condemnation.  This  is  not  a 
scriptural  doctrine.  Vide  I  Cor.  xi.  32.  Nor 
does  it  belong  to  the  teacher  to  exclude  any  one 
from  this  ordinance  because  he  retrards  hitn  as 
unconverted,  even  sujiposiiirr  hitn  to  have  power 
80  to  do.  Vide  s.  Ill,  II.  It  is  his  duty,  how- 
ever, to  warn  such  a  person,  and  represent  to  hiin 
his  case,  as  Paul  does,  I  Cor.  jci. 

(5)  How  often  should  the  Lord's  Supper  be  eek- 
brnted?  Christ  <rave  no  definite  precepts  on  this 
point,  and  this  was  very  wise.  Everything  me- 
chanical, confined  to  a  particular  time  or  a  parti- 
cular place,  is  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity. Christ  has  therefore  left  it  for  every 
Christian  to  determine,  according  to  his  con- 
scientious conviction  and  judgment,  how  often  he 
will  freely  repeat  this  solemn  observance.  And 
thus  in  this  respect  also  does  this  Christian  ordi- 
nance dilVerfrom  the  passoverand  other  religious 
ceremonies  of  the  Israelites.  It  is  to  be  expecied 
of  every  sincere  Christian  that,  finding  how  salu- 
tary these  cominunion  seasons  are  in  their  inriu- 
ence  upon  hifn,  he  will  welcome  their  return,  and 
wish  tlieni  to  be  often  repeated.  But  to  the 
question, /tou)  if  ten?  no  answer,  from  the  nature 
of  the  case,  can-  be  given  which  will  apply  to 
every  imlividual.  In  the  early  Christian  church 
they  were  accustomed  to  celebrate  the  Lord's 
Supper  almost  r/r//7y.  13ut  the  too  frequent  repe- 
tition of  this  ordinance  will  be  apt  to  produce 
coldness  and  iudilTerence  with  regard  to  it.  This 
perhaps  had  been  the  case  in  Corinth  ;  cf.  1  Cor. 
xi.  20 — 30.  The  zeal  with  which  this  ordinance 
was  first  observed  gradually  abated,  and  for  this 
reason,  among  others,  that  but  few  good  fruits 
were  seen  to  result  from  it.  At  the  time  of 
Chrysosiom  and  Augustine,  the  observance  of 
the  Supper  had  become  far  less  frequent.  Be- 
tween the  sixth  and  eighth  centuries  it  was  cus- 
tomary, e9|)ecially  in  tlie  Western  church,  for 
every  Christian  to  commune  at  least  three  times 
during  the  year;  and  this  was  even  established 
as  a  rule  by  many  ecclesiastical  councils.  In 
the  protestant  church  n<i  laws  have  been  passed 
on  this  subject;  and  this  is  as  it  should  be. 

SECTION  CXLVI. 

THE  VARIOUS  on.VIONS  AND  FORMS  OF  DOCTRINE 
RESPKCTINO  THE  PRESENCE  OF  THE  HODV  AND 
BLOOD  OK  CHRIST  IN  THE  I.ORD's  SL'PI'KR  HISTO- 
RICAt.LV  EXPLAINED  ;  AND  ALSO  A  CRITIQUE  RE- 
SPECTING THEM. 

I.  lUatory  (f  Opinionn  reaped ing  tlie  Presence  of  the 
Body  and  Blood  tf  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper. 

(1)  It  may  be  remarked,  in  general,  that  the 
opinions  of  the  ancients  on  this  subject,  from  ihe 
first  establishment  of  the  ('hristian  church  until 
the  eighth  century,  were  very  diverse.    After  the 


eighth  century  there  were  some  controversiet 
respecting  the  mode  and  mai.ucr  of  this  presence 
of  Christ;  and  in  the  thirteenth  century,  one  of 
the  many  theories  on  this  subject  was  established 
as  orthodox.  The  church  fathers  in  the  first 
centuries  agreed  on  many  points  relating  to  thil 
matter,  and  on  other  points  diflered,  without, 
however,  mutually  casting  upon  each  other  the 
reproach  of  heterodoxy. 

•  The  first  germs  of  the  Roman-catholic,  the 
Lutheran,  and  the  Calvinistic  theories,  are  found 
already  in  iheir  writings;  but  it  was  not  until  a 
later  period  that  tiiey  were  developed,  and  new 
consoijuences  deduced  from  them.  We  cannot 
therefore  conclude,  when  we  meet  with  expres- 
sions in  the  ancient  fathers  which  sound  like 
those  which  are  used  in  our  own  times,  that  they 
adopted  the  whole  thtory  of  one  or  the  other  mo- 
dern p  irty.  Their  ideas  are  so  vague,  their  ex- 
pressions so  indefinite  and  unsettled,  that  each  of 
the  dissenting  |)arties  in  modern  limes  may  fre- 
(juenily  discover  passages,  even  in  the  same 
father,  which  seem  to  favour  its  own  ])articular 
theory. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  catholics, 
Lutherans,  and  the  refornied  theologians  were  in 
controversy  with  each  other  on  this  point,  each 
party  collected  passages  from  the  fathers,  in  order 
to  shew  the  antiquity  of  its  own  theory;  thus 
Melancthon  in  opposition  to  (Ecolaiuj)adius,  and 
the  latter  against  the  former.  In  the  seventeenth 
century,  many  controversial  books  passed  back 
and  forth  between  the  learned  Roman-catholic 
theologians  of  France  and  the  reformed  theolo- 
gians of  France  and  the  Netherlands,  in  which 
Nicole,  Arnaud,  and  others,  endeavoured  to 
prove,  on  one  side,  the  antiquity  of  the  doctrine 
of  transtibstantiation ;  and  Albertinus,  Claude, 
Hlondell,  Laroque,  and  others,  attempted,  on  the 
other  side,  to  secure  the  authority  of  the  ancient* 
in  behalf  of  the  doctrine  of  the  reformed  churcn. 
Ernesti  also,  in  his  Jnfiiuuratorius,  (Opus. 
Theol.  p.  I,  seq.,)  has  collected  many  passages 
from  the  ancients  in  behalf  of  the  Lutheran  the- 
ory, and  in  opposition  to  irnnsubstautintion,  kc. ; 
also  in  his  "  Brevis  Repetitio  et  Assertio  Sen- 
t^ntiie  Lutheranas  de  Pra'sentia  (Corporis  et 
Sanguinis  (^hristi  in  Sacra  Ccena,"  (Opus. 
Theol.  p.  135,  seq.,)  which  is  one  of  the  most 
important  modern  works  on  the  Lutheran  side. 
It  was  called  forth  by  Henmann's  "  Proof  that 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Reformed  (^hurch  respect- 
ing the  Lord's  Supper  is  correct  and  true;" 
Eislehen,  )7t>t.  It  is  a  very  eisy  matter,  how- 
ever, for  any  one  to  find  his  own  ideas  express- 
ed in  the  vagne  and  indefinite  |)hraseology  of 
the  fathers.  The  loslimony  of  the  sacred  writer* 
in  favour  of  the  essential  part  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Lutheran  church  has  been  exhibited 
jiarily   by    Ernesti,  and   partly   by  Storr.   in  a 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       50<» 


very  plain  and  lucid,  though  brief  manner,  in 
his  '•D.ictriujs  Christianas  pars  Theoretica,"  p. 
305—318. 

[The  later  works  of  most  value  on  this  de- 
partment of  historical  theology  are,  Phil.  Mar- 
i.einecke.  Sanctorum  Patrum  de  Preesentia 
Christi  in  Ccena  Domini,  Senteniia  Triplex; 
Heidelberg,  1811,  4to.  Neander,  Kirch.  Ges- 
chichte,  b.  i.  Abth.  ii.  s.  577 — 506;  Abth.  iii. 
s.  lOrti  ;  b.  ii.  Abth.  ii.  s.  697—712 ;  Abth.  iii. 
s.  131)4.  Of.  Gieseler,  b.  i.  s.  96  ;  b.  ii.  s.  15, 
17.  A  full  account  of  the  literature  of  this  doc- 
trine, in  all  periods,  may  be  found  in  Hahn's 
Lehrbuch,  s.  570,  ff . ;  also  in  Brelschneider's 
Syst.  Enlw.  s.  728,  ff.— Tr.] 

(2)  Sketch  of  the  hi.-itury  of  this  doctrine  from 
the  secnnd  to  the  ninth  century. 

(a)  The  fathers  of  the  second  century  pro- 
ceeded on  the  principle,  which  is  in  itself  true, 
that  tlie  Lord's  Supper  must  be  considered  as 
entirely  different  from  an  ordinary  repast.  Jus- 
tin the  Martyr  says,  (Apol.  i.  66,)  ov  xotvoj 
iproj,  ovbs  xoLiiiv  nojxa..  They,  however,  enter- 
tained, even  at  that  early  period,  many  ideas 
respecting  this  ordinance  which  have  no  scrip- 
tural auliiority.  Neither  in  the  writings  of  the 
apostles,  nor  in  the  words  of  Christ,  is  there 
any  trace  of  the  opinion  that  a  certain  superna- 
tural and  divine  power  is  imparted,  in  a  mira- 
culous and  magical  way,  to  the  symbols,  and 
that  in  this  manner  the  Lord's  Supper  exerts  an 
agency  upon  men.  But  this  opinion  (which 
resembles  that  entertained  by  many  respecting 
the  water  in  baptism)  is  found  very  frequently 
in  the  writings  of  Justin,  Irenaeus,  (iv.  34,) 
Clemens  of  Alexandria,  and  other  fathers  even 
of  the  second  and  third  centuries ;  and  it  is  entire- 
ly in  accordance  with  the  spirit  and  taste  of  that 
age,  which  beheld  everywiiere  something  ma- 
gical and  mysterious,  and  could  not  be  contented 
unless  it  found  something  surpassing  compre- 
hension. In  order  to  express  their  opinion  that 
the  bread  and  wine  are  changed  by  the  divine 
power,  or  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  thus  obtain 
a  new  virtue  and  efficacy,  totally  different  from 
that  whioh  naturally  belongs  to  them,  they  used 
the  terms  ;UfTa,3a>.Xf(3^ttt,/ttfra3oX^,  ^frauopifovo- 
^t,   fitraiiJtOiXii'oiia^ac,    ^fra(3-roi;^ci.ioijtj,    fxtta.- 

Still  they  did  pot  suppose  any  such  change 
in  the  elements,  that  they  cease  to  be  bread  and 
wine — i.  e.,  they  did  not  believe  in  /rflmufo/a/i- 
iiation,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term;  neither 
does  the  Grecian  church,  which  employs  these 
terms,  especially  ^jraJox^,  but  still  opposes  the 
doctrine  of  the  Romish  church.  Some  of  the 
fathers  understood  these  terms  in  a  perfectly 
just  sense,  and  meant  only  to  say  that  tlie 
bread  and  wine  cease,  by  consecration,  to  be 
'ommon  bread  and  wine. 

(/*)  Again;  it  was  maintained  that  the  IVurd 


of  God  (Adyos  ©fov)  is  added  to  the  bread  and 
wine  thus  ennobled  and  endowed  with  divine 
power.  If  by  the  Word  of  God  is  meant  the 
Christian  doctrine,  it  is  very  true  that  the  effi- 
cacy of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  connected  with  it, 
and  depends  upon  it.  Vide  s.  145.  So  it  was 
understood  by  many  of  the  ancient  fathers, 
e.  g.,  Irenaeus.  But  some  of  them  understood 
by  o  Adyoj,  the  divine  nature  of  Christ.  And 
from  the  fact  that  this  Logos  was  united  with 
the  man  Jesus  and  his  human  body,  they  were 
led  to  the  idea,  that  after  the  same  manner  he 
is  united  with  the  bread  and  wine  in  the  Lord's 
Supper.  And  they  endeavoured  to  illustrate 
this  union  of  Christ  with  the  sacramental  bread 
and  wine,  from  the  union  of  the  two  natures  in 
his  person. 

In  this  comparison,  which  was  made  by  Jus- 
tin the  Martyr,  we  find  the  true  origin  of  the 
doctrine  concerning  the  real  presence  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  (Jhrist  in  the  elements  on  his 
table.  Vide  Morus,  p.  263,  n.  4.  According 
to  this  view,  Christ  is  present  in  a  supernatural 
way  in  the  symbols,  and  in  an  entirely  dilTerent 
manner  from  that  in  which,  according  to  his 
promise,  he  is  everywhere  present  with  his 
disciples,  until  the  end  of  the  world. 

(c)  After  this  period  the  idea  became  more 
and  more  current  that  communicants  in  partak- 
ing of  the  visible  bread  and  wine  also  partake 
of  the  invisible  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  Es- 
pecially did  this  idea  prevail  after  the  fourth 
century.  Thus,  e.  g.,  Gregory  of  Nyssa  alTirnis, 
"that  as  the  body  of  Christ,  by  his  union  with 
the  Logos,  was  so  changed  and  transformed  as 
to  become  participator  in  liisf^divine  glory,  so 
also  the  sacramental  bread  fij  otj^a  tov  @iov 
Abyov  ^srartottrau"  Chrysostom  and  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem  also  say  that  we  must  believe  the 
divine  declaration,  that  we  receive  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  in  the  sacramental  elements, 
although  this  may  seem  to  be  opposed  to  the 
evidence  of  our  senses. 

But  although  this  doctrine  seems  to  approach 
very  nearly  to  transubstantiation,  these  fathers 
did  not  yet  teach  that  there  is  any  change  of  the 
elements  by  which  they  lose  their  own  nature, 
and  cease  to  be  bread  and  wine;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  often  taught  in  other  passages  that 
the  elements  retain  their  own  natural  properties, 
that  when  partaken  of  by  us  they  become  assi- 
milated to  the  nature  of  our  bodies,  that  in  the 
Supper  we  do  not  receive  the  natural  body  of 
Christ,  but  only  the  significant  signs  of  it,  that 
we  ought  not  to  stop  short  with  the  mere  sign, 
but  to  turn  our  thoughts  to  that  which  is  signi- 
fied and  imparted  by  it.  There  are  many  pas- 
sages of  this  import  in  the  writings  of  Origen 
of  Augustine,  'I'heodoret,  and  others. 

But  in  subsequent  periods,  the  conceptions 
which    prevailed  on  tiiis  subject,  even  in  the 
2  u2 


BIO 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Grecian  church,  became  more  and  more  gross 
and  sensual ;  as  appears  from  the  writings  of 
John  of  Diunascus  in  the  eii(hlh  century,  and 
others,  ^^till  the  opinion  that  the  consecrated 
bread  and  wine  lose  their  suhstanee  was  not  re- 
ceived in  tlie  Greek  church ;  nor  is  it  known 
amon?  them  to  liie  present  day,  althoucrh  they 
employ  the  term  ftira^loXr,  to  denote  the  change. 
Vide  Kiesliiicr,  Hist.  Concertaiionum  Graecor. 
ct  Latinor.  de  Transubst. ;  Leip.  1754. 

(3)  llistiiry  nf  this  doctrine  from  the  ninth  to 
the  sixteenth  century  in  the  ]Vestern  church. 

It  is  known  from  Ueda  Venerabilis,  that  during 
theei'jhih  century  there  were  violent  contests  in 
the  Western  church  respecting  the  manner  of 
the  presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  in 
tlie  Lord's  Supper,  and  on  the  (juestion  how 
the  elements  are  changed.  And  even  at  that 
time  they  began  to  give  various  explanations 
)f  the  passages  found  in  the  writings  of  the 
earlier  Latin  and  Greek  fathers  on  this  subject. 
After  the  ninth  century,  the  tone  and  taste 
whii;h  began  to  prevail  made  it  certain  that  of 
ditfHrent  theories  on  any  theological  point,  that 
whici(  is  the  most  gross  and  material  would 
gain  the  predominance. 

It  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  following 
opinion,  first  distinctly  advocated  by  Paschasius 
Radbertus.  a  monk  at  Corvey,  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, should  have  received  so  general  approba- 
tion— viz.,  "that  after  the  consecration  of  the 
bread  and  wine  nothing  but  \.\\e\x  ftirm  remains, 
their  sut)8lance  being  wholly  changed,  so  that 
they  are  no  longer  bread  and  wine,  but  the  body 
and  blood  of  ('hrist.  Their  form  continues,  that 
no  one  may  take  offence  at  seeing  Christians 
eating  human  flesh  and  blood." 

This  doctrine  was  not,  indeed,  current  at  that 
tin)e,  for  it  caused  much  commotion,  and  was 
Btmnirly  opposed  by  the  monk  Ratrainnus,  and 
John  Scnius  Krigena,  and  many  others.  They 
did  not  deny  \.\\f  prexenee  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  ;  but  they  taught  that  this  conversio  or 
immtitalio  of  the  bread  and  wine  is  not  of  a  car- 
nal hut  a  spiritual  nature;  that  these  elements 
are  not  transmuted  into  the  real  body  and  blood 
of  (Christ,  but  are  »i\'»m  or  Ki/mhuls  of  them.  In 
many  points  they  approximated  to  the  opinion 
of  the  liefirmed  theologians. 

As  yet  the  councils  and  popes  had  determined 
nothing  on  this  subject.  In  the  meanwhile  the 
doctrine  of  Paschasius  became  more  and  more 
ppneral  during  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries. 
When  therefore  IJerengarius  of  Tours,  in  the 
eleventh  century,  attacked  this  doctrine,  he  was 
strongly  resisted,  and  obliged  to  take  back  his 
opinion.  He  denied  any  transmutation  of  the 
elements;  hut  maintained  that  the  bread  and 
wine  are  more  than  mere  lymbnh,  and  that  the 
b(dy  and  blood  of  Christ  are  really  present  in 


the  Lord's  Supper.  In  short,  he  took  a  middle 
course  between  Paschasius  and  Scotus,  and 
came  very  near,  in  the  main  points  of  his  doc- 
trine, to  the  Lutheran  hypothesis.  Vide  Laes> 
sing's  work,  Berengarius  von  Tours;  Braui>> 
schweig,  1770,  -Ito. 

After  the  twelfth  century  the  theory  of  Pas- 
chasius was  further  developed  by  the  school- 
men, and  carried  out  into  its  results.  Even 
Peter  of  Lombardy,  in  the  twelfth  century, 
declared  himself  in  behalf  of  this  opinion,  al- 
though he  still  speaks  somewhat  doubtt'ully 
respecting  it.  The  inventor  of  the  wurd  traiv 
subxlanliatio  is  supposed  to  be  Hildebert,  Bishop 
of  .Nhiiis,  in  the  eleventh  century.  Before  him, 
however,  the  phrase  commutalio  pants  in  sub" 
slantiam  Christi  had  been  used  by  Fulbert, 
Bishop  of  Cliartres.  This  terni  became  current 
in  the  twelfth  century  through  the  influence  of 
Peter  of  Blois.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the 
tliirteenlh  century  that  this  dogma  became  uni- 
versally prevalent  in  the  Romish  church.  At 
the  IV.  Concilium  Laltranense,  1-15,  under 
Pope  Innocent  III.,  it  was  established  as  ths 
doctrine  of  the  church,  and  confirmed  by  the 
Council  at  Trent,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  in 
opposition  to  the  proteslants.  According  to  this 
doctrine,  this  transmutation  is  produced  by  the 
sacerdotal cuiusccratiun.  Vide  Calixtus,  De  Trail- 
substantiatione;  HelmsUidt,  1075. 

(4)  Principal  opinions  respect ius[  the  manner 
of  the  presence  of  the  body  and  blood  if  Christ 
in  the  sacramental  elements,  amon<^  the  protestant 
theoloirians,  since  the  Jieformation. 

There  were  three  forms  of  doctrine  on  thia 
subject  which  for  many  centuries  had  prevailed 
in  the  Western  church — viz.,  (a)  the  theory  of 
transubstantialion,  advanced  by  Paschasius  Rad- 
bertus, which  afterwards  became  the  prevailing 
doctrine  of  the  church  ;  (b)  the  theory,  that  the 
bread  and  wine  are  merely  symbols  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ,  advocated  principally  by 
Job.  Scotus  Erigena;  (c)  a  theory  which  takes 
a  middle  course  between  the  other  two,  main- 
taining that  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are 
actually  present  in  the  sacramental  elements, 
but  without  any  transmutation  of  their  s»ib- 
stance;  supported  by  Berengarius  in  the  ele- 
venth century.  These  theories  continued,  though 
under  various  modifications,  after  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  were  designated  by  the  character- 
istic  words,  tratisubslatitialio,Jii;ura,  unio.  The 
Greek   church   still   adhered   to   its   old    word 

Both  the  German  and  Swiss  reformers  were 
agreed  in  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  tr.mfiubstan- 
tiation  as  wholly  unfounded.  In  this  too  they 
were  agreed,  that  tiie  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
are  really  present  in  the  sacramental  elements, 
and  are  imparted  to  the  coinmunicant  when  ne 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       511 


partakes  of  the  bread  and  wine;  since  Christ  is 
near  to  all  whom  he  counts  his  own,  imparts 
himself  to  them,  counsels  and  guides  them. 

But  in  explaining  the  manner  of  this  presence 
they  differ,  d  Iroin  each  other.  Luther  had  a 
great  altachiT.ent-  to  many  of  the  scholastic 
opinions  and  distinctions,  and  at  first  entertain- 
ed a  very  high  idea  of  clerical  power  and  the 
pre-eminence  of  the  priesthood.  He  therefore 
retained  the  doctrine  of  the  schoolmen,  de  prae- 
sentia  reali  tt  substantiah',  in  such  a  way,  how- 
ever, as  to  exclude  Iransubstanliation.  His 
doctrine  at  first  was,  that  "»'n,  v."'lk,  and  under 
(in,  cum,  and  sub,  terms  which  he  took  from 
Bernhard)  the  consecrated  bread  and  wine,  the 
true  and  essential  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are 
imparted  to  the  communicant,  and  are  received 
by  him,  although  in  a  manner  inexplicable  by 
us,  and  altogether  mysterious."  He  held,  there- 
fore, that  the  body  of  Christ,  which  in  its  very 
essence  is  present  in  the  sacred  symbols,  is  re- 
ceived by  the  communicant,  not  spiritually 
merelj',  but  (and  here  is  the  point  of  difference 
between  him  and  the  Swiss  Reformers)  realiter 
et  subslantialiter ;  so  that  both  believing  and 
unbelieving  communicants  partake  of  the  real, 
substantial  body  and  blood  of  Christ;  the  for- 
mer to  their  salvation,  the  latter  to  their  con- 
demnation. The  bread  and  wine  are  visibly 
and  naturally  received,  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  invisibly  and  supernaturally  ;  and  this  is 
the  unio  sacramentalis,  such  as  takes  place  only 
in  this  sacrament.  In  one  passage  he  explains 
this  unio  sacramentalis  by  the  image  of  heated 
iron ;  and  in  employing  this  illustration,  borders 
close  upon  the  error  of  Consubsiantiation.  He 
says  also  that  what  the  bread  and  wine  do  or 
suffer,  the  same  is  done  or  suffered  by  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ — they  are  broken,  distri- 
buted, poured  out,  &c.  By  degrees,  however, 
he  abandoned  these  views,  and  was  content 
with  affirming  the  real jrresmce  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  in  the  sacramental  elements, 
and  with  an  indefinite  manducatione  vrali. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Swiss  theologians,  on  the 
contrary,  as  exhibited  by  Calvin,  who  in  some 
respects  modified  the  view  of  Zuingle,  was  this  : 
"The  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  not,  as  to 
their  substance,  present  in  the  sacramental  ele- 
ments, but  only  as  to  power  and  effect ;  they  are 
vcrc  el  efficdciier  represented  under  the  bread  and 
wine;  dari  non  substantiam  corporis  Christi  in 
sacra  cwna,  sed  omnia  qux  in  suo  cffrpore  nobis 
betuficia  pr.Tsfitit.''^  Accordingly  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  are  not  present  in  space,  and  are 
not  orally  received  by  communicants,  but  spiri- 
tually, with  a  kind  of  manducatio  spiritualis. 
Zuingle,  however,  maintained  that  the  bread 
and  wine  are  mere  symbols  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  and  seemed  wholly  to  reject 
the  idea  of  his  real  presence  in  these  symbols. 


Many  of  the  Reformed  theologians  did  not, 
therefore,  at  first  assent  to  Calvin's  doctrine, 
and  many,  even  subsequently,  adhered  to  that 
of  Zuingle. 

Calvin,  then,  designed  to  take  a  middle  coarse 
between  Luther  and  Zuinale.  Luther  appealed 
to  the  words  in  which  this  riii-  w.is  iiistituted, 
especially  to  iitC.  He  referred  also  to  the  di- 
vine omnipotence,  by  which  the  body  of  Christ 
might  be  made  substantially  present  in  many 
places  at  once.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  266,  s.  8.  This 
was  wholly  denied  by  the  Swiss  theologians, 
as  being  contradictory.  They  contended,  also, 
that  there  is  no  occasion  or  use  for  this  substan- 
tial presence  and  communication  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ,  since  it  cannot  contribute 
to  make  one  more  virtuous,  pious,  or  holy. 
With  regard  to  hti.  they  remarked  that,  accord- 
ing to  common  use,  even  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, it  often  means  to  signify,  shew  forth, 
(vide  s.  143;)  and  the  subject  here  requires 
that  it  should  be  so  understood,  since  otherwise 
Christ  is  made  to  say  what  is  untrue. 

Luther,  however,  adhered  to  his  opinion,  es- 
pecially after  it  became  the  subject  of  contro- 
versy. Melancthon  was  more  calm  and  impar- 
tial, and  wished  to  promote  peace  between  the 
two  parties.  He  therefore  took  the  ground,  es- 
pecially after  Luther's  death,  that  it  is  better 
merely  to  affirm  the  presence  and  agency  of 
Christ  in  the  sacred  symbols,  without  attempt- 
ing minutely  to  define  and  limit  the  manner  of 
this  presence.  He  was  not  favourable  either  to 
the  prsesentia  corporalis  Christi,  or  to  the  man' 
ducatio  oralis,  but  only  affirmed  prxseniiam  re- 
alem  et  efficacem  Christi  in  sacra  cana.  He 
therefore  chose  a  miildle  way  between  Luther 
and  Zuingle,  and  ver}'  nearly  agreed  with  Cal- 
vin, who  also  pursued  this  middle  course. 

Many  of  the  more  moderate  Lutheran  theolo- 
gians agreed  with  Melancthon,  and  seemed  with 
him  to  incline  to  the  side  of  Calvin.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  zealots  for  the  Lutheran  theory 
insisted  upon  all  the  distinctions  which  Luther 
adopted,  and  even  on  some  points  went  further 
than  Luther  himself.  But  in  the  electorate  of 
Saxony  the  party  of  Melancthon  became  more 
and  more  numerous,  and  after  his  death  the 
dreadful  Crypto-Calvinistic  controversies  and 
persecutions  broke  out,  (a.  d.  157L) 

These  and  other  controversies  and  disorders 
in  the  Lutheran  church,  and  the  necessity  of 
doing  something  to  establish  the  Lutheran  forni 
of  doctrine,  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  Formula 
if  Concord,  in  the  year  1577,  which  was  then 
made  a  standard  of  faith,  and  adopted  as  an  au- 
thorized symbol.  In  this  the  most  minute 
boundary  lines  are  drawn  between  the  theories 
of  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  church,  by 
applying  the  new  distinctions  introduced  into 
the  doctrine  of  the  union  of  the  two  natures  in 


61S 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Christ,  anil  the  commuuiealio  idioniatum.  Vide 
8.  103,  II.,  and  s.  10 J.  The  Lutheran  tlieolo- 
gians  of  that  pt  riod,  especially  Andrea,  Chem- 
nitz, and  their  followers,  endeavoured  to  shew, 
by  the  theory  of  the  intimate  union  of  the  two 
natures  in  Christ,  and  the  coinmunicatio  idioma- 
tum  resulting  from  it,  how  Christ,  as  God-man, 
might  be  evcywhere  present,  even  as  to  tiis 
bodily  nature,  and  that  therefore  he  might  be 
present  at  the  sacrament  of  the  Supper,  and 
might  unite  himself  with  the  elements,  and 
tJirough  tiiem  wiih  the  communicants,  and  thus 
act  upon  them.  This  doctrine  was  called  ubi- 
quitdttm  cirpiiris  C/irixti,  and  the  advocates  of 
it  were  named  ccmtemptuousiy  by  their  oppo- 
nents L'biquilisla',  The  manner  of  the  union  of 
the  body  of  Christ  with  the  bread  and  wine  was 
declared  to  be  a  mystery,  (mi/slcriuin  uttiunis 
saenimcnla/in.)  And  on  this  account  the  framers 
of  the  Foniiu/u  if  Concord  would  not  decide  po- 
sitively of  what  nature  it  is,  but  only  negatively, 
what  it  is  not.  It  is  not  a  personal  union,  as  it 
is  exjijained  to  be  by  many  of  the  older  fathers, 
(vide  \o.  2,)  nor  is  it  comubslantialio ;  still  less 
is  it  a  union  in  which  a  change  of  the  substance 
is  effectt'd,  {Iransubtlanlialio ;)  nor  is  it  a  union 
in  which  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  in- 
cluded in  the  bread  and  wine,  (^inipanalio ;)  but 
of  an  entin^ly  diiTerenl  nature  from  any  of  these 
mentioned,  and  one  which  exists  only  in  this  sa- 
c-rainent,  and  therefore  called  sacra mcntalis,  Cf. 
Plank,  Geschichte  des  Protestantischen  Lehrl)e- 
grifTsbiszur  Kinfiiiirungder  Concordienformel. 
But  these  fine  distinctions  established  in  the 
Formula  of  Qnicord  were  never  universally 
adopted  in  the  Lutheran  church.  And  espe- 
cially in  those  places  where  this  formula  had 
no  symbolic  authority  were  its  subtleties  re- 
jected. Many  of  the  Lutheran  theologians  are 
raore  inclined  to  the  moderate  theory  of  Melanc- 
thon,  or  rather,  have  approximated  towards  it. 
Morus  truly  remarks  (p.  2(JS,  n.  A.)  that  the 
whole  theory  established  in  the  Formula  (f 
Q)ticord  resppriing  the  omnipresence  of  the  hu- 
man nature  of  ('hrist,  from  the  union  of  natures 
in  his  perscm,  isjualo  sublilior. 

II.  Crillml  Rrmnrh<i  on  these  different  Hypotheses. 

(I)  All  ihe  different  theories  here  stated  are 
attended  with  difTiculties.  Transubslanliation 
contradicts  the  testimony  of  our  senses,  and  has 
no  scriptural  authority,  since  these  symbols  are 
called  in  the  scriptures  bnad  and  uine,  and  are 
therefore  supposed  to  iiave  llie  subslancu  of  bread 
and  wine. 

Willi  regard  to  Luther's  theory,  there  is  the 
dilFiCulty  al)<iV(>  mentioned,  that  there  up|)ears  to 
be  no  object  or  use  in  the  siil»»tantial  or  corpo- 
real presence  of  Christ;  though  this  olijection 
in  itself  is  by  no  means  decisive,  since  there  are 
iUAuy  tilings   whose  utility  we  cannot  under- 


stand which  are  yet  useful.  But  besfd*-s  this, 
there  are  other  objections  to  the  Lutheran  theory. 
If  the  substantial  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are 
present  in  the  sacramental  elements,  and  are 
received  by  the  communicants,  how,  it  might  be 
asked, 

(a)  Could  Christ,  at  the  institution  of  the 
Supper,  give  his  real  body  to  his  disciples  to  be 
eaten  by  them,  and  his  real  blood  to  be  drunken 
by  them,  while  they  saw  this  body  before  their 
eyes,  and  he,  yet  alive,  sal  with  tiiem  at  table  t 

(b)  How  can  the  body  of  Christ  be  present, 
as  to  its  very  substance,  in  more  than  one  place 
at  the  same  timel  and  what  object  is  answered 
by  such  a  supposition  1  The  conclusions  de- 
duced from  the  doctrine  of  the  union  of  natures 
afford  no  satisfactory  answer  to  these  (jiiesiions. 

(c)  How  can  the  theory  of  the  siibsianiial 
presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  of 
their  being  eaten  and  drunken  by  communicants, 
be  reconciled  with  the  words  in  which  this  sup- 
per was  instituted  ?  For  Christ  did  not  speak 
of  his  body  then  living  upon  the  earth,  which 
they  saw  before  their  eyes,  and  of  the  blood 
flowing  in  it;  still  less  of  his  glorified  body  iri 
heaven,  but  of  his  body  slain  on  the  cross,  (vrt«> 
v/u<ji'  hi,h6fiitvov,)  and  of  bis  blood  there  shed 
(alua  ix;^vrouf)or.)  If,  therefore,  the  substan 
tial  and  corporeal  presence  of  Christ  were  meant 
it  must  be  the  substance  of  that  martyred  body 
and  of  that  perishable  blood.  But  in  this  case 
we  cannot  understand  how  either  of  these  can 
be  still  present,  and  imparted  to  communicants. 

Difficulties  of  this  nature  induced  .Melancthon, 
as  has  been  before  remarked,  to  modify  the  Lu- 
theran doctrine,  and  to  adopt  a  theory  less  repul- 
sive. But  the  theory  of  Calvin,  though  it  ap- 
pears to  he  so  easy  and  natural,  is  also  attended 
with  difficulties;  fur  even  he  admits  of  the  pre- 
sence of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  only  not 
as  to  their  substance,  but,  according  to  his  view, 
believers  alone  receive  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  But  as  soon  as  I  admit  that  the  body 
of  Christ  is  present  to  believers  only,  this  cannot 
be  reconciled  with  1  Cor.  xi.  27,  29,  as  the  op« 
ponents  of  Calvin  have  always  remarked. 

The  better  way,  therefore,  in  exhibiting  either 
the  Lutheran  or  Calvinislic  doctrine,  is,  to  avoid 
these  subtleties,  and  merely  take  the  general 
position,  thai  Chri»t,  aa  man  ami  as  Ihe  Sun  (f 
God,  may  exert  his  ageucy,  may  net  wherever, 
ami  in  whatever  manner  he  pleases.  He  therefore 
may  exert  his  power  at  his  table  as  well  as  clsiv 
where.  This  is  perfectly  scriptural,  (vide  9.  98 
and  s.  1 13,  ad  finem;)  and  it  is  also  the  sense 
and  spirit  of  the  protestant  theory.  And  this 
doctrine  respecting  t-ie  nearness  of  Christ,  his 
asuixlauce  and  itrenirlhcninu;  injlucnrc,  in  his  pre- 
sent exalted  state,  secures  eminently  that  proper 
I  inward  enjoyment  whicli  Lutheran  and  Reforin- 
j  ed  Christians,  and  even  rxiholics,  willi  all  their 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       513 


diversity  of  speculation  on  this  point,  may  have 
alike  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  Christ,  when  he  was 
about  to  leave  the  world,  no  more  to  be  seen  by 
his  followers  with  the  mortal  eye,  left  ihem  this 
Supper  as  a  visible  pledge  of  his  presence,  his 
protection,  and  love. 

(2)  There  are  some  theologians  who  think  that 
the  whole  doctrine  respecting  the  presence  of 
Chiistis  destitute  of  proof,  and  is  derived  merely 
from  the  misunderstanding  of  the  passage,  1 
Cor.  xi.,  and  from  the  false  interpretation  of  it 
given  by  the  fathers.  Their  hypotheses,  it  is 
said,  have  not  been  sufficiently  examined,  but 
have  been  too  credulously  admitted,  and  other 
theories  have  been  built  upon  them,  after  they 
had  been  previously  assumed  as  true.  This  opi- 
nion miijiit  be  called  the  Pehii^ian  theory  ;  not 
because  it  can  be  shewn  that  it  was  held  by  Pe- 
lagius  himself,  but  because  it  has  been  usually 
adopted  liy  those  wtio  are  of  the  Pelagian  way 
of  thinking  respecting  the  influences  of  grace. 
On  this  subject,  vide  Art.  xii.  They  contend 
that  in  partaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper  we  are 
njerfi/^  reminded  of  Christ,  especially  of  his  body 
offered  and  his  blood  shed  on  our  account.  Ac- 
cording to  this  view,  his  body  and  his  blood, 
while  we  thus  commemorate  his  death,  are  pre- 
sent to  our  thoughts,  in  the  same  figurative  way 
as  the  body  of  a  deceased  friend  or  benefactor 
may  be  present  to  our  minds  when  we  are  think- 
ing of  him.  This  view  is  contrary  to  the  New 
Testament;  for  it  comes  to  nothing  more  than  a 
mere  remembrance  of  Christ,  and  an  assistance 
from  iiim,  improperly  so  called.     Vide  s.  98. 

They  go  on  to  say  that  Paul,  indeed,  in  1  Cor. 
xi.  27,  29,  uses  the  w'ords  trJj^a  xa.1  al,ua  XpidroiJ 
with  reference  to  this  ordinance ;  but  ihat  he  does 
not  affirm  that  the  communicant  eats  the  body  or 
drinks  the  blood  of  Christ,  but  merely  the  bread 
and  wine,  ver.  2B ;  and  that  although  the  ancient 
Christians  sometimes  spoke  as  if  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  were  really  received  by  comnm- 
nicants,  fas  was  very  natural,  in  accordance  w  ith 
John,  vi.,)  yet  the  same  is  true  here  wiiich  was 
Bpoken  by  Cicero,  (Nat.  Deor.  iii.  16,)  Cum 
fruges  Cererem,  vinum  Libehum  dicimns,  (pa- 
neui,  corpus  Christi,  vinum,  sanguinem  Christi,) 
gencre  fws  quidem  sermnnis  utiinur  usilaiu ;  scd 
qucm  lam  ariientcm  esse pu/as,  qui  illud,  quo  vcsca- 
tur,  Dt:utn  (corpu.e  Christi)  credal  esse? 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  this  Pelagian 
tlieory,  which  leave."  the  Lord's  Supper  a  mere 
ceremony,  are  stated  by  Morus,  p.  2G7,  note  5. 
He  shews  very  clearly  that  this  theory  is  not  in 
tlie  spirit  of  the  other  Christian  ordinances.  Cf. 
Storr  on  this  article,  in  his  System.  The  attempts 
of  many  modern  writers  who  have  discussed  this 
point  (those,  e.  g.,  cited  by  Morus,  p.  2GG,  s.  7, 
in  the  note)  come  to  the  same  thing ;  for  to  many 
of  them  the  doctrine  of  the  nearness  of  Chris' 
and  his  assistance — i.  e.,  of  his  uninterrupted 
65 


activity  in  behalf  of  his  followers,  is  extremely 
repugnant,  because  they  do  not  see  how  thej 
can  reconcile  it  with  their  pliilos()phical  hypo- 
theses, which,  however,  are  wholly  baseless. 
But  this  doctrine  is  clearly  taught  in  the  holjr 
scriptures,  and  is  one  of  the  fundamental  truths 
of  apostolical  antiquity. 

(3)  Many  moderate  protestant  theologians  are 
now  of  opinion  that  nothing  was  plainly  and  de- 
finitely settled  by  Jesus  and  the  apostles  respect- 
ing the  manner  of  the  presence  vf  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  in  the  sacramenlai  elements,  and 
that  this  doctrine  cannot  therefore  he  regarded  as 
essential,  but  rather  as  problematical.  Formerly 
this  doctrine,  relating  merely  to  the  manner  of 
this  presence,  was  regarded  as  a  fundamental 
article  of  faith  ;  hence  each  of  tlie  contending 
parties  adhered  zealously  to  its  own  theory,  re- 
garding it  as  the  only  scriptural  one,  and  looking 
upon  all  wiio  thought  differently  as  heretics. 
This  was  the  cause  of  that  unhajipy  and  lasting 
division  which  took  place  in  the  sixteenth  century 
between  two  churches  which  agreed  on  funda- 
mental doctrines,  and  which  ought  mutually  to 
have  tolerated  their  disagreement  on  this  parti- 
cular point.  So  judged  Melancthon,  and  disap- 
proved of  the  violent  controversies  of  his  age. 
Even  in  his  learned  writings  he  passed  briefly 
over  topics  of  this  nature,  and  assitrns  as  the 
reason  of  his  not  going  more  deeply  into  them, 
"  m/  a  quxstionibus  illis  juventutem  abducerem.^* 

Speculations  respecting  tiie  manner  of  the  pre- 
sence of  the  body  and  l)!oo(i  of  Christ  have  not 
the  least  influence  upon  the  nature  or  the  efficacy 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  What  the  Christian  needs 
to  know  is,  the  object  and  the  uses  of  this  rite, 
and  to  act  accordingly.  Vide  s.  145.  He  must 
therefore  believe  from  the  heart  that  Christ  died 
for  him ;  that  now  in  his  exalted  state  he  is  still 
active  in  providing  for  his  welfare  ;  and  that  hence 
it  becomes  him  to  approach  the  Lord's  table  with 
feelings  of  the  dee[)est  reverence  and  most  grate- 
ful love  to  God  and  to  Christ.  Upon  this  every- 
thing depends,  and  this  makes  the  ordinance 
truly  edifying  and  comforting  in  its  influence. 
These  benefits  may  be  derived  from  this  ordi- 
nance by  all  Christians;  and  to  all  who  have 
true  faith,  or  who  allow  this  ordinance  to  have 
its  proper  effect  in  awakening  attention  to  the 
great  truths  which  it  exhibits,  it  is  a  powerful, 
divinely-appointed  means  of  grace,  whatever 
theory  respecting  it  they  may  adopt, — tiie  Lu- 
theran, Calvinistic,  or  even  the  Roinan-catholic 
transubstantiation,  gross  as  this  error  is. 

It  is  obvious,  then,  that  all  subtle  speculation 
respecting  the  manner  of  the  presence  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  should  have  no  place  in  po- 
pular instruction,  but  should  be  confined  to 
learned  and  scientific  theology.  In  the  present 
stale  of  thintrs,  however,  these  disputed  points 
cannot  be   whully  omitted  in  public   teaching 


514 


CflRISTIAX  THEOLOGY. 


But  the  wise  teacher  will  skilfully  show  that  he 
does  not  rejrard  these  as  the  principal  points  in 
this  dnctrine,  accordinor  to  the  views  just  given  ; 
in  such  a  w;iy,  however,  thatpven  the  weak  will 
not  be  olTended.  It  will  b"  best  for  teachers,  in 
the  pr.icticai  exhibition  of  the  theory  of  the  Lu- 
theran and  Itcfurmed  ciinrches,  to  proceed  on  the 
principle  before  laid  down — viz.,  "  that  Christ, 
in  Ills  present  state  of  exaltation,  as  God  and  man, 
can  exert  his  power  when  and  where  he  pleases ; 
and  that,  as  he  has  promised  to  i^rant  his  presence, 
his  graciouB  nearness  and  assistance  to  his  true 
followers  till  the  end  of  the  world,  they  may 
rejoice  in  the  belief  that  it  will  be  especially 
vouchsafed  to  them  during  this  solemn  festival 
in  commemoration  of  him."  This  principle  is 
wholly  scriptural. 


ARTICLE  XV. 

ON  DEATH.  AND  THE  CONTINUANCE  AND  DES- 
TINY OF  MEN  AFTER  DEATH;  OR  THE  DOC- 
TRINE RESPECTING  THE  LAST  THINGS. 


SECTION  CXLVII. 

OF  DEATH. 

I.  Different  Descriptions  and  Names  of  Death. 

(1)  No  losrical  definition  of  death  has  been 
generally  ajjrped  upon.  This  point  was  much 
contested  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  Car- 
tesian and  other  theologians  and  philosophers. 
Since  d<-alh  can  be  renranled  in  various  points  of 
view,  thedescripiiousof  it  must  necessarily  vary. 
If  we  consider  the  slate  of  a  dead  man,  as  it 
strikes  the  senses,  death  is  the  cessation  of  natural 
life.  If  we  consider  the  cause  of  death,  we  may 
place  it  in  that  permanent  and  entire  cessation 
of  the  feeling  and  motion  of  the  body  which  re- 
sults from  the  destruction  of  the  body.  Amonn^ 
theologians,  death  is  commonly  said  to  consist 
in  the  separation  of  soul  and  body,  implying  that 
the  soul  still  exists  when  the  body  perishes. 
Among  the  ecclesiasiical  fathers,  TertuUian  (I)e 
Anima,  c,  27)  gives  this  definition:  Mors — di»- 
junclio  corporis  aninurqur  ;  vita — eonjunetio  cnr- 
pnris  anim.Trjue.  Cicero  (Tusc.  i.)  defines  death, 
dtxcrnstis  aninii  a  curpnrc.  The  passage,  Ileb, 
iv.  12,  is  sometimes  cited  on  this  suhjtct,  but 
has  nothing  to  do  with  it.  Death  does  not  con- 
sist in  this  separation,  but  this  separation  is  the 
consequence  of  death.  As  soon  as  the  body 
loses  feeling  and  motion,  it  is  henceforth  use- 
less to  the  soul,  which  is  therefore  separated 
fiom  it. 

(2)  Scriptural  representations,  names,  and 
modes  of  speech  respecting  des>''  . 


(a)  One  of  the  most  common  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament is,  to  return  to  tlf  duxt,  or  tu  t/::  curtk. 
Hence  the  phrase,  the  dust  qf  death.  It  is 
f)undnd  on  the  description,  Gen.  ii.  7,  and  iii. 
19,  and  has  been  explained  in  s.  52.  75.  The 
phraseology  denotes  the  dissolution  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  hudy.  Hence  the  sentiment  in  Eccles. 
xii.  7,  "The  body  returns  to  the  earth,  the  spirit 
to  God." 

(6)  A  withdrawing  exhalation,  or  removal  of 
the  breath  of  life.  Vide  Ps.  civ.  20.  Hence 
the  common  terms,  a^irxf,  rtofiiiaxf  to  nvivna^ 
reddidit  anirnatn,  i^invivstv,  exxpiravif,  &c. 

(c)  A  removal  from  the  body,  a  being  absent 
from  the  body,  a  departure  from  it,  &c.  This 
description  is  founded  on  the  comparison  of  the 
body  with  a  tent  or  lodgment  in  which  the  soul 
dwells  during  this  life.  Death  destroys  this  tent 
or  house,  and  co.nimands  us  to  travel  on.  Vide 
Job,  iv.  21 ;  Is,  xxxviii,  12;  Ps.  Hi.  7,  where  see 
my  Notes.  Whence  Paul  says,  2  Cor.  v.  1,  the 
f.ttyftoj  r^ixZii'  oixia  rov  ixrvovf  will  be  de- 
stroyed ;  and  Peter  calls  death  drto^f(jt{  rov 
(jxjjfuMaroj,  2  Pet.  i.  13,  I  i.  Classical  writers 
speak  of  the  soul  in  the  same  manner,  as  xara/j- 
xrvovp  (v  ra  <Tu>juaTt.  They  call  the  body  ixriof. 
So  Hippocrates  and  yEschines.  2  Cor.  v.  8,  9, 
ixir^ixriOat  ix  rov  riuiuoroj. 

((/)  Paul  likewise  uses  the  term  tzfifr^tu  in 
reference  to  death,  2  Cor.  v.  3,  4  ;  because  the 
body  is  represented  as  the  garment  of  the  soul, 
as  Plato  calls  it.  The  soul,  therefore,  as  long 
as  it  is  in  the  body,  is  clothed  ;  and  as  soon  as 
it  is  disembodied,  is  naked. 

(e)  The  terms  which  denote  sicrp  are  applied 
frequently  in  the  Hible,  as  everywhere  else,  to 
death.  Ps.  Ixxvi.  7;  Jer.  li.  39;  .It.lin,  xi.  13, 
et  seq.  Nor  is  this  language  used  exclusively 
for  the  death  of  the  piouff,  as  some  pretend, 
though  this  is  its  prevailing  use.  Homer  calls 
sleep  and  death  twin  brothers,  Ilia<l,  xvi.  67'2. 
The  terms  also  which  signify  to  lie  down,  tt 
rest,  (e.  g,  2Dr,  oeeumhere,)  also  denote  death. 

(/)  Death  is  frequently  compared  with  and 
named  from  a  dipnriure,  a  s;oinf^  away.  Hence 
the  verba  cundt,  nhrtindi,  discedendi,  signify,  to 
die ;  Job,  X.  21 ;  Ps.  xxxix.  4.  The  case  is  the 
same  with  v.Ta'yw  and  rtopfv'-o^iot  in  the  New 
Testament,  Matt.  xxvi.  24,  and  even  among 
the  classics.  In  this  connexion  we  may  men- 
tion the  terms  dia>.vftv  and  ai-aXvtf,  Phil.  i. 
23 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  fi,  which  do  not  mean  dissulution, 
but  discexsua.  Cf.  Luke.  xii.  30.  Vide  Wet- 
stein  on  Phil.  1. 

yotc. — We  have  before  remarkeil.  in  the  Ar- 
ticle respecting  Sin,  that  death,  when  personi- 
fied, is  described  as  a  ruler  and  tyr.\nt,  having 
vast  power  and  a  great  kingdom,  over  which 
he  reigns.  Hut  the  ancients  alto  represented  it 
under  some  figures,  which  are  nnt  common 
antong  us.     We  represent  it  as  a  man  with  a 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       515 


hcythe,  or  as  a  skeleton,  &c. ;  but  the  Jews 
before  the  exile  frequently  represented  death  as 
a  hunter,  who  lays  snans  f(ir  men;  I's.  xviii. 
5,  G;  xci.  3.  After  the  exile  they  represented 
(him  as  a  man,  or  sometimes  as  an  angel,  (^he 
angel  of  death,)  with  a  cup  of  poison,  which  he 
reaches  to  men.  From  this  representation  ap- 
pears to  have  arisen  the  phrase,  which  occurs 
in  the  New  Testament,  to  laste  death,  Matt.  xvi. 
28;  Heb.  ii.  9;  which,  however,  in  common 
speech,  signifies  merely  to  die,  without  remind- 
ing one  of  the  origin  of  the  phrase.  The  case 
is  the  same  with  the  phrase  to  see  death,  Ps. 
Ixxxix.  49;  Luke,  ii.  2G. 

n.  Scriptural  senses  of  the  words  "  death"  and  "  to 
die ,-"  and  the  Theological  distinctions  to  which 
they  have  given  rise. 

(1)  Death  frequently  denotes  the  end  or  the 
destruction  of  everything.  It  is  therefore  applied 
to  countries  and  cities  which  perish.  The  inha- 
bitants of  them  are  compared  with  dead  men. 
The  restoration  of  them  is  compared  with  resur- 
rection from  the  dead.  So  Isaiah,  xxvi.  19,  20; 
Ezek.  iii.  7,  seq. 

(2)  Hence  arise  the  figurative  modes  of 
speech,  to  be  dead  to  anything,  as  to  the  law,  to 
iin,  &c. ;  Gal.  ii.  19;  Rom.  vi.  2,  5,  &c. 

(3)  \^\^\.  this  term  is  used  with  great  frequency 
in  a  moral  sense — e.  g.,  to  be  dead  to  all  good- 
Tifss,  to  be  dead  to  si?^ — i.  e.,  to  be  disqualified 
for  all  goodness  by  the  sin  reigning  within  us, 
Ephes.  ii.  1,  5;  v.  14.  Likewise  the  opposite, 
io  live,  to  be  alive  for  goodness — i.  e.,  to  be  active 
in  virtue  and  capable  of  performing  it.  (Mors 
«t  vita  spirilualis  et  moralis.) 

(4)  Death  is  conceived  to  be  the  substance 
•and  sum  of  all  misery ;  and  the  punishment  of 
tleath  as  the  severest  punishment.  Accordingly, 
'death  denotes  («)  every  unhappy  condition  in 
which  human  beings  are  placed,  as  to  body  and 
soul.  The  opposite,  life,  denotes  welfare, prospe- 
rity, Ezek.  xviii.  32;  xxxiii.  11;  Rom.  vii.  10, 13. 
(^b)  Punishments,  as  the  unhappy  consequences 
of  the  transgression  of  the  law.  In  this  sense, 
Kir  is  frequently  used  in  Syriac  and  Chaldee, 
•and  death  in  the  New  Testament ;  Rom.  i.  32 ; 
1  .John,  iii.  14  ;  .Tames,  v.  20.  (e)  The  .Tews 
called  the  punishments  of  the  lost  in  hell  the 
second  death — i.  e.,  the  death  of  the  soul,  which 
follows  that  of  the  body.  Traces  of  this  use 
are  found  in  Philo,  in  the  Chaldaic  paraphrases 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  very  frequently  among 
the  Rabbins.  In  this  sense  is  u  Sivrcpoi  ^a'laroj 
tised  in  Rev.  ii.  11  ;  xx.  G,  14;  xxi.  8.  Vide 
Wetstein  on  Rev.  ii.  So,  too,  bx^^poj,  drtwXf  ta, 
K.  r.  X. 

From  these  various  senses  of  the  word  death 
tbeologians  have  taken  occasion  to  introduce  the 
'livision  of  death  xr.io  temporal  or  bodily,  spiri- 
tual, (by  which  is  meant  a  state  of  sin  and  in- 


I  capacity  for  virtue,)  and  eternal,  Tthe  punish- 
ments of  eternity.)  The  latter  is  what  is  other- 
wise called  the  second  death,  mors  secunda,  cuju$ 
niilla  est  finis,  as  Augustine  'emarks.  Vide  s. 
70,  No.  2.  The  Bible,  toe  jives  the  name  of 
death  (mors  spiritualis)  to  the  state  of  sin,  inas- 
much as  it  is  («)  an  unhaj>py  state,  and  (6)  a 
state  which  inc^jnicitates  sinners  for  all  good- 
ness. Hence  sinners  are  said,  Ephes.  ii.  5; 
Col.  ii.  13,  to  be  vfxpoi  iv  na^ianru/^arn.,  partly 
because  they  are  unhajjpy  in  consequence  of 
sin,  (vide  the  opposite,)  and  partly  because 
they  are  dead  to  all  goodness,  or  are  incapaci- 
tated for  it.  Hence,  too,  those  sinners  who  are 
secure,  ignorant,  and  regardless  of  the  misery 
and  danger  of  their  situation,  are  said  to  sleep 
or  to  dream,  Jude,  ver.  8,  (ivvrtvial^ofisvo',.^ 

III.  The  Universality  or  Unavoiduhleness  of  Death  i 
also  a  Consideraiion  of  the  Question,  whether 
Death  is  the  Punishment  of  Sin,  and  lujw  far  it 
is  so. 

(1)  Death  is  universal  and  inevitable-  None 
in  the  present  state  are  excepted.  This  is  the 
uniform  declaration  of  scripture.  Ps.  xlix. 
8—12;  Ixxxix.  49;  Rom.  v.  12;  1  Cor.  xv.  22; 
Heb.  ix.  27.  Christ  himself  was  not  excepted 
from  this  general  lot  of  mortaliiy,  (though  he 
submitted  to  it  of  his  own  accord,)  John,  x.  17, 
18;  since  Paul  declares,  Heb.  ii.  14,  seq.,  that 
he  became  man,  that  he  might  be  able  to  die  for 
our  good. 

Some  exceptions  to  this  general  lot  are  men- 
tioned in  scripture.  («)  In  ancient  times, 
Enoch,  of  whom  it  was  said,  Gen.  v.  24,  that 
God  took  him,  because  he  led  a  pious  life.  Some 
of  the  fathers  incorrectly  understood  this  pas- 
sage to  mean,  that  he  died.  Cf.  Heb.  xi.  5. 
Elias  is  another  exception,  2  Kings,  ii.  11.  Si- 
milar narratives  are  fo\ind  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  from  which  we  learn  that  it  was 
a  common  notion  among  the  ancient  people  that 
men  who  were  especially  beloved  by  the  Deity 
were  removed  from  earth  to  heaven  alive,  or 
after  their  death,  (i)  In  future  times.  Those 
who  are  alive  at  the  day  of  judgment,  according 
to  Paul,  1  Cor.  XV.  51,  coll.  1  Thess.  iv.  15, 
shall  not  die,  (xoiurbr^rsoirai,)  hut  shall  be 
changed  (axXayTjiorrat) — i.  e.,  their  body,  with- 
out previous  dissolution,  (death,)  shall  be  en- 
nobled by  a  simple  renovation  or  change;  since 
this  mortal  body  is  incapable  of  the  enjoyment 
of  heavenly  blessedness;  ver.  50,  53,  54,  coll. 
2  Cor.  v.  2 — 4,  frtfvfivoon^ai  oixrr;piov  s?  ovpovov, 
(to  be  clothed.) 

(2)  The  mortality  of  the  human  body  is  ex- 
pressly derived  in  the  record  of  Moses.  Gen.  ii. 
17,  also  chap,  iii.,  from  the  taste  of  the  forbid- 
den fruit,  or  of  the  poisonous  tree.  It  was  by 
this  means  that  our  first  parents  themsi>lvH>  h©- 
came  mortal,  and  thus  propagated  their  disor- 


516 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


dered  and  dying  bodies  to  all  llieir  posterity. 
Vidf  s.  74,  75,  78.  The  universality  and  un- 
avoidableness  of  death  is  therefore,  according 
to  the  scriptures,  the  result  and  consequence  of 
till,'  transgression  of  the  first  parents  of  the  hu- 
man race.  And  so,  in  all  cases,  the  Bible  de- 
rives death  from  tlie  sin  of  the  first  man.  Rom. 
V.  12,  "Through  one  man  came  sin  into  the 
world,  and  death  by  sin,  and  so  death  became 
universal  among  men,  (tij  nuvroj  ot-J^pwrtouj 
6t»;>4>».)"     1  Cor.  XV.  21. 

Here  the  question  is  tiirown  out,  whether  the 
dealh  (tf  the  posterity  of  .idam  ».i  to  be  regarded 
as  the puninhinent  of  his  »in?  To  this  tlie  an- 
swer commonly  jriven  by  theologians  is,  that 
wiili  ri<rard  to  the  wicked,  death  is  to  be  re- 
garded in  the  light  of  a  punishment,  but  not  with 
regard  to  the  pious,  but  that  to  them,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  a  benefit.  Since  as  the  latter  are, 
by  means  of  death,  translated  into  a  more  happy 
condition,  it  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  benefit 
as  far  as  they  are  concerned  ;  and  so  the  scrip- 
ture represents  it.  Vide  s.  I4i?.  Still  (n)  death 
does  not  cease  to  be  a  great  evil,  tn  itself  consi- 
dered, to  the  whole  human  race,  and  even  to  the 
pious.  Hence  Paul  denominates  it  o  f;t^pdj,  1 
Cor.  XV.  2(3;  and  considers  it  one  of  the  cala- 
mities befalling  our  race,  with  regard  to  which 
evin  the  pious  man  cannot  be  inditTerent.  He 
Bays  expressly,  2  Cor.  v.  4,  that  even  to  the 
Christian  it  is  no  pleasant  thing  to  be  unclothed 
— i.  ^■.,  stripped  of  his  body  by  death;  but  that 
he  would  rather  be  clothed  upon — i.  e.,  be  in- 
Tt^sted  with  his  heavenly  boJy  immediately, 
without  the  intervention  of  death,  (i)  When 
it  is  said  that  death,  in  the  posterity  of  Adam, 
id  the  punishment  which  they  must  undergo  on 
ai-count  of  his  transgression,  the  term  punish- 
tri'iit  is  used  in  that  general  sense  in  which  it 
is  rmployed  in  common  life,  and  often  in  the 
scriptures.  But  if  it  be  taken  in  the  strict  plii- 
loso|)hical  sense,  (in  which  punishment  always 
presupposes ;jfrw;w/guilt.)  death  can  be  proper- 
ly i-alled  the  punishmt-nt  ofsin  only  in  reference 
to  our  firsi  pari'nts  iheinselvfs ;  with  ret^ard  to 
otlifrs,  it  is  indeed  the  consequence  and  result  of 
♦hf  sin  of  our  first  parents,  but  not  properly  its 
pitnishmrnt.  Vide  s.  7tj,  HI.,  s,  78,  111.  3,  &c. 
This  was  remarked  by  many  of  the  church  fa- 
thers, especially  before  the  time  of  Autjustine; 
nnd  they  therefore  objected  to  calling  the  death 
of  the  posterity  of  Adam  the  punishment  ofsin. 
Vide  s.  79,  .No.  1,  2.  (c)  When  it  is  said  of 
(Christ  that  he  frees  or  redeems  men  from  (bo- 
dily) ileath,  the  meaning  is,  that  men  owe  it  to 
hi  II,  in  general,  that  the  terrors  of  death  are 
nutiiraieil  with  regard  to  those  who  believn  on 
hi'ii;  and  in  particular,  that  our  bodies  are  re- 
st reel  at  the  resiirreriion.  Cf.  John,  xi.  25, 
i'"'.  Tills  is  wh  It  is  meant  ly  the  redcmtio  a 
<norte  corporalipiT  Christum^  a.  120,  coll.  s.  Ill, 


II.  1.  From  the  necessity  itself  of  dying  we 
could  not  be  freed,  unless  God  should  produce 
an  entirely  new  race  of  men.  Cf.  Cotla,  Thesee 
Theologicae  de  Novissimis,  Speciatiin  de  Morte 
Naturali ;  Tubingen,  17li2.  [Also  the  treatise 
of  Dr.  Win.  Bates,"  On  the  f^our  Last  Things," 
and  particularly  on  Death,"  chap.  iii.  and  iv. — 
Ta.] 

SECTION  CXLVIII. 

OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  COSTINU- 
ANCE  OF  THE  HUMAN  SOUL,  AND  ITS  STAT* 
AFTER  DEATH. 

It  is  the  doctrine  of  Christ  that  the  life  of 
man  is  not  bounded  by  this  earthly  state,  but 
that,  although  he  does  not  exist  solely  for  the 
future,  his  life  extends  into  eternity.  The  ge- 
neral doctrine  of  the  Bible  respecting  the  desti- 
nation of  man,  as  a  rational  and  moral  being, 
has  been  already  exhibited  in  the  Article  on  the 
Creation  of  Man,  s.  51,  II.;  and  it  was  there 
shewn  to  be  holiness,  and  temporal  and  eternal 
happiness  st  inding  in  the  most  intimate  con- 
nexion with  it.  The  superiority  of  our  know- 
ledge of  the  state  of  man  after  death,  in  compa- 
rison with  that  possessed  by  the  ancient  world, 
is  not  to  be  ascribed  so  much  to  the  progress  of 
science  as  to  the  work  of  Christ,  ami  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Christian  doctrine.  Those  who 
lived  before  Christ  were  not  indeed  wholly  des- 
titute of  knowledge  respecting  tliis  important 
truth  ;  indeed,  many  heathens,  both  before  and 
after  the  time  of  Christ,  suggested  very  import- 
ant arguments  in  behalf  of  iinmortalily ;  still 
they  were  unable  to  attain  to  anything  more 
than  a  high  deijree  of  probability  on  this  subject. 
Vide  s.  149.  Every  impartial  man  must  concede 
that  Christ  has  high  claims  to  gratitude  f -r  what 
he  has  done  in  relation  to  this  subject,  even  if  he 
does  not  allow  that  he  has  disclosed  anything 
new  with  regard  to  the  future  state  of  man. 

(1)  He  has  connected  this  truth  most  inti- 
mately with  the  other  practical  truths  of  religion, 
and  referred  all  the  rest  to  this  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  no  teacher  before  him  ever  did.  And 
now,  any  one  who  acknowledges  the  divine 
authority  of  Christ,  and  of  the  Christian  reli 
gion,  obtains  a  satisfactory  certainty  respecting 
this  doctrine,  which  at  best  can  be  rendered  only 
liighly  probable  by  the  light  of  nature.  And 
from  believing  this  doctrine,  all  reli<fion  comes 
to  possess  for  him  a  new  interest;  and  he  finds 
in  it  the  greatest  consolation  in  sutTerings  and 
hardships  of  all  kinds — the  most  elTectiial  en- 
couragement to  holiness,  and  the  greaii;sl  di» 
suasive  fro:n  sin. 

.Vote. — Tlie  strongest  philosophical  proofs  in 
behalf  of  immorUiliiy  are  derived  from  the  im- 
pos-ibiliiy  of  rec4(n(;ilinir  th,'  destriietion  of  ih^ 
whole  man  wiih  the  object  uf  his  existence,  aad 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       517 


with  the  divine  attributes.  Vide  s.  149.  But 
a  satisfactory  certainty  on  this  subject,  and  a 
conviction  of  the  truth  of  immortality  raised 
above  all  doubt,  cannot  be  attained  in  this  way. 
For  tiie  simple  fact  that  we,  by  our  reason,  can- 
not reconcile  any  two  things,  does  not  prove 
that  they  are  irreconcilable;  nor  can  we  con- 
clude as  to  the  reality  of  anything,  merely  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  to  be  wished  for  by  us.  Cf. 
Seneca,  who  says,  Ep.  102,  Fhilosnphi  rem 
hanc    gratissiinam    promittunt,    niagis    qtiarn 

PROBANT. 

(•3)  By  the  plain  instruction  which  Christ 
has  given  respecting  this  subject,  and  the  obvi- 
ous reasons  he  has  adduced  for  it,  he  has  made 
it  universally  intelligible,  and  in  a  very  high 
degree  comprehensible,  even  by  the  great  mass 
of  mankind.  He  has  done  this  especially  by 
the  connexion  in  which  he  has  placed  it  with 
the  history  of  his  own  person,  by  which  every- 
thing is  rendered  more  obvious,  and  receives  a 
greater  and  more  lively  interest.  Vide  s.  120. 
Hence  the  remark  of  Paul,  2  Tim.  i.  10,  is  very 
true,  that  Christ  by  his  doctrine  has  taken  away 
the  power  of  death,  so  that  it  is  no  more  to  be 
feared;  he  has  made  us  certain  of  blessedness, 
and  for  the  first  time  placed  the  doctrine  of  eter- 
nal life  (^cojj  xai  diji^ap'Tia)  in  a  clear  light  ((f>wrt- 
ffaj).  Cf.  Einiges,  Leber  das  Verdienst  der 
christlichen  Religion  um  die  Lehre  von  der 
Unsterblichkeitder  Seele;  Flensburg  und  Leip- 
zig, 1788,  8vo. 

The  following  are  the  chief  points  of  Chris- 
tian instruction  respecting  the  life  of  the  soul 
after  death: — 

I.  Scripture  Proof  of  Immortality,  and  tvhat  is 
implied  in  it. 

In  death,  the  bod i/ only  dies;  but  the  soul 
survives  the  body,  and  lives  on  uninterruptedly, 
and  is  immortal.  Here  belongs  the  text.  Matt. 
X.  28,  where  Christ  says  that  tyrants  and  per- 
secutors have  power  only  over  the  body,  and 
can  kill  that  only,  but  have  no  power  to  kill  the 
soul,  over  which  God  alone  has  rule  and  power. 
Again,  Luke,  xvi,  19,  the  parable  of  the  rich 
man  and  Lazarus,  ver.  22,  23,  seq.;  Luke,  xx. 
38,  "  God  is  not  a  God  of  the  dead,  but  of  the 
living."  Also  many  passages  in  John,  in  which 
Jesus  promises  an  immortality,  and  that  too  of 
blessedness,  to  his  true  followers,  and  assures 
them  that  in  death  their  souls  shall  not  perish — 
e.  g.,  John,  V.  2 1 ;  viii.  51 ;  chap.  xi. ;  xii.  24 — 
26;  xiv.  2,  3,  where  he  says  that  in  his  father's 
house  there  are  many  mansions,  and  that,  he 
was  ^oing  to  prepare  a  place  for  them,  and  to 
bring  them  thither  unto  himself,  (by  death.) 
Cf.  the  promise  given  to  the  malefactor  on  the 
cross,  Luke,  xxiii.  43. 

But  he  always  connects  this  doctrine  with 
that  respecting  his  own  person.     He  it  is  to 


whom  we  are  indebted  for  this  truth;  without 
him  we  should  not  have  had  it.  He  is  the  pur- 
chaser and  the  giver  of  life,  and  of  a  blessed 
immortality  ;  whoever  believes  in  him,  althr  ugh 
he  may  die,  yet  lives;  John,  xi.  25,26.  With 
this  the  doctrine  of  the  apostles  agrees.  Vide 
2  Cor.  v.  1—10;  2  Tim.  i.  10;  1  Thess.  iv.  13, 
seq.;  Phil.  i.  23;  1  Pet.  iv.  6,  departed  Chris- 
tians (vfatpot)  are  regarded  by  men  as  evil-doers, 
and  as  miserable  persons,  who  have  been  jusily 
persecuted  and  punished;  but  their  spirit  is 
introduced  by  God  into  a  happy  life.  So  Matt. 
X.  28. 

It  pertains  essentially  to  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  that  our  8elf-cun>ci outness  will  rnuain, 
and  that  sve  shall  then  have  the  conviction  that 
our  state  after  death  is  the  (eiisi-iiui  i.ce  of  the 
life  that  now  is;  as  the  parable,  Luke,  xvi.  22, 
seq.,  plainly  shews.  Cf.  Luke,  xx.  27,  and 
John,  viii.  56,  'Af3|)oa^ — tihi  triv  r^fxipav  r-qv 
f/xjjv,  xai  ixo.pT]'  Cf.  also  2  Cor.  v.  8,  9,  and 
the  other  texts  cited  by  Morus,  s.  2,  note. 

The  doctrine  respecting  the  sleep  of  the  aoid 
does  not  agree  with  the  declarations  of  Christ, 
and  is  dire.-tly  opposed  to  them.  Some  have 
maintained  that  the  soul  after  death  remains,  for 
a  time  at  least,  in  a  state  of  insensibility  and 
unconsciousness,  which  they  compare  with 
sleep.  Vide  s.  150,  where  some  of  the  texts  to 
which  they  appeal  are  examined.  They  sup- 
pose that  it  is  first  awakened  from  this  sleep  at 
the  last  day,  when  it  is  reunited  to  the  body. 
The  state  in  which  they  suppose  the  soul  to  be 
in  the  meantime  is  called  lethargus,  and  those 
who  hold  this  doctrine  are  called  irtvo-^vxiTai, 
and  those  who  wholly  deny  the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  ■^vxoTta.vvi'X'-'fai.  They  support  th«Mr 
doctrine  in  part  by  an  appeal  to  some  figurative 
representations  in  the  holy  scriptures  respecting 
the  kingdom  of  the  dead,  by  which  it  is  set  forth 
as  the  land  of  silence,  darkness,  and  forgetful- 
ness;  and  in  part  by  the  common  experience 
that  our  souls  do  not  feel  and  receive  sensations 
except  through  the  body  and  the  organs  of  sense, 
and  that  when  the  brain  is  injured,  conscious- 
ness and  memory  often  wholly  disappear.  To 
this  it  is  justly  objected,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
conclude,  without  the  greatest  f^illacy,  merely 
from  the  present  constitution  of  man,  in  which 
soul  and  body  are  intimately  connected,  how  it 
will  be  hereafter,  when  the  soul  and  body  shall 
have  been  entirely  separated. 

Christ  and  the  apostles  held  no  princi|)les 
that  could  lead  to  the  doctrine  of  the  sleep  of  the 
soul.  They  rather  regarded  the  eartlily  body 
which  we  inherit  as  the  nearest  Spring  and 
source  of  human  di-pravity,  and  of  the  sins  aris- 
ing from  it,  and  of  all  consequent  pain  and  mi- 
sery. Vide  s.  77,  H,  According  to  this  doc- 
trine we  obtain  by  death  a  release  from  many 
sutferincrs;  the  disembodied  spirit  can  exert  its 
2X 


b.S 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


tiitruies  more  freely  than  before,  and  enters 
u\)oi\  a  far  greater  and  wider  sphere  of  action. 
Cf.  Rom.  viii.  23,  u?ioXvTpw9cj  rov  ow^aroj, 
Rom.  vii.  5,  IH,  23,  24,  aZfia  Jiararov,  1  John, 
iii.  2.  Vii^iiantius,  in  the  fifth  century,  was  ac- 
cusij.  though  unjustly,  by  Mieronynius,  of 
hoUlinjj  liiis  opinion  respecting  tlie  sleep  of  the 
soul.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  was  condemned 
b)  hmocenl  III.  In  the  sixteenth  century  it 
was  advocated  again  by  some  anabaptists  and 
Soi-inians,  and  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
ceniuries,  by  Christopher  Artobe,  Joiin  Ileyn, 
and  iithers. 

II.   T/(e  Connexion  of  the  Life  to  Come  with  the    \ 
I'rescnt. 

On  this  point,  Christ  and  the  apostles  teach, 

(1)  That  the  life  after  death  is  an  immediate 
continuation  of  the  present  life.  The  soul  is 
not  allereil  in  deaih,  but  takes  along  with  it  its 
dispositions,  its  habits,  and  whole  tendency, 
iiiln  the  future  world.  The  life  to  couie,  taken 
in  connexion  with  the  present,  make  together 
one  whole,  even  as  manhood  is  only  the  conti- 
nuaii<in  ofynuih.  .M)rus  justly  observes, /ojwt 
Cunlinuo  nidi Jhuiii  vitic  it  iniliafulurx  sorlis. 

(2)  That  the  life  to  come  is  to  be  regarded  as 
the  comcqucnce  of  the  present,  since  the  conse- 
quences of  all  our  present  dispositions,  inclina- 
tions, and  actions,  continue  there.  Death  de- 
termines the  destiny  of  men  in  the  future  world. 
It  is  here  that  man  lays  the  foundation  either 
for  his  future  happiness  or  misery ;  this  is  the 
state  of  probation,  that  of  retril)ution.  All  this 
is  taught  in  the  New  Testament,  sometimes 
literally,  and  at  other  limes  figuratively — e.  g., 
it  is  Si  inelimes  represented  under  the  image  of 
iowint;  fiful  rrupint;,  a  contmt,  and  the  crowning, 
fk.c.  Vide  Luke,  xvi.  25;  Hebrews,  ix.  27; 
Rorn.  ii.  5 — 12;  2  Cor.  iv.  7 ;  v.  10;  1  Tim. 
vi.  18.  19;  (iai.  vi.  7,  10,  "What  a  man  sows, 
that  shall  he  also  reap;  he  that  follows  his 
carnal  appetites  shall  reap  ^'^)^,dv;  the  pious 
Christian,  ^w^v  (uwi'ioc.' 

III.   The  Intermediate  State  hetween  Death  arid  the 
Jtidi^inent. 

The  restoration  of  the  body  (the  raising  of 
the  dead)  will  not  take  place  until  the  end  of 
tlie  world,  the  last  day  of  the  present  constitu- 
tion of  things — A  period  which  no  one  knows 
belorfhand.  Vide  s.  151,  8e.|.  And  then  will 
every  one,  for  the  first  time,  receive  the  ful! 
viiu.iure  of  reward  or  punishment  allotted  him, 
according  to  his  conduct  in  the  present  life, 
Vi.!e  Luke,  x.  12;  Rom.  ii.  ir. ;  2  Cor.  v.  10. 

Refiire  this  time  shall  arrive,  the  disembodied 
spirit  will  be  in  a  certain  intermnlifile  stale. 
Tlie  exact  nature  r»f  this  slate  is  not  indeed  par- 
ticularly described   to  us,  and    we  are   unable 


even  to  conceive  of  it  distinctly;  but  so  much 
the  Bible  plainly  teaches,  that  immediately 
after  death  the  soul  passes  into  iliat  state  for 
which,  from  the  nature  of  its  previous  life,  it  is 
prepared.  Immediately  after  death,  retribution 
begins;  the  pious  are  hajipy,  and  the  wicked 
miserable,  each  in  exact  proportion  to  his  feel- 
ings and  actions.  Vide  Luke,  xvi.  22 — 25, 
(the  parable  respecting  Lazarus.)  'I'his  truth, 
too,  is  always  placed  by  Christ  himself  and  his 
apostles  in  intimate  connexion  with  his  own 
person — e.  g.,  Luke,  xxiii.  43,  "  To  day  shalt 
thou  be  with  me  in  paradise."  Phil.  i.  23, 
avaXifOA  xai  a'vv  XpiOT^  ilvat ;  2  Cor.  v.  8,  i*- 
br^ur^nai  ix  TOu  ou^aro;,  sceu  tvSjj/tjjotw  rtpoj  to* 
Kvpiof . 

In  what  the  rewards  and  punishments  of  this 
intermodiate  statt;  will  consist  cannot  be  deter- 
mined, nor  whetlier,  in  addition  to  those  which 
are  natural — the  necessary  consequences  of  ac- 
tion and  feeling, — there  will  also  be,  even  then, 
those  whicli  are  positive  and  result  from  the  free 
appointment  of  God.  As  to  those  who  are  lost, 
the  Hible  teaches  us  only  this,  that  their  pu- 
nishment— their  whole  slate  of  iiiisery — will 
commence  imineiliately  after  death  ;  Luke,  xvi. 
22,  seq.  And  for  liiis  we  have  the  analogy  of 
what  the  New  Testament  teaches  respecting 
the  miserable  inlennediale  state  of  the  evil  spi- 
rits, which  will  last  until  the  day  of  judgment, 
2  Pet.  ii.  4  ;  .lude,  7.  Vide  s.  G3.  For  the  fate 
of  lost  men  is  described  as  one  and  the  same 
with  that  of  evil  spirits.  Vide  Matthew,  xxv. 
41.  On  the  other  hand,  the  happy  intermediate 
state  of  the  pious  commences  also  immediately 
after  death.  The  texts  in  jiroof  of  this  are  cited 
by  Morus,  p.  28i),  s.  1,  note  2.  Their  blessed- 
ness is  likened  to  that  of  the  holy  angels  ;  hence 
they  are  called  by  Jesus  himself  iouyyfXot, 
Luke,  XX.  36. 

Since,  now,  the  destiny  of  man  is  decided  im- 
mediately after  death,  and  since  among  men 
such  a  decision  is  usually  made  by  a  judixtneni 
and  sentence,  there  is  no  more  proper  way  of  re- 
presenting this  arrangement  of  (iod  with  re- 
spect to  the  future  destiny  of  men  than  by  com- 
paring it  with  a  judgment,  since  it  has  the 
same  effect  as  a  formal  judgment.  Tiiis  has 
given  occasion  to  the  division  of  juilgmeni  into 
parliciilar  or  jirfctdin'j;  (^judicium  parti  iilnre, 
or  antfccden.i'),  which  denotes  nothing  more 
than  the  determining  of  the  fate  of  men  imme- 
diately after  death;  and  univermrl  or  subsiquciU, 
{^judicium  univfrsa'r,  or  cmiMijurns.^  It  is  re- 
specting the  former  that  I'aiil  spe>iks,  Heb.  ix. 
27,  "It  is  appointed  tn  all  men  once  to  dio, 
urro  hi  Tovro  x^titii^ — i.  e..  then  fdlows  the 
determination  of  their  destiny,  whetlier  it  shall 
be  happy  or  miserable.  Cf.  2  Cor.  v.  10.  'I'he 
Pharisees  also,  according  t'  Josvphu.-*,  (Aniiq. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       519 


xvjii.  2,)  taught  that  the  soul  is  immortal,  and 
after  death  is  judged  under  the  earth,  and  re- 
warded or  punished  according  to  its  works. 

Accordiiitr  to  the  doctrine  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, therefore,  there  is  no  tliird  place,  or  me- 
dium, between  heaven  and  hell,  or  between 
being  iiappy  and  miserable,  although  there  are 
very  dilftrent  degrees  both  of  the  one  and  of  the 
other.  The  iiiteruiedi.ite  condition  of  which 
we  have  spoken  must  not  be  understood  to  im- 
ply anything  like  this.  Still  an  opinion  like 
this  got  footing  very  early  in  the  Christian 
church.  Vide  s.  150.  And  this  gave  rise  to  the 
custom  of  praying  for  the  dead,  since  men  were 
foolish  enough  to  imagine  that  there  is  room  to 
obtain  an  alteration  in  the  yet  undecided  destiny 
of  departed  spirits,  while  in  truth  their  destiny 
must  depend  solely  upon  their  own  actions 
during  the  present  life.  This  custom  had  be- 
come very  general  in  the  fourth  century,  and 
■was  at  tliat  time  opposed  by  Aerius,  presbyter 
of  Pontus,  as  we  learn  from  the  testimony  of 
Epiphanius,  (Ilaer.  75,)  who  is  very  indignant 
against  him  on  this  account.  It  was  also  op- 
posed by  the  Spanish  presbyter,  ^'igi!antius,  in 
the  fifth  century,  in  reply  to  whom  Hieronymus 
wrote  a  violent  book.  This  doctrine  was  after- 
wards brought  into  connexion  with  tiiat  respect- 
ing/jur^^w/ory,  (vide  s.  150;)  and  then  followed 
Tunsses  fur  souls,  as  sacrifices  for  the  departed. 
There  are  also  some  traces  o(  prayers  for  the 
dead  even  among  the  Grecian  .lews — e.  g.,  2 
Mace.  xii.  43 — 46,  vnip  vexpCJv  rtpocsr;^^''^*'' 

j^'ute. — From  what  has  now  been  said,  it  ap- 
pears that  death,  so  far  as  it  is  the  transition  to 
a  higher  and  more  perfect  life,  and  the  means 
of  bringing  us  to  tlie  enjoyment  of  it,  ought  not 
to  be  terrible  to  us,  but  should  rather  be  regard- 
ed as  a  benefit.  Those  only,  however,  can  re- 
gard it  in  this  light  who  have  lived  here  accord- 
ing to  their  destination,  who  have  obtained  the 
forgiveness  of  their  sins  (Sixatoiufvot),  and  who 
go  out  of  tlie  world  vvitii  pious  and  godly  dis- 
positions. Vide  2  Cor.  v,  G— 10;  Phil,  i.  21, 
'23;  John.  xiv.  1 — 4;  1  John,  iii.  2,  3;  1  Peter, 
i.  4,  5,  <S:c, 

SECTION  CXLIX. 

HISTORICAL  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  VARIOirS  OPI- 
KIONS  WHICH  HAVE  PREVAILED  IN  ANCIENT 
AND  MODERN  TIMES  RESPECTING  THE  CONTI- 
NUANCE OK  THE  SOIL  AFTER  DF.ATH  ;  AND  THE 
PROOFS  DRAWN  FROM  REASON  IN  "FAVOUR  OF  IT. 

I.  Ideas  of  Rude  Nations. 

The  ideas  of  most  rude  heathen  nations  re- 
specting the  State  of  man  after  death  are  indeed 
dark  and  obscure,  as  well  as  their  ideas  respect- 
ing the  nature  of  the  soul  itself,  which  they  re- 
gard as  a  kind  of  aerial  substance,  resembling 


the  body,  though  of  a  finer  material.  Vide  s. 
51,  I.  3.  Still  it  is  found  that  the  grea.er  part 
of  mankind,  even  of  those  who  are  entirely  ii.n- 
cultivated,  though  they  may  be  iricapalile  of  the 
higher  philosophical  idea  of  the  immortaliiy  of 
the  soul,  are  yet  inclined  to  believe  that  the  soul 
survives  the  body,  and  continues  either  forever, 
or  at  least  for  a  long  time.  'I'heir  susceptibility 
for  this  faith,  and  their  inclination  to  it,  depend 
upon  the  following  circumstances — viz., 

(1)  Upon  the  love  of  life,  which  is  deeply 
planted  in  the  human  breast,  and  operates  pow- 
erfully, and  leads  to  the  wish  and  hope  that  life 
will  be  continued  even  beycjud  the  grave. 

(2)  Besides  the  traditions  in  bihalf  of  this 
faith  which  uncultivated  nations  received  trans- 
milled  from  their  fathers,  they  often  had  dreams, 
in  which  the  dead  appeared  to  them  speaking 
and  acting;  and  in  this  way  they  found  their 
wishes,  and  the  traditions  they  had  received 
from  their  fathers,  confirmed  anew,  so  that  the 
hope  of  immortality  was  always  sustained  in 
them,  and  never  extinguished.  Thus  Homer 
represents  (II.  xxiii.  103,  seq.,)  that  Achilles 
first  became  convinced  that  souls  and  shadowy 
forms  have  a  real  existence  in  the  kingdom  of 
shades,  by  the  appearance  to  him  of  the  depart- 
ed Patmclus  in  a  dream.  So  too  it  is  repre- 
sented in  the  parable  of  Christ,  Luke,  xvi.  27, 
where  the  rich  man  wished  that  Lazarus  might 
be  sent  to  appear  before  his  living  brethren, 
since  if  one  of  the  dead  should  leach  them  re- 
specting the  state  and  destiny  of  the  dead,  they 
would  believe.  Moreover,  these  visions  were 
often  regarded  as  divine, — omp  ix  At6;  ton,  II. 
i.  63. 

But  we  find  that  many  heathen  nations,  long 
before  they  had  any  i)hiIos()phy,  or  enjoyed  the 
light  of  revelation,  or  before  they  endeavoured 
to  prove  the  immortality  of  the  soul  by  argu- 
ments drawn  from  reascm,  still  possessed  a  firm 
belief  of  the  continuance  of  the  soul.  So  it  was 
with  the  Egyptians,  the  Indians,  the  Thracians, 
the  Cellffi,  the  ancient  Germans,  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  so  it  is  with  many  of 
the  rude  heathen  nations  of  our  times.  Vide 
Meiners,  Geschichte  aller  Religionem,  s.  174,  f. 
Hence  we  find  nceromaucy  practised  among  the 
most  barbarous  people  of  all  ages ;  (vide  s.  66 ;) 
and  the  prevalence  of  this  presupposes,  of 
course,  a  belief  in  the  existence  of  the  soul  be- 
yond the  grave.  Vide  Scripta  Varii  Argumenti, 
Number  iii.,  "  Origo  opinionum  de  inmiortali- 
tate  animorum  apud  naliones  barbaras  atque  a 
cultu  veri  Dei  alienas." 

II.  Ideas  of  the  Jewish  Nation. 

(1)  Many  have  maintained  that  the  doctrine 

of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  is  not  taught  in 
the  Old  Testament.  This  was  especially  main- 
tained by  many  S  cinian  writers  of  the  sixteenth 


520 


CHKISTIAN  THKOLOd'Y. 


and  seventepnth  cpnturies.  Others  have  gone 
80  far  as  to  construe  the  supposed  silence  of  the 
Olff-'IVstament  writirs  on  this  suhject  into  a 
formal  denial  of  the  doctrine,  and  have  attempt- 
ed to  justify  their  opinion  by  some  texts  in 
which  it  seems  to  be  said  that  all  is  over  with 
man  at  his  death — e.  g.,  F^ccl.  iii.  19.  seq. ;  Is. 
xxxviii.  18;  Ps.  vi.  6;  xxx.  10;  Ixxxviii.  11; 
cxv.  17;  Job,  vii.  7 — 10;  x.  20 — 22;  xiv. 
7 — 12;  XV.  22.  The  Fragmentist  of  Wolfen- 
buttel  attacked  the  divine  authority  of  the  Jew- 
isii  religion  in  the  most  odious  manner  by  these 
objections.  Cf.  the  fiurth  Fragment  from  Les- 
sing's  Beytrigcn  zur  Geschichle  und  Literalur 
aus  der  wolfeniuttpl'schen  Bihiiothek,  th.  iv.  s. 
481,  f.  On  the  other  hand,  VVarburton  (Divine 
Legation  of  Moses)  derived  one  of  his  main 
proofs  of  the  divine  mission  of  Moses  from  this 
his  supposed  silence  on  tiie  subject  of  immorta- 
lity. Moses,  he  argues,  being  sustained  in  his 
legislaticm  and  government  by  immediate  divine 
aiilh'irity,  had  not  the  same  necessity  that  other 
teachers  have  for  making  use  of  threatenings 
and  punishments  drawn  from  the  future  world, 
in  order  to  furnish  motives  to  obedience. 

(2)  Hut  even  if  it  were  true  that  there  is  no 
text,  either  in  the  books  of  Moses  or  the  writ- 
ings of  a  subsequent  period,  in  which  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  is  distinctly  mentioned,  it 
Would  by  no  means  follow  that  this  idea  was  at 
that  time  wholly  unknown  among  the  Israelites. 
Even  from  ihis  supposition  we  must  draw  the 
contrary  conc'osion.  For,  not  to  mention  that 
the  Israelites  and  their  ancestors  were  in  Egypt, 
where  this  faith  was  very  ancient,  (according 
to  Herodotus,  li.  123,  the  Egyptians  were  the 
first  who  entertained  it,)  it  is  proved  that  the 
Jeivg  held  this  doctrine  («)  From  the  laws  of 
Mnaes  against  nccromanci/,  or  the  invocation  of 
the  dead,  which  was  very  commonly  practised 
by  the  Canaanites  also,  (Deut.  xviii.  9 — 12,) 
and  which,  notwithstanding  these  laws,  was 
for  a  long  lime  afterwards  retained  among  the 
Israelites,  as  appears  from  1  Sam.  xxviii.,  and 
the  prophets.  (/;)  From  the  appropriate  ancient 
Hebrew  name  for  the  kingdom  of  ilie  dead  >>  r 
(f^tirj),  which  so  often  occurs  in  Moses  arid  the 
other  books  of  the;  Old  Teslament.  Tliat  Moses 
did  not  in  his  laws  liold  up  the  punishments 
of  the  future  world  to  the  terror  of  tran-^gressors, 
is  a  circumstance  which  redoun<ls  to  his  praise, 
anil  cannot  be  alleged  against  him  as  a  matter 
of  reproach,  since  oilier  legislators  have  been  re- 
proacheil  with  being  eithi-r  deluded,  or  IIkmii- 
selves  impostors  fordoing  this  very  thing.  And 
Moses  did  not  design  to  give  a  system  of  theo- 
logy in  his  laws. 

(.3)  Bui  from  passages  in  his  writing*  it  may 
he  seen  |hal  this  doctrine  was  not  unknown  to 
him.  'I'hese  passaires  have  been  collecled  l)y 
different  writers  with  different  success.     Vide 


Michaelis,  Argumenta  pro  Immortalitate  Anim* 
e  Mose  Collecta.  in  Syntagm.  Comment,  t.  i. ; 
Gultingen,  1759.  Luderwald,  L'ntersuchung 
von  der  Kenntniss  eines  kunftigen  Lebens  im 
Allen  Testamente;  Helmstadt,  1781.  Semler, 
BeantwortungderFragendes  wolfenbuttel'schen 
Ungenannten.  Seller,  Obserr.  ad  psychologiam 
sacram;  Erlangen,  1779. 

The  following  texts  from  the  writings  of 
Moses  may  be  regarded  as  indications  of  the 
doctrine  of  immortality — viz..  Gen.  v.  22,  24, 
where  it  is  said  respecting  Enoch,  that  because 
he  lived  a  pious  life,  God  tank  him,  so  that  he  was 
no  more  among  men.  This  was  designed  to  be 
the  reward  and  consequence  of  his  pious  life, 
and  it  points  to  an  invisible  life  with  God,  to 
which  he  attained  without  previously  suffering 
death.  Vide  s.  147,  iii.  1.  Gen.  xxxvii.  35, 
Jacob  says,  "I  will  go  down  into  ''isu'  unto  my 
son."  We  have  here  distinctly  exhibited  the 
idea  of  a  place  where  the  dead  dwell  connected 
together  in  a  society  ;  vide  s.  150.  In  conformity 
with  this  idea  we  must  explain  the  phrase  to  ifO 
l»  hix fathers,  Gen.  xv.  15;  or,  to  be  gathered  to 
his  people,  (more  correctly,  to  enter  into  thiir 
habitation  or  abode,)  Gen.  xxv.  8,  xxxv.  29; 
Num.  XX.  21,  &c.  In  the  same  way  many  of  the 
tribes  of  \orth-American  savages  express  their 
expectation  of  an  immorlility  beyond  the  grave, 
by  saying  respecting  one  who  is  dead,  that  he 
will  now  see  his  father,  grandfather,  great- 
grandfather, &c. 

Paul  argues  from  the  text,  Gen.  xlvii.  9,  and 
similar  passages,  where  Jacob  calls  his  l:fe  a 
journey,  that  the  patriarchs  expected  a  life  after 
death,  Heb.  xi.  13 — 16.  Only  he  says,  very 
truly,  Tto^ljcj^tv  iSoj'Tfj  Toij  Jrtayyf>.io<.  In 
Matt.  xxii.  23,  Christ  refers,  in  arguing  against 
the  Sadducees,  to  Ex.  iii.  G,  where  Jehovah  calls 
himself  the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob, 
(i.  p.,  their  protector  and  the  object  of  their 
worship,)  long  afier  their  death.  It  could  not  be 
that  their  ashes  and  their  dust  should  worship 
(«od  ;  hence  he  concludes  that  they  themselves 
coulil  not  have  ceased  to  exist,  but  th  it,  as  to 
their  souls,  they  still  lived.  Cf.  Heb.  xi.  13 — 17. 
And  this  passage  was  interpreted  in  the  same 
way  by  the  Jews  after  the  time  of  Christ.  Vide 
Wetstein,  ad.  h.  1. 

In  the  subsequent  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  texts  of  this  nature  are  far  more  nu- 
merous. Still  more  definite  descriptions  are 
given  cf  Swr,  and  the  condition  of  ihe  dpparled 
there;  e.  g..  Is.  xiv.  9,  seq.,  also  in  the  Psalms 
and  in  Job.  Vide  s.  150.  Even  in  lliesp  lexis, 
however,  the  doctrine  of  the  rewanl  of  the  right- 
eous and  the  punislunent  of  the  wicked  in  the 
kingdom  of  the  dead  is  not  so  clearly  ileveloped 
as  it  is  in  the  New  Testament;  this  is  true  even 
I  of  ih<'  book  of  Job.  Vide  s.  151.  All  that  we 
I  find    here   with   rr^spect   to   this  point  is  only 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       521 


obscure  intimation,  so  that  the  Pauline  rt6|5,!,wj^fv 
tSovTfs  is  applicable,  in  relation  to  this  doctrine, 
to  the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  well 
as  to  those  of  Moses.  In  the  Psalms  there  are 
some  plain  allusions  to  the  expectation  of  reward 
dnd  punishment  after  death,  particularly  Ps.  xvii. 
15;xlix.  15,  ir. ;  Ixxiii.  21.  There  are  some  pas- 
sages in  the  "prophets  where  a  reviricalion  of  the 
dead  is  spoken  of,  as  Is.  xxvi.  19  ;  Dan.  xii.  2  ; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  But  although  these  do  not  teach 
a  literal  resurrection  of  the  dead,  but  rather  re- 
fer to  the  restoration  of  the  nation  and  land,  still 
these  and  all  such  figurative  representations 
presuppose  the  proper  idea  that  an  invisible  part 
of  man  survives  the  body,  and  will  be  hereafter 
united  to  it.  Very  clear  is  also  the  passage 
Eccl.  xii.  7,  "The  body  must  return  to  the  earth 
from  whence  it  was  taken,  but  the  spirit  to  God 
who  gave  it,"  evidently  alluding  to  Gen.  iii.  19. 

From  all  this  we  draw  the  conclusion  that  the 
doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  was  not 
unknown  to  the  Jews  before  the  Babylonian 
exile.  This  appears  also  from  the  fact  that  a  ge- 
neral expectation  existed  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments in  tlie  future  world;  although,  in  com- 
parison with  what  was  afterwards  taught  on  tliis 
point,  there  was  at  that  time  very  little  deflnit^■ly 
known  respecting  it,  and  the  doctrine,  therefore, 
stood  by  no  means  in  that  near  relation  to  reli- 
gion and  morality  into  which  it  was  afterwards 
brought,  as  we  see  to  be  the  fact  often  in  other 
wholly  uncultivated  nations.  Hence  this  doc- 
trine is  not  so  often  used  by  the  prophets  as  a 
motive  to  righteousness,  or  to  deter  men  from 
eviU  or  to  console  them  in  the  midst  of  suffering. 
But  on  this  very  account  the  piety  of  these  an- 
cient saints  deserves  the  more  regard  and  admi- 
ration. It  was  in  a  high  degree  unpretending 
and  disinterested.  And  although  the  prospect 
of  what  lies  beyond  the  grave  was  very  indis- 
tinct in  their  view,  and  although,  as  Paul  said, 
they  saw  the  promised  blessings  only  from  afar, 
they  yet  had  pious  dispositions,  and  trusted  God. 
They  held  merely  to  the  general  promise,  that 
God  their  Father  would  cause  it  to  be  well  with 
them  even  after  death.  Psalm  Ixxiii.  26,  28, 
"When  my  strength  and  my  heart  faileth,  God 
will  he  the  strength  of  my  heart,  and  my  portion 
for  ever." 

But  it  was  not  until  after  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity that  the  ideas  of  the  Jews  on  this  subject 
appear  to  have  become  enlarged,  and  that  this 
doctrine  was  brought  by  the  prophets,  under  the 
divine  guidance,  into  a  more  immediate  con- 
nexion with  relifjion.  This  result  becomes  very 
apparent  after  the  reign  of  the  Grecian  kings 
over  Syria  and  Kgyp',  and  their  persecutions  of 
the  Jews.  The  prophets  and  teachers  living  at 
that  time  (of  whose  writings,  however,  nothing 
has  come  down  to  us)  must  therefore  have  given 
to  their  nation,  time  after  time,  more  instruction 
OG 


upon  this  subject,  and  .nust  have  explained  and 
unfolded  the  allusions  to  it  in  the  earlier  pro- 
phets. And  so  we  find  that  after  this  time,  more 
frequently  than  before,  the  Jews  sought  and 
found  in  this  doctrine  of  immortality  and  of  fu- 
ture retribution,  consolation  and  encouragen.ent 
under  their  trials,  and  a  motive  to  piety.  Such 
discourses  were  therefore  frequently  put  in  the 
mouths  of  the  martyrs  in  the  second  Book  of 
Maccabees — e.  g.,  vi.  26;  vii.  9,  seq.,  coll.  xii. 
43 — 45.  Cf.  also  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  ii.  1, 
seq. ;  and  especially  iii.  1,  seq.,  and  the  other 
apocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

At  the  time  of  Christ  and  afterwards  this  doc- 
trine was  universally  received  and  taught  by  the 
Pharisees,  and  was  indeed  the  prevailing  belief 
among  the  Jews;  as  is  well  known  from  the 
testimony  of  the  New  Testurnent,  of  Josephiis, 
and  also  of  Philo.  Tacitus  also  notices  this 
firm  belief  of  the  Jews  in  the  immortality  cf  the 
soul.  In  his  history  (ver.  5)  he  says,  animus 
pralio  aiit  svpflieiis pcremjitorum  scterndisprttant. 
Cf.  an  Essay  comparing  the  ideas  of  the  Apo- 
cryphal books  of  the  Old  Testament  on  the  sub- 
jects of  immortality,  resurrection,  judgment, 
and  retribution,  with  those  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, written  by  Frisch,  in  Eichhorn's  Bibiio- 
thek  der  Biblischen  Literatur,  b.  iv. ;  Ziegler's 
Theol.  Abhand.,  th.  ii.  No.  4.  Flugge,  Ges- 
chichte  des  Glaubens  an  Unslerblichkeit,  u.  s. 
w.,  th.  i.  But  the  Sadducees,  and  they  only, 
boasting  a  great  attachment  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  especially  to  the  books  of  Moses, 
denied  this  doctrine,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
existence  of  the  soul  as  distinct  from  the  body. 

But  Christ  did  more  to  illustrate  and  confirm 
this  consoling  doctrine  than  had  been  before  done 
among  the  Jews  or  any  other  people;  and  he 
first  gave  to  it  that  high  practical  interest  which 
it  now  possesses.  Vide  s.  148,  at  the  beginning. 

III.  Philosophical  Arguments. 

As  soon  as  they  began  in  heathen  nations  to 
philosophize,  and  to  investigate  more  closely  the 
doctrines  relating  to  God  and  the  nature  and  des- 
tination of  man,  they  saw  tiie  importance  and 
great  practical  interest  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
immortality  of  the  soul.  It  was  found  to  exist 
already  as  a  popular  belief,  hut  they  now  endea- 
voured to  give  it  philosophical  proof  and  de- 
monstration.  Here,  as  in  other  tilings,  the 
Greeks  distinguished  themselves  above  other 
nations.  They  laid  the  first  ground  of  those  phi- 
losophical proofs  which  were  afterwards  en- 
forced anew  by  Christian  philosophers,  and  cor- 
rected and  furtiier  developed.  In  tiie  varied  web 
of  proof  in  our  modern  philosophical  schools, 
the  chief  threads,  and,  as  it  were,  the  entire  ma- 
terial, are  of  Grecian  origin.  According  to  the 
testimony  of  Cicero,  the  first  Grecian  philoso- 
pher who  investigated  this  subject  was  Phere* 
2x2 


599 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


eydefi ;  but  accor<Hnff  to  Dioaenes  Laerlius,  it 
was  Tl»al(«.  'I'he  followers  of  Socrates,  how- 
ever, did  the  most  for  this  doctrine,  and  espe- 
cially Plato,  in  his  Phacdon.  The  Platonic  ar- 
guments are  fouivd  collpcti-d  in  the  Tuscuhin 
Questions  of  Cicero  (i.  23),  and  also  brielly 
Slated  in  his  Treatise,  De  Senectute,  c.  21,  sei|. 
\N  ilh  reirard  to  these  proofs,  it  is  difficult  for  us, 
with  our  present  ideas,  to  see  how  the  soul,  se- 
parated from  the  body,  could  mainuiin  its  own 
subsistence  or  personality,  since,  according  to 
Plato,  it  is  only  a  part  of  the  soul  of  the  world, 
to  which,  after  death,  it  will  return. 

There  were,  however,  some  amonor  the  Gre- 
cians who  denied,  or  at  least  doubted,  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul.  Amonur  these  was  Epi- 
curus. The  stoics  contended,  indeed,  for  the 
continuance  of  the  soul  after  death,  but  not  for 
its  absolute  immortality,  with  res^ard  to  which 
they  were  accustomed  to  speak  doubtfully;  as, 
for  example,  Seneca  often  does  in  his  epistles. 
The  opinions  of  Aristotle  on  this  subject  are 
doubtful ;  many  of  his  disciples  have  concluded 
from  his  principles  that  the  soul  is  not  itnmor- 
tal — e.  (T.,  arnon}/  his  old  followers,  DicaRarchus  ; 
amoni;  the  later  Aristotelians,  Averrhoes,  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  Peter  Pomponatius,  in  the 
fifieeiiih  and  sixteenth  centuries,  in  his  book, 
"  De  Anirni  Immortalitate,"  edited  anew  by 
Prof.  Chrisii,  Gotifr.  Bardili;  Tubincren,  1791, 
8vo.  He  endeavours  in  this  work  to  shev/  that, 
accordintr  to  the  principles  of  the  Averrhoistic- 
Aristotflian  pi.ilosophy,  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  cannot  be  demonstrated  on  natural  s^rounds. 

Even  amoniT  ("hristians  there  have  been  some 
who  have  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
There  was,  for  example,  an  Arabian  teacher,  in 
the  third  century,  awainst  whom  Ori^en  wrote, 
who  maintained  that  the  soul  dies  with  the 
body,  but  is  air.iin  raised  with  it  at  the  last  day ; 
an  opinion  which  was  revived  in  the  seventeenth 
century  by  William  Coward,  a  London  physi- 
cian. Still  more  strange  is  the  opinion  of  H. 
Doilwell,  who,  in  a  work  published  in  London, 
170G,  contended  that  souls  are  naturally  mortal, 
but  become  immortal  only  by  means  of  Chris- 
tian baptism. 

The  opinions  of  some  of  the  grosser  materi- 
alists of  modern  lit'nes  are  well  known — e.  g., 
of  Toland,  Helvetius,  de  la  Metlrie,  and 'the 
author  of  the  Systeme  de  la  Nature,  who  were 
followed  in  this  by  many  of  the  so-called  jihilo- 
sopbers  who  wrote  during  tiie  French  lievolu- 
lion  ;  also  many  of  the  sre|)tic»,  who  thought 
nothing  could  be  determined  on  this  subject — 
e.  g.,  lluMie. 

A  few  words  respecting  these  philosophic  ar- 
guments themselves.  It  has  been  justly  re- 
marked l>y  piiilosophers  of  modern  times,  espe- 
cially bv  Wolf,  that  three  things  are  involved 
in  the  immortality  of  the  soul:   ^u)  tlie  uninter- 


rupted continuance  of  the  substance  of  the  soul ; 
{li)  the  continuance  of  its  consciousness  ;  and 
onsequently  (c)  the  lasting  recollection  of  tho 
soul,  that  its  state  after  death  is  a  consequence 
of  that  which  preceded.  This  is  very  true  ;  but 
long  before  these  philosophers  wrote,  all  these 
points  were  taught  in  the  Christian  doctrine,  as 
we  have  already  seen  in  8.  llrt.  Cf.  the  single 
passage,  Luke,  xvi. 

These  philosophical  proofs  are  either  mela- 
physical — i.  e.,  drawn  from  the  idea  which  we 
have  of  the  nature  and  attributes  of  the  human 
soul  ;  or  mural — i.  e.  deduced  from  the  relation 
between  God  and  the  human  soul,  or,  which  is 
the  same  thing,  from  the  attributes  and  designs 
of  God,  and  the  destination  of  man  as  a  nnoral 
being,  as  learned  from  the  attributes  of  God. 
The  foundation  for  all  these  arguments  was  laia 
by  the  Greeks,  and  by  those  who  drew  imme- 
diately from  them.  In  modern  times,  however, 
they  have  been  revised  and  rendered  more  ac- 
curate, and  better  adapted  to  the  prevailing  sys- 
tems of  |)hilosophy. 

(1)  The  melaphysical  proofs  are  derived  from 
the  simple  nature  of  the  soul,  (its  immateriali- 
ty,) from  its  inherent  and  essential  activity,  and 
from  the  maxim  that  simple  things  and  elemen- 
tary powers  do  not  perish.  Vide  Cic.  de  Se- 
nectute,  21,  seq.  None  but  God  can  destroy 
the  essential  being  of  the  soul ;  but  it  cannot  be 
shewn  that  he  either  will  destroy  it  or  wishes 
so  to  do.  But  from  this  argument  nothing  more 
than  the  bare  possibility  of  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  could  be  shewn.  But  this  possibility, 
if  it  depends  merely  upon  the  will  of  God,  is 
quite  as  obvious,  even  if  the  soul  has  not  that 
absolutely  simple  nature  which  is  ascribed  to 
it.  In  general,  a  complete  metaphysical  proof 
is  impossible,  because  we  know  so  little  of  the 
true  nature  of  the  soul.  Tho  doctrine  of  the 
simplicity  of  the  human  soul,  in  the  strict  philo- 
sophical sense  of  this  term,  is  a  mere  philoso- 
phical hypothesis.     Vide  s.  51,  I.  3,  note. 

(2)  'i'he  moral  proofs  are  far  more  conclusive, 
though  Ktill  not  strong  enough  wholly  to  exclude 
all  doubt  and  solicitude.  Vide  the  introductory 
remarks  to  s.  148.  Some  of  these  moral  proofs 
were  urged  by  Plato  and  Cicero,  in  the  passages 
above  cited.  The  supposition  of  tiie  mortality 
of  the  soul  contradicts  all  our  ideas  of  the  attri- 
butes of  God — his  wisdom,  goodness,  and  jus- 
tice. Is  the  duration  of  man  limited  to  the  pre- 
sent life,  then  the  destination  of  man,  and  the 
designs  of  (lod  with  regard  to  him,  are  the  most 
inexplicable  riddle,  and  everything  is  full  of 
contradictions.  Hut  if  this  life  is  not  the  last, 
decisive  state  of  man,  but  is  to  be  regarded  only 
as  a  slate  of  education,  trial,  purilii-ation,  and 
preparation  for  a  future  life,  then  tiie  plan  and 
connexion  of  things  becomes  cle;'.rand  ibvious. 

I  U  e  are  moral  beings,  and  f.nd  in  uur  souls  capu- 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       523 


cities  for  ever  increasing  moral  improvement, 
and  we  feel  a  longing  after  imn)ortaliiy,  in  order 
to  make  higher  advances  in  that  moral  and  spi- 
ritual perfection  in  which  the  attainments  of  the 
best  during  the  present  life  are  so  imperfect. 
^These  capacities  and  this  longing  are  to  be  re- 
garded as  promises  from  the  Creator.  For 
were  they  never  to  be  satisfied,  he  would  not 
have  placed  them  in  the  soul,  as  it  could  not 
have  been  his  design  to  deceive  us.  If  our 
souls  are  not  immortal,  then  the  beasts,  which 
have  merely  an  animal  nature,  and  no  rational 
and  moral  part,  are  far  better  in  their  condition 
than  we,  to  whom  a  higher  destination  has 
plainly  been  given ;  for  they  can  develop  their 
constitutional  capacities,  and  can  satisfy  the 
innate  propensities  of  their  natures.  And  shall 
not  we,  the  nobler  creation  of  God,  be  able  to 
develop  the  far  more  perfect  spiritual  and  moral 
powers  which  he  has  given  us,  and  to  satisfy 
our  spiritual  wants'? 

The  whole  system  of  the  rights  and  duties  of 
moral  beings  would  appear  to  be  a  web  of  incon- 
gruities if  the  present  life  were  the  only  one. 
And,  in  fine,  the  disorder  and  injustice  which 
are  obvious  in  the  destiny  of  men  in  tlieir  earthly 
life  almost  irresistibly  compel  us  to  admit  this 
doctrine  to  be  true,  and  to  console  ourselves  in 
the  midst  of  these  disorders  by  the  belief  of  it. 
The  manifest  disorders  of  the  present  slate  oc- 
casioned great  dilficulty  to  all  ihinkiiig  men  of 
former  times,  who  did  not  fully  and  distinctly 
admit  the  truth  of  a  future  life  and  future  retri- 
bution. Vide  Job,  xxiv.  1,  seq. ;  Eccles.  viii. 
10,  11,  14;  ix.  1 — 3.  Vide  s.  71,  especially 
No.  VI.  ad  finem.  Cf.  L.  H.  Jacob,  Beweis 
fur  die  Unsterblichkeit  der  Seele  a\is  dem  Be- 
grifie  der  Pfiicht;  Zullichau,  1790,  8vo.  This 
proof  is  drawn  out  on  the  principles  of  the  Kant- 
ian philosophy,  and  was  written  in  answer  to 
the  prize-question  proposed  by  the  Stolpic  In- 
stitute at  Leiden,  "Whether  there  are  any  du- 
ties which,  on  jrrounds  of  reason,  a  man  would 
feel  himself  bound  to  perform  if  he  did  not  be- 
lieve the  soul  to  be  immortal  ?" 

Note. — The  following  are  some  of  the  princi- 
pal modern  writers  on  the  immortality  of  the 
soul : — Clark,  Sherlock,  Addison,  Reinbeck, 
Canz,  Reimanis,  Vornehmste  Wahrheiten  der 
nalJurlicheu  Religion,  10  Abhand.  S|)alding, 
Die  Bestimmung  des  Menschen.  Jerusalem, 
Betrachtnngen  iiber  die  Wahrheiten  der  Reli- 
gion, th.  1,  6  Beytr.  Noesselt,  Vertheidigung 
der  christlichen  Religion.  Mendelsohn.  Pha;- 
don.  Villeitc.  Unterredungen  iiber  die  Glurk- 
seligkeit  des  kiinfiinoren  Lebens.  Kaiit,  Kri- 
tik  der  praktischen  Vernunft,  and  the  work  of 
Jacob  above  cited.  The  history  oT  ihis  doctrine 
has  been  oiven  by  Oporin,  Fran/,  Cotta,  Hen- 
nings,  and  Flutrge,  with  which  if.  Struvius, 
Hisloria  Doctr.  Graecor  et  Romanaruin  Philos. 


de  Statu  Animarum  post  Mortem  ;  Alten,  1803, 
8vo.  Simon,  Geschichte  des  Glaubens  an  die 
Fortdauer  der  Seele  nach  dem  Tode,  an  Ges- 
penster,  u.  s.  w;  Heilbronu,  1801,  8vo.  Nic. 
Aug.  Merrich,  Sylloge  Scriptorum  de  Spirilibus 
Puris  et  Animabus  Humanis  Earumque  Mate- 
rialitate,  Itnmortalitate,  et  Statu  post  Mortem, 
deque  Anima  l]estiarum;Regensbiirg,  1790, 8vo. 
[Malth.  Claudius.  Wandsbecker,  Bote,  th. 
v.  Hahn,  Lehrbuch.  s.  G34,  ff.,  and  his  history 
of  this  doctrine,  s.  641,  ff. — Tr.] 

SECTION  CL. 

OF  SOME  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  OF  THE  VARI- 
OUS OPINIONS  RESPECTING  THE  PLACE  OF  DE- 
PARTED SOULS,  AND  THEIR  CONDITION   THERE. 

I.  The  Place  of  their  Abode. 

(1)  Among  many  rude  nations,  and  also 
among  some  which  are  cultivated,  (e.  g.,  in 
America,  Thibet,  and  Hindoslan,)  the  opinion 
is  found  to  prevail  that  the  soul  passes  from  one 
body  into  another,  sometimes  another  human 
body,  sometimes  that  of  beasts,  or  even  into 
plants  and  trees.  This  was  called  fitrtfi-iifvx^otif 
by  Pliny,  transfiuumtio.  Originally  this  trans- 
migration of  souls  was  not  regarded  as  a  matter 
of  retribution,  or  as  a  means  of  purification. 
This  turn  was  not  given  to  the  doctrine  until  a 
period  of  higher  cultivation.  It  came  to  i)e  un- 
derstood in  this  light,  for  example,  by  Pytha- 
goras and  Plato  among  the  Greeks.  The  belief 
in  this  doctrine  seems  rather  to  have  rested,  at 
first,  upon  a  certain  supposed  analogy  in  nature, 
where  one  body  is  observed  always  to  pass  into 
another,  and  even  when  it  seems  to  perish  only 
alters  its  form  and  returns  in  a  different  shape. 
This  belief  rnay  have  also  sprung  in  part  from 
the  almost  universal  idea  that  every  thing  in 
the  whole  creation  is  animated  by  a  soul,  espe- 
cially everytliing  possessing  an  internal  life  and 
power  of  motion — e.  g.,  plants. 

This  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls 
has  also  been  held, in  modern  times  by  many  of 
the  Jews.  Vide  Eisenmenger,  Entdecktes  Ju- 
denthum,  th.  ii.  c.  Gl.  It  cannot,  however,  be 
shewn  that  tbi-;  oj)inion  prevailed  among  the 
Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ,  particularly  among 
the  Pharisees,  either  by  the  passages  of  the 
New  'i'estament  cited  in  favour  of  it,  or  by  those 
from  Josephus,  Antiq.  xviii.  2;  Bell.  Jud.  ii.  12. 

Among  Christians,  this  notion  has  met  with 
but  little  favour ;  and  it  has  without  reason  been 
ascribt-d  to  the  Gnostics,  Manicbeans,  and  even 
to  Origen.  The  reason  of  its  being  ascribed  to 
the  latter  was  his  belief  in  the  pre-existence  of 
the  soul  (vide  s.  57,  II.  1) — a  belief  which  in 
some  philosophical  systems  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration 
of  the  soul.    Since  the  seventeenth  ceuturv  this 


5-24 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


has  been  agfain  regarded  as  a  probable  doctrine, 
on  account  of  some  analogy  in  llie  material 
world,  and  has  been  again  advocated  by  Hel- 
mont,  Kdelmann,  Lessing,  (Erziehung  des  Men- 
scliengesclilcclits.) 

[AWc. — The  doctrine  of  the  transmigration 
of  souls  has  received  new  light  from  the  inves- 
tigations which  have  been  made  of  laie  in  East- 
ern literature.  A  deeply  interesting  exhibition 
of  this  subject  is  given  by  Fred.  Schlegel  in  his 
♦'  Philosophie  der  Geschichte,"  b.  i.  s.  147.  He 
there  shews  that  this  is  one  of  the  most  funda- 
mental doctrines  of  faith  in  the  Eastern  world — 
that  it  P'sts  upon  a  religious  basis,  and  even  in 
the  earliest  periods  was  connected  with  the  idea 
of  retriliution  and  sanctification.  The  soul,  it 
is  supposed,  after  having  been  soiled  and  cor- 
rupted by  its  contact  with  the  body  and  the 
world,  must  expiate  its  sins  by  wandering,  for 
an  appointed  cycle,  tlirough  various  forms  of 
uticocigiMiial  matter.  By  enduring  these  penal 
sutTerings  for  a  long  lime  it  becomes  purified, 
and  prepared  to  mingle  again  in  the  original, 
pure  fountain  from  which  it  proceeded.  At  the 
bottom  of  this  whole  belief  lies  the  deep  and 
just  feeling,  that  after  man  has  wandered  so  far 
from  God,  in  order  to  approach  him  again  he 
must  travel  with  great  labour  through  a  long 
and  dreary  way;  and  also  the  conviction,  that 
nothing  which  is  imperfect  or  stained  with  sin 
can  enter  into  the  pure  world  of  blessed  spirits, 
or  be  f'  r  ever  united  with  (lod. — Tii.] 

(•2)  Far  more  general  was  the  opinion  among 
the  ancient  nations  that  the  abode  of  departed 
spirits  is  umhr  the  earth  ;  because  the  dead  are 
laid  beneath  the  ground,  and  their  body  returns 
to  the  dust.  The  souls  there  separated  from 
their  bodies  were  regarded  as  a  sort  of  aerial 
beings,  or  shades,  (fiiwXa,  tinibrx.)  Vide  s.  f)G, 
H.  coll.  8.  59, 1.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  ancient 
Eastern  nations  and  the  dreeks  agreed  in  this 
point;  while  stilt  it  is  not  necessary  to  su|)pose 
tiiat  llie  latter  borrowed  their  ideas  from  the 
former. 

'I'his  place  was  denoniinatr-d  by  the  Hebrews 
^vc\  bv  the  (Jreeks,  a^rj — the  word  by  which 
the  LXX.  always  translate  ""v-r.  'I'he  term 
$<Sijj  is  explained  by  IMularch  (I)e  Is.  et  Osir.) 
by  OLnfiif,  do,varof,  dark,  whrre  one  sees  nnthi'iii;. 
It  is  allegdrically  exjilained  by  Plato,  in  his 
Cratylus,  as  the  invisil)lo  world,  because  the 
place  is  unseen.  Neither  of  these  terms  is  used 
in  the  scriptures  to  signify  exactly  the  <rravc, 
still  1(!S3  Ihr.  place  iif  the  damned ;  nor  are  they 
used  in  this  sense  by  any  of  the  fathers  in  tt»e 
fust  three  cei\turie8.  Vide  b.  0(>,  I.  The  same 
place  is  called  among  the  Hebrews  r-wn  rvmn, 
as  in  Flomer,  i-nii  yatoi',  ino  xti^mi  yaia^,  and 
tlie  entrance  to  It  is  placed  by  the  (J reeks  in  the 
extreme  west.  Where  llie  sun  si'''^^  down,  and 
his  light  and  fire  are  exiinguislied,  there,  it  was 


naturally  supposed,  is  the  place  where  all  things 
perish,  and  where  darkness  reigns. 

Hoth  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks  describe  this 
under-wiirld  as  a  great  kingdom,  and  both  use 
the  phrase,  i^ulcn  (f  death,  or  Hades.  Cf.  Homer. 
Here,  according  to  the  ideas  of  men  in  the  lar- 
liist  a^es,  the  shades  of  the  good  and  the  bad 
dwell  together,  without  any  distinction  or  any 
marked  separation.  Thus  it  is  where  Sxr  is 
introduced  in  the  Old  Testament — e.  g.,  Is.  xiv., 
where  there  is  a  kind  of  distinction  of  rank,  and 
kings  sit  upon  thrones  ;  but  where  notiiing  de- 
finite and  clear  is  said  respecting  a  distinction 
in  the  places  of  the  pious  and  the  wicked.  Thus 
in  Homer,  too,  even  those  who  are  punished  are 
in  the  same  place  with  the  other  shades,  Odys. 
xi.  575,  seq. 

But  after  a  time  these  places  in  the  lower 
world  were  divided,  and  the  residences  of  the 
righteous  and  the  wicked  were  conceived  of  as 
separate.  Thus  Tartarus  among  the  Greeks, 
which,  during  the  time  of  Honur  and  Hesiod, 
was  regarded  merely  as  the  prison  of  the  Titans, 
became  gradually  the  universal  ai)ode  of  the 
damned.  So  it  is  with  Plato  and  others,  who 
are  followed  by  Virgil,  yEn.  vi.  In  the  same 
way  did  the  conceptions  of  the  .Tews  on  this 
subject  become  more  developed  in  later  periods. 
According  to  Luke,  xvi.  23 — Cij,  both  the  rich 
man  and  La/.arus  are  in  Hades,  but  a  wide  gufft 
(xaiuo-  ,«fyaO  as  it  is  figuratively  represented 
in  the  parable,  separates  the  fields  of  the  blessed 
from  the  place  of  the  damned  ;  no  one  may  or 
can  pass  from  the  one  to  the  other.  The  Jews 
too,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  called  the  place 
of  punishment,  where  wicked  men  and  angels 
are  reserved  unto  the  day  of  judgment,  Taprofoj. 
Vide  Joseph.  Bell.  Jud.  ii.7;  2  Pet.  ii.l;  where 
Tapropdu)  appears.     Cf.  8.  dS,  II. 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  sacred  writers 
retained  the  phraseology  common  among  their 
contemporaries,  in  order  to  be  more  easily  un- 
derstood by  them,  and  to  make  a  stronger  im- 
pression upon  their  minds.  TViry,  however, 
used  all  this  only  in  the  way  of  fiirure  and  figu- 
rative representation,  by  which  they  designed 
to  set  forth  the  most  important  truths  with  re- 
gard to  the  state  of  departed  spirits;  as  any  one 
may  see  from  Luke,  xvi.,  2  Pet.  ii.,  &c. 

'I'he  whole  kingdom  of  the  dead  is  described 
by  the  ancients  in  a  threefold  method — viz.,  («) 
ns  a  dark,  desolate,  silent  region,  the  hfnd  of 
forgetful neas,  rest,  and  inactivity;  since  the 
dead  rest  silently  in  the  grave  under  the  earth, 
and  are  cut  off  from  all  connexion  with  the  liv. 
ing  world.  Cf.  the  texts  cited  from  the  Old 
Testament,  s.  1  Jl>,  11.  (in  init.)  This  gave 
rise  to  the  idea  respecting  the  ak'jt  of  the  soul 
in  after  limes.  (/»)  Again  it  was  described  as 
a  kingdom  full  of  nunion  and  ar-tivity,  and  as 
resembling  as  nearly  as  pos?iH«  the  present 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      525 


world.  Cf.  Isaiah,  xiv.  (c)  But  in  process  of 
time  these  two  representations  were  connected 
together  in  a  j^reat  variety  of  ways. 

Now  the  sacred  writers,  and  Christ  himself, 
often  make  use  of  fifrurative  expressions,  bor- 
rowed from  these  ideas,  though  they  also  fre- 
quently exchange  them  for  others  which  are 
more  literal.  Thus  what  Christ  represents  in 
Luke,  xxi.,  under  the  image  of  a  steep  walled 
grave,  he  describes  elsewhere  without  a  figure — 
viz.,  that  the  states  of  men  in  the  future  world 
will  be  very  diverse,  but  exactly  apportioned, 
both  as  to  happiness  and  misery,  according  to 
their  conduct  in  this  life;  and  that  it  will  not 
depend  upon  the  choice  of  men  to  pass  from 
one  state  to  the  other.  Cf.  Matt.  xxv.  The 
hindrances  here  are  as  great  and  insurmountable 
as  a  deep  chasm  is  to  one  who  would  pass  from 
one  place  to  another.     Cf.  s.  118,  I. 

The  ancient  languages  were  still  more  defi- 
cient tlian  those  of  the  present  day  in  ))hiloso- 
phicaily  definite  expressions  for  objects  beyond 
the  cognizance  of  the  senses.  Indeed,  many 
things  could  not  be  so  much  as  conceived  of 
without  a  symbolical  representation;  hence 
such  are  often  found  even  in  the  writings  of 
Plato,  and  other  Grecian  philosophers.  Ac- 
cording to  this  method,  one  could  not  indeed 
teach  in  so  exact  and  definite  a  manner;  but  he 
would  make  a  stronger  impression  upon  the 
feelings  and  desires,  and  succeed  belter  in 
awakening  religious  dispositions  among  those 
v/ho  were  unacquainted  with  philosophical  lan- 
guage. This  hint  is  very  important  for  the  re- 
ligious teacher.  If  he  follows  the  method  of 
instruction  pursued  in  schools  of  philosophy, 
and  adopts  their  phraseology,  he  will  accom- 
plish but  little,  and  often  be  entirely  unintelli- 
gible to  his  hearers.  He  must  follow  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Bible,  and  make  use  alternately 
of  figurative  and  literal  representations.  In  fact, 
the  whole  representation  of  the  invisible  world 
must  be  figurative  and  symbolical,  even  when 
we  make  use  of  the  most  literal  expressions  in 
our  power.  It  is  all  a  mere  comparison  of  the 
invisible  world  with  something  like  it  in  the 
world  of  sense.  For  what  the  apostle  said, 
*»eye  hath  not  seen,  ear  hath  nni  heard,"  &c., 
is  literally  true  in  application  to  this  snhj'  it. 

With  regard  to  Orcus,  and  the  different  views 
entertained  on  this  subject  among  Christians, 
cf.  Cotta,  De  Inferno  ejusque  Sede;  Tubingen, 
1775.  As  to  the  ideas  of  the  Hebrews,  cf.  the 
works  of  Ziegler  and  Ammon,  Ueber  das  Tnd- 
tenreich  der  Hebraeer;  Erlangen,  1792.  Cf. 
also,  an  Excursus  of  Heyne  on  the  fourth 
iEneid,  and  other  works  cited  below. 

Aofe. — To  any  unprejudiced  observer  it  can- 
not but  appear  a  great  excellence  in  the  Bible, 
»nd  especially  in  the  New  'i'estament,  that  it 
takes  uo  part  in  the  absurd  conceptions  wiiich 


have  often  prevailed  on  this  subject,  and  from 
which  the  greatest  philosophers  are  not  alto- 
gether free — e.  g.,  Plato.  And,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Bible  is  equally  deserving  of  praise 
for  not  exhibiting  pure  truths  in  metaphysical 
language,  and  making  them  the  object  of  dry 
and  curious  speculation,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
in  the  highest  degree  intelligible,  so  that  their 
practical  application  is  obvious  to  every  one. 

(3)  But  many  believed  that  departed  souls 
remain  in  or  about  the  graves  or  dwelli-ngs  uf 
the  dead,  either  for  ever,  or  for  a  long  lime.  So 
many  nations  of  different  degrees  of  cuUivalion. 
The  opinion  was  formerly  very  widely  diffused, 
that  departed  spirits  linger  for  a  long  time 
around  the  dead  body,  or  at  least  sometimes 
return  to  it  from  the  kingdom  of  the  dead  ;  and 
hence,  in  part,  the  belief  in  spectres,  s.  6(5,  II. 
'I'hese  ideas  prevailed  to  some  extent  among 
the  .lews  and  many  Christians;  and  even  at  the 
Concil.  Iliberit.  in  the  year  313,  it  is  forbidden 
to  kindle  a  light  in  burying-grounds,  lest  the 
spirits  of  the  saints  should  be  disturbed. 

II.  Opinions  reitpeding  the  state  of  Departed  Soub. 

(1)  It  is  apparent  from  what  has  been  said, 
that,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  ancients,  the 
employments,  the  state  and  life  of  departed 
souls,  resemble  the  life  of  men  in  this  upper 
world — an  idea  in  which  many  germs  of  truth 
are  involved.  We  find  nothing  said  respecting 
the  sleep  of  the  soul  either  in  the  Old  or  New 
Testaments,  nor  in  the  earliest  monuments  of 
other  nations.  Vide  s.  148.  Quite  as  foreign 
from  the  conceptions  of  the  earliest  periods  is 
the  idea  that  the  dead  have  no  recollection  of 
their  earthly  life,  and  take  no  interest  in  human 
affairs.  The  opposite  of  this  is  clear  from  the 
earliest  records — e.  g.,  from  Homer  (Odys.  xi. 
coll.  II.  xxii.  380,  390),  and  from  the  holy 
scriptures,  (Is.  xiv.,  Luke,  xvi.)  It  was  for 
this  reason  that  so  many  nations  believed  that 
the  dead  sometimes  return,  appear  »o  men,  and 
have  personal  intercourse  with  the  living.  And 
hence  too  the  error  of  itwu/cing  the  saints.  These 
superstitious  conclusions,  however,  are  not  fa- 
voured by  the  doctrine  of  Christ.  Vide  Luke, 
xvi.  27— 31.  * 

It  was  very  natural,  even  for  nations  having 
no  direct  revelation,  to  come  to  the  thought  that 
the  shades  in  Hades  recognise  each  other,  have 
mutual  intercourse,  and  perpetuate  the  friend- 
ship begun  in  the  present  life.  This  idea 
might,  indeed,  like  many  others,  have  been 
abstracted  from  the  mere  phantoms  of  a  dream. 
For  in  dreams  our  departed  friends  appear  to 
be  cognizable,  as  Patr.'clus  did  to  Achilles, 
even  as  to  his  eyes,  voice,  and  stutiire,  II.  xxiii. 
f;C,  seq.  107.  Tiiis  may  be  justified  also  by  an 
appeal  to  scripture,  Luke,  xvi.;  Heb.  xii.  23, 
and  Rev'^ation.    The  soul,  indeed,  is  no  longer 


626 


CHRTSTIAX  THEOLOGY. 


Terrardod  as  a  fine  matprial  substance,  as  it  often 
was  in  ancient  limes  ;  but  these  deligrhtful  views 
lose  nolhiniT  on  this  account,  as  some  have  most 
unpliilosfiphically  supposed.  For  one  may  be 
rfcojjnised  otherwise  than  by  his  body,  and 
m:iy  he  loved,  ton,  otherwise  than  corporeally. 
Why  then  should  not  departed  souls  recotrnise 
each  other,  even  when  they  no  longer  possess 
bodies? 

(2)  In  the  childhood  of  nations,  the  ideas  of 
men  have  been  commonly  very  vague  and  inde- 
finite with  regard  to  the  hnpjnj  or  miserable  state 
of  dt'j)arted  souls.  Cf.  Meiners,  Gcschichte  der 
rteligionen,  s.  171 — 17B.  With  regard  to  what 
the  Israelites  in  the  earliest  times  knew  on  this 
suhjet't,  while  they  yet  saw  the  promises  in  an 
obscure  distance,  cf.  s.  149,  II.  ^Many  of  the 
heathen  nations  represented  the  state  of  the 
dead,  not  indeed  as  wholly  miserable;  still  they 
regarded  it  as  not  altogether  desirable,  and  often 
as  rather  worse  than  belter,  in  comparison  with 
their  state  in  this  world.  Achilles  in  Hades 
does  not  speak  of  death  very  favourably,  but 
would  rather  till  the  field  on  earth,  as  a  day 
labourer,  than  rule  all  the  hosts  of  the  shades; 
Odys.  xi.  187.  For  the  Elysium  in  Homer  is 
not  as  yet  the  residence  of  the  departed  souls  of 
men,  but  only  the  abode  of  heroes  or  demigods. 

But  by  degrees  they  advanced  to  more  en- 
larged and  correct  conceptions.  The  Greeks 
thiMi  supposed  that  good  men  participate  here- 
after in  the  joys  of  Elysium,  and  that  crimes 
are  punished  in  Hades.  At  first,  however,  only 
the  grosser  offences  were  supposed  liable  to 
punishment  there,  and  in  Homer,  one  offence 
on\^— pa-jury  ,-  II.  iii.  27B;  xix.  259,  2G0.  This 
indicates  the  great  simplicity  and  the  very  de- 
fective ideas  on  moral  subjects  which  still  pre- 
vailed, since  only  the  very  grossest  crimes  were 
regarded  as  worthy  of  punishment.  After- 
wards, in  the  greater  advance  of  cultivation,  and 
the  higlicr  perfection  of  moral  ideas,  the  number 
of  crimes  punished  in  Hades  was  very  much 
increased  ;  and  at  length  it  was  believed  that 
every  virtue  is  there  rewarded  and  every  vice 
punished.  So  it  is  represented  by  Plato,  and 
other  (Jrecian  philosophers;  so  also,  in  imita- 
tion of  them,  by  Virgil,  jUneid,  vi.  Vide  Ileyne, 
Excurs.  1  and  8. 

A  gradual  development  of  ideas  is  also  no- 
ticed among  the  Israelites.  In  general,  the 
great  mulliiudo  among  them,  as  among  other 
people,  formed  very  gross  conceptions  respect- 
ing llie  joys  and  pains  following  death,  and  re- 
giirdt'd  them  as  merely  corporeal,  since  they 
were  unable  to  conceive  of  any  other.  Many 
understood  literally  the  expressions,  to  be  in 
Jbruhiim^s  bosom,  to  tit  down  at  table  with  .Iba- 
fiaiii,  Isaac,  and  Jacob;  the  more  enlightened, 
however,  used  them  only  as  figurative  expres- 
sions, as  Christ  himself  always  understood  and 


explained  them  in  his  instructions — e.  g.,  Luke, 
xvi. 

(3)  The  doctrine  respecting  an  interrrudiate 
slate  of  departed  souls,  and  respecting  purga- 
tory. Cf.  8.  148,  HI.,  and  Morus,  p.  290. 
Such  a  state,  in  which  the  fate  of  men  is  unde- 
cided until  the  day  of  judgment — a  state  which 
is  neither  heaven  nor  hell,  neither  beinij  blessed 
nor  dimned,  was  supposed  by  many  of  the 
church  fathers — e.  g.,  Justin  the  Martyr,  Ire* 
nipus,  and  Tertullian.  Only  some  eminent 
saints  and  martyrs,  it  was  supposed,  come  at 
once  into  heaven;  and  onl}'  the  grossest  sinners 
go  at  once  into  hell.  This  intermediate  state 
they  call,  taking  the  appellation  from  Luke, 
xvi.,  Simiin  Jbnihaini.  To  this  they  referred 
the  text,  1  Pet.  iii.  19,  ra  iv  'px7.ax/j  rtvduara. 
Vide  s.  9G.  Thither  Christ  went,  and  rescued 
from  thence  the  patriarchs  and  other  pious  men 
who  had  died  before  his  atonement  was  made. 
This  place  was  afterwards  called  liinbun  (supc 
rior  or  exterior  pars  ittferni)  palrum  ;  and  a  h'm- 
bus  iiifantium  was  also  supposed  (and  is  ?till 
believed  by  the  Romish  church)  into  which 
children  go,  because  they  are  not  actually  con- 
demned, having  committed  no  j)eccatti  actualia, 
while  still,  in  consequence  of  original  sin,  they 
are  unable  to  attain  to  the  blessed  vision  of 
God. 

The  foundation  for  the  doctrine  of  purgatory 
is  found  even  in  the  second  and  third  centuries. 
Its  origin  may  be  traced  back  to  the  Pythago- 
rean or  Platonic  philosophy.  Souls,  according 
to  Plato,  are  a  part  of  the  divine  nature,  which, 
however,  are  confined  in  the  body,  as  in  a  pri- 
son. Vide  s.  74, 1,  ad  finem.  Now,  even  after 
the  soul  of  man  is  disembodied,  there  still 
cleaves  to  it  much  sin  and  impurity,  acquired 
from  its  contact  with  the  body,  and  this  im- 
purity is  regarded  by  Plato  as  a  natural  siefi- 
ness.  It  cannot  therefore,  immediately  on  leav- 
ing the  body,  return  again  to  its  original  source. 
With  some,  the  disorder  is  incurable,  and  these 
are  the  lost,  who  go  at  once  to  Turtnrus;  with 
others,  it  is  curable,  and  these  are  purged  and 
purified  in  Hades.  This  process  Plato  com- 
pared with  purification  (xa^aijft?)  by  water,  air, 
and  fire;  and  represented  this  state  as  an  inter- 
mediate one.  Vide  Plato,  Pha^lon.  c.  «»2 ;  and 
Virgil,  j^-^neid,  vi.  735 — 751,  and  Heyne,  Ex- 
cur,  xiii. 

This,  with  many  other  Platonic  doc-irines  and 
fables,  was  early  transferred  to  Christianity. 
We  find  traces  of  it  amonjj  the  Gnostics,  (ac- 
cording to  the  testimony  of  Irenapus,  ii.  51,  seq.,) 
in  the  writings  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  in  the 
second  century,  and  of  Origen,  in  the  third.  But 
after  the  fourth  century  it  was  more  widely  dif- 
fused through  the  Latin  church.  It  is  found 
in  Hieronymus,  Lactantiiis,  Amhro'^ius,  and 
even  Augustine;  the  latter  of  whom,  however, 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      587 


tho'jgh  he  speaks  of  ignis  purgatorttis,  regards 
the  suhject  as  doubtful.  In  the  sixth  century 
tliis  doctrine  was  taught  by  Gregory  the  Great, 
in  the  eighth  by  Beda,  Boniface,  and  others.  It 
was  fin|i|)i/fcd  thnt  those  Christians  only  who 
commit  no  deliberate  sin  after  baptism  are  ex- 
empt from  this  punishment,  or  such  as  become 
martyrs,  or  who,  by  assuming  the  monastic  life, 
have  made  atonement  for  their  sins.  Gross  of- 
fenders^those  who,  according  to  Plato,  are 
irrecoverably  disordered,  pass  immediately  after 
death  into  hell.  Those  who  have  not  sinned  so 
grossly,  (who  are  recoverable,)  or  whose  repent- 
ance commences  in  the  present  life,  but  remains 
imperfect,  although  they  are  not  eternally  con- 
demned, yet  do  not  attain  at  once  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  God.  Such  persons,  it  was  supposed, 
need  to  be  purified  and  to  make  expiation  for 
their  sins  by  the  endurance  of  certain  penalties 
appointed  by  God,  conceived  of  under  the  image 
of  purifying  by  fire.  The  advocates  of  this  view 
endeavoured  to  support  it  by  such  texts  of  scrip- 
ture as  the  following — viz.,  1  Cor.  iii.  13,  (as 
by  fire ;)  Jude,  ver.  23 ;  Malachi,  iii.  2 ;  2  Mace, 
xii.  39. 

This  doctrine  became  connected  with  many 
jpinions  and  practices  equally  unscriptural,  es- 
pecially with  offering  prayer  for  the  dead,  and 
making  satisfaction  to  relieve  them  from  punish- 
ment; and  also  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  as  a  sacrifice  for  the  dead — a  doctrine 
which  prevailed  during  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries;  at  which  time,  also,  masses  offered 
in  order  to  free  souls  from  purgatory  became 
common.  As  early  as  the  eleventh  century,  the 
feast  of  «//  souls  was  appointed  by  Pope  John 
XVIII.  This  doctrine  was  now  adopted  by  the 
schoolmen  into  their  systems — e.  g.,  by  Peter 
of  Lombardy,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  others. 
The  most  frightful  representations  were  given 
of  purgatory,  founded  upon  stories  of  the  appa- 
rition of  souls  from  thence,  &c.  The  theolo- 
gians, too,  contended  respecting  the  place,  man- 
ner, and  duration  of  this  punishment.  And  the 
council  at  Florence,  in  1439,  gave  this  doctrine 
the  authority  of  a  formal  article  of  faith.  As 
Buch,  it  still  continues  in  the  Romish  church, 
and  was  re-established  by  the  council  at  Trent. 

This  doctrine,  however,  of  the  Romish  church 
respecting  purgatory,  as  it  has  been  gradually 
developed  by  the  schoolmen,  and  as  it  was  es- 
tablished by  the  council  at  Florence,  differs  in 
two  essential  points  from  the  old. Platonic  no- 
tion which  was  adopted  by  Origen  and  other 
church  fathers — viz.,  (n)  According  to  Origen 
and  the  Platonists,  all  without  exception  are 
subjected  to  this  purification,  although  some 
need  it  more,  and  others  less.  But  according 
to  the  opinion  of  the  Romish  church,  those  only 
go  into  purgatory  who,  though  they  have  been 
baptized  and  telieve,  are  not  of  perfect  virtue. 


(i)  According  to  Origen  and  tlie  Platonic  idea, 
the  whole  design  of  this  sutTfring  is  to  promote 
the  moral  improvement  and  perfection  of  men; 
but  according  to  the  conception  of  the  Romish 
church,  it  is  designed  to  make  atonement  and 
expiation  for  sin. 

JVute. — Works  on  this  sulij-vf.  (a)  Historic 
cal:  Jac.  Windet,  Srpu^arfi,'?  iranro'Kixui  de 
Vita  Functorum  Statu  ex  Hebraeorum  et  Grae- 
corum  comparatis  Sententiis  concinnatus;  Lon- 
dini,  1()G3 — (M.  Systeme  des  Anciens  et  des 
Modernes  sur  TEtat  des  Ames  separees  de 
Corps  ;  ;\  Londres,  1757,  2  tom.  8vo.  Thom. 
Burnet,  De  Statu  Mortuorum  et  Resurgentium ; 
London,  1757;  against  which,  and  in  behalf  of 
the  liomish  doctrine,  there  were  treatises  writ- 
ten by  Muratori,  Columna,  and  others.  Baum- 
garten.  Hist.  Doctrinae  de  Statu  Animarum  se- 
paratarum ;  Halae,  1754.  Cotta,  Recentiores 
quasdam  Controversiae  de  Statu  Animi  post 
Mortem;  Tubingen,  1758.  (6)  Fhilosophical 
and  doclrinal  works  :  Wernsdorf,  De  Animarum 
separatarum  Statu,  earumdemque  cum  Vivis 
coinmercio,  in  his  "Collec.  Disputt."  tom.  i. 
No.  15.  The  best  and  latest  works  on  the  state 
of  the  soul  after  death  are  collected  by  Loscher, 
Dresden,  1735.  Meier,  Philosophische  Be- 
trachtung  vom  Zustande  der  Seele  nach  dem 
Tode;  Halle,  1709.  J.  E.  Schubert,  Gedanken 
vom  ewigen  Leben,  und  Zustand  der  Seele  nach 
dem  Tode;  Jena,  1747.  J.  C.  Lavater,  Aus- 
sichten  in  die  Ewigkeit;  Zurich,  1773,  3  th. 
Bvo.     Other  works  are  cited  s.  160. 

SECTION  CLI. 

WHAT  IS  UNDERSTOOD  BY  THE  "  RESURRECTION 
OF  THE  DEAD  ;"  THE  MEANING  OF  THE  WORD 
"resurrection;"  and  what  is  taught  RE- 
SPECTING IT  BY  THE  JEWS. 

I.   What  is  understood  by  the  Resurrection  of  the 
Dead. 

By  this  is  meant,  the  revivification  of  the  hu- 
man body  after  it  has  been  forsaken  by  the 
soul,  or,  the  reunion  of  the  soul  hereafter  with 
the  body  which  it  had  occupied  in  the  present 
world.  Death  was  compared  with  sleep,  and 
the  dead  body  with  a  sleeping  person,  d'33vj*, 
xoiur^h'Tti,  s.  147,  I.  Hence  the  terms  which 
literally  signify  to  awake,  to  rise  up.  to  rise  out 
nf  sleep,  are  also  used  to  denote  the  resurrection 
of  the  lifeless  body — e.  g.,  in  Hebrew,  the 
terms  3Vi  3\in,  and  in  Hellenistic  Greek,  dvi 
arr^ut.,  dmiraffij,  (with  the  Rabbins,  nonn), 
tyfi'pco,  and  fytpTtj  ix  wxpu.)'.  Of  the  litem. 
sense  of  these  terms,  examples  may  he  found 
everywhere;  cases  of  the  derived  signification 
occur  where  these  terms  are  used  \yith  the  qua- 
lification tx  ffxpwf — e.  g.,  where  the  resurrec 
tion  of  Christ  is  spoken  of,  and  that  of  otheri 


533 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


whose  body  is  to  be  restored  like  his.  Vide 
John,  V.  -21,  28;  I  Cor.  xv.  3,  J,  20,  53. 

The  Jews  were  also  accusiomed  to  speak  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead  under  the  image  of 
a  tiew  or  sfcoiid  birth,  to  which  they  were  led 
by  the  passage  Is.  xxvi.  19,  »»The  earth  will 
agrain  bring  forth  her  dead."  Vide  Michaelis's 
Commentary  on  Heb.  i.  5.  Again,  aviarr^fju. 
was  used  even  by  the  ancient  classical  Greeks 
to  denote  the  returning  of  the  dead  to  life.  So 
it  was  in  Homer,  II.  xxi.  51,  seq.,  where 
Achilles  says,  "  What  a  wonder !  all  the  Tro- 
jans slain  by  me  shall  again  arise  from  the 
kingdom  of  the  dead,  (uiaTfjjtoi'ftti.)"  Cf.  II. 
xxiv.  TJii.  Cicero  and  Livy  designate  this  idea 
by  the  phrase  ab  infcris  exsislere.  In  yEschy- 
lus,  the  term  avdarasii  is  used  for  the  same 
thing. 

But  the  same  terms  which  signify  ari.nn<r, 
and  the  bcini^  awakened  from  sleep,  also  denote 
figuratively,  (I)  a  restoration  to  a  more  happy 
condition,  in  opposition  to  a  state  o^  full  and 
proslratiim.  In  this  general  sense  they  are  used 
in  two  ways — viz.,  physiciilly — e.  g.,  a  sick 
man  rising  from  his  bed  and  recovering  his 
health  is  said  dmarj^vai.  Is.  xxxviii.  9;  and 
again  in  a  moral  sense,  used  with  reference  to 
the  reformation  of  a  man  who  rises  from  h\s  fill. 
And  so  (2)  the  terms  resurrection  from  the  dead, 
and  heintr  raised  from  the  dead,  denote,  figura- 
tively, (a)  external  and  physical  restoration  to 
a  happy  condition,  death  being  the  representa- 
tive of  mlseri),  and  life  of  hajipiness — e.  g..  Is. 
xxvi.  19,  20;  Kzek.  xxxvii.;  where  the  subject 
is  the  restoration  of  the  Jews  after  a  long  and 
terrible  perst-cution,  and  the  reward  of  th<!  vir- 
tuous. Cf.  Dathe,  a.  1.  (i)  A  moral  restora- 
tion or  renovation  of  men — e.  g.,  Eph.  v.  11, 
tycipf  ....  ai'ourra  Ix  ffxpuiv,  coll.  i.  19,  20,  and 
liom.  viii.  10,  &c. 

II.  D'jctriru  of  the  Jeics  respecting  the  Rtsurrec- 
tion  of  tlie  Dead. 
(1)  There  are  obvious  traces  of  the  doctrine 
that  the  soul  will  survive  the  body,  even  in  the 
oldest  Jewish  writings,  (vide  s.  119,  II.;)  but 
of  the  doctrine,  that  the  body  will  hereafter  be 
raised  to  life  and  the  whole  man  be  restored, 
tiiere  are  no  very  clear  intimations  in  the  ear- 
liest writings.  Thi-re  is  nothing  in  these  writ- 
ings whicii  is  inconsistent  with  such  a  doctrine, 
or  opposed  to  it;  but  tieiilier,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  there,  in  those  early  ages,  any  distinct  in- 
f)rinalion  <>r  revelation  comiounicated  on  this 
8ubj"ct.  The  passage,  Ji.b,  xix.  25,  seq.,  is  in- 
deed cited  in  behalf  of  this  opinion,  and  such  a 
construction  of  this  passige  is  strenuously  vin- 
dicHted  by  Michaelis  and  Scholtens.  Acconl- 
iiig  t  >  the  Vulgate,  which  Luther  for  the  most 
p.trt  fiillows,  tliis  passage  very  clearly  teaches 
this  doctrine;  and  many  perduns,  having  been 


accustomed  to  this  rendering  from  their  yoatli, 
are  startled  by  any  doubts  with  respect  to  it. 
But, 

(a)  It  is  remarkable,  that  neither  the  ancient 
Jewish  teachers,  nor  Christ  or  his  apostles,  ever 
appealed  to  this  passage  which  appears  so  plain 
to  us.  This  explanation,  therefore,  appears  to 
have  been  unknown  to  them,  nor  can  ttiere  be 
found  any  trace  of  it  in  the  Septuagint. 

(i)  It  is  not  in  itself  probable  that  this  doc- 
trine should  have  been  at  once  so  clearly  re- 
vealed in  so  ancient  a  writing.  This  would  be 
contrary  to  all  analogy.  For  knowledge  of  this 
kind  has  always  been  gradually  developed,  and 
the  revelations  made  to  man  follow  in  regular 
gradation  one  after  another. 

(c)  If  Job  had  such  distinct  expectations  and 
hopes,  it  is  hard  to  account  for  it  that  he  did  not 
earlier  express  them,  that  he  did  not  oftencr 
console  himself  with  them,  and  that  he  con- 
stantly recurs  to  his  old  complaints  and  doubts, 
which  would  have  been  entirely  set  aside  and  an- 
swered by  the  knowledge  of  any  such  doctrine. 

((/)  Nor  can  it  be  accounted  for  that  his 
friends  should  have  replied  nothing  to  the  state- 
ment of  such  a  doctrine  as  this,  since  they  take 
up,  one  by  one,  all  his  remarks,  his  complaints, 
and  his  consolations,  and  refute  them.  Would 
they,  now,  have  passed  by  unnoticed  this  most 
important  of  all  his  arguments'? 

(e)  From  many  passages  in  the  book  of  Job 
it  is  clear  that  he  was  indeed  acquainted  with  a 
life  after  death  (he  speaks  of  'rwu') ;  but  there 
is  no  satisfactory  evidence  that  he  believed  in  a 
state  of  retribution  beyond  the  grave.  Vide 
ch.  xiv.  7 — 12;  vii.  6;  ix.  25;  xvii.  II — 16; 
xvi.  22,  seq. 

(/)  The  common  translation  of  this  passage, 
according  to  which  it  is  made  to  teach  so  plainly 
the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  does  violence  to 
the  words  of  the  original,  and  is  contrary  to  the 
whole  nsus  loquendi  of  the  Bible.  This  Mi- 
chaelis perceived.  He  therefore  alters  the  text, 
and,  by  a  comparison  with  the  ancient  dialects, 
makes  out  an  artificial  rendering,  according  to 
which  the  passage  treats  of  the  resurrection. 

The  most  natural  construction  of  this  passage 
is,  to  \intler»tand  it  as  relating  to  Job's  restora- 
tion to  health  and  recovery  from  sickness,  which 
he  so  ardently  wished  and  hoped  for.  Vide 
Morns,  p,  293.  This  text  would  then  be  illus- 
trated by  one  still  more  plain  in  the  same  book, 
viz.,  ch.  xlii.  25.  He  refutes  the  national  preju- 
dice whicli  his  friends  were  continually  object- 
ing ag-ainst  him,  that  sickness  and  other  external 
calamities  are  always  to  be  regarded  as  the  con- 
serjuence  of  sins  committed  by  the  snflTerer.  He 
pleads  that  even  piety  and  reetilnde  are  not  al- 
ways exempt  from  these  calamities.  It  is  on 
this  account  tint  he  cherishes  the  hope,  which 
he  elsewhere  ex|)re3sc8,  that  God  will  justify 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION. 


529 


Wm  in  the  view  of  his  enemies  and  accusers,  by 
an  entire  restoration ;  and  tliis  hope  becomes 
here  so  strong  that  it  leads  him  to  looiv  upon  his 
recovery  as  certain.  Cf.  Eichhorn's  Essay, 
Hiob's  HoiFnungen,  in  his  "  Ailgemeinen  Bibli- 
dthek.  der  biblischen  Lileratur,"  b.  i.  s.  3G7 ;  also 
Henke,  Narratio  Crilica  de  Interpretatione  loci, 
Job,  xix,  25,  27,  in  Antiqua  Ecclesia,  Helmst. 
1783,  4to.,  (in  his  •'Opusc") 

According  to  this  view,  the  text  may  be  trans- 
lated as  follows: — "1  know  that  my  Redeemer 
lives.  And  ere  long,  he,  who  now  lies  in  the 
dust,  will  arise,  (he  who  is  deeply  bowed  down 
by  sickness  and  pain  will  recover;)  although 
my  skin  is  consumed,  I  shall  yet  in  this  body  see 
God,  (i.  e.,  have  in  him  a  gracious  God,  be 
blessed  and  restored  by  him;)  as  z  friend  shall 
I  see  him,  and  no  more  as  an  adversary.  1  wait, 
full  of  longing  desire,  for  his  help.  Then  shall 
ye  say,  when  my  innocence  is  clear,  why  did 
we  persecute  this  man]"  Ilgen,  in  his  work, 
"Jobi  antiquissimi  carminis  Hebraici  natura 
atque  virtutes,"  p.  161,  seq.,  thus  translates: 
"  Vivit,  scio  enim,  causaj  meae  patronus.  Qui 
cnnieintus  in  pulvere  jacet,  victor  caput  attolct. 
Haerebo  adhuc  in  cute,  dira  hac  vi  contusa :  ex 
hac  cuticula  videbo  Deum.  Quem  ego  mihi 
videbo  propitium,  quem  hisce  oculis  cernam 
animo  non  alienatum.  0  quam  enecat  renes 
desiderii  ardor  !" 

Tiiere  are  no  distinct  intimations  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection  of  the  body  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Moses,  or  in  the  Psalms;  for  Ps.  xlix. 
15,  does  not  relate  to  this  subject,  still  less  does 
Ps.  civ.  29,  30,  though  cited  by  Theodoret  as 
one  of  the  proof-texts  of  this  doctrine.  Isaiah 
Is  the  first  writer  who  compares  the  restoration 
of  the  Jewish  people  and  state  with  a  resurrec- 
tion from  the  dead;  ch.  xxvi.  19,  20.  In  this 
he  was  followed  by  Ezekiel  at  the  time  of  the 
exile,  ch.  xxxvii.  From  these  passages,  we  must 
conclude  that  something  respecting  this  doctrine 
was  known  at  that  time  among  the  Israelites; 
still  they  do  not  seem  to  have  seen  it  in  that 
clear  light  in  which  it  was  afterwards  revealed; 
since  in  that  case  the  prophets  would  probably 
have  mentioned  it  oftener  and  more  distinctly  in 
their  writings.  But  the  text,  Dan.  xii.  2,  leads 
very  plainly  to  this  doctrine,  for  here  is  some- 
thing more  than  a  mere  civil  restoration.  "  Those 
who  lie  asleep  under  the  earth  will  awake ;  some 
to  eternal  life,  others  to  everlasting  shame  and 
contempt." 

Judging  then  from  the  writings  of  the  Jews, 
they  appear  to  have  been  destitute  of  any  com- 
plete knowledge  of  this  doctrine  until  the  exile, 
and  indeed  for  a  considerable  period  after.  Still, 
th^re  is  nothing  in  the  Old  Testament  which 
contradicts  this  doctrine,  it  is  only  not  plainly 
revealed.  For  where  it  is  said.  (e.  g..  Psalm 
Ixxxviii.  10,)  ''that  the  dead  shall  not  rise  again 
67 


and  praise  God,"  it  is  plainly  meant  that  they 
will  never  return  to  this  upper  world,  and  into 
the  society  of  men  living  upcjn  the  earth ;  they 
can  never  again,  in  company  with  us,  and  in  the 
circle  of  the  living,  praise  God.  Cf.  Ps.  vi.  6, 
XXX.  10;  Is.  xxxviii.  18,  coll.  ver.  20. 

(2)  It  was  not,  then,  until  the  B.ibylonian 
exile,  and  more  especially  alter  this  period,  that 
this  doctrine  was  developed  and  dill'used  among 
the  Jews.  We  are  not  acquainted  with  the  more 
particular  occasion  which  led  to  this  develop- 
ment, or  what  prophets  or  teacliers  after  Daniel 
were  employed  in  giving  this  doctrine  a  wider 
circulation.  F'or  just  in  this  place  there  is  a 
great  gap  in  the  doctrinal  history  of  the  Jews, 
since  no  writings  of  the  prophets  or  teachers  of 
this  period  have  come  down  to  us.  So  much 
only  is  known  on  this  subject  from  the  informa- 
tion which  has  come  down  to  us — viz., 

(a)  About  the  time  when  the  Jews  came  under 
the  Grecian  dominion,  the  doctrine  of  a  future 
retribution  was  more  developed  among  them 
than  it  had  before  been,  and  was  employed  by 
them  in  a  practical  way,  as  a  means  of  consola- 
tion under  suffering  and  persecution.  Vide  8. 
149,  II. 

(6)  It  is  known  also,  that  even  at  that  time 
the  doctrine  of  the  resurrect iim  of  the  body  was 
most  intimately  connected  with  the  doctrine  of 
retribution.  It  was  then  taught  that  the  perfect 
and  happy  condition  of  man  would  first  com 
mence,  when  his  soul  should  be  hereafter  united 
again  to  his  body.  They  did  not  therefore  com- 
monly separate  these  two  things  in  their  concep- 
tions, but  always  connected  the  lliought  of  the 
continuance  of  the  soul  after  death  with  the  idea 
of  its  future  union  with  the  body;  indeed,  they 
supposed  that  the  blessedness  of  man  could  not 
be  complete  until  his  soul  should  be  reunited  to 
his  body.  Hence  they  comprehend  under  the 
term  avdotatjii,  the  entire  future  condition  of 
man.  For  according  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Jews, 
with  which  the  holy  scriptures  accord,  man  is 
not  merely  in  this  life  a  being  compounded  of 
sense  and  reason,  but  he  will  continue  the  same 
in  the  life  to  come,  except  only  that,  in  the  case 
of  the  good,  there  will  be  none  of  that  prepon- 
derance of  sense  over  reason  which  has  its  foun- 
dation  in  our  earthly  bodies.  Cf.  the  Essay,. 
"  De  nexu  resurreclionis  J.  C.  e  mortuis  et  inor-- 
tuorum,"  in  Scripta  V'arii  Arffumenli,  Num.  ix. 

Thus  we  find  it,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  se- 
cond book  of  Maccabees,  where  the  martyrs  are- 
made  to  expresss  the  hope,  by  which  they  werr 
consoled,  of  a  coming  resurrection — e.  g.,  vii.  9 

and  ver.  14,  rtaxtv  djo^r^afi^a'-  irto  ©fov,  and 
avaurafttj  lii  ^io>-v,  also  verses  23,  29,  36.  but 
especially  chap.  xii.  43 — 45,  where  it  is  said  it 
would  be  foolish  to  pray  for  the  d^ad  if  they  did 
no*  rise  again.  And  so  we  find,  both  among  ih« 
2  Y 


530 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


later  Jewish  and  earlier  Christian  writers,  that 
there  is  no  distinction  made  between  immortality 
and  the  resurrection,  but  that  both  are  considered 
as  the  samethin^.  Vide  the  passajres  from  the 
Rabbins  cited  in  Schottijen's  Hor.  Heb.  ad  Joh. 
T.  li  is  the  same  fretjueniiy  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment^-e.  g.,  Matt.  xxii.  31,  where  the  wwyra-ni 
vfxpwv  is  argued  from  the  fact,  that  God  calls 
himself  the  (iod  of  .Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob, 
even  after  their  death ;  although,  according  to 
our  present  usage,  in  which  resurrection  and 
immortality  are  distinguished,  this  fact  would 
only  prove  the  continuance  of  the  soul  after 
death.  Again,  1  Cor.  xv.  32,  ti  vtx^i  ovx 
iyn'povrai,  ({Ktyu^fi/  xai  rtiujttff,  x.  t.  "k.  But 
wherever  dfairaTtj  aw/iaro;,  or  sapxo;  is 
spoken  of,  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and  its 
connexion  with  the  soul  are  alone  intended. 

The  Jews,  therefore,  would  regard  the  resto- 
ration of  man  as  incomplete  unless  his  body 
were  restored.  Tliey  believed  the  latter  essential 
to  the  entire  restitution  of  man,  because  in  the 
present  life  he  consists  of  both  soul  and  body. 
And  as  the  body  here  participates  in  our  virtues 
and  vices,  and  their  consequences,  so  they  sup- 
posed it  would  hereafter  participate  in  our  re- 
ward or  punishment.  Hence  they  represent  the 
intermediate  state  in  which  the  soul  exists  with- 
out the  body,  as  an  imperfect  state.  It  is  com- 
pared by  them  to  nakedness,  (and  the  same  is 
done  by  Plato,)  e.  g.,  in  the  Chaldaic  para- 
phrases. Job,  xxxviii.  14,  &c.  So  Paul,  ov 
yv^vot,  ivfr^r^'id^(':ia.,  2  Cor.  v.  2^4. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Jews  formed  very 
gross  conceptions  respecting  the  rewards  and 
enjoyments  of  the  blessed  in  the  future  state,  and 
many  of  them  perverted  the  doctrine  of  the  re- 
surrection of  the  body  to  suit  these  conceptions. 
For  they  were  for  the  most  part  belter  acquainted 
with  the  grosser  corporeal  pleasures  than  with 
the  higher  spiritual  joys,  for  which  indeed  they 
had  but  little  taste  or  capacity.  They  thus  pic- 
tured to  themselves  the  future  life  as  entirely 
resembling  the  present,  except  in  being  exempt 
from  all  Kutferings  and  unpleasant  sensations. 
They  believed  that  men  would  eat  and  drink, 
and  satisfy  their  other  animal  appetites,  in  the 
same  way  there  as  here.  Doctrines  like  these 
were  taught  by  many  of  the  most  distinguished 
Rabbins  who  lived  after  the  lime  of  (Jhrist,  and 
even  by  Maimonides.  It  is  said  in  Uev.  ii.  7, 
and  xxii.  2,  14,  that  the  tree  nf  life  is  placed  in 
heaven,  and  ita  fruit  is  there  eaten,  as  the  means 
of  obtaining  immortality.  This  representation 
is  figurative;  but  many  of  the  Jews  understood 
such  descriptions  literally,  and  believed  in  a 
kind  of  food  for  angels  or  gods,  like  nectar  and 
ambrotia.  It  was  against  such  gross  material 
representations,  which  have  no  necessary  con- 
nexion with  this  doctrine,  but  which  were  often 
•Mociated  with  il  that  the  Sadducees  directed 


their  wit;  and  they  imde  these  incongruitiM 
ridiculous.  This  was  iheir  object  when  they 
proposed  to  Jesus  the  case  nf  the  woman  who 
had  several  brothers,  one  after  another  in  nic- 
nession,  for  husbands,  Matthew,  xxii.  2i,  seq. 

Others,  better  instructed,  separated  from  th^ir 
conceptions  of  the  future  state  these  grosser  in- 
dulgences, and  thus  escaped  thid  ridicule.  Thej 
taught  that  we  shall  hereafter  possess  a  more 
refined  body,  which  will  not  be  dependent  for  its 
nourishment  upon  food,  and  which  will  not  pro- 
pagate the  race.  This  was  the  opinion  of  most 
of  the  Pharisees  at  the  tune  of  Christ,  and  the 
same  was  afterwards  maintained  by  most  of  the 
Jewish  teachers.  For  when  Christ  said  that 
*'  the  risen  sainis  would  not  marry,  but  be  as  the 
angels  of  God,"  the  Pharisees  entirely  assented. 
Matt.  xxii.  30,  coll.  Luke,  xx.  39,  and  the  texts 
cited  from  the  Rabbins  in  Wetsteia  on  Malt, 
xxii.  30.  With  regard  to  the  use  of  food,  Paul 
says  expressly  that  it  will  entirely  cease  in  the 
future  world,  0f6{  xoixiav  xai  iJ^jiJuarti  x(XToui>yr'\n 
— i.  e.,  he  will  take  them  away,  and  enable  us 
to  do  without  them. 

The  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body 
was  therefore  common  among  the  Jews  at  the 
time  of  Christ  and  the  apostles.  Vide  MatU 
xxii.;  Luke,  xx. ;  Acts,  xxiii.  6 — 8.  So,  in 
John,  xi.  24,  the  Jewess  Martha  speaks  of  ihe 
resurrection  of  the  dead  as  a  thing  wi-ll  known 
and  undoubted.  Josephus  indeed  (\nt.  xviii. 
2)  expresses  himself  doubtfully  win.  regard  to 
the  Pharisees- — •'  they  believe  that  the  soul  is 
immortal,  and  can  easily  return  to  life  (dyoiSiu- 
acu);"  and  again,  (Bell.  Jud.  ii.  7,)  "they 
maintain  that  the  souls  of  the  pious  pass  into 
other  bodies,  (ufTa.3onfiv  nj  fT»|>ov  niLua.)" 
Here  Josephus,  in  his  usual  manner,  so  repre- 
sents designedly  the  Jewish  doctrine,  that  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  to  whom  the  resurrection 
of  the  body  appeared  absurd,  should  suppose 
the  transmigration  of  souls  to  he  intended,  while 
at  the  same  time  the  Jews  should  umierstand 
that  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  was  spoken  of. 
But  from  the  texts  cited  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment, it  appears  that  the  Pliarisees,  like  the 
other  Jews,  believed  in  a  resurrection. 

There  were  some  among  the  Jews  of  the 
0|)inion  that  the  ivickcd  would  not  receive  a 
body  in  the  future  world.  Josephus  says,  in  the 
passage  cited,  that  even  the  Pharisees  believed 
that  the  souls  of  the  wicked  would  not  pass  into 
other  bodies,  (i.  e.,  that  the  wicked  would  not 
rise  again,)  but  that  they  would  be  eternally 
punished.  It  may  perhaps  be  thai  this  was 
taught  by  some  at  the  time  of  Josephus;  hut 
during  the  first  century  it  was  the  nure  prevail- 
ing belief,  even  among  the  Pharisees,  that  both 
the  righteous  and  the  wicke<l  would  share  in 
the  coming  resurrection.  For  in  Acts,  xxiv 
15,  Paul  says  expressly  that  he  agrees  with  the 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       53l 


Pharisees  and  other  Jews  (in  opposition  to  the 
Sadducees)  in  maintainin<r  the  aiaaro^tf,  and 
thai  not  only  of  the  righteous,  but  also  of  the 
wiclted  {bixai'wv  rt  xcu  ab^xuv.)  But  frequent 
traces  of  this  opinion  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Chaldaic  Paraphrases,  and  in  the  writings  of 
the  Rabbins  after  the  time  of  Christ,  although 
it  never  became  general  among  the  Jews.  This 
opinion  came  naturally  from  the  idea  that  the 
happiness  of  the  good  would  be  incomplete 
without  the  body ;  and  so  it  was  made  a  part 
of  the  wretchedness  of  the  wicked  not  to  come 
again  into  possession  of  a  body.  Another  cause 
of  this  opinion  is  the  allegorical  explanation 
which  they  gave  to  some  passages  in  the  Old 
Testament — e.  g.,  Ps.  i.  5,  D^rn  ^p'"**"',  Sept. 
ovx  avaurr^iovrai,  ot  ar>ti5tii.  Indeed,  many  main- 
tained the  entire  annihilation  of  the  wicked, 
both  as  to  soul  and  body.  Vide  Theod.  Das- 
sovii  Dissert,  qua  Judasor.  de  resurrectione  mor- 
tuorum  sententia  explicatur,  c.  4  ;  also  Menasse 
ben  Israel,  De  Resur.  Mort.,  1.  iii. ;  Amst.  1G36, 
where  many  of  the  Jewish  fancies  respecting 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead  are  collected  toge- 
ther. This  opinion  respecting  the  non-resur- 
rection of  the  wicked  has  found  advocates  even 
among  Christian  writers,  especially  of  the  Soci- 
nian  party. 

Note. — The  term  avdntr^vai  ix  ffxpcJi/  is  used 
once  in  the  New  Testament  to  denote  the  return 
of  a  departed  soul  to  the  world,  and  its  re-ap- 
pearance in  its  supposed  body  of  shade — viz., 
Luke,  xvi.  31,  coll.  ver.  27,28,30;  like  the 
sense  in  which  the  phrase  al/  inferis  exsistcre  is 
sometimes  used. 

(3)  Since  the  doctrine  of  the  future  resurrec- 
tion of  the  body  was  not  very  plainly  taught  in 
the  books  of  Moses,  or  elsewhere  in  the  Old 
l^estament,  (as  it  seems  not  to  have  been  fully 
revealed  in  those  earlier  ages,)  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  some  of  the  Jews  took  occa- 
bion,  or  derived  a  pretext  from  this,  either  to 
deny  this  doctrine,  or  to  doubt  respecting  it. 
This  was  done  not  merely  by  the  Sadducees, 
who  denied  in  general  that  the  soul  of  man  is 
of  a  nature  different  from  his  body,  and  that  it 
can  continue  after  death,  (vide  Acts,  xxiii.  8, 
seq.,  and  Josephus,  in  the  passage  before  cited,) 
on  the  ground  that  this  doctrine  is  not  taught 
by  Moses,  or  in  all  the  Old  Testament ;  but  also 
by  other  Jews,  especially  those,  it  seems,  who 
had  imbibed  the  Grecian  (the  Pythagorean  or 
Platonic)  philosophy,  or  who  at  any  rate  enter- 
tained ideas  respecting  the  body  similar  to  those 
taught  in  this  philosophy,  making  it  7i prison  for 
the  soul,  from  which  it  is  freed  by  death  when 
it  returns  to  God. 

Thus,  according  to  Josephus,  (Bell.  Jud.  ii. 
7,)  did  the  Essenes  believe.  They  seem,  there- 
fore, not  to  have  maintained  the  resurrection  of 
the  body,  although  they  believed  in  the  immor- 


tality of  the  soul.  Even  Josepl  ns  carefully 
avoids  the  words  avdnraisii  and  aviarr^fii.  when 
he  describes  the  doctrines  of  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees,  and  expresses  himself  ambiguously, 
in  order  not  to  displease  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, for  whom  he  principally  wrote,  and  to 
whom  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
body  would  appear  not  only  new,  but,  according 
to  the  principles  of  the  philosophy  prevailing 
among  them,  offensive  and  absurd.  And  so 
Paul  was  ridiculed  at  Athens  by  the  Grecian 
philosophers  when  he  taught  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.  Acts,  xvii.  32,  coll.  xxvi.  6 — 8, 
and  ver.  23,  24.  At  a  later  period,  Lucian  and 
Celsus  employed  their  wit  against  the  same 
doctrine  in  Origen  and  others  ;  and  Pliny  says, 
(Hist.  Nat.  ii.  7,)  that  if  it  is  impossible  for 
God  to  destroy  himself,  it  is  equally  impossible 
for  him,  moriaks  xttrnitate  dimare,  et  in  vitam 
revocare  defunctos.  There  have  always  been 
some  among  the  modern  Jews  who  have  been 
inclined  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Sadducees,  and 
who  have  frequently  been  opposed  by  the  Rab- 
bins.    Vide  Wetstein  on  Matt.  xxii. 

SECTION  CLII. 

THE  CHRISTIAN    DOCTRINE    RESPECTING   THE    RE- 
SURRECTION OF  THE  BODV. 

I.  What  Christ  and  the  Apostles  have  done  for  thi$ 
Doctrine,  and  respecting  the  Doubts  of  somt 
Christians. 

At  the  time  of  Christ  and  the  apostles  this 
doctrine  had  already  become  prevalent  among 
the  Jews,  s.  151,  II.,  although  it  was  not 
clearly  revealed  in  their  older  religious  books. 
Through  Christ  it  was  now  for  the  first  time 
distinctly  established  anew,  and  revealed  on 
divine  authority.  In  those  very  discourses  of 
our  Saviour  in  which  he  designs  to  prove  him- 
self divine  in  the  highest  sense,  he  plainly  and 
definitely  brings  forward  this  doctrine  as  a  con- 
stituent part  of  his  religious  system — e.  g., 
Matthew,  xxii.;  John,  v.,  viii.,  xi.  Without 
this  explanation  and  positive  assurance  on  his 
part  and  that  of  his  disciples,  this  doctrine 
would  still  have  been  doubtful.  But  those  who 
regard  Christ  and  his  apostles  as  being  what 
they  profess  to  be,  ought  not  and  cannot  be  any 
longer  in  doubt. 

Christ  and  his  apostles,  however,  corrected 
the  false  notions  on  this  subject,  which  at  that 
time  prevailed  among  at  least  a  large  portion  of 
the  Jews,  and  made  the  whole  matter  more  ob- 
vious and  intelligible.  But  this  doctrine  has 
derived  a  special  interest  and  demonstration 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  placed  in  the  most  inti- 
mate connexion  with  the  history  of  the  person 
of  Christ,  and  that  he  is  represented  as  the  one 
to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  this  benefit.    It  is 


532 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOdY. 


mosl  intimately  ccnnected  with  his  dealli,  his 
rsurrociion,  and  his  exalted  stale  in  heav<-n. 
Vide  8.  HI),  ad  finein,  and  s.  1-20,  1.  'I'iie 
apostles  rested  the  doctrine  of  our  resurrection 
mainly  upon  that  of  Christ,  (of.  1  Cor.  xv. ;  1 
Thess.  iv.  14 ;)  they  preached  through  Jesus 
(if  ro  Ijjtoi')  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  Acts, 
iv.  -2;  and  hence  they  call  him  the  first  that  ro»c 
from  the  dead;  Acts,  xxvi.  23;  I  Cor.  xv.  20, 
et  alibi.  And  from  this  Paul  argues  that  if  it  is 
acknowledged  that  Ciirist  rose  from  the  dead, 
there  can  be  no  reason  to  deny  or  think  it  impos- 
sible that  there  should  be  a  general  resurrection 
of  all  men,  1  Cor.  xv.  12,  seq.  Cf.  Mosheim, 
Diss.  ''Qua  docetur  Christum  Resurreclionem 
Mortuorum  Corporura,  Qualem  Christiani  Cre- 
dunt,  e  Tenebris  in  Lucem  Revocasse  et  De- 
nionstrasse,"  in  his  Dissertations  "  Ad  Hist. 
Keel.  Pertinent,"  vol.  ii.  p.  58G.  Cf.  also  the 
Kssay,  *' De  Nexu  Resurrectionis  Christi  e 
Moriuis  et  .Mortuorum,"  in  "iScripta  V'arii  Ar- 
gumentii,"  Num.  ix. 

But  this  doctrine  has  been  doubted  or  denied 
by  many  Christians  in  modern  times. 

(1)  it  djipears  from  1  Cor.  xv.  and  2  Timo- 
thy, ii.  18,  that  even  during  the  life  of  the  apos- 
tles there  were  Christians  to  whom  tiiis  doctrine 
seemed  doubtful,  if  they  did  not  wholly  deny 
it,  because  it  did  not  accord  with  their  precon- 
ceived opinions,  although  it  cannot  be  shewn 
that  they  at  the  same  time  denied  the  immorta- 
lity of  the  soul.  These  may  have  been  either 
(iiniile  converts  (for  this  doctrine  was  pecu- 
liarly offensive  to  the  heathen,  vide  s.  151,  ad 
fini'm,)  or  converts  from  Judaism,  who  had 
agreed  on  this  point  with  the  Essenes  or  the 
Sadduct-es.  To  tlie  latter  class  belong  llyme- 
nseus  and  Philetus,  Xtyovrt j  Tjjv  avdiraftv  r^b-r; 
yfyovivan.  They  probably  understood  the  term 
dfucro/iij,  as  used  in  the  Old  Testament  and  by 
( -'hrist,  to  signify  the  intruductiort  of  aperson  into 
a  better  state,  or  iiiiproveinenl  of  life.  Vide  6. 
151,  I.  This  they  supposed  was  already  ac- 
complished by  Christ,  and  that  a  resurrection 
in  ihe  literal  sense  is  not  to  be  looked  for. 
Hence  Paul  endeavours  (1  Cor.  xv.)  in  part  to 
obviate  the  objections  of  the  Sadducees  and 
Centiles,  and  in  part  to  separate  and  distinguish 
llie  true  doctrine  from  the  gross  and  earllily 
conceptions  of  many  of  the  Jews. 

Still  the  opinifin  that  there  will  be  no  restord- 
tion  of  the  body  has  always  found  place  among 
some  (.'hristians,  especially  among  tiie  Cnos- 
tics,  who  were  led  to  reject  this  doctrine  by 
their  views  respecting  m.itt«r,  and  by  their 
method  of  interpreting  scripture.  So  thought 
Manes,  in  the  third  century,  and  his  numerous 
followers  in  after  times;  also  thi;  Prisi-illiaiiists 
in  S()ain;  likewise  Hierax  at  the  commmce- 
noent  of  tlie  fourlli  century,  who  would  allow 
of  only  a  spiritual  resurrection,  or  a  resurrection 


of  the  soul.  And  so  in  all  succeeding 
there  have  always  been  those  among  Christians 
who  have  either  secretly  doubted  or  openly  reject- 
ed this  doctrine.  Cf.  Dr.  Hammer,  Mortuorum 
in  Viiam  Revocatio,  Sermonibus  Chrfsti  Histori- 
es Interpretationis  ope  Viudicata;  Lips.  1791. 

(2)  In  modern  times,  many  protestant  theo- 
logians— e.  g.,  Kckermann,  Henke,  Ammon, 
&c. — have  endeavoured  to  explain  away  from 
the  New  Testament  tlie  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead,  notwithstanding  the  many 
clear  passages  by  which  it  is  supported.  They 
have  maintained  that  this  dogma  is  no  pan  of 
the  Christian  system.  It  was,  in  their  view, 
through  mere  condescension  to  the  prevailing 
opinions  of  the  Jews  that  Christ  and  the  apos- 
tles employed  the  common  language  on  this 
point,  which  must  accordingly  be  understood 
in  a  different  sense — viz.,  a  sense  agreeing  with 
the  philosophical  ideas  prevailing  ia  the  nine- 
teenth century.  There  is  not,  however,  the 
remotest  hint,  in  all  the  words  of  Christ  and 
the  apostles,  that  they  meant  to  be  understood 
figuratively  ;  and  if  this  method  of  interpretation 
were  adopted,  nothing  of  the  Christian  system 
would  be  left  behind.  That  the  words  of  Christ 
and  the  apostles  are  to  be  understood  literally 
on  this  subject  is  plain  from  this,  that  it  is  af- 
firmed of  Christ  that  he  himself  now  possesses 
a  body  in  his  heavenly  state  in  the  kingdom  of 
the  blessed,  and  that  we  shall  hereafter  resem- 
ble him  in  this  respect,  and  possess  a  body 
which  will  be  like  his  glorious  body,  s.  153. 

II.  Biblical  Rrpresentafion. 

The  principal  texts  of  scripture  which  relate 
to  this  subject  are,  John,  v.  21 — 20;  vi.  39, 
•10;  Matthew,  xxii.  23,  seq.;  1  Cor.  xv. ;  Acts, 
xxiv.  14,  15;  1  Thess.  iv.  13;  Phil.  iii.  21. 
With  regard  to  the  principal  points  taught  in 
these  passages,  we  remark, 

(1)  The  raising  of  the  dead  is  ascribed  ex- 
pressly to  i'hriil,  and  it  is  represented  as  the 
last  work  which  will  be  undertaken  by  him  for 
the  salvation  of  man.     Paul  says,  1  Cor.  xv. 
22,  se(].,  "  As  through  .\dam  all  die,  so  through 
Christ  shall  all  be  made  alive;  through  him 
shall  death,  the  last  enemy,  be  conquered;  and 
then  shall  his  work  as  Messiah  be  completed, 
and  he  will  lay  down  his  government."    Christ 
himself  said  that  he  had  received  power  fortius 
purpose  from  the  Father;  John,  v.  21,  "The 
dead  shall  hear  the  voice  of  the  Son  of  God,  and 
live.     For  as  the  Father  sw»ji'  txn  iy  tovrv  (i. 
e.,  is  the  original  source  of  all  life,  and  pos- 
sesses, as    Creator,  all-quickening   power)  he 
I  hath  given  to  the  Son  also  power  to  (jnicken  the 
I  dead."     And  in  John,  xi.  25,  where  he  is  about 
I  to  raise  the  lifeless  body  of  I/aztrus,  he  says 
I  respecting  himsi'lf.  that  he  is  j;  aiowro^ij  xaL  r 
I  sw;j,  the  one  who  would  raise  the  body,  and 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION,       533 


five  life  to  the  dead.     Cf.  1  Thess.  iv.  14,  and 
Rev.  i.  18,  i;^ft  xXfii  rov  S6ov  xai  rov  ^avarov. 

(2)  .i//the  dead  will  hereafter  be  raised,  with- 
out respect  to  age,  rank,  or  moral  character  in 
this  world.  So  the  New  Testament  teaches 
throughout;  especially  in  opposition  to  the  opi- 
nions of  some  Jews,  s.  151,  II.  2,  ad  finem, 
coll.  s.  120,  I.  2,  note.  So  1  Cor.  xv.  22,  iv 
'A6aa  rtdvtti  drto^i'^^xwfft,  to  which  is  opposed 
iv  Xptc(T'9  rtavTf J  ^uortouj^aoi-rot.  Acts,  xxiv. 
15,  dm<jroTtj  I'fxpcJv  6ixaiu)i'  -tt  xai  a£ix<^v.  And 
Christ  himself  says,  John,  v.  28,  29,  "  All  who 
are  in  their  graves  shall  hear  the  voice  of  the 
Son  of  man,  and  those  who  have  done  well 
cVrfopfvaovTcu,  f ij  dva5TaatJ'  ^wr?,  (i.  e.,  «ij  ^i^rv,') 
those  who  have  done  evil,  d^  avd'jTwuiv  xpi5fw5- 
This  was  a  common  mode  of  speech  among  the 
Jews,  (vide  Mace.  vii.  14,  coll.  xii.  43,  aidnram  i 
f tj  ^ur;v,)  which  is  obviously  taken  from  Dan. 
xii.  2. 

(3)  The  resurrection  of  the  body,  however, 
•will  not  take  place  before  the  end  of  the  world, 
or  the  general  judgment.  This,  too,  was  the 
common  doctrine  of  the  Jews  at  the  time  of 
Christ;  hence  Martha  says,  John,  xi.  24,  "that 
she  knows  her  brother  will  rise  at  the  last  daj', 
{iv  rr  i'sxdrri  r^ipo.)"  And  this  opinion  is 
everywhere  confirmed  by  Christ.  In  John,  v. 
21,  he  not  only  connects  the  resurrection  and 
judgment  most  intimately  together,  but  in  John, 
vi.  39,  40,  he  expressly  promises  his  followers, 
dvo.fjr^'jto  [fij  ^tJ^v]  iv  Trj  i'lx^ty]  ^."'V?-  ■'^"^ 
80  in  1  Cor.  xv.  22 — 28,  the  resurrection  is 
placed  in  obvious  connexion  with  the  rrapoWa 
of  Christ,  after  which  the  end  of  the  world 
will  immediately  come;  and  in  1  Thess.  iv.  15, 
it  is  said  that  those  who  survive  the  Ttapovaiav 
cf  Christ  will  not  attain  either  sooner  or  later  to 
the  enjoyment  of  heavenly  blessedness  than 
xoiur;%ivt(i;  but  that  the  dead  and  living  will 
meet  Christ  at  the  same  time,  that  .they  may  be 
forever  with  him.  Cf.  Rev.  xx.  11,  seq.  The 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  then,  will  take  place 
when  the  Christian  churcli  on  earth  shall  cease  ; 
but  this,  according  to  the  clear  declarations  of 
Christ,  shall  last  until  the  end  of  the  jj-orld. 

This  cannot  be  reconciled  with  the  hypothe- 
sis of  Priestley,  who  attempts  to  shew  that  the 
resurrection  will  take  place  immediately  after 
death.  The  same  hypothesis  has  been  advo- 
cated in  a  work  entitled,  "  Auferstehung  der 
Todten  nach  der  eigentlichen  Lehre  Jesu 
Christi,"  by  Job.  Fr.  des  Cotes,  court  preacher 
at  Nassau;  and  still  better  in  the  "  Beylragen 
zur  Befbrderung  des  verniinfiigen  Denkens  in 
der  Heliirion,"  2tes,  Heft,  s.  76,  f.,  and  3tes, 
Heft,  s.  39,  f.  It  is  indee«(  true  that  the  disem- 
bodied existence  of  the  sotil  beyond  the  grave 
is  comprehended  in  the  writings  of  the  Jews 
and  of  the  New  Testament,  under  the  term 
oyaara^tj-  but  this  is  not  all  which  is  comprised 


in  this  term  ;  and  the  avattaoii  will  not  be  com- 
plete and  perfect  until  the  body  also  is  raised. 
Vide  s.  151,  II.  2, 

Again;  these  Pauline  texts  are  opposed  tj 
the  opinion  of  the  Chiliasts,  that  there  is  a  two- 
fold resurrection;  an  earlier,  that  of  the  pious, 
and  a  later,  that  of  the  wicked,  or  of  the  hea- 
then. An  avdnracii  npuirr,  is,  indeed,  mentioned 
in  Rev.  xx.  5,  6,  but  the  j)hrase  admits  easily 
of  another  interpretation. 

(4)  As  to  the  manntr  in  which  the  resurrec- 
tion will  take  place,  the  New  Testament  giv»s 
US  no  definite  information  by  which  our  curio- 
sity can  be  wholly  satisfied  ;  and  this,  doubt- 
less, because  such  information  could  be  mither 
intelligible  to  us  nor  of  any  use.  The  whole 
matter  lies  beyond  the  sphere  of -Mir  kiuiwledge. 
In  speaking  on  this  subject,  Christ  and  the 
apostles  sometimes  make  use  of  expressions 
which  are  figurative,  (and  of  such  there  were 
many  current  among  the  Jews,)  and  sometimes 
they  content  themselves  with  proving  the  possi- 
bility and  intelligibleness  of  the  thing,  in  oppo- 
sition to  doubters  and  scoffers,  and  with  making 
it  plain  by  examples. 

(rt)  Among  the  more  figurative  representa- 
tions and  expressions,  at  least  among  those  in 
which  there  is  some  intermixture  oi'  what  is 
figurative,  the  representation  contained  in  John, 
v.,  is  commonly  reckoned — viz.,  the  representa- 
tion that  the  voice  of  Christ  will  penetrate  the 
graves  in  order  to  awaken  the  dead.  The  image 
is  here  that  of  a  sleeper  who  is  aroused  by  a 
loud  call;  and  some  understand  the  representa- 
tion as  so  entirely  figuri'.tive  that  they  exclude 
any  audible  or  perceptible  sound.  It  cannot, 
however,  be  shewn  that  Christ  meant  to  ex- 
clude these.  For  in  the  resurrection  of  Laza- 
rus, of  the  young  man  at  Nain,  and  the  daugh- 
ter of  Jairus,  the  voice  of  Christ  was  heard  by 
them,  and  was  the  means  of  raising  them  to 
life.  Still  the  voice,  merely  as  such,  is  not  the 
efficient  cause  of  the  work,  but  the  almighty 
power  accompanying  it ;  and  so  it  is  said  of 
God,  when  he  produces  any  effect  by  his  cre- 
ative power,  that  he  speaks,  his  voice  soimdii  forth. 
The  Jews  supposed  that  the  dead  would  be 
awakened  by  the  sound  if  a  trumpet.  Traces 
of  this  opinion  are  to  be  found  in  the  Chaldaic 
paraphrasts.  At  first  this  representation  be- 
longed only  to  the  figurative  phraseology  of 
prophecy ;  for  the  people  were  commonly  as- 
sembled by  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  as  was 
the  case  in  the  assembling  at  Sinai;  and,  in 
general,  a  trumpet  was  used  to  give  sisms  and 
signals — e.  g.,  for  an  onset  in  battle.  &'c.  Af- 
terwards, this  representation  was  literally  un- 
derstood, and  the  size  of  the  trumpet  was  sup- 
posed to  be  a  thousand  yards,  and  that  it  was 
blown  seven  times.  Vide  Wetstein  and  Sem- 
ler  on  1  Cor.  xv.  5-'.  In  this  passage  Paul  use« 
2  y2 


634 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


.he  letm  iv  iax^fJl  "JoXrttyyi,  (^'jaXrti.ffi  yapt) — 
vfxpoi.  £yf(4>;;iorT(u.  ^'I'lie  saiKC  poetic  plirase- 
oloiry  is  employed  in  I  Tliess.  iv.  1(5,  "Christ 
will  come  with  a  shout,  with  the  voice  of  the 
archangel,  and  iv  guXrtiyyi  Qioii  (the  trump 
given  him  by  God),x<u  oi  vix^toi,  ukvjtij-jovtcu.'' 
Ill  tiiis  represeiilatiijn  there  is  much,  indeed, 
wliii.'h  is  figurative,  and  which  belongs  to  the 
pro[)liPtic  imagery,  (as  in  Matt.  xxiv.  and  in 
thi'  Apocalypse,)  and  we  are  not  now  able  to 
determine  the  meaning  of  all  the  particular  trails 
in  this  picture.  But  the  great  thought  which 
W(  must  hold  fast  is  very  obvious — vi/.,  Christ 
will  solemnly  and  visibly  appear  in  his  majesty, 
and  by  his  divine  power  raise  all  llie  dead.  In 
other  passages  this  truth  is  literally  expressed — 
e.  IT.,  Phil.  iii.  "21,  where  it  is  said  that  Christ 
will  do  this  by  the  power  by  which  he  is  able 
to  subdue  all  things  to  hitnself — i.  e.,  by  his 
ifi,:yua,  his  omnipotence,  which  surmounts  all 
difficulties  and  hindrances,  and  brings  to  pass 
what  appears  to  men  im|)ossible. 

(i)  The  possibi/ili/  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead  is  illustrated  by  Paul,  in  opposition  to 
those  who  regarded  it  as  impossible  or  contra- 
dictory, 1  Cor.  XV.  .35,  serj.,  by  comparing  it 
with  events  of  common  occurrence  in  the  natu- 
ral world,  which  seem  to  us  less  wonderful 
only  becausf!  they  are  common.  "How  is  it 
possible,"  it  was  asked,  "  that  the  dead  should 
be  raised  ?''  (««{  <yfi^.oirai  vfxpot.)  He  re- 
plies: "The  grain  of  corn  cast  into  the  ground 
cannot  rise  (swortoifirai)  until  it  die,"  (^axo^irj, 
vide  .lohn,  xii.  24.)  This  appears  unintelligi- 
ble; and  we  should  reg.ird  it  as  impossible  if 
we  did  not  nee  it  actually  accomplished.  Why 
then  should  not  God  be  able  to  raise  men,  and 
from  their  present  bodies  to  produce  others  1 
This  is  a  fine  comparison  to  illustrate  the  pos- 
sibility of  this  event.  A(,'ain;  he  shews,  by  the 
example  of  Christ,  that  the  dead  can  be  raised, 
ver.  IJ — 11.  And  so  the  apostles  always — e. 
g..  Acts,  iv.  2,  xorayyt'xXfii'  iv  t(jt  'Ir^ijoi  rrjv 
avairaniv  ifxpuic.  Ct.  Morus,  Diss.  Inaucr.  ad 
1  Cor.  XV.  35 — 55;  Lipsia;,  1782. 

y„lc. —  Many  modern  writers  also  have  en- 
deavoured in  various  other  ways  to  shew  the 
pniBihiliiy  of  the  resurrection,  and  in  this  have 
availed  themselves  of  the  observations  of  natu- 
ralists. The  common  fault  with  these  compa- 
risons is,  liiat  either  the  alleged  farts  are  untrue 
and  imaginary,  or  have  nothing  resembling  the 
resnrr<  ction.  It  must  be  considered  a  fault  of 
the  first  kind,  to  endeavour,  as  Ferht,  Von 
Frankcnau,  and  others,  have  done,  to  illustrate 
the  rt'Siirrectiim  by  tlie  alleged  pnlinirnieuii  of 
plants,  or  their  restoration  frocn  their  ashes,  by 
means  of  a  chemical  process,  which,  in  fict,  is 
Dothing  more  tlnm  an  txhihition  of  the  image 
4f  the  plant.    Vide  Wiegleb,  Naliirliehe  Magic. 


It  is  a  fault  of  the  other  class  to  apply  to  thii 
subject  the  observation,  that  there  is  only  one 
mass  of  matter  upon  the  earth,  and  that  nothing 
is  lost,  nothing  perishes,  but  still  revives  again, 
only  under  forms  which  are  ever  new.  liut 
this  revivification  is  very  different  from  the  re- 
surrection of  the  dead;  for  in  the  furinur  case 
there  is  no  consciousness  of  the  previous  state. 
The  inanimate  body  of  a  man  may  furnish  nour- 
ishment to  a  beast  of  prey  or  to  a  vegetable, 
so  that  its  parts  will  become  incorporated  with 
those  of  the  beast  or  tlie  plant,  and  contribute 
to  their  nourishment  and  growth ;  but  is  this  re- 
surrection? The  principal  thing  in  the  resur- 
rection is  the  reunion  of  the  soul  with  the  body. 
But  if  these  attempts  have  not  succeeded,  it 
is  equally  vain  to  attempt,  by  reasons  a  priori, 
to  prove  the  imposaihilitij  of  the  restoration  of 
the  body.  Respecting  the  question,  whether 
our  souls  will  remain  after  death  without  a 
body,  nothing  can  be  definitely  determined  by 
philosophy;  but  the  negative  opinion  is  not 
only  liable  to  no  philosophical  objection,  but  has 
in  its  favour  this  fact,  which  is  universally  ob- 
served, that  the  different  spteiei  of  beings  are 
not  essentially  altered,  or  as  it  «  ere  made  anew, 
through  all  the  changes  to  which  they  are  sub- 
ject, but  still  preserve  their  peculiar  and  (cha- 
racteristic features;  so  that  the  wonderful  gra- 
dation in  the  works  of  God  is  preserved  unbroken. 
Thus  there  are  beings  wholly  fpirilnal,  (as  the 
angels  are  described  to  be  in  the  scriptures;) 
there  are  beings  cnmpmtd  <>f  reason  and  scnse^ 
(as  men,  and  perhaps  many  in  other  worlds;) 
and,  finally,  there  are  animate  beings,  consist- 
ing wholly  of  sense,  and  having  no  moral  na- 
ture, (such  as  the  beasts.)  tJince,  now,  the 
latter  class  subsists  by  itself,  and  is  so  separate 
from  the  foregoing  that  there  is  no  example  of 
a  mere  animal  becoming  a  rational  i)eing,  it  may 
from  this  analogy  be  expected  that  it  will  be  the 
same  with  man,  and  that,  even  in  the  future 
world,  he  will  not  become  a  merely  spiritual 
being,  but  remain,  as  now,  compounded  of  spirit 
and  matter,  and  consequently  will  hereafter  be- 
come ag-(iin  possessed  of  a  body. 

SECTION  GUI  I. 

DOCTRINE  OF  THE  NEW  TBSTAMENT  RRSPKCTINO 
THE  NATURE  OK  THE  BODV  WHICH  WK  SHALL 
RECEIVE  AT  THE  RESURHECTIO.V  ;  AM>  THE  OPI- 
NIONS OF  THEOLOGIANS  ON  THIS  POINT. 

I.  Difference  of  the  Future  Body  from  the  PreMnt. 

That  there  is  a  difference  between  the  two 
in  respect  to  their  e«tire  constitution  and  tho 
oiijects  of  their  existence,  we  are  taught  by  the 
Ni'w  'IVsiament.  The  body  riceived  at  the  re- 
surrection will  be  ii/uHurial,  and  is  designed  for 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       535 


en  entirely  difTerent  world  from  the  present. 
The  chief  characteristic  of  the  resurrection-body 
is  placed  hy  the  New  Testament  in  its  d<));>a(j- 
Bttt,  and  its  other  excellences  are  derived  from 
this.  Vide  the  texts  cited  by  IMorus,  p.  2U'2, 
note  8.  It  cannot  therefore  be  wholly  consti- 
tuted like  our  present  body,  which  is  designed 
only  for  this  world. 

One  of  the  most  important  texts  on  this  sub- 
ject is  I  Cor.  XV.  50,  aapl  xai  al/xa  ^a'jLXiiav 
010V  xXirpoiofidv  ov  6vvarai — i.  e.,  man,  in  the 
present  imperfect  state  of  his  body,  (Theodoret 
well  says,  >j  ^i»;r>j  fictf,)  is  incapable  of  hea- 
venly bliss.  For  the  mortal  body  (t^pci — i. 
e.,  oufia  (p^prdv,)  cannot  partake  of  eternal 
life,  (d<})^a(Joia,  immortality.)  Blood,  according 
to  the  conception  of  the  whole  ancient  world, 
is  found  only  among  men  and  other  animals 
who  are  nourished  by  the  food  of  our  earth,  and 
not  among  the  immortals,  who  do  not  taste  of 
this  food.  The  gods,  therefore,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  had  no  blood,  (they  were 
avaiuovii,)  and  were  immortal,  because  they  ate 
no  bread  and  drank  no  wine. 

In  Homer,  (II.  v.  341,  seq,,  vi.  142.)  men  arc 
called,  in  opposition  to  the  gods,  ;3|)oto«,  those 
who  eat  (he  fruit  of  the  field.  The  body  of  the 
gods  was  regarded  by  them  as  a  true  body,  and 
in  human  form,  but  only  framed  more  perfectly, 
and  from  a  finer  material ;  it  was  by  no  means 
that  shadowy  body  ascribed  to  departed  souls. 
Vide  s.  150,  s.  6(>,  II.  And  so  was  the  body  of 
those  raised  up  at  the  last  day  conceived  of,  as 
no  mere  shadowy  form,  but  as  a  true  body, 
though  without  flesh  and  blood. 

The  Greeks  supposed  that  their  gods  ate  a 
food  peculiar  to  themselves,  nectar  and  ambro- 
sia;  and  so  the  great  multitude  of  the  Jews 
supposed  that  those  who  are  raised  to  be  inha- 
bitants of  heaven  partake  of  a  kind  of  heavenly 
food.  Vide  s.  151,  II.  2,  and  s.  59,  II.,  respect- 
ing angels.  There  have  always  been  Chris- 
tians who  have  maintained  the  same  thing;  and 
even  in  modern  times  some  have  expressed 
themselves  at  least  doubtfully  on  this  point — e. 
p.,  Michaelis.  But  the  passage,  1  Cor.  vi.  13, 
(already  cited,  s.  151,)  teaches  exactly  the  con- 
trary. The  gods  of  the  Greeks  were  supposed 
to  marry  and  to  indulge  in  the  sexual  propensi- 
ties;  and  some  Jews  imagined  the  same  thing 
with  regard  to  the  angels  and  those  raised  from 
the  dead;  but  this  idea  is  rejected  by  Christ, 
Matt.  xxii.  30.     Cf.  the  sections  before  cited. 

Here,  then,  is  a  separation  between  what  is 
true  and  false  in  the  prevailing  popular  concep- 
tions, which  is  worthy  of  notice.  In  these  con- 
ceptions, there  is  often  much  which  is  true,  and 
the  germ  of  truth,  which  is  fully  developed.  But 
the  learned  often  mistake  in  rejecting  certain 
ideas  merely  because  they  are  the  common  con- 


ceptions of  the  people.  Not  so  Christ ;  he  :»nly 
distinguishes  between  what  is  false  and  true  in 
these  conceptions. 

Respecting  the  nature  of  the  heavenly  body, 
and  its  difference  from  the  earthly,  Paul  ex- 
presses himself  very  fully  in  1  Cor.  xv.  35.  seq., 
Ttoitj)  acjfiarc  l^ixovran ;  sc.  c  sepulcris.  (a)  He 
takes  a  comjiarison  from  a  grain  of  wheat,  from 
which  an  entirely  new  body  is  developed,  whose 
form  and  properties  are  very  different  from 
those  of  the  seed  sown.  (6)  God  makes  mate- 
rial things  in  very  different  forms  and  with  dif- 
ferent constitutions,  on  account  of  their  differ- 
ent destination.  The  body  of  fishes,  of  birds, 
and  of  beasts,  is  not  the  same;  their  nature  and 
attributes  are  wholly  different,  ver.  39 — 41. 
And  so  must  our  heavenly  body  be  organized 
differently  from  the  earthly,  because  it  has  a 
ditTerent  end.  (c)  The  heavenly  body  will  have 
great  pre-eminence  over  the  earthly.  Ver.  42, 
seq.,  artiipsrai  (i.  e.,  sepelittir,  sc.  atu^o)  ip 
f^opd — i.  e.,  4)J>aproV,  perishable.  The  sequel 
is  to  be  expliiined  in  the  same  way  :  for  iv 
drtuia  read  arif^ov,  dfformed,  disfiij^ired  ,-  aa^ivif, 
feeble,  powerless;  4v;tixo,  carnal,  animal;  be- 
cause in  this  life  the  animal  ])ropensities  must 
be  indulged.  But  when  it  is  raised  it  will  be 
a  body  iv  a^'^a^iaia. — i.  e.,  a^'^a^ttov,  immortal, 
indestrticlible  ;  ivdo^ov,  biaulified,  glorimts ;  Sv- 
larov,  strong  and  mighty  ,-  and  ni'fvuarixov,  spi- 
ritual,  exempt  from  everything  which  is  imper- 
fect in  the  material  body  ; — in  short,  our  earthly 
body  is,  like  Adam's,  from  the  earth,  {jtx  y^j, 
^oixov  ;)  the  future  body  will,  like  that  which 
Christ  now  potssesses,  be  a  heavenly  body,  {i% 
ovpai'ov.) 

And  here  Paul  makes  the  observation,  that 
Christ  had  not  at  first  (rtpwTor,  while  he  here 
lived  upon  the  earth,)  that  more  perfect  spiri- 
tual body,  (rtvfvjuoTtxoi',)  but  that  which  was 
natural  (,^v;^ixdv,)  and  afterwards  (trtftra,  after 
his  ascent  to  heaven)  that  which  was  spiritual. 
Therefore  he  did  not  possess  it  immediately 
after  his  resurrection,  while  he  was  yet  upon 
the  earth,  for  he  then  ate  and  drank,  John,  xxi., 
but  he  first  received  it  when  he  passed  into  the 
heavens.     Cf.  s.  97,  II. 

That  our  body  will  be  like  that  of  Christ  is 
plainly  taught,'  ver.  49 ;  ipopiao^iv  riji-  fixo»o  roi 
frtovpan'ov  [Xptarov]  ;  and  still  more  plainly, 
Phil.  iii.  21,  "Christ  will  transform  (^froaj;*?- 
fianryti)  our  earthly  perishable  body  (aw^ia  ro- 
rtfiioiOfuj)  into  the  resemblance  of  his  heavenly 
body,  (owua  66|>;j.)  Cf.  Rom.  vi.  9.  This 
heavenly  body  is  commonly  tailed  glorified,  for 
so  hth(^aouivov  is  translated.  This  translation, 
however,  may  give  occasion  to  unfounded  ac- 
cessory conceptions  with  regard  to  the  splen- 
dour &c.  of  the  heavenly  body.  The  simple 
idea  conveyed  by  this  expression  is,  glori<m$t 


536 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


extelUnt,  ptrfcelcd,  ennobled.  Vide  Morus,  p. 
292,  n.  8. 

Those  who  are  alive  at  the  last  day  will  not 
indeed  die,  like  other  men,  s.  1 17,  II.  'Still, 
according  to  tiie  doctrine  of  Paul,  their  bodies 
miHt  undergo  a  change,  like  that  which  it  was 
necessary  for  the  earthly  body  of  Christ  to  ex- 
perience before  it  entered  the  heavens.  V^ide 
1  Cor.  XV.  51,  itav-cti  fiiv  ov  (non  soUicitanda 
lectio,)  xniur;^riouf^,  itdvttf  5i  a.XXar/rj'Joui^a — 
i.  e,,  their  bodies  must  be  changed,  in  order 
th;it  they  may  be  adapted  to  their  future  desti- 
nation and  abode,  and  be  no  more  perishable 
and  destructible.  For  the  mortal  body  must 
beconie  immortal,  ver.  53,  coll.  2  Cor.  v.  4; 
1  Thess.  iv.  15,  seq.  In  Phil.  iii.  21,  this 
change  is  expressed  by  the  word  ^cra^xrjuati- 
^nv.  .Some  of  the  Jews  also  appear  to  have 
maintained  that  such  a  change  would  take  place 
with  those  alive  at  the  last  day.  Vide  VVetstein 
on  1  Cor.  XV,  51. 

Such  is  the  doctrine  which  we  are  plainly 
taught  in  the  New  Testament  respecting  the 
constitution  of  our  future  body.  Let  not,  there- 
fore, the  Christian  doctrine  be  charged  with  all 
the  absurdities  and  fancies  which  dreaming 
heads  have  suggested  respecting  the  nature, 
form,  size,  and  uses  of  the  spiritual  body,  nor 
with  the  fictions  even  of  some  theologians  re- 
specting corpore  pellucido,  penetranii,  iltocnli, 
inrisihili,  prrrf-.tli^iflo,  impalpabili,  &c.  From 
the  texts  already  cited,  as  well  as  from  others, 
it  is  plain  that  the  more  perfect  body  which  we 
shall  hereafter  receive  will  contribute  very  much 
to  our  heavenly  blessedness,  as,  on  the  other 
hand,  our  present  frail  body  greatly  conduces 
to  our  present  sulTering  and  imperfection.  But 
how  far  our  grjorified  body  will  affect  our  future 
blessedness  cannot  be  definitely  detertnined 
from  the  holy  scriptures.  Vide  Morus,  p.  299, 
300,  s.  10, 

.\'ofe. — The  Bible  says  indeed  plainly,  that 
the  bodies  even  of  the  wicked  will  be  ag-ain 
raised,  but  it  nowhere  informs  us  particularly 
what  their  nature  and  state  will  be.  The  first 
Christian  teachers,  however,  imagined  without 
doubt  that  their  state  would  be  such  as  to  ag- 
gravate the  suffirings  of  the  wicked  ;  as  they 
supposed,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  body 
which  the  righteoqs  would  receive  would  con- 
tribute to  the  heightening  of  their  joys  and 
blessedness. 

II,  IdentHi/  i>f  Ihe  Future  toith  the  Present  Bndif. 
Notwithstanding  the  ditrerence  bctwepn  the 
body  which  vve  now  have  and  tbit  which  we 
shall  possess  hereafter,  it  is  still  taught  in  the 
schools  of  theology  ihat  our  future  body  will 
be,  in  siihstance,  the  same  with  the  present. 
Vide  M'trus,  p.  291,  seq,,  s.  3,  note  6.     This, 


however,  is  denied  by  some,  who  maintain  that 
the  body  which  believers  will  receive  at  the  re* 
surrection  will  be  entirely  new,  of  a  totally  dif- 
ferent kind,  and  not  having  a  particle  of  the 
present  body  belonging  to  it.  So  in  modern 
limes  have  some  Socinian  theologians  taught; 
also  Burnet  in  his  work,  De  Statu  Mprluorum 
et  Resurgentium,  c.  9;  likewise  Less,  in  hi» 
"  Praktische  Dogmatik,"  and  others.  They 
ground  their  opinion  upon  the  fact  that  the  parts 
of  our  body  in  the  process  of  time,  and  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  nature,  became  incorporated 
with  many  thousand  other  human  bodies.  To 
which,  therefore,  they  ask,  of  all  these  thou- 
sand, do  they  appropriately  belong]  And  if 
livery  human  body  should  again  receive  all  the 
parts  which  ever  belonged  to  it,  it  would  be  a 
monster. 

In  order  to  obviate  these  difficulties,  it  is  justly 
remarked  by  others,  that  there  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  each  and  every  part  of  tlie  earthly 
body  will  be  hereafter  raised,  but  only  that  its 
finer  elementary  materials  will  be  restored.  For 
the  grosser  parts  of  the  body,  which  appear  to 
exist  only  for  the  filling  out  of  the  whole,  and 
for  holding  it  toorether,  (like  the  stones  for  fill- 
ing up  in  a  building^.)  are  in  constant  fiux,  and 
fall  oil"  from  the  body  while  yet  it  cannot  be  said 
that  we  have  lost  our  body  or  received  a  new 
one.  In  respect  to  these  grosser  parts,  our  body 
in  early  childhood  was  totally  dilTereni  from  our 
present  body,  and  in  old  age  it  will  be  dilTerent 
from  that  which  we  now  have.  Still  we  call  it, 
through  these  dilTerent  periods,  our  body,  and 
regard  it  as  being  the  s«/ne.  In  common  language, 
we  say,  with  our  eyes  we  have  seen,  or  wiili  these 
hands  we  have  done,  what  took  place  twenty  or 
thirty  years  ago.  In  this  way  we  may  speak 
of  Identify  in  a  more  general  and  popular  sense, 
and,  understood  in  this  sense,  the  identity  of  the 
body  through  all  the  periods  of  its  existence 
may  be  spoken  of  without  impropriety.  It  is 
not  implied  in  this  that  the  body  will  be  here- 
after constituted  of  precisely  the  same  materials 
which  it  here  possesses,  nor  that  it  will  asjain 
have  the  same  form,  limbs,  and  organs,  which  it 
now  has,  but  that,  from  all  the  parts  of  which 
our  present  body  is  composeil,  the  most  fit  and 
the  most  noble  will  he  chosen  by  (iod,  and  of 
these  the  heavenly  body  will  be  constructed. 

What  conceptions  the  first  Christian  teachers 
formed  as  to  the  manner  of  this,  we  cannot 
clearly  ascertain;  nor  is  it  possible  that,  while 
we  remain  upon  the  earth,  we  should  be  able  to 
understand  liiis  matter  fullv.  So  nuich.  how- 
ever, is  plain,  that  the  inspired  teachers  did  nrtt 
believe  that  an  entirely  new  body  would  he 
hereafter  created  for  us,  but  that  there  wf>uld  l>e 
a  kind  of  identity,  in  the  popular  sense  c(  th» 
j  term,  between  the  heavenly  and  earthly  body. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      537 


Such  is  the  implication  of  the  t*rms  so  often 
employed  by  them,  to  awaken  or  call  forth  the 
dead  from  thtir  graves,  (vide  John,  v.  28,  29;) 
also  of  the  representation  that  the  sea  and  Sheol 
should  (five  up  their  dead,  Rev.  xx.  13,  seq.; 
and  especially  of  the  passage,  1  Cor.  xv.  35 — 38. 
It  is  here  plainly  implied,  that  the  present  mor- 
tal body  contains  the  germ  of  the  heavenly  body, 
in  the  same  way  as  the  germ  of  the  plant  lies  in 
the  seed,  from  which,  after  it  is  dissolved  and 
dead  in  the  earth,  the  plant  is  developed,  and, 
as  it  were,  raised  to  life.  Hence,  according  to 
Paul,  the  future  body  has  at  least  as  much  in 
common  with  the  present  as  a  plant  has  with 
the  seed  from  which  it  springs.  It  will  be  still 
the  same  body  which  we  shall  hereafter  possess, 
only  beautified  and  ennobled  (ufraa;^';',""''''^^" 
uivov,)  Phil.  iii.  21 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  42,  52,  53.  This 
is  thus  expressed  by  theologians:  there  will  be 
a  renovation  of  one  and  the  same  substance, 
and  not  the  production  of  a  wholly  new  mate- 
rial. Vide  Morus,  p.  291,  292,  note  G,  ad  s.  3. 
Some  modern  writers  have  endeavoured  to  illus- 
trate this  matter  by  the  application  to  it  of  the 
whole  of  Bonnet's  Theory  of  Development; 
but  this  is  not  contained  in  the  words  of  Paul, 
although  his  doctrine  bears  some  resemblance 
to  it. 

The  church-fathers  are  not  entirely  unanimous 
in  their  opinions  respecting  the  identity  of  the 
body.  The  earlier  fathers  gave  no  very  definite 
opinion  on  the  subjeet,  but  contented  themselves 
with  saying  in  general  that  we  should  receive 
again  the  same  body  ;  so  Justin  the  Martyr,  and 
Athenagoras,  and  Tertullian,  in  their  books,  De 
Hesurrectione.  They  appear,  however,  to  have 
had  rather  gross  conceptions  on  this  subject. 
Origen,  in  the  thirfl  century,  was  the  first  who 
philosophized  with  regard  to  the  heavenly  body, 
and  undertook  to  determine  accurately  respecting 
its  nature.  He  defended  the  resurrection  of  the 
body  against  those  who  denied  it,  and  taught  at 
the  same  time  that  the  substance  of  the  human 
body — the  essential  and  characteristic  form  by 
which  it  is  to  be  discerned  and  distinguished 
from  others — remains  unaltered.  He  also  con- 
troverted the  opinion  of  some  who  supposed  that 
those  who  are  raised  will  again  be  invested  with 
the  same  gross,  material  body  as  before.  It  was 
his  opinion  that  the  grosser  parts  will  be  sepa- 
rated, and  that  only  the  germ  or  fundamental 
material  for  the  new  body  will  be  furnished  by 
the  old.  He  and  others  expressed  their  views 
by  the  following  formula — viz.,  we  shall  here- 
after have  r>Cjua  rovto  (i</e»i)  jxev,  a^X  ov  roiovto 
•  (ejusmodi,)  De  Prin.  ii.  10. 

But  such  a  statement  was  far  from  being  satis- 
factory to  many  at  that  period,  and  especially  to 
the  gross  Chiliasts.  They  wished  to  keep  alive 
the  hope  of  having  still  the  same  flesh  as  at  pre- 


sent, in  order  to  their  eating,  drinking,  &cc.  So 
Nepos,  Methodius,  Theophilus  of  Alexandria, 
and  others.  With  these  Hieronymus,  in  the 
fourth  century,  agreed,  and  opposed  the  opinion 
of  Origen,  contending  that  the  same  body  would 
be  raised,  with  the  same  limbs  and  nerves,  and 
with  flesh  and  blood  in  the  proper  sense,  and 
even  with  distinction  of  sex,  although  he  did  not, 
indeed,  aflirm  that  the  animal  and  sexual  appe- 
tites would  be  indulged  in  the  heavenly  world. 
Epiphanius,  however,  who  was  a  declared  oppo- 
nent of  Origen,  says  expressly  that  the  bodies 
of  the  raised  must  have  teeth,  since  otherwise 
they  could  not  eat.  What  kind  of  food  they 
would  have  he  did  not  pretend  to  say,  but  left 
for  God  to  determine. 

The  opinion  of  Origen  was  adopted,  in  the 
fourth  century,  by  Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  Basi- 
liiis,  Chrysostom,  and  all  the  opponents  of  the 
Chiliasts.  Those  who  maintained  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  body  in  its  grosser  parts  were  all, 
with  the  exception  of  Hieronymus.  Chiliasts. 
The  opponents  of  Origen,  among  the  Greeks  and 
Latins,  began  now  to  insist,  that  not  merely  the 
resurrection  of  the  body  (corporis)  should  be 
taught,  but  also  carnis  (^cras^as.)  The  older  fa- 
thers used  corpus  and  caro  interchangeably  (aa 
was  also  done  in  the  older  symbols),  and  in- 
tended by  the  use  of  these  terms  to  denote  only 
that  there  would  be  no  new  creation  of  a  body, 
since  both  of  these  terms,  according  to  the  He- 
brew ustts  loquendi,  are  synonymes ;  as  when  we 
speak,  in  reference  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  of  the 
CORPUS  and  caro  Christi.  But  since  the  terra 
caro  implies,  according  to  the  same  idiom,  the 
associated  idea  of  iveakness  and  mnrtalily,  it  was 
abandoned  by  many  who  wished  to  use  language 
with  more  precision,  and  instead  of  it,  the  phrase 
resurrectio  corporis  was  adopted.  It  was  on  this 
account  that  the  Chiliasts  insisted  so  much  the 
more  urgently  upon  retaining  the  terms  aa'pl 
and  cai'o. 

y„t», — JVorks  on  this  stihjcct,  Cotta,  Theses 
Theol.  de  Novissimis,  in  Specie  de  Resurrec- 
tione  Mortuorum  ;  Tub.  1762.  Hermann,  Pflug, 
Heweiss  der  Moglichkeit  und  Gewissheit  der 
AuferstehungderTodten,  1738.  On  the  history 
of  this  doctrine,  besides  the  works  of  Hody  and 
Burnet,  cf.  Ge.  Calixtus,  De  Iinmortalitate 
Animi  et  Resurrectione  Carnis,  and  especially, 
W.  A.Teller,  Fidei  Dogmatis  de  Resurrectione 
Carnis,  per  quartuor  priora  sacula  enarratio ; 
Halle  and  Helmstadt,  17f.G.  8vo;  with  which, 
however,  the  student  should  compare  the  addi- 
tions and  corrections  made  by  Ernesti  in  hii 
"Neues  Theol.  Bihliothek,"  b.  ix.  s.  221—244. 
[Cf.  Hahn,  Lehrbuch,  s.  G58,  s.  152.  Nean 
der,  All.  K.  Geschichte,  b.  i.  Abih.  iii.  s.  lOSS, 
and  esperially  1090;  also  b.  ii.  Abth.  iii.  • 
1404— 1410.— Tr.] 

68 


•M 


CHRISTIAN*  THEOLOGY. 


SECTION  CLIV. 

or  THE  LAST  APHEARING  OF  CHRIST  BEFORE  THE 
END  OF  THE  world;  THE  VARIOUS  OPINIONS  ON 
THIS  subject;  also  RESPECTING  THE  MILLEN- 
MAL  KINGDOM,  AND  THE  UNIVERSAL  CONVER- 
SION OF  JEWS  AND  GENTILES. 

I.  Tlie  Last  Appearing  of  Christ, 

Christ  often  spoke  of  his  future  coming  (^a- 
pov^io),  using  this  phrase  in  dilTerent  senses. 
It  sometimes  denotes  figuratively  the  destruction 
of  the  Jewisii  stale,  and  the  consequences  of 
this  event,  particularly  the  advantages  whicii 
would  n'>ult  from  it  to  the  Christian  doctrine 
and  ciiurch;  as  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  Christ 
could  not  be  truly  established  in  the  earth  until 
this  event  should  take  place;  Matt.  xxiv.  and 
xvi.  '27,  '-H.  Again,  it  denotes  his  visible  appear- 
ing to  judge  the  world;  Matt.  xxv.  31,  seq. 
When  Jisus  spoke  of  his  appearing,  his  disciples 
duringhis  lifecommonly  conceived  atonce  of  his 
coming  to  establish  an  earthly  kingdom.  And 
when  he  spoke  of  his  coming  at  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  they  supposed  that  he  would  then, 
with  his  followers,  destroy  the  hostile  Jerusa- 
lem, triumph  over  his  opponents,  and  commence 
his  new  earthly  kingdom. 

The  2  lih  of  Matt,  was  for  the  most  part  under- 
stood in  this  way  by  many  at  that  time.  With 
this  they  then  connected  the  idea  that  the  end  of 
the  world  was  near  at  hand,  because,  according 
to  the  opinion  of  the  Jews,  Jerusalem  and  the 
temple  would  stand  until  the  end  of  the  world. 
Vide  8.  I'S,  H.  3.  Hence  in  the  passage.  Matt, 
xxiv.  3,  the  disciples  of  Jesus  connect  the  two 
questions,  token  will  the  temple  be  destroyed?  and, 
wh(d  arc  tke  sii^ns  if  the  end  if  time?  In  what 
Christ  said.  Matt,  xxiv.,  he  referred  to  the  dif- 
fusion of  his  new  reliirion,  the  establishment 
and  confirmation  of  his  spiritual  and  moral 
kingdom,  on  which  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem would  have  a  favourable  inlUience.  Vide 
Matt.  X.  23;  Luke,  xii.  40.  Uul  he  said  this  in 
part  in  tlie  style  of  prophetic  imagery,  as  in 
Matt.  xvi.  xxiv.  To  these  questions  Christ  re- 
plied wiili  great  wisdom  and  forecast — to  the 
first,  in  Matt.  xxiv.  l — 25,  3(»;  and  to  the  se- 
cond, .^Lllt.  xxv.  31 — It),  He  taught  them 
])lainly  only  so  much  as  it  was  needful  for 
tiiem  to  know  at  that  time.  The  rest  he  taught 
them  in  prophetic  figures,  whi<h  were  not  as 
yet  entirely  inlelligii)|«  to  them,  and  the  mean- 
ing of  wliich  tiiey  afterwards  learned.  Their 
false  expectatirtns  were  not  therefore  cherished 
and  approved,  but  neither  were  they  prema- 
turely contradicted.  Full  information  on  this 
subject  was  among  those  things  which  they 
were  not  then  able  to  bear,  and  respecting 
which  '.Key  were  to  receive  more  full  informn- 
tioa  aftiT  the  ascension  of  Christ  to  heaven; 


John,  xvi.  12.  And  this  more  full  information 
they  actually  received.  For  from  that  time  they 
abandoned  their  expectations  of  a  Jewish  kin» 
dom,  and  thenceforward  looked  for  no  othe? 
coming  of  Christ  than  that  at  the  general  judg- 
ment. As  to  what  Christ  and  his  apostles 
taught  respecting  the  nature  and  extent  of  his 
spiritual  and  heavenly  kingdom,  vide  s.  97 — 99. 

II.  I'he  Belief  of  a  Millennial  Kingdom  of  Christ 
upon  the  Earth,  or  Chiliatm. 

(1)  Ori<rin  of  this  belief.  The  Jews  supposed 
that  the  Messiah  at  his  coming  would  reiijn  as 
king  upon  the  earth,  and  would  reside  at  Jeru- 
salem, the  ancient  royal  city.  The  period  of  his 
reign  they  supposed  would  be  very  long,  and 
therefore  put  it  down  at  a  thousand  years,  which 
was  at  first  understood  only  as  a  round  number. 
Respecting  the  Jewish  ideas  of  the  Messianic 
kingdom,  cf.  s.  89,  and  s.  1 18,  I.,  together  with 
Wetstein's  selections  from  Jewish  authors  on 
Rev.  XX.  2.  This  period  was  conceived  of  by 
the  Jews  as  the  return  of  the  golden  age  to  the 
earth,  and  each  one  formed  to  himself  such  a 
picture  of  it  as  agreed  best  with  his  own  dispo- 
sition, and  that  degree  of  moral  and  intellectual 
culture  to  which  lie  had  attained.  Many  anti- 
cipated nothing  more  than  merely  sensual  de- 
lights, others  entertained  better  and  more  pure 
conceptions,  &c. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  many  of  the  Ju- 
daizing  Christians.  Although  Jesus  had  nol 
yet  appeared  as  an  earthly  king,  yet  these  per- 
sons were  unwilling  to  abandon  an  expectation 
which  to  them  was  so  important.  They  hoped, 
therefore,  for  a  second  coming  of  Christ  to  es- 
tablish an  earthly  kingdom,  and  transferred  to 
this  kingdom  everything  \f hicn  the  Jews  had 
expected  of  the  first.  The  ajiostles  wholly 
abandoned  this  opinion  after  the  ascension  of 
Christ,  and  expected  no  other  coming  than  that 
at  the  judgment  of  the  world,  I  Cor.  xv.,  and 
elsewhere.  The  fact,  however,  that  these  Jew- 
ish ideas  had  taken  deep  root  in  the  minds  of 
many  Christians  in  the  apostolic  age,  may  be 
argued  from  1  Thess.  iv.  13,  seq.,  ch.  v.,  and 
2  'i'hess.  ii. 

Many  have  endeavoured  to  find  this  idea  even 
in  the  Apocalypse,  especially  xx.  I — 8.  Bnl 
John  does  not  there  speak  of  Christ  reigning 
visibly  and  bodily  on  the  earth,  but  of  his  spi- 
ritual dominion,  resultintj  trom  the  influence  of 
(Christianity,  when  it  shall  at  lent>lh  be  univer- 
sally ditfused  through  the  earth — a  kinffdnm 
which  will  last  a  thousand  years,  used  as  a 
round  number  to  <lenote  many  centuries,  or  a 
lonor  period.  Thus  does  it  appear  that  even 
during  the  first  century  there  were  many  opi- 
nions upon  this  subject  among  Christians  which 
deviated  widely  from  the  doctrine  of  the  ape** 
ties. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       539 


[iV'w/c. — ^The  scriptural  ideas  upon  which  the 
helief  in  a  millennium  rested  are  more  specifi- 
cally stated  by  Neander,  Kirchengesch.  b.  i. 
Abth.  iii.  s.  1089.  As  the  world  was  made  in 
six  davs,  and,  according  to  Ps.  xc.  4,  a  thou- 
aaud  yiars  is  in  the  sight  of  God  as  one  day,  so 
it  was  thought  the  world  would  continue  in  the 
state  in  which  it  had  hitherto  been,  for  six  thou- 
sand years;  and  as  the  Sabbath  is  a  day  of  rest, 
80  will  the  seventh  period  of  a  thousand  years 
consist  of  this  millennial  kini^dom  as  the  close 
of  the  whole  earthly  slate. — Tr.] 

(•2)  In  the  second  century,  the  doctrine  of  the 
future  earthly  kingdom  of  Christ  became  more 
and  more  widely  dilVused,  and  in  a  large  portion 
of  the  Christian  world  it  was  finally  predomi- 
nant. Its  first  zealous  advocate  was  Papias,  in 
the  second  century;  and  he  was  followed  by 
Justin  the  Martyr,  Tertuilian,  and  most  of  the 
Montanists.  This  doctrine  was  also  adopted  by 
Bome  of  the  heretics — e.  g.,  by  Cerinthus.  It 
was  not,  however,  held  by  all  in  the  same  man- 
ner. Most  taught  that  the  church  would  have 
to  suffer  much  from  Anti-christ  (the  seducer  and 
persecutor);  and  that  Christ  would  then  visibly 
return  and  destroy  his  power ;  2  Thess.  ii.  Then, 
it  was  supposed,  all  worldly  power  would  cease, 
the  pious  be  raised  from  the  dead  (npuri;  avdnra- 
oijj,  assemble  in  Jerusalem,  and  standing  under 
Christ,  their  king,  would  reign  with  him  a  thou- 
sand years. 

As  to  the  pleasures  then  to  be  enjoyed,  the 
conceptions  of  some  were  very  gross,  those  of 
others  more  chastened.  In  forming  their  pictures 
of  this  period  they  drew  largely  from  the  Apo- 
calypse, which  they  interpreted  in  many  different 
ways.  Origen,  in  the  third  century,  was  the 
first  who  wrote  in  opposition  to  this  doctrine,  and 
who  gave  a  different  interpretation  to  the  texts 
of  scrijiture  to  which  appeal  was  made  by  the 
Chiliasis.  On  this  account,  this  doctrine  fell 
into  disesteem  among  the  learned.  In  the  third 
century,  Dionysius,  Bishop  at  Alexandria,  wrote 
against  Chiliasm  in  opposition  to  Ne|)os,  Bishop 
in  Egypt,  and  in  his  work  denied  that  John 
wrote  the  Apocalypse,  because  his  opponents 
were  accustomed  to  derive  their  doctrine  princi- 
pally from  this  book. 

[AWe. — It  was  in  Phrygia,  the  seat  of  the 
spirit  of  religious  enthusiasm,  that  Chiliasm 
chieliy  prevailed;  and  from  thence  it  spread. 
Here  belonged  Papias,  Irenajus,  Ju>tin  the  Mar- 
tyr, &c.  Two  causes  contributed  t9  prevent 
this  dfxtrine  from  becoming  more  universally 
prevalent  in  the  early  church — viz.,  opposition 
to  Montanism,  and  the  influence  of  the  school  at 
Alexandria.  The  visionary  conceptions  which 
the  Montanists  entertained  and  inculcated  re- 
specting what  would  take  place  in  the  millen- 
nium, brought  the  whole  doctrine  into  disrepute; 
and  all  the  opponents  of  Montanism  opposed 


these  gross  Chiliastic  conceptions  as  belonging 
essentially  to  that  schenn;.  The  allegorizing  me- 
thod of  interpretaiion  adopted  by  the  teachers  of 
the  Alexandrine  school  enabled  them  to  avoid 
the  gross  conceptions  of  the  millennium  to  which 
those  who  adopted  the  literal  mode  of  interpre- 
tation were  led.  By  applying  this  principle  to 
the  interpretation  of  the  Apocalypse,  they  could 
take  away  the  support  which  the  Chiliasts  de- 
rived from  it  without  excluding  the  book  from 
the  sacred  canon. — Tr.] 

(3)  The  seed  of  the  doctrine  of  gross  Chili- 
asm has  always  remained  in  the  Christian 
church,  'i'his  doctrine,  however,  has  shewn 
itself  in  different  forms,  and  has  been  taught 
sometimes  in  a  more  visionary  manner,  and  at 
other  times  less  so.  Respecting  the  time  when 
this  millennial  kingdom  will  commence,  there 
has  been  no  general  agreement  of  opinion. 
Many  suppose  it  will  take  place  before  the  re- 
surrection; others,  not  until  afterwards. 

At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  this  belief  in 
a  millennial,  earthly  kingdom  of  Christ  was  re- 
vived and  widely  spread  by  the  enthusiastic  ana- 
baptists, Thomas  Miinzer  and  his  adherents. 
They  themselves  wished  to  establish  this  king- 
dom of  Christ  with  fire  and  sword,  and  to  put 
an  end  to  all  worldly  power;  they  encouraged 
rebellion.  Hence  Luther  and  Melancthon  set 
themselves  against  this  doctrine  with  great  zeal 
and  earnestness.  Vide  Augsb.  Conf.  Art.  xviii. 
It  shewed  itself  again,  however,  in  the  protest- 
ant  church. 

In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  century 
Spener  was  charged  with  teaching  Chiliasm  ;  but 
he  was  far  removed  from  this.  He  only  expressed 
frequently  the  hope  that  the  spiritual  kingdom 
of  Christ  would  not  only  continue  in  the  world, 
but  would  be  much  more  widely  diffused  than  it 
now  is,  and  hereafter  would  become  absolutely 
universal.  And  this  expectation  {xpes  meliiirum 
teniporiint)  is  perfectly  accordant  with  the  holy 
scriptures.  This  is  the  point  to  which  all  the 
middle  part  of  the  Apocalypse  refers — viz.,  from 
chap.  xii.  18  to  xx.  10,  the  victory  of  Christ  over 
heathenism,  and  all  sin  and  corruption  on  the 
earth,  and  the  general  diffusion  of  Christianity ; 
after  which  the  end  of  the  world  and  the  kingdom 
of  the  saints  will  follow,  chap.  xx.  11 — xxii.  5. 
This,  one  might  call  (if  he  wished)  Biblicni 
Cliiliasm ;  in  this  there  is  nothing  of  enthusiasm  : 
and  even  for  those  who  do  not  live  to  see  this 
period  the  anticipation  of  it  is  consoling  and 
animating. 

But  Petersen,  who  came  from  the  school  of 
Spener,  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and  com- 
mencement of  the  eighteenth  century,  inculcated 
in  his  writinjrs  various  e"  thusiasti<-  ideas  on  this 
subject.  The  same  doctrine  was  taken  into  fa- 
vour about  the  same  time  by  Burnet,  in  En<rland, 
in  his  work,  "  De  Statu  Mort.  et  Resurg."     At 


540 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


a  later  period,  Bengel,  in  Germany,  went  a  threat 
deal  too  far  in  many  points  in  liis  intprpretation 
of  the  Apocalypse.  So,  many  theolonfjane  of 
Wiirteniberij,  Crusiua  and  his  disciples,  and  La- 
vater  in  Switzerland. 

A  (rood  development  of  the  history  of  this  doc- 
trine is  contained  in  Corrodi's  "  Kritische  Ge- 
schichte  des  Chiliasmtis;"  Frankfort  und  Leip- 
tig,  1781 — 1783.  It  was  principally  occasioned 
by  Lavater's  views  on  this  subject. 

[iNo/f. — Neander,  in  his  history  of  this  doc- 
trine, (b.  i.  Abth.  iii.  s.  1090,)  suggests  the  im- 
portant caution  that  we  should  not  allow  our- 
selves, llirouorhdisorust  at  the  extravagant  visions 
of  enthusiasts  about  the  millennium,  to  decide 
ag^iinst  what  we  are  really  justified  in  hoping  and 
expecting  as  to  the  future  extension  of  the  king- 
dom of  C'hrist.  As  the  Old  Testament  contains 
»n  intimation  of  the  things  of  the  New,  so 
Christianity  contains  an  intimation  of  a  higher 
order  of  things  hereafter,  which  it  will  be  the 
means  of  introducing;  but  faith  must  necessa- 
icily  come  before  sight.  The  divine  revelations 
•nable  us  to  see  but  a  little,  now  and  then,  of 
ihis  higher  order,  and  not  enough  to  form  a 
complete  picture.  As  prophecy  is  always  ob- 
scure until  its  fulfilment,  so  must  be  also  the 
last  predictions  of  Christ  respecting  the  destiny 
of  his  church,  until  the  entrance  of  that  higher 
order. 

There  are  three  degrees  in  the  manner  of 
holding  this  doctrine,  described  as  eransus,  sub- 
tilin,  suhti/i.'isi'mn.'i,  according  to  the  proportion 
in  which  ent'.usiastic  and  visionary  conceptions 
are  mintrled  with  the  scriptural  idea  of  the 
future  kingdom  of  the  Messiah.  The  lowest 
kind  is  ch.iracteri/ied  by  the  belief  of  the  visible 
appearance  and  reign  of  Christ  upon  the  earth, 
a  resurrection  of  the  saints  before  the  general 
judgment,  and  their  living  with  Christ  in  the 
enjoyment  of  worldly  splendour  and  luxury  for 
a  thousand  years.  In  this  form  it  was  held  by 
many  of  the  ancient  Montanists,  and  by  the 
anabaptists  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  more 
refined  and  scriptural  doctrine  of  the  millen- 
nium, as  lield  by  Spener,  Vitringa,  and  others, 
excludes  the  idea  of  the  visible  appearance  of 
Christ,  and  does  not  insist  upon  the  definite 
period  of  a  thousand  years,  but  only  holds  to 
the  future  universal  extension  of  the  spiritual 
kingdom  of  Christ.  Cf.  Ilahn,  Lriirbuch,  s. 
6G5.— Til.] 

III.  Futtire  Conversion  of  Jews  and  Gentilct. 

The  doctrine  of  the  universal  conversion  of 
the  (ieutiles,  and  especially  of  the  .lews,  to  be 
hoped  fir  hereaft*>r,  has  been  for  the  most  part 
taught  by  the  advocates  of  the  grosser  kind  of 
Cliiliasm.  Still  the  former  doctrine  stands  in 
no  necntnry  connexion  with  the  latter.  And 
luauy  protestar.t  theologians,  who  are  far  from 


assenting  to  any  unscriptural  views  of  the  mfi 
lennium,  have  adopted  this  doctrine — e.  g..  Mi 
chaelis,  Koppe,  and  others  still  more  lately. 
But  some  theologians  connected  with  both  of 
these  doctrines  other  opinions  which  do  not  en- 
tirely accord  with  scripture,  or  which  at  least 
are  not  in  all  parts  clearly  demonstrable  from 
scripture — e.  g.,  Burnet,  Bengel,  Crusius. 
Hence  Ernesti  and  his  whole  school  were  very 
much  opposed  to  this  doctrine,  and  would  not 
at  all  allow  that  even  the  remotest  hope  of  the 
conversion  of  the  Jews  is  authorized  by  the 
New  Testament. 

It  has  happened  with  regard  to  this  subject, 
as  it  often  does  in  all  the  departments  of  humao 
knowledge,  that  opinions  in  which  there  has 
been  an  intermixture  of  what  is  erroneous  and 
incapable  of  proof  have  been  on  this  account 
entirely  rejected,  instead  of  being  carefully 
sifted,  in  order  to  separate  the  true  from  the 
false,  that  which  may  be  proved  from  that 
which  is  incapable  of  demonstration.  The  doc- 
trine itself  of  the  future  conversion  of  the  .Tews 
involves  nothing  questionable  or  entliusiastic, 
if  it  be  understood  only  to  imply  that  the  apos- 
tles believed  and  taught  that  the  Jews  would 
hereafter  abandon  their  prejudices  and  their 
hardness  of  heart,  possess  a  taste  and  suscepti- 
bility for  Christianity,  and  cordially  unite  them- 
selves with  the  Christian  church.  When  this 
will  take  place,  and  by  what  means  it  will  be 
brought  about,  the  apostles  determine  nothing; 
and  with  regard  to  these  points  nothing  is 
known.  But  an  expectation  of  this  event  is 
found  in  their  writings. 

Two  things  on  this  subject  are  certain — viz., 
(l)That  it  was  always  a  current  doctrine  among 
the  Jews  that  all  the  Gentiles  would  at  last  be- 
come incorporated  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Mes- 
siah; and  with  reference  to  this  event  they  ex- 
jilained  many  passages  in  their  propliets,  which, 
when  read  impartially,  plainly  teach  this  very 
thing — e.  g.,  Ps.  xxii.  '2'^;  Is.  ii.,  xii.,  xl.-r-lxvi.; 
Zech.  xiv.  9,  IG,  coll.  Rev.  xv.  4.  And  this 
same  hope  is  clearly  expressed  by  Paul,  espe- 
cially in  Rom.  xi. 

('2)  The  Jews,  at  the  time  of  the  apostles  and 
afterwards,  explained  many  passages  in  their 
prophets  as  referring  to  the  future  rcstorati"n 
of  their  people  at  the  time  of  the  Messiah, 
(Deut.  XXX.;)  and  these  passages  are  refer- 
red in  the  New  Testament,  and  by  Paul,  to 
the  same  event;  from  whence  it  is  clear  that 
the  apostles  taught  and  inculcated  the  same 
thing  with  the  ancient  proptnis — e.  tr.,  Isaiah, 
X.  21;  iix.  *20;  Jer.  xxxi.  1,  se(|.  ;  Ili-sen,  iii. 
.•j ;  '/ech.  xiv.  C^;  ix.  10.  These  passages,  in- 
deed, have  all  been  dilTerenlly  interpreteil  in 
modern  times.  Cf.  Doederlein's  work,  "  (iiehi 
uns  die  Bible  Hoffnung  zu  einer  allgemeinen 
Judcnbekehrun^!"     But  the  Ji<ws  understood 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THK  REDEMPTION.       541 


these  passages  to  refer  to  the  restoration  of 
their  nation,  and  the  New  Testament  gives 
Ihem  the  same  explanation.  This  is  histori- 
cally certain;  and  upon  this  everything  de- 
pends, when  the  question  is,  Whtthcr  the  Ntw 
Ttatamcnt  teaches  this  doctrine  ?  Vide  Sctiottgen, 
in  the  hook,  "Jesus,  der  wahre  Messias;" 
Eisenmenger,  Entdecktes  Judenlhum ;  and 
Koppe  on  Rom.  xi. 

AVe  may  come  now  more  easily  to  the  exa- 
mination of  the  celebrated  passage,  Romans, 
xi.  25,  seq.  Ernesti  and  others  understand  the 
tttj  Irj^arrK  ad^r^aita.1,  thus:  all  "  Israel  ca?*  be 
delivered  ;"  but  this  does  not  accord  with  ver. 
31,  cia  avrot  ixir^Cjisi,  and  ver.  32,  rovj  ndvta.^, 
iXtr^jT.  We  cannot  render  these  clauses,  in 
order  thai  God  can  have  pity ;  no,  he  will  ac- 
tually  have  mercy  upon  them.  Nor  can  we  see 
any  reason,  according  to  this  interpretation,  why 
Paul  should  adopt  such  a  high  and  elevated  tone 
with  regard  to  a  matter  which  is  self-evident,  or 
how  he  could  call  this  jxvntr,\>i.ov.  It  is  also 
equally  unintelligible,  if  this  were  all,  what 
sliould  have  induced  Paul  so  solemnly  to  cele- 
brate and  magnify  the  divine  wisdom,  ver.  33 — 
36.  But  everything  is  plain  and  consistent  if 
Paul  is  understood  here  to  speak  the  language 
of  prophecy.  He  proceeds  on  the  ground  of  the 
expectation  universally  prevalent  among  his 
countrymen,  and  authorized  by  the  ancient  pro- 
phets;  lie  rectifies  their  ideas  with  regard  to 
their  future  restoration,  discards  their  false  con- 
ceptions, their  hopes  of  earthly  good,  and  then 
says,  with  great  assurance,  that  a// Israel  will 
hereafter  be  converted  to  Christ,  as  all  the  Gen- 
tiles will  come  to  worship  him  ;  although,  when 
he  wrote,  there  was  no  human  probability  of 
either  of  these  events.  But  in  all  this  he  does 
not  give  the  least  countenance  to  the  enthusi- 
astic conceptions  frequently  entertained  on  this 
subject.  He  does  not  fix  any  definite  time.  But 
theologians  have  often  been  unwilling  to  allow 
that  Paul  affirmed  the  final  conversion  of  the 
Jews,  because  enthusiastic  ideas  have  often 
been  connected  with  this  doctrine,  or  because 
they  have  regarded  this  event  as  either  impos- 
sible or  improbable,  since  after  the  lapse  of 
eighteen  centuries  there  are  no  signs  of  its  ac- 
complishment. 

The  sentiment  of  this  passage  is  as  follows: 
"I  must  propose  one  other  important  subject  for 
your  (i.  e.,  the  Gentile  converts)  consideration — 
a  subject  with  which  you  have  been  hitherto  un- 
acquainted, and  which  has  therefore  been  disre- 
garded by  you — in  order  that  you  may  not  be 
proud  of  your  advantages  over  the  unbelieving 
Jews:  namely,  some  of  the  Jews  will  continue 
unbelieving  until  all  the  Gentiles  who  are 
chosen  by  God  (^nXr,\>oiua,  f>ywv)  shall  have 
believed  in  Christ.  (This  will  therefor^  first 
take  place.)     But  when  this  is  first  brmght 


about  (xoi  ovVw  for  xai  ton  or  inara,  vide 
Koppe) — i.  e.,  when  all  the  Gentiles  have  first 
become  believers,  (now  follows  the  /uvaT^ptov,) 
then  will  the  nation  of  the  Israetites  uho  cxperi' 
ence  salvation,  (auj^nfrat,)  by  embracing  the 
Christian  faith.  For  thus  it  is  said  in  the  scrip- 
tures,— The  Deliverer  (Messiah)  will  come  out 
of  Zion  (David's  line),  and  then  will  I  free 
Jacob  from  his  sins,  (Is.  xlix.)"  Cf.  Koppe 
on  this  passage.  Paul  liere  quotes  the  same 
passages  of  the  Old  Testament  from  which  the 
Jews  had  always  proved  that  an  entire  restora- 
tion of  their  nation  was  predicted  by  the  pro- 
phets ;  though  he  did  not  understand  them,  as 
they  often  did.  to  refer  to  an  external,  civil  re- 
storation. 

SECTION  CLV. 

OF    THE    GENERAL    JUDGMENT,    AND    THE    END    OP 
THE   PRESENT  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  MORLD. 

I.  The  Ge/ieral  Judgment. 

The  following  texts  may  be  considered  as  the 
most  important  relating  to  the  last  judgment — 
viz.,  Matt.  XXV.  31;  John,  v.;  2  Thess.  i.  7 — 
10;  1  Thess.  iv.  16,  17;  2  Pet.  iii.  7—13;  1 
Cor.  XV. ;  and  Rev.  xx.  11.  In  illustration  of 
this  doctrine,  it  may  be  observed, 

(1)  According  to  the  uniform  doctrine  of  the 
scriptures,  the  judgment  of  the  world  will  fol- 
low immediately  after  the  general  resurrection; 
and  then  will  be  the  end  of  the  world,  or  of  its 
present  constitution.     Cf.  1  Cor.  xv. 

(2)  This  doctrine  of  a  general  judgment  of 
the  world  was  also  prevalent  among  the  Jews 
at  the  time  of  Christ  and  the  apostles;  although 
they  frequently  associated  with  it  many  incor- 
rect notions.  This  doctrine,  as  well  as  that  of 
future  retribution  and  resurrection,  was,  wiiiiout 
doubt,  more  and  more  developed  and  illustrated, 
under  the  divine  guidance  and  direction,  by  the 
prophets  and  teachers  of  the  Jewish  nation  who 
lived  after  the  exile.  Vide  s.  119,  II.  2.  This 
was  done  more  particularly  at  the  same  period 
of  time  in  which  those  other  doctrines  were  de- 
veloped. But  there  are  also  passages  in  Daniel 
which  allude  to  this  event — e.  g.,  chap.  xii. 

Before  the  exile  the  doctrine  of  the  judgment 
as  a  solemn,  formal  transaction  at  the  end  if  the 
world,  was  not  clearly  tausjht.  At  that  time  the 
Jews  held  only  the  general  truth,  that  God  is 
the  righteous  Judge  of  the  world,  who  in  his 
own  time  would  pronounce  righteous  sentence 
upon  all  men,  according  to  their  deserts,  and 
bring  all  their  works,  even  the  most  secret,  to 
light.  Vide  Ps.  ix.  5 — 9  ;  Eccles.  ix.  9 ;  xii.  13, 
14.  The  doctrine  which  was  afterwards  deve- 
loped among  the  Jews,  and  in  the  form  in  which 
it  existed  among  them  at  the  time  of  Christ, 
was  expressly  authorized  and  confirmed  by  hiiu 
2Z 


M» 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


•8  true,  and  as  constituting  a  part  of  his  reli- 
gious system  ;  in  such  a  way,  however,  as  to  ex- 
clude the  false  additions  of  the  Jewish  teachers. 

(3)  The  hnldintj  of  this  jndgrtnent  as  well  as 
the  raisinjj  of  the  dead  is  commonly  ascribed  in 
the  New  Testament  to  Christ,  and  represented 
as  a  commission  or  plenipotentiary  power,  which 
the  Father  had  given  to  the  man  Jesus  as  Mes- 
siah. Thus  it  is  said,  Rom.  ii.  16,  0foj  (cf.  ver. 
6)  xpctrt  ri  jcpv«ra  di^pwrttof  6ta  Iijcfov,  and 
Christ  himself  says,  John,  v.  22,  25,  xptTtv 
nd^at/  6t'6wx«  T(j  tiy.  Vide  Matthew,  xvi.  27; 
Acts,  X.  42;  xvii.  31.  Cf.  s.  98,  H.  3,  and 
Morus,  page  294,  note  8;  and  page  29G,  note  3. 
Christ  himself  assigns  it  as  the  reason  why  God 
had  entrusted  to  him  the  holding  of  this  judg- 
ment, that  he  is  a  7nan,  (vioj  aii>|ju»rtov;)  John, 
V.  27,  coll.  Acts,  xvii.  31,  a»>;p.  God  has  con- 
stituted him  the  Judge  of  men,  because  he  is 
man,  and  knows  from  his  own  experience  all 
the  sulTerings  and  infirmities  to  which  our  na- 
fur»  is  exposed,  and  can  therefore  be  compas- 
sionate and  indulgent;  Heb.  ii.  14 — 17,  coll.  1 
Timothy,  ii.  5. 

(4)  Xaines  ^vcn  tn  the  scriptures  to  the  last 
judu;m(nt.  The  time  of  this  judgment,  and  the 
judgment  itself,  are  called  in  the  passages  al- 
ready cited,  ^uf'po  (s>')  Kt'ptov  or  Ii-'joO,  XpiT- 
rov,  X.  t.  X. ;  also  ratpo  ft-tyaXri  {yr^i  21^),  Jude, 
ver.  6;  xpiTij  (sometimes  written  xaraxpt^iy), 
xpi^ta,  rfopovjia  Xpi^rov,  1  Thess.  iv.  15;  2 
Thess.  ii.  1 ;  iixf^rrj  i^utpa,  John,  vi.  39,  40,  44. 
Hence  the  ecclesiastical  name  of  this  transac- 
tion, _/r/f/('cMt//»  extrernuni,  or  nitvixsimuin,  the  last 
judgment,  because  it  will  take  place  at  the  end 
of  the  world  that  now  is.  The  term,  the  last 
judiiment,  is  not  used,  however,  in  the  New 
Testament.  Nor  are  the  phrases  inxurr]  rutpa 
and  TO  tT;tfaT'oi'  fZv  rui^v  used  exclusively  with 
reference  to  the  end  of  the  world.  They  often 
designate  merely  the  future,  cninin<x  dni/s—e.  g., 
2  Timothy,  iii.  1  ;  2  Pet.  iii.  3 ;  like  ='::'n  ri«->nN, 
Genesis,  xlix.  1.  They  sometimes  also  denote 
the  last  period  nf  the  world,  or  the  times  if  the 
Messiah — e.  g.,  Heb.  i.  1  ;  1  Pet.  i.  20,  like  riXrj 
tttw»"v,  aiuiv  /it'xXwv,  Heb.  K3h  a'n;'. 

(5)  The  time  if  the  judi;mctit,  or  if  the  end  if 
the  world,  and  Us  si'^us  or  precursors.  Vide 
Morus,  p.  304,  8.  13.  According  to  the  assur- 
ance of  the  apostles  this  time  is  unknown.  Yet 
many  of  the  Jewish  Christians  at  the  times  of 
the  apostles  supposed  that  it  would  take  place 
immediately  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
and  of  the  Jewish  state,  because  the  Jews  be- 
ficved  that  their  temple  and  city  would  stand 
until  the  end  of  the  world.  Vide  e.  98,  H.  3. 
But  the  apostles  never  affirmed  this  ;  they  never 
pretended  to  the  knowledge  of  a  divine  revelation 
respecting  the  time,  but  contented  themselves 
with  saving,  that  it  would  come  suddenly  and 
unexpectedly,  like  a  thief  in  the  night ;  1  Thess. 


V.  2;  2  Pet.  iii.  10.  In  the  first  of  these  toxta, 
Paul  shews  that  this  event  was  not  so  near  as 
some  at  that  time  supposed  ;  and  in  the  second, 
Peter  shews  that  the  actual  coming  of  this  event 
could  not  be  doubled,  merely  because  it  seemed 
to  some  to  be  long  delayed.  In  2  Cor.  iv.  14, 
Paul  considers  himself  and  his  coniempor.iries  as 
being  amongthose  whom  God  would  raise  from  tht 
dtad  through  Christ ;  he  did  not  therefore  expect 
himself  to  survive  the  judgment  of  the  world, 
although  from  other  passages  it  might  seem  that 
he  at  least  wished  he  might.  It  is  not  by  chance 
that  the  declaration  of  the  apostles — liiat  they 
could  not  determine  the  time  and  the  hour  of 
this  event,  is  so  clearly  preserved  to  us.  Were 
there  any  reason  to  charge  them  with  the  oppo- 
site, to  what  contempt  would  their  doctrine  be 
exposed ! 

As  to  the  signs  and  precursors  of  tiiis  event 
nothing  can  be  very  definitely  deterniined  frora 
the  New  Testament;  nothing  certainly  by 
which  we  can  draw  conclusions  w>ih  any 
safety  with  regard  to  the  precise  time  of  its  oc- 
currence. No  indications  pointing  definitely  to 
the  day  and  hour  can  be  expected,  especially 
for  this  reason,  that  the  coming  of  this  event  is 
always  described  as  sudden  and  unexpected. 
Cf.  2  Pet.  iii.  10.  Kven  with  regard  to  the  far 
less  important  revolution  among  the  Jewish 
people,  in  the  overthrow  of  their  state,  it  is  said 
(Matt.  xiii.  32)  that  the  exact  time  when  it 
would  take  place  no  one  but  God  knew,  not 
even  the  angels,  nor  the  Son  of  man  in  his  hu- 
miliation. And  yet  there  have  never  at  any 
period  been  wanting  persons  who  have  under- 
taken to  determine  definitely  the  time  and  hour 
of  this  event.  They  have  cinmonly  reasoned 
from  some,  and  often  very  arbitrary,  explana- 
tions of  the  Apocalypse,  and  from  calculations 
drawn  from  the  same.  This  ingenious  search 
after  the  time  and  hour  of  the  fulfilment  of  the 
divine  predictions  is  not  according  to  the  mind 
and  will  of  Christ,  since  it  usually  lends  to  the 
neglect  of  what  is  more  important;  and  besides, 
nothing  is  gained  by  it.     Vide  Acts,  i.  7. 

In  the  earliest  age  of  the  church  m any  sup- 
posed that  the  end  of  the  world  would  follow 
immediately  upon  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
When  this  event  was  past,  other  calculations 
were  made.  In  the  tenth  century  the  opinion 
was  very  prevalent  in  the  Western  church  that 
the  end  of  the  world  was  near  at  hand,  because, 
according  to  Rev.  xx.  3,  4,  the  millennial  king- 
dom should  commence  after  a  thousand  years. 
This  belief  had  the  effect,  upon  the  multitudes 
who  adopted  it,  to  render  them  inactive;  they 
squandered  and  consumed  their  goods;  they 
sutTered  their  houses  to  go  to  ruin  ;  and  many 
families  were  reduced  to  want.  Hence,  in  the 
eleventh  century  there  was  more  buildin};^  and 
repairing  done  than  at  any  other  period. 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       543 


From  this  we  may  conclude  that  the  way  to 
proinole  the  conversion  of  men  is  not,  as  it  were, 
to  compel  them  to  it  by  the  fear  of  the  proximity 
of  the  last  day.  Even  in  modern  times  many 
theologians,  and  those  too  of  some  colohrity, 
have  entered  into  calculations  of  this  kind, 
drawn  chiefly  from  the  Apocalypse — e.  g., 
Bengal,  Crusius,  and  others. 

What  we  are  definitely  taught  on  this  subject 
in  the  New  Testament  may  be  stated  as  fol- 
lows:— The  Christian  church  will  hereafter  be 
subjected  to  great  temptation  from  heathen  pro- 
faneness,  from  false,  delusive  doctrine,  and  ex- 
treme moral  corruption,  and  will  seem  for  a 
time  to  be  ready  to  perish  from  these  causes; 
but  then  Christ  will  appear,  and,  according  to 
his  promise,  triumph  over  this  opposition;  and 
then,  and  not  till  then,  will  the  end  of  the  world 
come;  Christ  will  visibly  appear  and  hold  the 
general  judgment,  and  conduct  the  pious  into  the 
kingdom  of  the  blessed.  This  is  the  distinct  doc- 
trine of  Paul,  2  Thess.  ii.  3 — 12,  and  is  taught 
throughout  the  Apocalypse,  xii.  IS — xxii.  5, 
and  this  is  sufficient  for  our  instruction,  warn- 
ing, and  comfort. 

(6)  As  to  the  nature  of  the  general  judgment, 
and  the  manner  in  which  it  will  be  conducted 
by  Christ,  we  can  state  on  scriptura.  authority 
only  the  following  particulars  : — 

(rt)  That  Christ  will  pronounce  sentence  upon 
all  men,  even  on  those  who  have  lived  in  pa- 
ganism, Rom.  ii.  6,  seq.;  Acts,  xvii.  71.  Vide 
6.  98,  II.  3.  Final  sentence  will  then,  too,  be 
pronounced  upon  the  evil  spirits,  Jude,  ver.  6; 
2  Pet.  ii.  4;  Matt.  xxv.  41.  For  other  texts, 
cf.  Morus,  p.  294,  not.  1  and  3. 

(h)  This  sentence  will  be  righteous  and  im- 
partial, 2  Tim.  iv.  8.  Every  one  will  be  judged 
according  to  the  light  he  has  enjoyed,  and  the 
use  he  has  made  of  it.  Those  who  have  had 
tlie  written  law  will  be  judged  according  to 
that;  the  heathen,  according  to  the  light  of  na- 
ture, Rom.  ii.  13 — 16.  Those  who  have  had 
greater  knowledge,  and  more  opportunities  and 
powers  for  doing  good  than  others,  and  yet  have 
neglected  or  abused  them,  will  receive  a  severer 
sentence,  &c. ;  Matthew,  x.  15,  11,  23,  24; 
2  Thess.  i.  5.     Morus,  p.  294,  note  4. 

(c)  This  will  be  the_^;ia/and  irrevocable  sen- 
tence, by  which  rewards  will  be  bestowed  upon 
the  righteous,  and  punishments  allotted  to  the 
wicked,  for  their  good  and  evil  actions,  and  the 
thoughts  of  the  heart;  Matt.  xxv.  31 — 46;  2 
Cor.  v.  10;  1  Cor.  iv.  5;  Rom.  ii.  6,  16. 

Aote. — It  has  for  a  long  time  been  disputed 
among  theologians,  whether  the  judgment  of  the 
world  will  be  an  extertv^i,  visible,  formal  trans- 
action, or  whether  the  mere  decision  respecting 
the  destiny  of -man,  the  actual  taking  effect  of 
retribution,  is  represented  under  the  image  of  a 
judicial  proceeding,  like  what  is  now  common 


among  meni  The  reasons  alleged  on  botii 
sides  of  this  question  are  stated  by  Gerhard  in 
his  Loci  Theologici.  Cf.  Morus,  p.  295,  note 
1.  The  latter  opinion  is  adopted  by  many  the- 
ologians at  the  present  time — e.  g,,  Eckermann, 
Henke,  and  others,  who  contend  that  this  whole 
representation  was  intendni  l)y  Ciirist  and  the 
apostles  to  be  meTe]y  figurative,  and  bliould  be 
so  understood.  It  is  clear,  however,  from  the 
New  Testament,  unless  its  language  is  arbitra- 
rily interpreted  and  explained  away,  that  the 
first  Christian  teachers  everywhere  represent 
the  judgment  of  the  world  as  a  solemn,  visible 
transaction,  distinct  from  retribution  ;  though 
its  more  particular  nature  cannot  be  distinctly 
determined  or  made  plain  to  us  ;  and  is  therefore 
described  in  the  New  Testament,  for  the  most 
part,  by  figures.  This  is  very  well  expressed 
by  Morus,  p.  295,  s.  6.  If  the  New  Testament 
taught  the  contrary  opinion,  its  doctrines  would 
not  be  consistent  with  each  other.  For,  accord- 
ing to  the  New  Testament,  man  will  possess 
a  body,  even  in  the  future  life,  and  continue 
to  be,  as  he  now  is,  a  being  composed  both  of 
sense  and  reason;  and  so  there,  as  well  as  here, 
he  will  have  the  want  of  something  cognizable 
by  the  senses. 

With  regard  to  this  subject,  as  well  as  many 
others,  the  Bible  is  accustomed  to  connect  figu- 
rative and  literal  phraseology  together,  and  to 
use  these  modes  of  speech  interchangeably,  in 
order  to  render  clear  and  impressive  to  our 
minds  many  things  which  could  not  otherwise 
be  represented  plainly  and  forcibly  enough. 
Thus  it  is,  for  example,  in  the  discourses  of 
Christ  on  this  subject,  Matt.  xvi.  27,  seq.,  and 
chap.  xxv.  By  all  which  he  has  there  said  in 
a  figurative  style,  the  idea  should  be  impressed 
that  Christ  will  visibly  appear  in  a  majestic 
manner,  pronounce  some  innocent  and  others 
guilty,  and  treat  them  accordingly.  In  the 
courts  of  the  ancients  it  was  a  custom  to  p4ace 
the  former  on  the  right  hand,  the  latter  on  th# 
left ;  and  every  one  who  heard  this  discourse  ot 
Christ  knew  what  he  meant  by  this  representa- 
tion. He  taught  the  same  truth  without  a 
figure,  when  he  declared  that  some  should  be 
pardoned  and  made  happy,  and  others  pro* 
nounced  guilty  and  punislied. 

II.  Scriptural  Doctrine  respecting  the  End  of  Iht 
World. 

(1)  Even  the  ancient  Hebrews  believed  that 
as  the  world  had  a  beginning  it  would  also  have 
an  end ;  and  so  their  prophets  speak  of  the  grout- 
ing old  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth.  They 
teach  that  hereafter  the  whole  material  creation 
will  become  unfit  for  its  purposes,  and  useless 
to  its  inhabitants,  and  that  God  will  then  lay 
by  the  aged  heavens,  like  an  old,  worn-out  gar 
ment,  and  ceate  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth. 


M4 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Vide  Ps.  cii.  10 — li,  where  this  is  described, 
in  opposition  to  the  eternity  and  unchangeable- 
ness  of  God.     Cf,  Hib.  i.  10 — 12. 

Our  seeingf  the  constant  lluctuations  and 
thanjjes  of  all  ihinirs,  the  wasting  and  falling 
away  of  the  hardest  rocks,  and  other  observa- 
tions of  a  similar  nature,  may  lead  to  the  same 
thought,  and  give  it  confirmation. 

Hence  we  find,  even  in  the  Old  Testament, 
such  expressions  as  the  following:  until  Ike 
heaiena  are  no  more,  until  the  sun  and  the  moon 
are  uo  more — e.  g..  Job,  xiv.  12.  So  in  Ps. 
Ixxii.  5,  7,  17,  where  a  time  far  removed  is  ex- 
pressed by  this  phraseology;  for  this  period 
w;is  naturally  conceived  of  as  far  distant,  since 
changes  of  this  nature  are  found  by  experience  to 
require  a  long  time.  Moreover,  in  tiie  prophets, 
such  ex|)ressions  as  t/te  destruction  of  the  heavens 
and  (if  the  earth,  the  i^rowini^  jxile  and  darkening; 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  are  often  used  figuratively,  to 
denote  great  changes  in  the  world,  the  calamity 
artd  downfall  of  particular  states  and  countries, 
&.C. — e.  g..  Is.  xiii.  (respecting  Babel ;  chap. 
xxxiv. ;  Iviek.  xxii. ;  liev.  vi. ;  Matt.  xxiv.  21), 
seq.  On  the  contrary,  the  phrases  new  heavens, 
new  earth,  the  clear  shining  sun,  &c.,  are  used 
to  denote  the  welfare  and  returning  prosperity 
of  states — e.  g.,  Isaiah,  Ixv.  17;  Ixvi.  22  ;  xiii. 
10,  et  passim.  But  these  very  figurative  ex- 
pressions presuppose  the  literal  idea. 

(2)  From  these  more  general  ideas  and  ex- 
pectations respecting  great  changes  hereafter  to 
take  place  in  the  universe,  there  was  developed 
among  the  .lews  and  other  nations  the  more  de- 
finite idea  of  the  future  destruction  of  the  world, 
and  especially  of  our  earth.  Everything,  it  was 
supposed,  would  be  hereafter  shattered  and  de- 
stroyed, hut  not  annihilated  ;  since  from  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  structure  there  would  come 
forth  again  a  renewed  and  beautified  creation. 
Philo  says,  (Ue  Vita  Mosis,  torn.  ii.  p.  144, 
ed.  Mangt-y,)  via,  ava^aivirtu  rj  yrj,  fiira  xajxif- 
otv,  the  earth  shall  appear  new  af^ain,  after  its 
jiurificalinn,  even  as  it  was  after  its  fi-rst  creation. 
He  calls  this  renovation  7ta\iyyivfi}i.a.v,  vtwrfpio- 
Hov  Twv  aroixfi'^v,  X.  t.  X. ;  as  the  Greeks  also 
denominated  the  same  thing,  rtaXtyyfvfoiay  tuv 
oJuji' — an  expression  used  i)y  the  stoics  with 
reference  to  this  subject.  This  end  of  the 
world  was  not  then  described  as  its  entire  de- 
struction or  annihilation. 

Now  Christ  and  the  apostles  taught  tli<?  doc- 
trine of  the  end  of  the  world  very  distinctly  and 
plainly,  and  sanctioned   what  was   previously 
known  on  this  subject  by  their  own  authoiity. 
Vide  Malt.  v.  !8;  Luke,  xxi.  3.3;  2  Pet.  iii. ; 
1  ('or.  XV.;  Rev.  xx.  1 1,  et  p.issim.    But  amonir  j 
tlie  .Itiws  and  some  others  the  doctrine  prevailed  | 
that  tills  change  would  be  eHVcted  by  «  fc  tierul 
eonjloi^ration.     This  belief  in  such  a  conllagra-  , 
lion  did  not  at  firsl  nst  upon  any  argumeals  | 


drawn  from  a  profound  knowledge  of  natural 
philosophy  ;  such,  for  example,  as  the  sujiposi- 
tion  of  a  fire  burning  in  the  centre  of  the  earth, 
or  the  a[)proximaiion  of  a  comet,  as  many  mo- 
dern wriU;r3  have  thought,  but  they  were  first 
led  to  this  belief,  and  afterwards  confirmed  in 
it,  by  thoughts  like  the  following:  Water  and 
fire  are  the  two  most  powerful  and  elTicient  ele- 
ments, by  which  the  most  violent  changes  are 
produced  in  the  earth,  and  by  which  desolations 
and  renovations  are  elTected.  Now  we  find  tra- 
ditions among  all  nations  respecting  great  floods 
of  water,  and  the  desolations  occasioned  by  thera 
in  the  earliest  times.  According  to  Moses,  the 
water  originally  covered  the  whole  earth,  and 
the  dry  land  issued  from  thence,  and  then  fol- 
lowed Noah's  flood.  It  was  now  the  expecta- 
tion that  hereafter  the  other  siill  more  fearful 
element — the  fire,  which  even  now  often  causes 
such  terrible  desolations,  would  elfect  a  still 
more  amazing  and  universal  revolution  than 
that  etfected  by  the  water,  and  that  by  this 
means  the  earth  would  be  renewed  and  beau- 
tified. 

It  was  by  such  analogies  as  these  that  this 
traditionary  belief  was  confirmed  and  illustrated 
among  the  heathen  nations  where  it  prevailed. 
It  was  afterwards  adopted  by  many  philoso- 
])bers  into  their  systems,  and  advocated  by  them 
on  grounds  of  natural  philosophy.  Thus,  for 
example,  Heraclitus  among  the  Greeks  con- 
tended for  such  a  conflagration  and  regenera- 
tion of  the  earth  by  means  of  fire;  and  so  after 
him  the  stoics.  Cf.  Cicero,  De  Nat.  Deor.  ii 
40;  and  Seneca,  Qua^st.  Nat.  ii.  2S — 30. 

This  doctrine  of  the  perishing  of  the  world  by 
fire  was  imquestionably  prevalent  among  the 
Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ  and  the  apostles,  al- 
though Philo  does  not  accede  to  it  in  his  book 
Ilfpi  d^>a))-jiaj  xo^fiou.  The  arguments  which 
he  there  brings  against  it  are,  however,  ex- 
tremely meagre,  built  partly  upon  arbitrary  me- 
taphysical reasoning  and  partly  upon  a  play  on 
the  word  xoiuoj. 

In  one  passage  of  the  New  Testament  this 
doctrine  is  very  distinctly  staled,  2  PeU  iii. 
7 — 13.  It  cannot  be  thought  that  what  is  here 
said  resjiecling  the  burning  of  the  world  is  to  be 
understood  figuratively,  as  V\  <!tstein  supposes; 
because  the  lire  is  here  too  Jirectly  opposed  to 
the  literal  water  of  the  flood  to  be  so  understood. 
It  is  the  object  of  Peter  to  refute  the  boast  of 
scolfers,  that  all  things  had  remained  unchanged 
from  the  beginning,  and  that  therefore  no  day 
of  judgment  and  no  end  of  the  world  could  be 
expected.  And  so  he  says  that  originally,  at  the 
time  of  the  creation,  the  whole  earth  was  cover- 
ed and  overflowed  with  water,  (d'en.  i.,)  and 
that  from  hence  the  dry  land  appeared  and  the 
same  was  true  at  the  time  of  Noah's  flood.  Bu< 
there  is  yet  to  come  a  greaijire-revoluiwn.  'I'ho 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       545 


fieavens  and  the  earth  (the  earth  with  its  atmo- 
sphere) are  reserved,  or  kept  in  store,  for  the 
fire  until  the  day  of  judgment;  ver.  10,  at  that 
time  the  heavens  will  pass  away  (rfapfp;tf(!^at) 
with  a  great  noise,  the  elements  will  be  dissolved 
by  fervent  heat,  and  everything  upon  the  earth 
will  be  burnt  up.  The  same  thing  is  taught  in 
ver,  12.  But  in  ver.  13,  Peter  gives  the  design  of 
this  revolution  ;  it  will  not  be  an  annihilation, 
but  "  toe  expect  a  new  heaven,  and  a  new  earth, 
wherein  dwelleth  righteousness" — i.  e.,  an  en- 
tirely new,  altered,  and  beautified  abode  for  man, 
to  be  built  from  the  ruins  of  his  former  dwell- 
ing-place, as  the  future  habitation  of  the  pious. 
Cf.  Rev.  xxi.  1,  seq.  This  will  be  very  much 
in  the  same  way  as  a  more  perfect  and  an  im- 
mortal body  will  be  reared  from  the  body  which 
we  now  possess.  The  passage,  Rom.  viii.  19, 
seq.,  also  treats  of  this  renovation  and  beauti- 
fying of  the  world.  Vide  Morus,  p.  303,  note  5. 
Cf.,  with  regard  to  the  subjects  here  discussed, 
Siiskind's  "Magazin  fiir  christliche  Dogmatik 
und  Moral,"  lOtes  St.  No.  2,  respecting  the 
Jewish  ideas  of  the  Messiah  as  the  governor  of 
the  world  and  the  raiser  of  the  dead  ;  and  No.  3, 
the  declarations  of  Jesus,  in  which  he  ascribes 
to  himself  the  raising  of  the  dead,  the  judging 
of  the  world,  and  a  kingdom  at  the  end  of  the 
world. 

SECTION  CLVI. 

OF  THE  PUNISHMENTS  OF  HELL,  OR  ETERNAL 
CONDEMNATION. 

I.  Scriptural  l\amcs  and  Representations  of  these 
Punishments,  and  of  the  Fluce  where  they  will 
be  infiicted. 

According  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Jewish  na- 
tion at  the  time  of  Christ — a  doctrine  which  he 
himself  receives  as  true,  and  expressly  author- 
izes and  coiifirnis — the  wicked  are  miserable, 
and  the  righteous  happy,  even  immediately 
after  death.  Cf.  what  was  said  respecting  the 
inlermedi:ite  state  s.  150.  Still  it  is  not  until 
after  the  day  of  judgment  that  the  perfect  bless- 
edness of  the  righteous  or  the  entire  misery  of 
the  wicked  will  properly  commence,  and  they 
enter  upon  the  state  of  full  retribution.  The 
former  will  then  go  to  an  abode  of  joy,  the  latter 
to  a  place  of  sorrow.  Vide  Wetstein  on  Matt. 
XXV.  46.  The  condition  of  wicked  men  and  of 
the  fallen  angels  before  the  day  of  judgment  is 
described  by  the  sacred  writers  as  like  that  of 
malefactors  while  yet  in  prison,  before  the  final 
judicial  sentence  is  pronounced  upon  them. 

The  place  in  which  they  are  confined  is  pro- 
perly called  Toprapoj,  and  it  is  a  part  of  Hades 
— the  invisible  world  in  which  bad  angels  and 
ungodly  men  are  reserved  until  the  day  of  judg- 
ment. Vide  s.  150,  I.  1.  This  place  is  also 
69 


called  ^6^i,  or  oxoroj,  in  the  epistle  of  Jude  and 
in  2  Pet.  ii.,  and  <pv%a.xri  in  1  Pel.  iii.  19.  Even 
in  this  place  the  wicket!  are  represented  as  in- 
deed unhappy,  but  their  complete  misery  wiil 
not  commence  until  after  judicial  sentence  hag 
been  pronounced  upon  them. 

The  place  of  punishment  after  judgmeni  is  not 
revealed  in  the  scriptures,  nor  is  it  known  dis- 
tinctly whether  the  Jews  conceived  of  it  as  under 
the  earth,  or  as  entirely  beyond  the  boundaries 
of  our  planet.  The  term  u8r;i  is  not  used  in  the 
scriptures  to  designate  specifically  this  plrice, 
for  '?is'l?  and  ^brji  are  the  names  given  h)  the 
kingdom  of  the  dead,  where  the  righteous  and 
the  wicked  both  abide  after  death.  Vide  s. 
150,  I.  The  more  appropriate  di'signat'.ons  of 
this  place  are  xCfivrj  rtupoj  xai  ^f lov ;  Rev.  xx. 
10,  15;  and  yiiwa,  Matt.  x.  28;  v.  22;  on 
which  place  cf.  Wetstein. 

The  names  given  to  these  punishments  them- 
selves, both  before  and  after  judgment,  are  in 
part  figurative,  and  many  terms  which  were 
commonly  applied  by  the  Jews  to  this  subject 
are  retained  in  the  New  Testament.  These 
images  are  taken  from  death,  capital  punish- 
ment, tortures,  prisons,  &c.;  and  it  is  the  design 
of  the  sacred  writers,  in  using  such  figures,  to 
awaken  the  idea  of  something  terrible  and  fear- 
ful ;  future  punishment,  they  mean  to  teach,  will 
awaken  in  men  the  same  feelings  of  distress  as 
are  produced  by  the  objects  employed  to  repre- 
sent it.  Some  of  the  more  general  and  literal 
names  of  this  punishment  are  bXf^poj  aiwiaoj,. 
2  Tiiess.  i.  9  ;  opyj;  ^itM.ovna,  Matt.  iii.  7  ;  xoXar 
5ij  atwnoj,  Matt.  xxv.  46;  ^uaavoL,  Luke,  xvi. 
24,  25.  The  more  figurative  names  are  J>a»aro{, 
John,  viii.  51  ;  xi.  26;  ^vatoi  Sfvrfpoj,  Rev. 
XX.  6,  &c.  Vide  s.  147,  II.;  oxdroj  and  ifo^of 
tov  axorovi,  Matt,  xxv, ;  Jude,  ver.  6,  seq. ;  Ttvp' 
aiiLnov,  (}>x6|  rtvpoj.  Matt,  xxv.  41;  xviii,  8;. 
2  Thess,  i,  9 ;  the  worm  which  dies  not,  Mark, 
ix,  44,  where  the  comparison  is  taken  from. 
Isaiah,  Ixvi,  24;  rtopfvta^ot  anb  Qtov,  in  oppo. 
si  lion  to  beholding  the  countenance  of  God,  Matt, 
xxv,  41 ;  having  no  rest  day  nor  night.  Rev., 
xiv,  11,  &c. 

Many  of  the  Jews,  and  some  even  of  the 
church  fathers,  took  these  terms  in  an  entirely 
literal  sense,  and  supposed  there  would  be  literal 
fire  Sec.  in  hell.  But  nothing  more  can  be  in- 
ferred with  certainty  from  the  words  of  Christ 
and  the  apostles  than  that  they  meant  by  these 
images  to  describe  great  and  unending  misery. 
The  name  adopted  by  the  schoolmen,  damnatio- 
aeterna,  is  founded  upon  Heh,  vi.  2,  where  wo- 
find  xptfta.  (i,  e.,  xara'xpijua)  aiQjiov.  Cf. 
2  Thess,  i.  9, 

IT,  Nature  of  Future  Punishments. 

It  is  certain  from  the  pi  iinest  declaration  o\ 
the  holy  scriptures  (cf.  s.  155),  and  may  alw 
2z3 


546 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


be  proved  on  jfroiinds  of  reason,  that  the  happi- 
ness or  misery  of  the  future  world  stands  in 
most'intirnate  connexion  with  the  present  life. 
The  rewards  and  blessedness  of  the  world  to 
come  are  to  be  regarded  as  the  salutary  and  hap- 
py consequences  of  the  present  life  and  conduct 
of  men;  and,  on  the  contrary,  the  punishments 
there  to  bp  endured,  and  future  misery,  as  the 
sad  and  fatal  conseqiifnces  of  their  character 
and  actions  in  tiiis  world.  Our  future  good  or 
evil  estate  is  dependent  upon  our  present  life 
and  character. 

The  divine  punishments  are  divided  into  na- 
lural  and  posifi've,  or  arbitrary,  and  both  these 
kinds  belong  to  future  punishment.  Vide  s.  31, 
86,  87. 

(1)  Among  iiatural  punishments  we  may 
reckon  the  following — viz., 

{a)  The  loss  or  deprivation  of  eternal  happi- 
ness, pixtia  (himni,  Matt.  vii.  21 — 23,  arto;j^cjp.'irf 
ttrt' (uou.  Matt.  xxii.  13;  xxv.  41  :  in  all  of 
tliese  texts  the  representation  is  figurative.  Cf. 
Q  Thess.  i.  9.  bi.xr^v  rnotmc— arto  rtpo<Ju>7tov  Tov 
Kvpiov — i.  e.,  removed  from  Christ,  and  from 
the  happiness  which  he  enjoys. 

(i)  The  painful  sensations  which  are  the  na- 
tural consequence  of  committing  sin,  and  of  an 
impenitent  heart,  pi/:tia  setisus.  These  punish- 
ments are  inevitable,  and  connected  as  closely 
and  insepTrably  with  sin  as  any  effect  with  its 
cause.  From  tlie  consciousness  of  being  guilty 
of  sin  arise  regret,  sorrow,  and  remorse  of  con- 
science, and  it  is  these  inward  pangs  which  are 
the  most  grievous  and  tormenting.  The  con- 
science of  man  is  a  stern  accuser,  which  cannot 
be  refult'<i  or  bribed,  and  the  more  its  voice  is 
disreganlf'd  or  suppressed  here  upon  earth,  the 
more  loudly  will  it  speak  hereafter.  For  man 
will  then  be  no  longer  surrounded,  as  he  is  in 
this  world,  with  external  circumstances,  which 
distract  the  mind,  and  prevent  him  from  seeing 
the  heinousness  of  sin,  and  from  reflecting  on 
his  unliajipy  situation.  He  will  pass  at  once 
from  the  noise  an<l  tumult  of  the  things  of  sense 
into  the  stillness  of  the  future  world,  and  will 
there  awake  to  reflection.  ]\<i  will  then  see 
how  hp  has  neirlected  the  mpans  of  improvement 
.and  salvation,  ami  to  what  irreparable  injury  he 
has  thus  exposed  himself. 

Add  to  this,  that  the  propensity  to  sin,  the 
passions  and  evil  desires  wbicli  in  this  world 
occupy  the  human  heart,  am  carried  along  into 
the  next.  For  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  they 
will  be  suddenly  eradicated  as  by  a  miracle ;  and 
this  is  not  promised.  Hut  these  desires  and 
propensities  can  no  longer  find  satisfaction  in 
the  future  world,  where  man  will  be  placed  in 
an  entirely  different  situation,  and  surrounded 
by  a  circle  of  objects  entirely  now;  hence  they 
will  become  the  more  inflamed.  From  the  very 
aature  of  the  case  it  is  plain,  therefore,  that  the 


state  of  such  a  man  hpTfr»fior  must  necessarily 
be  miserable.  Shame,  regret,  remorsp,  liop©. 
lessness,  and  absolute  d«j.-pair,  are  the  natural, 
inevitable,  and  extremely  dreadful  cunsequencos 
of  the  sins  committed  in  this  life. 

(2)  But  there  are  also,  according  to  the  most 
incontrovertible  declarations  of  the  scriptures, 
positive  or  arbitrary  punishments — i.  e.,such  as 
stand  in  no  natural  and  necesjsary  connexion 
with  sin.  Vide  Morus,  p.  297,  note  2.  'I'his 
is,  indeed,  denied  by  those  who  will  not  allow 
that  God  inflicts  any  arbitrary  punishments. 
V^ide  s.  31,  Sfi,  67.  But  even  if  they  suppjse 
they  can  make  their  opinion  appear  probable  on 
philosophical  grounds,  they  ought  not  still  to 
assert  that  the  doctrine  of  positive  punishments 
is  not  taught  in  the  Bible.  All  the  ancienfna- 
tions  who  believed  in  the  punishments  of  hell 
regarded  these  punishments,  at  least  the  most 
severe  and  terrible  of  them,  as  positive  or  arbi- 
trary— i.  e.,  as  depending  on  the  will  of  the 
Legislator;  as,  on  the  other  hand,  they  regiud- 
ed  the  rewards  of  the  pious  as  not  merely  natu- 
ral, but  principally  arbitrary. 

There  are,  in  fact,  but  few  men  in  such  a  state 
that  the  merely  natural  punishments  of  sin  will 
■.ippear  to  them  terrible  enough  to  deter  them 
from  the  commission  of  it;  and  so,  for  this  rea- 
son, if  for  no  other,  the  doctrine  of  positive  pu- 
nishments should  be  retained  in  popular  instruc- 
tion. Experience  also  shews  tliat  to  threaten 
positive  punishment  has  far  more  eff.-(  t,  as  well 
upon  the  cultivated  as  the  uncultiv.iled,  in  de- 
terring them  from  crime,  than  to  announce  and 
lead  men  to  expect  the  merely  natural  conse- 
quences of  sin,  be  they  ever  so  terrible.  Hence 
we  may  see  why  it  is  that  the  New  Testament 
says  little  of  natural  punishments,  (although 
these  beyond  a  question  await  the  wicked,)  and 
makes  mention  of  them  in  particul.ir  far  less 
frequently  than  of  positive  punisliments;  and 
why,  in  those  passages  which  treat  .>f  the  pu- 
nishments of  hell,  such  expressions  and  images 
are  almost  always  employed  as  suggest  and 
confirm  the  idea  of  positive  punishments.  Cf. 
No.  I.  of  this  section  ad  finem. 

Those,  therefore,  who  consider  Jesus  to  be 
a  teacher  of  truth,  in  whose  mouth  there  was  no 
guile,  must  necessarily  believe  also  his  often 
repeated  declarations  on  this  subject.  It  is  very 
inconsistent  in  some  modern  philosophers  and 
theologians  to  admit  of  positive  retards  for  the 
pious,  and  yet  deny  positive  punishments  tor  the 
wicked.  We  are,  indeed,  compelled  to  admit 
positive  rewards,  because  those  which  are  merely 
natural  are  not  sufficient  to  complete  the  mea- 
sure of  our  happiness.  If  the  positive  rewards 
are  probal)le  on  grounds  of  reason,  how  can  it 
be  said  that  positive  punishments  are  impossible 
and  contradictory  ?  It  was,  moreover,  the  pre- 
vailinir  doctrine  amonir  the  Jews  at  the  time  of 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      547 


Christ,  that  punishments  are  for  the  most  part 
positive,  and  that  they  alTect  even  the  body. 
Hence  the  words  of  Christ,  ttrto?.£ijot  -^vxr^v  xai 
Buua,  Mutt.  X.  28.  For  since  the  impenitent 
will  he  ajrain  clothed  with  a  body  at  the  resur- 
rection, this  body  must  participate  in  their  pu- 
nishment, as  the  body  of  the  righteous  will  par- 
ticipate in  their  reward. 

As  to  the  question,  In  what  these  positive  or 
corporeal  punishments  will  consist?  no  definite 
answtr  can  be  drawn  from  the  Bible,  because 
it  is  plainly  intended  that  all  the  representations 
made  of  this  subject  should  be  understood  figu- 
ratively and  by  way  of  comparison — i.  e.,  these 
punishments  will  consist  of  pains  like  those, 
e.  g.,  arising  from  fire  or  from  a  gnawing  worm. 
We  are  so  little  acquainted  with  the  state  in 
which  we  shall  be  hereafter,  and  with  the  na- 
ture of  our  future  body,  that  no  strictly  literal 
representation  of  future  punishments  could  be 
made  intelligible  to  us.  Even  the  place  in 
which  the  wicked  are  confined  will  contribute 
much  to  tlieir  misery,  also  the  company  of  other 
sinners,  and  of  evil  spirits — a  circumstance 
particularly  mentioned  in  Matt.  xxv.  41. 

Aote. — The  efforts  of  those  who  iiave  endea- 
voured to  persuade  even  the  common  people 
and  the  young  that  no  positive  divine  punish- 
ments are  to  be  expected  in  the  world  to  come, 
have  ever  had  a  most  injurious  tendency,  as 
the  history  of  all  ages  will  shew.  For  the 
deep-rooted  expectation  of  such  punishments 
among  all  nations  has  always  been  a  check 
upon  the  more  gross  outhreakings  of  sin.  It 
was  from  this  expectation  that  the  oath  derived 
its  sacredness  and  inviolableness.  It  is  often 
said  by  Cicero  and  others,  that  all  philosophers, 
both  Greek  and  Roman,  are  agreed  in  this,  that 
the  gods  do  not  punish,  dcos  nnn  nocere.  But 
as  soon  as  this  opinion  of  the  philosophers  be- 
^an  to  prevail  among  the  people,  it  produced, 
according  to  the  testimony  of  all  the  Roman 
writers,  the  most  disastrous  consequences, 
which  lasted  for  centuries.  No  subsequent  ef- 
forts could  ever  succeed  in  awakening  a  fear 
of  divine  punishments  in  the  minds  of  the  great 
multitude.  Hence  resulted  the  deplorable  de- 
generacy of  the  Roman  empire.  Truth  and 
faith  ceased,  chastity  became  contemptible, 
perjury  was  practised  without  shame,  and 
every  species  of  luxurious  excess  and  of  cruelty 
was  indulged.  To  this  corruption  no  philoso- 
pher was  able  to  oppose  any  effectual  resist- 
ance; until  at  length  its  course  was  arrested 
by  Christi^.nity. 

Among  Christians  themselves  such  efforts 
have  always  been  followed  by  similar  disastrous 
consequences. 

(1)  The  papal  sale  of  indulgences,  which  be- 
came general  during  the  twelfth  and  the  suc- 
ceeding centuries,  and  especially  after  the  cru- 


sades, had  a  tendency,  in  the  same  way,  to 
diminish  the  fear  of  positive  divine  punishments, 
because  it  was  supposed  one  might  purchase 
exemption  from  them.  The  result  of  this  delu- 
sion was  equally  deplorable  in  this  case  as  in 
the  one  before  mentioned;  the  greatest  immo- 
ralities prevailed  throughout  Christian  lands; 
until  this  evil  was  arrested  by  the  reforuiaiion, 
and  the  fear  and  the  love  of  God  were  both 
awakened  anew  in  the  hearts  of  Christians. 

(2)  A  similar  result  took  place  in  Enghind  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when 
some  rationalist  philosophers,  during  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.,  undertook  to  e.iiancipate  the 
minds  of  men  from  the  fear  of  positive  divine 
punishments.  The  effect  of  their  efforts  is  well 
known  from  history.  Frivolity  of  spirit,  im- 
morality, sins  of  impurity,  and  all  the  dreadful 
consequences  of  forgetting  God,  suddenly  pro 
vailed. 

(3)  The  principles  of  these  English  philoso" 
phers  were  gradually  diffused  through  France 
by  the  writings  of  Voltaire,  Diderot,  and  others; 
and  after  1710,  they  were  also  adopted  and  dis- 
seminated by  some  even  in  Germany.  The 
history  of  our  own  times  shews  us  sufficiently 
what  has  been  the  result  of  these  principles  here. 

It  is  agreeable  to  the  gospel — it  is,  indeed  the 
very  spirit  of  the  gospel,  to  represent  God  as 
Love.  It  is  also  right  for  the  evangelical  teacher, 
indeed,  it  is  his  duty,  to  preach  respecting  the 
infinite  love  of  God,  especially  as  it  is  manifested 
in  Jesus  Christ.  In  this  his  whole  heart  should 
live.  But  he  must  never  forget  to  teach  in  what 
order  and  on  what  conditions  alone  man  becomes 
susceptible  of  these  proofs  of  the  divine  favour. 
The  gospel  itself,  though  at  a  loss  for  words 
sufficiently  to  magnify  the  infinite  love  of  God, 
represents  also  his  penal  justice  in  a  light  ex- 
tremely terrifying  to  all  who  do  not  fall  in  with 
this  prescribed  order,  and  threatens  them  with 
the  most  severe  and  inevitable  punishments  in 
the  world  to  come.  Both  of  these  views  should 
therefore  be  connected  toerpther.  Cf.  the  small 
work  written  by  .lacobi,  JFas  soil  ich  zur  Beru- 
hii^unu;  riiciner  Seek  i^lauhen  ?  IVas  soil  ich  hoffen 
bey  den  mannichfalti^cn  Meimmgen  der  Gekhr- 
ten?'"   1790;  s.  63— 9G. 

III.  The  Justice  and  Necessitt/  of  the  Punishmentt 
of  Hell :  the  Sins  tvhich  being  Condemnation  in 
their  train,-  and  the  different  Degrees  of  Punish- 
ment. 

(1)  That  there  will  be  punishments  in  the 
future  state  nas  been  believed  by  nearly  all  men 
who  have  reflected  impartially  upon  the  world, 
the  destiny  of  man  as  a  moral  being,  and  upon 
the  attributes  of  God.  It  is  obvious  to  every 
one  that  the  earth  is  not  the  theatre  of  the  divine 
justice,  and  that  the  lot  of  man  here  below  is 
not  justly  apportioned  to  his   moral  conduct 


148 


CFIRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


Tlie  {jreatest  criminal  oftfn  oroes  unpunished, 
and  lives,  perhaps,  in  external  peace  an<l  pros- 
perity ;  and  the  pious,  good  man  is  often  unre- 
warded, lives  in  adverse  external  circumstances, 
and  frequently  is  severely  persecuted.  All  this, 
now,  a|<pear8  to  contradict  our  ideas  of  the  di- 
vine justice,  goodness,  and  wi&dom,  and  makes 
the  destination  of  man  an  inexplicable  riddle. 

As  soon,  therefore,  as  men  came  to  believe  in 
a  future  life,  and  beuan  to  reflect  upon  the  dis- 
propr)rtion  which  now  exists  between  the  moral 
character  and  the  happiness  of  men,  the  thonirht 
would  naturally  sujj^est  itself  to  their  minds 
that  the  proper  theatre  of  divine  justice  will  he 
first  opened  in  the  world  to  come,  and  that  the 
punishment  of  the  sinner  there  may  be  as  confi- 
dently expected  as  tfie  reward  of  the  rij^hteous, 
since  in  this  way  only  can  either  the  justice  or 
goodness  of  God  be  vindicated.  Vide  the  Arti- 
cle on  Providence,  especially  s.  71,  VI.,  ad 
finem.  Also  Michaelis,  Ueber  die  Lehre  von 
der  Siinde,  s.  314.  Such,  accordinsily,  is  the 
uniform  representation  of  the  New  Testament. 
Vide  "2  'I'hess.  i.  5,  seq. ;  Kom.  ii.  6,  seq. 

(2)  OiHsea  of  condemnation.  According  to  the 
concepiionsof  men  possessing  only  a  very  litr)iled 
and  imperfect  knowledge  of  moral  things,  it  is 
only  a  few  of  the  grosser  crimes  which  are 
punished  after  death.  In  proportion  as  their 
ideas  on  moral  subjects  become  enlarged  and 
perfected,  the  number  of  offences  which  they  re- 
gard as  liable  to  punishment  is  increased,  and 
they  come  at  length  to  the  just  result  that  every 
sin  must  be  punished.  Vide  s.  150,  II.  2.  And 
so,  according  to  the  express  doctrine  of  the  New 
Testament,  all  irrcligioitsness  (an  ungodly  dis- 
position, forgeifulness  of  God,  (vj»;3fttt),  every 
transgression  of  the  divine  precepts,  all  kinds 
of  vice  and  moral  corruption,  will  be  inevitably 
punished  in  the  future  world;  and  this  punish- 
ment will  be  intlictid  not  only  u|)on  those  who, 
like  Jews  and  Christians,  have  the  express 
written  law  of  (iod,  hut  also  upon  the  heathen, 
who  have  merely  the  law  of  nature.  Vide  Rom. 
ii.  6— IG;  Gal.  iv.  8;  Malt.  xxv.  41,  seq.;  1 
Cor.  vi.  9;  -2  Pet.  ii.  1—3. 

Especially  is  clniona  or  art*i'^fia  represented 
as  a  cause  ot  condemnation.  So  Mark,  xvi.  1(1, 
»he  that  believelh  nut  is  condemned."  .lohn, 
iii.  18,  and  ver.  3(>,  !>  urt^i^wv  vi<j>  ovx  b^ftau, 
^w>;i/,  aXK  ti  6\)yTj  Qfov  fiiyii.  t,t  avrcik'.  By  this 
unbelief  is  meant,  the  deliberate  rejection  of  the 
doctrine  of  Christ,  and  disobedience  to  his  pre- 
cepts, against  one's  better  conviction.  It  in- 
cludes also  apostasy  from  the  ('hristian  doctrine 
when  it  has  been  once  received  and  ack  now  ledged 
as  true;  Hebrews,  x.  itt,  3!).  Kverything  there- 
fore which  draws  after  it  |)unishment  in  the  fu- 
ture world  may  be  comprehended  under  n.tiirt'a 
and  avouia — a  criminal  disbelief  and  trans^jrps- 
siun  of  the  divine  precepts.     Whoever,  then,  is 


drtiiroj  or  ato.uoj,  will  be  unhappy  hereafter, 
however  different  the  degrees  of  unhappiness 
may  be.  On  the  contrary,  m-jrij  and  t^j-oaoj 
3i.oi  (fv5t3fta)  will  be  followed  by  blesseduwis, 
however  great  the  difference  in  degree  may  be. 
It  will  be  understood,  of  course,  that  among  the 
unbclievini^  who  will  be  punished  those  are  not 
included  who  have  no  opportunity  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  divine  will  or  with  the 
Christian  doctrine,  or  who  are  naturally  incapa- 
citated for  this;  in  short,  those  who  do  not  be- 
lieve without  any  fault  of  their  own — e.  g., 
children  and  many  of  the  heathen.    Vide  s.  121. 

JS'ote. — As  to  the  number  of  those  who  will  be 
saved  and  lost,  the  liible  says  nothing  definitely. 
When,  on  a  certain  occasion,  the  question  was 
proposed  to  Christ,  ly'htllier  the  numb-.r  uf  ike 
saved  would  be  small?  he  gave  an  answer,  ac- 
cording to  Luke,  xiii.  23,  seq.,  of  the  following 
import: — "  Ask  not  sucii  questions  from  an  idle 
curiosity,  but  act  as  if  thou  wert  alone  among 
many  thousands."  There  are,  indeed,  mant/ 
who  will  be  saved,  (cf.  ver.  28,  2J,  and  Rev. 
vii.  9,)  but  among  thein  there  will  he  many 
whose  lot  it  wa-s  supposed  would  be  different; 
and  not  all  of  those  who  account  themselves  the 
heirs  of  salvation,  and  are  so  esteemed  by  others, 
will  be  found  in  this  number,  ver.  29,  30.  It 
is  often  distinctly  affirmed  by  Chrisi,  that  among 
those  who  profess  his  name  there  are  many 
who  will  not  obtain  eternal  life,  althouirh  he  de- 
sires to  lead  all  to  salvation.  E.  g..  Matt.  xx.  IG; 
xxii.  14,  "many  are  called,  but  few  are  chosen" 
— i.  e.,  many  who  hear  me  suffer  themselves 
to  be  instructed  in  my  doctrine,  and  become  ex 
ternally  professors  of  my  religion  (xX>;-ro();  but 
few,  however,  belong  to  the  number  of  the 
chosen  saints,  the  elect,  those  who  are  well- 
pleasing  in  the  sicrhl  of  God,  who  do  that  which 
is  commanded  them,  who  are  what  they  should 
be.  It  is  the  same  as  to  Matt.  vii.  13,  14,  where 
Christ  shews  that  the  way  in  which  many 
teachers  lead  the  people  is  not  the  riirht  way  for 
altaininir  salvation — i.  e.,  their  instruction  is  not 
true  and  salutary,  although  followed  by  the  ma- 
jority of  men  {latavia);  the  riifht  and  sure  way 
which  he  points  out  meets  with  less  approbation 
(it  is  narrow  and  forsaken,  trodden  by  few),  be- 
cause it  is  more  difficult  and  resjuires  many  sa- 
crifices. For  there  were  at  that  time  but  few 
who  believed  on  him,  and  kept  his  command- 
ments with  the  whole  heart. 

(3)  As  there  are  future  punishments,  they 
must  be  different  in  decree.  Vide  Murus,  p.  29S, 
s.  9.  This  might  be  concluded  a  priori,  and 
mi'jht  be  reasonably  expectetl  from  the  justice 
of  God;  for  there  are  different  degrees  in  sin, 
and  one  is  greater  than  another;  (vide  s.  Hi, 
II.;)  and  hence  punishments,  boih  natural  and 
j)ositive,  must  lie  proportionately  varied.  Now 
this  is  the  uniform  doctrine  of  Jesus  and  iha 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       549 


(ipostles.  The  more  knowledge  of  the  divine 
will  a  man  has,  the  more  opportunity  and  in- 
ducpmenl  to  avoid  sin,  the  greater  the  incentives 
lo  faith  and  virtue  which  are  held  up  before  him, 
by  so  much  is  his  responsibility  increased,  and 
the  greater  will  be  his  punishment  if  he  does  not 
make  a  faithful  use  of  his  advantages,  "The 
servant  who  knows  his  Lord's  will,  and  does  it 
not,  deserves  to  be  beaten  with  many  stripes." 
"  To  whom  much  is  given,  of  him  will  much  be 
required."  Matt.  x.  15;  xxiii.  15;  Luke,  xii. 
46.  Hence  Paul  says  that  the  heathen  who  act 
against  the  law  of  nature  will  be  punished  ;  but 
that  the  Jews  will  be  punished  more  than  they, 
because  they  had  more  knowledge,  and  more  was 
given  to  them. 

Hut  we  can  go  no  further  than  this  general 
lule,  that  this  difference  of  degree  will  be  ap- 
portioned xata  yi'uian',  rti'jriv,  and  tpya.  For 
God  alone  is  able  rightly  to  appoint  punish- 
ments, and  to  fix  their  degree,  since  he  alone  is 
able  by  his  omniscience  to  determine  infallibly 
the  degree  of  sin  and  its  ill  desert.  It  may 
therefore  be,  that  many  whom  we  regard  as  ut- 
terly damnable  may  not  in  God's  judgment  de- 
serve damnation,  or  not  that  degree  of  it  which 
we  award  them.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  to 
whom  we  might  adjudge  reward,  may  appear 
in  the  eyes  of  God  lo  deserve  severe  punish- 
ment. 

SECTION  CLVIL 

DURATION  OF  FUTIJRE  PUNISHMENTS  ;  REASONS 
FOR  AND  AGAINST  THEIR  ETERNAL  DURATION. 

Reasons  in  favour  of  (he  Eternal  Duration  of  Fu- 
ture Punishments,  and  what  is,  or  may  be,  ob- 
jected against  these  Reasons. 

(1)  From,  the  hohj  scriptures.  In  the  New 
Testament,  the  punishments  of  hell  are  ex- 
pressly described  as  eternal.  In  Matt.  xxv.  41, 
46,  we  find  rtv^i  aitit'tov  and  xoXaitj  aiwj'ioj  op- 
posed to  ^ujj  atwwoj-  in  both  of  these  sentences, 
therefore,  must  aiuwoj  be  taken  in  the  same 
sense,  per  legem  disjunctionis.  And  so,  if  in 
connexion  with  fu);,  it  means  unending,  eternal, 
it  must  mean  the  same  in  connexion  with  ?tip. 
In  accordance  with  this  must  other  texts  be  ex- 
plained ;  as  where  it  is  said  respecting  the  fallen 
angels,  that  they  are  bound  in  htriuol  aiSioi, 
Jude,  ver.  6,  coll.  2  Pet.  ii.  4;  Rev.  xiv.  II  ; 
oJw^poj  oiconoj,  2  Thess.  i.  9;  Mark,  ix.*44,  46; 
Rev.  XX.  10.  So  in  John,  iii.  36,  where  it  is 
said  respecting  unbelievers,  uivfi  r;  6py^  ©fot' — 
ovx  O'^ctai  Ci^rV.  In  Matt.  xxvi.  24,  Christ 
says  respecting  Judas,  "that  it  would  have 
bt«rn  better  for  him  never  to  have  been  born." 

With  regard  to  these  texts  we  shall  here  sub- 
Jrin  some  observations. 


(a)  On  the  texts  in  which  aldjv  and  aiwnoj 
are  used.  These  are  regarded  by  some  as  not 
decisive.  For  s'^ij'  and  acwi/  are  used  to  denote 
any  long  duration  or  period  of  time.  Sometimes 
they  refer  to  the  past,  and  denote  ages  gone  by, 
aiKient  days,  antiquity  ;  thus,  rtvXat  aiwi'ia,  I's. 
xxiv.  7,  9;  ttrj  aiuna,  years  of  antiquity,  Ps. 
Ixxvii.  5;  ;^()6»'oi  aioi'iot,  Rom.  xvi,  25;  an' 
otuii'oj.  Acts,  iii.  21.  Sometimes  they  refer  to 
future  time,  and  are  applied  to  everything 
which  lasts  long,  although  in  time  it  may  come 
to  an  end,  or  has  come  to  it  already.  Fcr  the 
Hebrews  and  other  ancient  people  have  ri'i  cne 
word  for  expressing  the  precise  idea  of  ctcniiiy. 
Cf.  s.  20,  IlL,  respecting  the  eternity  of  God. 
Thus  Paul,  2  Cor.  iv.  18,  opposes  aiavLov  to 
rtponzatpov.  Thus  Sia^T^xjj  tt.J..!-,,-  i»  i.sed  with 
reference  to  the  Mosaic  institute,  although  it 
came  to  an  end,  Ex.  xxxi,  16  ;  the  same  as  to 
ifparEta  aidictoj.  Num.  xxv.  13. 

From  this,  as  some  suppose,  it  follows,  that 
x6\a<s(.i  aioi'toj  may  mean  either  the  pain  and 
condemnation  ordained  by  God  if  old  (as  Christ 
says,  with  regard  to  the  blessedness  opposed  to 
it,  that  it  was  rfpojjrotjuaciuf'r';;,  Matt.  xxv.  34, 
41),  or  misery  and  happiness  long  continued, 
lasting  for  ag"s,  without  yet  designating  a  dura- 
tion absolutely  endless;  or  both  of  these  senses 
may  be  comprehended  under  this  expression.  In 
the  invisible  world,  everything  is  aiaixov  and 
aiSiov.  There,  according  to  the  conceptions  of 
all  nations,  time  is  not  measured  by  years  and 
short  human  periods,  as  it  is  here  in  the  world, 
but  by  long  periods,  by  ages. 

To  this  some  add  the  remark,  that  rtvp  and 
xoXttTt^  acoitoj  properly  denote  the  place,  the 
kingdom,  the  residence  of  the  lost — the  state  of 
condemnation;  as  jia'jt.'Ktia  Qtoi  and  S^cjtj  aionoj 
denote  the  p-lace,  the  abode  of  the  blesseil. 
This  place,  they  say,  may  be  eternal,  because 
it  will  never  be  without  occupants,  or  persons 
who  endure  punishment  on  account  of  sin. 
There  will  always  be  two  different  kingdoms, 
one  of  happiness,  the  other  of  misery,  the  dis- 
tinction between  which  will  never  be  removed, 
and  which  can  never  be  united.  But  from  this 
it  does  not  follow  that  every  person  who  has 
once  been  there,  or  suffiered  punishment,  will 
remain  there  for  ever, 

(i)  As  to  the  phrase,  their  worm  dieth  not, 
&c.,  Mark,  ix,,  this,  it  is  said,  occurs  also  in 
Is.  Ixvi.  24,  with  reference  to  the  unhappy  fate 
of  the  idolatrous  Israelites,  and  is  transfnrred 
here  to  the  punishments  of  hell.  Since,  how- 
ever, in  the  former  case  it  does  not  denote  an 
absolute  eternity  of  suffering,  but  only  its 
dreadfulness  and  long  continuance,  so  it  is  at 
\e^st  pussiblc  it  may  mean  the  same  here.  And 
as  to  the  term  uivfi  in  John,  iii.,  the  idea  of 
eternity  is  still  less  implied  in  this.     As  useu 


S50 


CHRISTIAN'  THEOLOGY. 


by  J  :)hn,  it  rn?.y  stand  for  f Jiou,  and  denote  only 
the  <>-rtainly  and  inevitiblenesss  of  future  pu- 
nishments. 

(<•)  In  the  passage  with  n-gard  to  Judas, 
Matt,  xxvi.,  the  language  employed,  it  is  said, 
may  he  prmerbial and  popular,  not  admitting  of 
a  strict  construction.  It  is  as  much  as  to  say, 
*'  such  an  one  makes  hirnself  extremely  misera- 
ble: well  would  it  be  for  him  had  he  never 
been  born !" 

Itut  those  texts  in  which  there  is  a  clear  con- 
trast between  ^cj>j  cuumo;  and  xoXacti;  alcivto^, 
cannot  be  so  easily  explained  away  as  some 
8U|fp')se.  And  if  any  one  considers  them  im- 
partially, and  without  attempting  to  prevent 
their  obvious  meaning,  he  will  not  fail  to  de- 
rive from  them,  as  Morus  justly  observes,  (p. 
300.  ad  finem,)  '•'•idea  seinpiternilatiH,  non  autem 
liiiiu;!  ttnipiirlsy  For  since  fw»j  aiuiioj  in  all 
the  other  di<c')urses  of  Jesus  is  understood, 
without  eontradiction,  to  denote  a  blessed  life 
lastiniT  for  ever,  there  is  no  reason  for  under- 
Bianiling  it  dilTerently  here.  And  iffujj  aitJitoj 
here  meiiis  eternal  life,  then,/jcr  legem  disjunc- 
twni'i,  must  xoyjo/fii  aitjitoj  denote  eternal,  u/i- 
endintr  piinisliinent.  And  the  other  texts  relat- 
ing to  this  subject  must  now  be  explained  in 
acconiance  with  these. 

(•3)  Other  arguments  a  priori  have  been  em- 
ployed in  behalf  of  the  eternity  of  future  punish- 
ments. 

(a)  The  guilt  {culpa,  renins)  of  sin,  it  is  said, 
is  infinite,  and  its  punishment  must  therefore  he 
the  same.  The  injured  majesty  of  the  law- 
giver is  infinite,  and  hence  punishment  for  the 
injury  must  be  infinite  too.  This  argument 
was  employed  by  many  of  the  schoolmen — 
e.  g.,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  has  also  been  urged 
by  Mosheim,  and  other  modern  theologians. 

.iriHWir. — There  is  no  infnilus  rentus  ptcctitiy- 
rum,  nor  can  the  object  against  which  sin  is 
committed  ho  made  in  every  case  the  measure 
of  its  criminality  or  ill  desert;  certainly  this 
cannot  be  done  with  regard  to  God.  Vide  s. 
81,  ad  finem. 

(/>)  Kvery  sin  is  followed,  to  all  eternity,  by 
injurious  conse(|uences  to  him  who  commits  it ; 
as  every  virtue  or  good  action  is  followed  by 
good  consequences.  The  wicked,  therefore, 
must  be  miserable  to  all  eternity,  and  endure 
the  piini-ihinHnt  of  their  sins. 

.InMonr. —  This  is  very  true,  as  far  as  natural 
puiiishiiients,  or  the  natural  evil  consequences 
of  sin,  are  spoken  of.  And  if  these  are  meant 
wnen  the  eternity  of  future  punishments  is 
mentionerl.  then  indeed  must  they  be  called 
eternal,  since  something  will  alwayn  he  de- 
tiac'ed  from  the  happiness  of  the  sinner  for  his 
Ktving  sinned,  even  if  he  repents,  and  all  po»i- 
♦  Tt  punishments  are  removed  fiom  him  or  re- 


pealed, as  it  cannot  be  otherwise  than  that  the 
natural  consequences  of  sin  should  always  re- 
main. Those  who  have  sinned  will  always 
stand  prnportionably  below  others  in  point  of 
happiness,  as  there  are  degrees  both  of  blessed- 
ness and  misery. 

Here,  however,  two  things  should  be  remark- 
ed— viz.,  fir.4,  all  the  consequences  of  our  ac- 
tions cannot  be  imputed  to  us,  and  so  all  the 
evil  consequences  of  our  actions  cannot  he  re- 
garded Z9 putiixhment,  especially  in  case  it  was 
impossible  for  us  to  foresee  these  consequences, 
or  when  we  siimed  unintentionally.  Stcmdly. 
Divine  Providence  has  wisely  ordered  it,  that 
good  and  useful  consequences  shall  often  result 
even  from  the  sins  of  men,  and  these  conse- 
quences are  equally  unen(}in<jr — e.  g.,  through 
the  unbelief  of  the  Jews  the  heathen  are  saved, 
according  to  Paul.  Rom.  xi.  This  now  should 
be  taken  into  consideration,  in  mitigation  of  the 
guilt  and  punishabieness  of  many  sins. 

(c)  Another  argument  in  behalf  of  the  eter- 
nity of  future  punishments  is  drawn  from  the 
scicniia  media  Dei.  Vide  s.  '2'2, 1.  VVith  regard 
to  some  men,  God  foresaw  that  if  they  conti- 
nued here  upon  the  earth  they  would  sin  with- 
out cessation.  Since  now  these  persons  are 
such,  as  to  their  whole  constitution  and  dispo- 
sition, that  they  would  go  on  for  ever  to  sin, 
they  are  justly  punished  for  ever.  This  argu- 
ment was  employed  by  Fulgentius  and  Gregory 
the  great;  and  it  has  been  igain  used  of  late  by 
Drexel,  liaumgarten,  Troschel,  and  others. 

Answer. — It  cannot  be  reconciled  with  ou' 
ideas  of  justice  that  sins  which  were  never  ae- 
tually  committed  should  be  punished  as  if  they 
had  been  committed.  If  a  human  ruler  should 
punish  an  individu  il  for  crimes  of  which  he  was 
never  actually  guiliy,  but  which  he  knew  wiih 
certainty  he  would  perpetrate  if  he  had  means, 
time,  and  opportunity,  it  would  doubtless  be 
pronounced  unjust  and  tyrannical.  The  fact, 
too,  is  very  questionable,  whether  there  are  any 
men  who  would  go  to  sin  without  interruption, 
in  every  possible  situation  and  under  all  cir- 
cumstances in  which  they  might  be  placed  in 
this  world.  Nothing  like  tiiis  is  taught  us  in 
the  Christian  doctrine.  According  to  this,  God 
punishes  only  ra  tpya.  or  u  trt^to^iv  fxairo;. 
Rom.  ii.  G;  2  Cor.  v.  10. 

(r/)  The  et»»rnity  of  the  punishments  of  hell 
is  inferred  by  others  from  the  hias  In  sin,  which 
will  continually  acquire  strength  in  those  who 
are  lost,  and  finally  mak«'  repentance  impossible. 
It  is  often  seen,  even  here  upon  the  earth,  how 
deeply  this  propensity  to  sin  tikes  root  wln-n  it 
is  long  indulged,  ami  how  diificult,  and  indeed 
impossible,  repentance  becomes.  Besides,  the 
use  of  the  means  of  <rraee  is  confinevl  t;  tiie  pre- 
sent life.     Hereafter  there  will  be  no  preactung 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDE^H'TIOX,       551 


of  tlie  word  of  God,  and  no  sacraments,  and  the 
grace  of  God  will  no  longer  be  there  given  to 
bring  men  to  repentance. 

^liisicer. — In  these  statements  there  is  much 
which  is  vague  and  incapable  of  proof. 

First.  The  state  of  things  in  the  future  world 
is  very  different  from  the  state  here.  The  rea- 
son why  tlie  bias  to  sin  takes  such  deep  root, 
and  why  reformation  is  so  difficult  in  the  pre- 
sent world,  often  lies  in  the  external  circum- 
stances by  which  man  is  surrounded,  and  which 
DiaUe  an  irresistible  impression  upon  his  senses. 
As  soon  as  these  objects  can  be  removed,  or  the 
impression  which  they  make  upon  the  senses 
can  be  weakened,  it  is  seen  that  reformation 
becomes  more  easy.  But  now  in  the  future 
world  the  spirits  of  lost  men  will  no  longer  be 
surrounded  by  these  external  objects,  which 
prove  so  exciting  to  the  senses;  so  that,  even 
if  the  impression  before  made  upon  them  by 
these  objects  should  for  awhile  remain,  they 
must  still,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  human 
soul,  become  weaker  and  weaker  in  the  absence 
of  these  excitements.  It  would  seem,  there- 
fore, that  sometimes,  at  least,  the  propensity  to 
sin  must  gradually  decrease  in  the  future  world, 
especially  when  we  consider  that  those  who  are 
lost,  being  no  longer  deceived  by  external  and 
sensible  objects,  and  being  no  longer  withdrawn 
from  reflection  as  when  upon  the  earth,  will 
now  see  and  deeply  feel  the  evil  consequences 
of  sin. 

Secondly.  From  hence  we  may  conclude,  if 
the  use  of  reason  is  not  wholly  denied  to  the 
damned,  and  if  their  moral  nature  is  not  whollj- 
destroyed,  that  it  is  not  improbable  that  even  in 
hell  they  nnnj  pussibly  conceive  an  abhorrence  of 
pin,  and  renounce  their  love  for  it,  although  the 
word  ofGod  is  not  there  preached,  nor  the  sacra- 
ments there  administered.  Morus,  p.  301.  The 
knowledge  which  they  will  carry  with  them 
from  this  life  into  the  next  cannot  be  entirely 
obliterated  ;  nor  can  it  be  supposed  that  God 
will  compel  them  to  sin,  or  so  entirely  withhold 
from  them  his  grace  that  they  will  not  be  able 
to  come  to  the  knowledge  of  their  sins,  and  to 
renounce  the  prejudice  and  wickedness  cherish- 
ed during  the  present  life.  For  God  to  do  this 
would  be  to  punish  sin  with  sin,  and  to  be  him- 
gelf  the  author  of  new  offences.  It  may  be 
asked,  then,  whether  the  end  of  the  divine  pu- 
ni-ilimeiits,  to  promote  the  actual  reformation  of 
th)se  upon  whom  they  are  inflicted,  may  not  be 
attained  even  in  the  case  of  those  who  will 
hereafter  be  condemned  ? 

Thirdly.  But  should  any  one  say  that  these 
punishments  will  be  so  severe,  and  will  cause 
60  great  pain,  that  they  will  rather  drive  those 
upon  whom  they  are  inflicted  to  despair,  dis- 
traction, or  fury,  than  promote  their  repentance, 
he  dots  not  consider  that  such  a  statement  can 


hardly  be  reconciled  with  our  ideas  of  the  ju» 
tice  and  goodness  of  God.  These  ideas  do  not 
j)ermit  us  to  suppose  that  he  will  jiunish  any 
one  as  an  offender  frcyii  whom  he  himself  has 
withdrawn  all  opportunity  for  repentrince  and 
all  freedom  of  action.  He  only  can  be  rightly 
punished  who  enjoyed  freedom,  but  would  not 
employ  the  means  and  opportunities  for  reform- 
ation which  were  offered  him. 

II.  Arguments  for  the  FinUeness  of  Future  Punish- 
ments, and  Olijeclions  to  these  Arguments. 

Besides  what  is  commonly  said  tn  invalidate 
the  prevailing  oj)inion  of  the  eternity  of  future 
punishments,  the  following  arguments  are  often 
employed  t(}  support  the  opinion  that  they  are 
finite  in  duration.  These  arguments  are  of  very 
imequal  weight. 

( 1 )  Arguments  from  the  Sew  Testament, 
(«)  The  advocates  of  this  opinion  appeal  to  the 
declaration  of  Peter,  Acts,  iii.  21,  where  xpovoi 
d.-tozaraaraoftoj  rcdi'mv  are  spoken  of,  which 
God  had  before  promised  by  the  prophets.  This 
is  understood  by  many  to  denote  the  future  re- 
covery of  lost  sj)irits  and  men  to  a  happy  condi- 
tion, which  is  on  this  account  called  resluration. 
(A)  'l^he  finiteness  of  future  punishments  is  in- 
ferred by  others  from  the  efficacy  and  univer- 
sality of  the  merits  of  Christ.  There  is  no  rea- 
son, they  say,  to  limit  the  salutary  consequences 
of  his  work  merely  to  the  present  life.  It  will 
continue  to  be  efficacious  in  the  future  world  if 
man  is  only  willing  to  reform.  Stich  is  the 
rivasoning  of  many,  and  they  refer  to  1  Cor.  xv. 
22 — '28,  where  ^aiaroj  demotes  mi^^ery  and  the 
punishment  (fsin;  and  also  other  texts. 

Answer. — From  the  New  Testament,  how- 
ever, no  clear  argument  can  be  derivwl  in  be- 
.half  of  the  finite  duration  of  future  punish- 
ments ;  for, 

{a)  The  passage  in  1  Cor.  xv.  traits  of  death 
in  the  literal  sense,  since  >a'iaro{  is  there  op- 
posed to  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  it  is 
there  expressly  said  that  Christ,  in  raising  the 
dead  to  life,  will  conquer  this  last  enemy  of  the 
human  race.  Cf.  s.  98,  ad  fin.  This  is  therefore 
described  as  his  last  great  work  for  the  good  of 
the  human  race.  And  so,  judging  from  this  pas- 
sage, one  could  expect  no  influence  of  Christ, 
or  of  his  work  for  the  good  of  men,  beyond  the 
grave. 

(b)  That  the  passage  referred  to  in  Acts  iii. 
does  not  relate  to  this  point  is  beyond  all  ques- 
tion. Vide  Ernesti's  Proirramm  on  this  text, 
in  his  "  Opusc.  Theol.,"  p.  477.  seq.  Cf.  s.  97, 
ad  finem.  The  meaning  of  this  passage  is  as 
follows: — "The  heavens  have  received  Christ, 
or  retain  him  within  themselves,  n.s  long  (u 
(axi)ii  ov)  the  happy  period  'f  the  Xew  Testament 
continues.''''  He  will  n"t  come  again  to  found 
an  earthly  kingdom.     In  ver.  20,  these  xfo^*^ 


552 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY 


artoxara/TfuTfuj  rtarfwi'  arP  called  xatpoi  dro^v- 
|fw;  (i.to  Kiytoi',  and  in  Hcb.  ix.  10,  xaipo^  6iopJ>u<- 
ofwj.  Thus  it  is  said  in  Malt.  xvii.  11,  'HXt'aj 
(i.  p.,  John)  drtoxarowTjj'wt  rtdiTa,  where  the 
phrase  is  taken  from  the  iSept.  Version  of  Mai. 
iv.  (■>.  riaira  refers  to  everything  which  needs 
reformation  in  relio^ious  affairs,  and  to  every- 
tliinnr  which  is  predicted  by  the  prophets.  Cf. 
Morus,  p.  301. 

(c)  Nor  is  there  in  the  discourses  of  Jesus  a 
sin<jle  passH^re  whicii  encourages  the  hope  that 
there  will  be  a  terminatiun  of  future  punish- 
ments.    Cf.,  e.  g.,  Luke,  xvi. 

(2)  .Ir^iimentsfrnm  reason  for  the  finite  dura- 
tion of  future  punishments.  The  principal  of 
these  are  drawn  from  our  ideas  of  the  divine  at- 
tributes, the  <^(>iidness,  unsdom,  and  justice  of 
(lod.  How  can  it  be  reconciled  with  these  at- 
tributes, it  is  asked,  that  God  should  make  so 
iarjre  a  numl)er  of  liis  rational  creatures  for  ever 
miserible  ?  How  can  God,  who  is  love  itself, 
punish  his  creatures  etertially  because  they  have 
lived  i\feu}  yearn  only  in  a  thoughtless,  wicked, 
and  irrational  manner]  This  seems  to  be 
wh'illy  disproportionate.  Again  it  is  asked, 
how  could  God  create  beings  whose  eternal 
misery  he  foresaw? 
To  these  questions  it  may  be  replied, 

(a)  That  although  the  views  expressed  in 
them  are  in  general  true,  yet  our  limited  under- 
standing is  unable  to  determine,  in  particular 
cases,  what  is  to  be  expected  from  the  divine 
goodness,  wisdom,  and  justice,  and  what  is  ac- 
cord.int  with  these  attrihut^s,  and  what  other- 
wise. And  so,  although  it  may  appear  to  us  to 
be  agreeable  to  the  goodness  and  the  other  attri- 
butes of  God  to  put  a  period  to  the  punishments 
of  hell,  still  it  does  not  follow  that  he  must  ne- 
cessarily, or  will  actually  do  this.  Did  we  not 
see  it  to  be  j»  fact,  that  (Jod  has  created  a  world 
in  which  there  is  so  much  physical  and  moral 
/"vil,  we  should  proceed  to  argue,  on  this  prin- 
ciple, that  it  would  be  inconsistent  with  his 
perfeclifins  to  give  such  a  world  existence,  and 
Hliould  think  tiiat  wc  had  reasoned  conclusively. 

('')  Again;  in  reply  to  the  above  questions  it 
may  be  s.iid,  that  (Jod  does  not  look  merely  at 
bingle  individuals,  but  has  respect  to  the  whole 
of  his  creation,  and  that  he  must  prefer  the  wel- 
fare of  the  whole  to  that  of  a  few.  The  ollender 
liiinself  may  not  always  he  benefited  by  the  di- 
vine punishnienls  visited  upon  him,  but  his  ex- 
ample may  yet  serve  for  the  warning  of  others, 
and  thus  conduce  to  their  good.  C'f.  lioni.  ix. 
17, '22.  Tiius  lite  eternal  pimisliments  inflicted 
upon  some  may  perliaps  serve,  through  all  eter- 
nity, to  deter  from  sins  many  other  beiniis  in  the 
boumiless  empire  of  (Jod — good  angels,  and 
men  redeemed,  and  perhaps  still  other  classes 
of  beings  not  belonging  to  this  world,  lly 
ibis  punishment,  therefore,  a  good  may  be  done 


for  many  which  will  overbalance  the  eril  in* 
Hided  on  a  few.  The  subject  is  exhibited  by 
Michaelis  in  this  light  in  his  work,  *»  Von  der 
Sunde,"  s.  325,  seq.  Plato,  in  his  Gorgias, 
near  the  end,  ascribes  a  similar  thought  to  So- 
crates ;  "he  believed  that  the  irreclaimable  part 
of  mankind  would  be  eternally  punished,  as 
rtaj;a6fiyua/ra,  Iva,  tt>.>/)i  ojjiJiTff,  <}>0;3otuf vot  /3fX- 
Tiovj  yfiuvrai."  There  is  much  probability  in 
this  thought.  The  force  of  it,  however,  some 
endeavour  to  invalidate,  by  saying  that  it  is 
conceiving  of  God  too  narrowly,  and  too  much 
after  the  manner  of  men.  God  cannot  be  want- 
ing in  other  means  by  which  this  object  could 
be  more  easily  and  surely  attained.  Again ;  it  is 
very  much  to  be  doubted  whether  the  example  of 
persons  condemned  to  eternal  punishment  would 
have  such  a  powerful  elToct  upon  ail,  and  ac- 
tually deter  them  from  sin.  This  etfect  is  not 
certainly  produced  upon  many  here  in  this 
world,  who  believe  most  confidently  in  the 
eternity  of  future  punishments.  Moreover,  it 
is  an  imperfection  belonging  to  human  legisla- 
tors and  rulers,  and  not  therefore  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  supreme  legislator,  that  the  pu- 
nishments inflicted  by  them  often  serve  merely 
for  the  warning  of  others,  and  cannot  secure  the 
reformation  of  those  who  are  punished.  Vide 
s.  31,  No.  2,  respecting  the  positive  justice  of 
God. 

•   SECTION  CLVIII. 

RESlTr.t  DRAWN  FROM  COMPARING  AND  EXAMIN- 
ING THE  DIFFERENT  ARGUMENTS  FOR  ANP 
AGAINST  THE    ETERNAL    Dl'RATlON    OF   Fl'TL  Ri 

punishment;  and  a  sketch  of  the  history 
of  this  doctrine. 

I.  Result  of  the  Reasons  for  and  against  this 
Doctrine. 

(1)  There  is  not  a  single  text  in  the  New 
Testament,  either  in  the  discourses  of  Christ  or 
in  the  writings  of  the  apostles,  which  clearly 
authorizes  the  hope  of  an  entire  and  univer^-al 
removal  of  all  future  punishments;  hut  exactly 
the  opposite  of  this  sentiment  is  expressly  af- 
firmed in  many  passages.  Vide  s.  157,  I.  1, 
and  II.  1. 

(2)  The  following  remarks,  drawn  partly 
from  scripture  and  partly  from  reason,  may 
serve  to  illustrate  and  confirm  what  we  are 
taught  in  the  Bible  respecting  the  duration  of 
punishment  in  the  future  world.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  punishment  which  the  X'.  icked  will 
be  made  to  suffer — viz., 

(«)  Xalural  p<nu!<hincnl.  .\s  every  action 
morally  good  is  followed  by  endless  good  eon- 
secjuences  to  him  who  performs  it,  so  if  is  with 
every  wrong  action.  This  is  founded  in  the 
wise  constitution  of  ihinirs  which  (lod  himself 


STATE  INTO  WIIIC3I  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       55J 


nas  est'ahlished.  When,  thoirfore,  natural  pu- 
nish[nents  are  spoken  of,  il  ii  oWious  to  reason 
how  an  eternal  duration  rSdi-nn  may  be  affirm- 
ed. Indeed,  reason  rav.vj*.  conceive  it  to  be 
otherwise,  since  the^e  is  no  pvomtae  of  God, 
either  in  the  holy  pcript'jtes  or  cSs-ewhere,  that 
the  natural  evil  ccnaequtnces  opsins  once  com- 
mitted will  f'ye^.  cease.  !n  ordor  to  this  there 
must  be  some  incon.prehensible  miracle  per- 
formed, and  tliic  God  has  not  promised  to  do. 
Hence,  as  far  as  natural  punishments  are  con- 
cerned, tneir  eternal  duration  may  be  affirmed, 
both  on  grounds  of  scripture  and  reason.  Cf. 
6.  157,  I.  2. 

(i)  Positive  punishments.  With  reorard  to  these 
we  may  conceive  that  they  may  be  removed  ; 
indeed,  much  can  be  said,  on  orrounds  of  reason, 
to  render  this  opinion/)ro6«i/e.  To  hope  that  (lod 
would  remove  the  positive  pimishmertts  of  sins, 
in  case  tiie  sinner,  even  in  the  futun^  life,  should 
come  to  the  knowledfje  of  himself,  and  truly 
repent,  would  seem  to  be  agreeable  to  the  divine 
goodness  and  justice.  That  the  repentance  of 
the  sinner  in  the  future  world  is  absolutely  im- 
possible is  not  taught  in  the  scriptures.  Vide 
s.  157,  1,  2,  coll.  s.  63,  II.  Note,  respecting  the 
fallen  angels.  And  that  even  these  miserable 
beings  are  by  no  means  wholly  excluded  from 
the  active  proofs  of  the  goodness  and  justice  of 
God  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  Bible  ex- 
pressly teaches  that  the  lot  of  some  of  the 
damned  will  be  more  lightand  tolerable  than  that 
of  others.  Vide  Matt.  xi.  22,  21 ;  x.  15 ;  Luke, 
xii.  48.  The  phrase  xo'Kacii  anLvioi  may  per- 
haps relate  therefore  merely  to  the  natural  pu- 
nishments of  sin,  and  not  to  the  positive.  Still 
it  cannot  be  shewn  that  this  phrase  does  and 
must  refer  exclusively  to  these  natural  punish- 
ments, and  it  is  still  possible  that  both  these 
kinds  of  punishment  may  be  comprehended  in 
its  meaning.  In  short,  no  arguments  which  are 
mere\y  p/iilosnphicdl  furnish  anything  more  tiian 
a  certain  degree  of  probability  on  this  subject; 
they  cannot  enable  us  to  decide  anything  defi- 
nitely with  regard  to  it.  We  know  too  little 
what  the  positive  punishments  of  the  future 
world  will  be,  to  speak  decidedly  with  regard 
to  them.  Where  the  object  is  unknown  to  us, 
we  cannot  pronounce  decidedly  that  the  predi- 
cate of  eternal  duration  may  not  be  applied  to 
them.  But  allowing  that  positive  pnnisliments 
may  be  wholly  removed  from  one  who  may 
have  actually  repented,  still  the  painral  evil 
consequences  of  sin  will  not  therefore,  of  neces- 
sity, come  to  an  end.  These  may,  indeed,  be- 
come more  light  and  tolerable  to  one  who  has 
repented,  but  even  such  an  one  can  never  be 
happy  in  the  same  degree  as  another  who^has 
never  sinned.  Such  an  one  will  always  stand 
on  a  lower  point  of  happiness  than  others,  and 
70 


there  will  always  be  a  ^eat  gulf  fixed  between 
him  and  them. 

(3)  The  wisdom  which  Christ  and  his  apos- 
tles always  shewed  in  exhibiting  this  doctrine 
should  be  imitated  by  all  Christian  teachers. 
In  our  practical  instructions  we  should  nevei 
indulge  in  speculations,  or  suffer  ourselves  to 
enter  upon  the  investigation  of  learned  questions 
which  the  unpractised  cannot  understand,  and 
will  but  too  easily  misconstrue  and  pervert. 
Even  the  distinction  between  natural  and  posi- 
tive punishments  cannot  be  made  perfectly  plain 
to  the  unlearned  ;  and  hence  it  is  never  insisted 
upon  in  the  sacred  scriptures;  and  that  positive 
punishments  will  ever  wholly  cease  in  the  fu- 
ture world  can  be  shewn  incontrovertibly  nei- 
ther from  the  Bible  nor  any  other  source.  It  is 
moreover  impossible  to  prevent  the  doctrine  of 
the  finite  duration  of  future  punishments,  let  it 
be  stated  ever  so  guardedly,  from  being  pervert- 
ed in  various  ways  by  the  great  mass  of  man- 
kind, to  their  own  injury. 

Let  the  teacher,  therefore,  adhere  to  the  sim- 
ple doctrine  of  the  Bible;  the  more  so,  consi- 
dering how  little  we  know  of  the  future  world, 
and  how  liable  we  are,  through  our  ignorance, 
to  mistake.  Had  more  full  disclosures  on  this, 
subject  been  necessary  or  useful  for  us  in  the 
present  life,  they  would  have  been  given  to  us 
by  God  either  through  nature,  or  direct  revela- 
tion, or  in  both  these  ways.  But  since  he  has 
not  seen  fit  to  do  this,  let  the  Cliristian  teacher 
exhibit  faithfully  and  conscientiously  that  only 
which  Christ  and  the  apostles  taught  on  this 
subject,  without  either  adding  anything  to  their 
testimony,  or  diminishing  auglit  from  it. 

Note. — Some  modern  writers,  who  admit  that 
eternal  punishments  are  threatened  in  the  Bibie, 
but  who  are  unable  to  reconcile  this  doctrine 
with  their  preconceived  philosophical  or  theo- 
logical principles,  have  hit  upon  the  thought 
that  God  has  merely  threatened  these  eternal 
punishments,  in  order  to  deter  men  more  effec- 
tually from  sin,  and  to  sustain  more  firmly  tne 
authority  of  his  law;  but  that  it  depends  upon 
himself  to  what  degree  he  will  fulfil  his  ihreat- 
enings.  In  executing  the  sentence,  he  can  and 
will,  it  is  said,  abate  something  from  the  seve- 
rity of  the  punishment  threatened.  So  thought 
Tillotson,  in  his  Sermon  on  the  Pains  of  Hell. 
And  this  view  has  appeared  not  improbable  to 
many  German  theologians — e.  g.,  Bushing, 
Bahrdt,  (in  his  "  Dogmalik,")  Less,  and  others. 

But  such  a  supposition  is  unworthy  of  God. 
Human  legislators  do,  indeed,  in  consequence 
of  their  weakness,  sometimes  resort  to  such  ex- 
I)edients,  in  order  to  sustain  the  autiiority  of 
their  laws.  Still  such  measures,  even  among 
men,  are  generally  followed  by  injurious  conse- 
quences, and  are  rarely  adopted  exce])t  by  weak 
3A 


531 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


princes.  But  wiih  refjard  to  God,  who  is  faith- 
lul  and  true,  sucli  a  supposition  is  inconpruous. 
Nor  does  he  need  any  such  expedients,  since  he 
cannot  want  lor  means  to  elVect  this  object, 
wiiiiout  ^uiiiij  contrary  to  liis  veracity.  Be- 
sides, the  wliole  strength  and  efficacy  ot"  all  the 
ihreatenin<rs  connected  with  the  divine  laws 
would  by  tliis  supposition  be  diminished.  For 
men  are  always  inclined  enough  to  believe  that 
tiny  shall  not,  after  all  these  threalenings,  be 
dealt  with  so  strictly  and  severely,  because  they 
have  been  accustomed  to  see  some  abatement 
of  the  penally  annexed  to  human  laws,  when  it 
comes  to  be  inflicted.  But  against  so  hurtful  a 
mistake  the  holy  scriptures  labour  with  the 
greatest  earnestness,  and  everywhere  insist 
upon  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  veracity,  and 
the  unfailing  fulfilment  of  the  divine  threatcn- 
ings;  e.  g.,  Heb.  iv.  12,  13. 

II.  S/itlci'i  iifl/iC  llistury  of  this  Doctrine  among 
Christians. 

Cf.  Burnet,  De  Statu  Mortuorum  et  Resur- 
gentium;  also,  J.  A.  Dietelmair,  Hist.  Anti- 
quior  Commenti  Fanatici  de  ajtoxaraTTaofuiocj 
rtaiTiJi';  Allorf,  1709,  8vo;  and  Coita,  Historia 
snccincta  Doginatis  de  Poenarum  Infernaliuni 
Duratione;  Tiibing.  1774. 

(1)  We  are  not  to  expect  any  deeply-learned 
and  philosophical  investigations  and  distinc- 
tioiis,  with  regard  to  this  subject,  from  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  earliest  Christian  period.  The 
teachers  were  then  contented  with  the  simjile 
doctrine  of  the  apostles  which  has  been  already 
exhibited,  and  they  made  use  of  this  with  the 
most  happy  success  in  their  didactic  and  horta- 
tory discourses.  Afterwards,  since  the  second 
century,  when  they  began  to  mingle  the  philo- 
sophy of  the  schools  with  Christianity,  they  fell 
into  speculation  upon  this  doctrine.  Some  un- 
dertook to  define  the  idea  of  acwuoj  more  accu- 
rately, an«l  to  shew  that  it  does  not  necessarily 
imply  punisliments  which  are  strictly  unending. 
Others  insisted  upon  the  literal  meaning  of  this 
term,  an<l  would  have  it  taken  in  its  strictest 
sense.  Thus  two  parties  were  formed.  These 
might  perha|)S  have  found  some  points  of  union, 
or  at  least  of  a|iproximation,  if  they  had  properly 
considered  the  distinctiim.  between  »irt/i<rrt/ and 
jwsilivc  punishments.  But  no  traces  of  tliis 
distinction  can  be  found  in  most  of  the  ancients; 
certainly  they  did  not  see  it,  and  all  the  conse- 
quences wliich  can  be  derived  from  it,  with  suf- 
ficient distinctness. 

(2)  The  doctrine  that  the  pains  of  hell  are 
f.nite  in  linraiion  was  first  clearly  tausrht  by 
some  of  the  Christian  teachers  of  the  Alexan- 
drine school  in  the  second  century.  They  ob- 
viously derived  their  niode  of  representation 
from  the  jirinciples  of  the  Platonic  philosophy. 
Plato  regarded   punishments  merely  as   medi- 


cinal, designed  to  effect  the  cure  of  the  disorders 
of  men.  He  supposed  that  all  spirits  ami  s.aiU 
not  wholly  irreclaimable  would  be  morallv  pu- 
rified and  renovated  by  means  of  punishinents, 
and  would  in  this  way  attain  to  happinessi; 
which,  however,  would  be  very  diirerent  as  k) 
its  degree.  But  still  he,  as  well  as  Socrates, 
believed  in  the  unending  punishment  of  the  irre- 
claimable.    Cf.  s.  150. 

Even  in  Clement  of  Alexandria  we  find  a 
clear  exhibition  of  these  Platonic  ideas.  Cf. 
Strom.  4  and  G.  But  Origen,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, taught  still  more  plainly,  d.-toxordaTowtr 
bMnoii.u>v  xa.i  a/jfiSutv  ui>>|ju<nwv,  and  npo'axat- 
pof  (Zi'ui  xo'ka'ji.v  aai^div  av'^^>u)rtutl^,  and  endea- 
voured to  establish  this  doctrine  by  many  argu- 
ments. In  the  works  of  his  which  are  still 
extant,  there  are  passages  which  are  clearly  of 
this  import — e.  g.,  in  his  works,  "Contra  Cel- 
sum,"  V.  15;  "  De  Principiis,"  ii.  5.  Homil. 
1!},  in  Jerem.,  and  Athanasius  and  other  ancient 
writers,  are  agreed  that  he  taught  this  doctrine. 
vSome  modern  writers  have  undertaken  to  dis- 
pute this,  though  without  siiHicient  reason.* 
Origen  was  followed  in  this  doctrine  by  many 
of  the  learned  Grecian  fathers— e.  g.,  Diodorus 
of  Tarsus,  Theodore  of  Mopsuesiia,  and  others 
of  the  school  of  Origen.  Even  in  the  Latin 
church  this  opinion  was  widely  disseminated 
in  the  fourth  century,  as  we  learn  from  Augus- 
tine and  Hieronyiiius. 

But  in  ojiposition  to  these,  the  doctrine  of  the 
eternity  of  future  punishments  was  affirmed  by 
other  equally  distinguished  teachers^-e.  g., 
Gregory  of  Nazianzum,  Basilius.  John  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  among  the  Latin*,  by  Hiero- 
nymus,  Augustine,  and  others.  Even  in  the 
fourth  century  Origen  and  his  adherents  were 
severely  reproached  on  account  of  this  and  other 
doctrines  which  had  been  already  freely  circu- 
lated. At  length  the  ecclesiastical  anathema 
was  pronounced  ujion  this  doctrine.  Among 
the  opponents  of  the  school  of  Origen  and  of 
their  doctrine  on  this  subject,  'I'heophilus  of 
Alexandria,  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries, 
was  especially  distinguished.  The  doctrine  of 
Origen  was  therefore  condemned  by  the  fourth 
council  at  Carthage,  in  the  year  3'J^,  and  after- 
wards by  many  other  councils,  and  in  opposi- 
tion to  it  the  doctrine  of  the  eternity  of  future 
punishment  was  established  as  the  faith  of  the 
church. 

(.T)  Still  the  doctrine  of  the  limited  duration 
of  future  punishment  has  never  wanted  defend- 
ers.   Even  during  the  dark  ages  and  among  the 


••Ncander.  while  he  concedes  that  Origen  taught 
this  (loclriiie,  thinks  it  is  one  of  those  points  reri(>rct- 
iiiR  which  his  opinion  oflerwnrds  chiinnini.  Cf.  !S'o- 
nnder,  .\||g.  Kirch.  Gesch.  b.  i.  Abth.  ill.  s.  1099 — 
Tu.] 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       «55 


•choolinen  there  wpro  some  who  took  this 
ground,  esfpecially  Scotus  Erigena  in  the  ninth 
century,  and  the  Abbot  Rayniildus  in  the 
twelfth.  13ut  the  grent  majority  of  teachers 
d^irinir  this  period  lield  fast  to  the  opposite  opi- 
nion, and  endeavoured  to  confirm  it  by  new  ar- 
guments ;  so,  e.  If.,  Thomas  Aquinas  and  others. 

But  tills  doctrine  of  the  limited  duration  of 
future  punishment  fell  into  very  ill  repute  in  the 
Western  ciiurch,  on  account  of  its  bcin<T  pro- 
fessed by  some  of  the  enthusiastic  and  revolu- 
tionary parties  in  the  sixteenth  century,  (e.  fj., 
by  the  Anabaptists,)  and  from  its  bein<i  inti- 
mately connected  with  their  expectations  and 
schemes.  The  mere  profession  of  tlie  doctrine 
came  to  be  re^rarded  as  implyinpr  assent  to  the 
other  extravagances  of  these  parties,  and  as  the 
signal  for  rebellion.  Hence  it  is  rejected  in  the 
symbolical  books  of  the  Lutheran  church  as  an 
Anabaptistical  doctrine;  Augs.  Confess.  Art. 
xvii.  In  the  form  in  which  this  doctrine  was 
held  by  these  sects  it  deserves  the  most  unmin- 
gled  disii|)probatlon.  Again;  among  the  ill- 
famed  Christian  free-thinkers — e.  g.,  the  Soci- 
nians — there  were  some  who  professed  it.  In 
modern  times  it  has  been  the  same.  This  doc- 
trine has  been  advocated  in  the  protestant  cfluirch 
both  by  men  who  have  stood  in  suspicion  of 
enthusiasm,  (e.  g.,  Peterson,  Lavater,  and 
others,)  and  by  some  of  the  free-thinkers  in 
philosophy  and  theology,  although  for  very  dif- 
ferent causes,  and  on  very  different  grounds,  by 
these  two  classes. 

The  principal  advocates  of  the  common  opi- 
nion on  this  subject,  in  modern  times,  are. 
Mosheim,  in  the  Ajjpendix  to  his  Sermons;  and 
among  the  philosophers,  Leibnitz,  Baumgartcn 
in  his  Uogrnalik  and  Vindicia;  Fcenarum  ilUer- 
narum;  Halle,  1712:  Schubert,  Verniiiiltiuc 
Gedanken  von  der  Eiidlichkeit  der  IloUeiislra- 
fen,  3te  Aufg.  .lena,  1750;  Heinr.  Meine.  Gute 
Sache  der  Lehre  von  der  unendlichen  Dauer 
der  Hollenstrafen  ;  Helmstiidt,  17-18  ;  Sclilitte, 
Ueberlei,ning  der  beiderseitiger  Griinde  fiir  und 
wider  die  unendliche  Ungliickseligkeit  der 
Verbrecher,  &c.  Cf,  also  Michaelis,  Von  der 
Siinde,  &e. 

The  principal  advocates  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
limited  duration  of  future  punishments  are. 
Soner,  (in  an  acute  philosophical  work,  to 
which  Leibnitz  replied ;  vide  Lessing's  Bey- 
Irage  zur  Gnscbichte  und  Literatur,  Ir  Beytr., 
Braunschweig,  1773,  s.  201 ;)  Eberhard,  Apo- 
logie  des  Sokrates,  th.  i.  and  ii. ;  Gruner,  Theol. 
D'>gm.  p.  r.SC;  Basedow,  Philalethie,  s.  539; 
Stfinbart,  System,  u.  s.  w.  A  work  entitled 
Ueber  die  Strafe  der  VerdaiTimtrn  und  deren 
Dauer;  Leipzig,  17S2;  is  compos<'d  with  much 
reflection.  The  arguments  on  l>  >th  sides  are 
examined,  and  a  middle  C(^rse  l>'  tween  them 
IB  chosen.  Some  have  supposed  that  the  wicked. 


after  enduring  the  punishments  of  hell  for  a 
season,  will  be  at  last  annihilated,  and  have 
called  this  mortem  sclcrnam.  Vide  s.  151,  ad 
finem.  But  according  to  scriptural  usage,  ^- 
raroj,  or  bXf^poj  atconoj,  or  6f vTfpoj,  is  not  anni' 
hi/alion,  but  eteriuil  amilemiuitiun. 


ON  ETERNAL   BLESSEDNESS. 


SECTION  CLIX. 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THIS  DOCTRINE  ;  AND  EXPLANA 
TION  OF  THE  SCRIPTURAL  PHRA3E01,0GV  WITH 
REGARD  TO  IT. 

I.  Grounds  fur  expecting;  a  happier  life  Ivereafter. 

That  a  more  happy  life  is  to  be  expected  after 
death  appears,  even  on  grounds  of  reason,  in  a 
high  degree  probable,  if  either  the  present  state 
of  human  life  is  considered,  or  the  attributes  of 
God,  his  goodness,  justice,  and  wisdom.  Cf. 
the  arguments  in  behalf  of  the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  s.  1 19.  Man  and  his  destijialion  are 
the  most  insolvable  riddle,  if  he  has  received 
existence  merely  for  the  jiresent  life.  And  this 
riddle  can  be  explained  only  on  the  supjiosition 
that  the  period  of  man's  existence  extends  be- 
yond the  grave,  and  that  there  will  properly 
begin  the  happy  state  where  the  pious  will  reap 
the  fruits  of  what  they  have  sown. 

The  destination  of  man,  as  a  moral  being,  is, 
holiness  and  proportionate  happiness.  As  to 
holiness  or  moral  perfection,  it  is  and  remains 
extremely  defective  during  the  present  life;  and 
even  those  who  make  the  greatest  advances  in 
moral  excellence  still  fall  very  far  short  of  that 
high  standard  which  is  set  up  before  them  and 
which  their  own  inmost  feelingr  tells  ifeem  they 
ought  to  attain.  And  as  to  happiness,  it  must 
be  confessed  that  no  one  in  the  jiresent  life  is 
perfectly  happy,  either  as  to  body  or  soul,  al- 
though there  is  implanted  in  all  by  the  Creator 
a  disposition  to  seek  for  happiness,  and  an  in- 
extinguishable thirst  lo  enjoy  it.  But  how 
scanty  and  miserable  is  the  satisfaction  of  this 
desire  in  the  present  life,  even  with  those  who 
in  the  judgment  of  others  are  enviably  happy! 
Meauiifully  and  fiiitlifuUy  is  this  described  in 
Kcclesiastes — a  book  which  cftntains  the  true 
philosophy  of  life. 

It  is  true,  indeed,  that  agreeable  sensations, 
both  bodily  and  spiritual,  are  enhanced  in  their 
value  and  charm  by  being  connected  with  un- 
pleasant sensations,  if  the  unpleasant  only  go 
before,  and  the  pleasant  follow  after.  Thus  to 
the  convalescent  man,  after  he  has  endured 
great  sufferinL''s  in  his  sickness,  the  mere  cessa- 
tion of  pain  is  an  ex(|e.isite  delight,  while  to 
those  who  have  felt  none  of  these  suilerings  it 


WG 


CHRISTIAN  Til FO LOGY 


IS  no  source  of  pleasure.  But  an  order  exactly 
the  reverse  is  common  in  the  life  of  men  here 
upon  the  earth.  The  most  cheerful  time  is  that 
of  youth;  then  we  have  the  full  power  and 
bloom  of  life.  The  older  we  (jrow,  the  more 
we  become  entangled  in  business,  burdened 
with  cares,  oppressed  with  g[riefs  and  distresses, 
infirmities  of  body  and  mind,  perhaps  with  po- 
verty and  disgrace.  How  sad  were  the  lot  of 
man  if  he  had  no  future  and  happier  life  to 
cx[)pct ! 

How  many  men  are  born  with  intellectual 
faculties  and  powers  which  they  can  never  fully 
develop  Iwre,  either  because  they  die  early  or 
are  wholly  destitute  of  the  means  and  opportu- 
nities for  development  and  cultivation.  Now  if 
existence  ceases  with  death,  this  sum  of  powers 
is  wholly  lost.  But  since  our  Creator  d'jes  not 
pive  us  even  our  bodily  powers  in  vain  and  for 
no  end,  how  much  less  can  he  have  imparted 
tiie  hiijhpr  intellectual  and  especially  rwyral  fa- 
culties without  dpsifjn! 

It  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  expecta- 
tion of  a  more  happy  state  after  the  present  life 
has,  as  it  were,  forced  itself  so  universally 
upon  retl'ctintr  men.  But  equally  universal  and 
equally  well  grounded  is  the  hope  of  an  unend- 
in:;  cotitinnitice  of  this  future  happy  state.  For 
if  it  is  not  to  continue  for  ever  it  ceases  to  be  a 
truly  happy  condition.  To  foresee  the  end  of  a 
state  of  bliss  would  be  of  itself  enough  to  dis- 
turb the  hap|)iness  which  we  mi'/ht  for  a  time 
possess,  and  to  embitter  its  enjoyment;  and 
when  it  should  actually  come  to  an  end,  it  would 
le.ive  us  far  more  miserable  than  we  were  before 
we  had  experience  of  this  blessedness.  For  one 
who  is  horn  and  brought  up  poor  and  in  a  state 
of  servitude  will  not  feel  his  situation  to  be  so 
miserable  and  oppressive  as  a  rich  or  threat  man, 
who  is  cast  down  from  his  elevation  and  brought 
into  the  same  condition,  will  find  it  to  be. 

Great  and  inestimable,  therefore,  is  the  merit 
of  Jesus  Christ  in  sfivintr  to  this  doctrine  of  an 
eternal  blessedness  beyond  the  nrrave  that  firm- 
ness and  certainty  which  it  cannot  receive  from 
arsiumeiits  of  reason,  by  which  it  can  be  rendered 
only  probable;  and  also  in  referriutr  pverylliin<r, 
as  he  does,  to  this  future  life.  Vide  John,  xx. 
2R;  1  John,  ii.  2.j;  Rom.  ii.  7,  and  s.  1 18.  Kx- 
cept  for  Christ  we  should  have  no  satisfying 
certainty  to  lift  us  above  all  doubt.  But  now 
this  doctrine  is  placed  in  the  most  intimate  con- 
nexion with  the  history  of  his  person,  since  he 
always  re[)reRent3  hiniself  as  the  one  through 
whom  we  attain  to  the  possession  of  this  eter- 
nal happiness,  and  in  whose  society  we  shall 
enjoy  it.  Cf.  the  sections  above  cited,  also  s. 
1 20,11. 

II.  Nuture  and  Nc.mef  of  Future  lih.tscdnesx. 
On  this  suliject  we  have  no  very  clear  and  de- 


finite knowledne,  nor  can  we  have  in  the  present 
life.  Men,  indeed,  usually  conceive  the  joys  of 
heaven  to  be  the  same  as,  or  at  least  to  resemble, 
the  pleasures  of  this  world  ;  and  each  one  hopes 
tobbtain  with  certainty,  and  to  enjoy  in  full  mea- 
sure, beyond  the  grave,  that  good  which  he  holds 
most  dear  upon  earth — those  favourite  employ- 
ments or  particular  delights  which  he  ardently 
longs  for  here,  but  which  he  can  seldom  or  never 
enjoy  in  this  world,  or  in  the  enjoyment  of  which 
he  has  never  been  fully  satisfied.  Hence  rude 
men,  living  only  in  the  indulgence  of  their  pas- 
sions and  appetites,  have  always  expected  to  find 
in  heaven  the  uninterrupted  enjoyment  of  sensual 
delights  of  every  kind.  The  indolent  man,  or 
one  who  is  exhausted  by  severe  labotir,  regards 
rest  and  freedom  from  employment  as  the  high- 
est good,  and  places  the  chief  blessedness  df 
heaven  in  this.  But  one  who  reflects  soberly 
on  this  subject  will  easily  see  that  the  happi- 
ness of  heaven  must  be  a  verj'  ditTerent  thing 
from  earthly  happiness.  This  last  is  of  such 
a  nature  as  to  be  soon  followed  by  disgust  and 
satiety.  We  should  be  very  unhappy,  if  we 
should  live  for  ever  in  the  richest  profusion  of 
the  highest  earthly  delights  and  joys,  even 
could  we  continue  in  perpetual  and  never-fading 
youth.  For  all  earthly  joys  and  delights  of 
which  we  know  anything  by  experience,  are  of 
such  a  nature  that  after  they  have  been  enjoyed 
for  a  short  time  they  lose  their  relish,  and  then 
follows  satiety.  Kxperience  daily  confirms  the 
truth  of  what  is  said  by  the  preacher,  that  every- 
thinijf  upon  earth  is  vanity  and  vrration  of  npirit. 
If  it  were  appointed  to  us  in  our  present  cntuJi' 
tion  to  live/(/r  ever  upon  the  earth,  in  the  full 
enjoyment  of  all  it  can  afford  to  please  and 
charm,  our  lot  were  indeed  pitiable.  Had  we 
tasted  all  possible  earthly  pleasures,  and  were 
there  none  now  left  which  could  attract  us  by 
their  novelty,  satiated  with  a  joyless  life  we 
should  wish  ourselves  dead,  and  even  this 
wish,  to  our  sorrow,  would  remain  unsatisfied; 
even  that  rest,  or  rather  indolence  and  torpidity, 
which  is  so  highly  praised  and  so  anienlly 
lonered  for  by  some  drones,  would,  long  ciiui- 
nued,  render  us  perfectly  miserable,  and  at 
lenirth  become  wholly  intolerable. 

Cicero  very  justly  remarks,  that  the  blessed 
gods,  according  to  the  notion  which  the  F.picu- 
reans  entertained  of  them,  could  not  possibly  be 
happy,  beinjT  v/ithout  employment,  and  having 
nothing  to  think  of,  through  all  eternity,  except 
hrik  est  milii.  Hence  the  bliss  and  joys  of  the 
future  world  must  be  of  an  entirely  ditTerent 
kind  from  what  is  called  earthly  joy  and  happi- 
ness, if  we  are  there  to  be  truly  hnppy  fur  tvrr. 

But  since  we  have  no  distinct  conceptions  of 
those  joys  which  never  have  been  and  never  will 
lie  experienced  by  us  here  in  their  full  extent, 
we  have  of  course  no  words  in  our  language  to 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       54? 


express  them,  and  connot  therefore  expect  any 
clear  description  of  them,  even  in  the  holy  scrip- 
tures. Cf.  Morns,  p.  298,  s.  7,  ad  fincin,  and 
p.  299,  note  1.  Hence  the  Bible  describes  this 
happiness  sometimes  in  general  terms  designat- 
ing its  greatness,  (as  Romans,  viii.  18 — "i^;  2 
Cor.  iv.  17,  18,)  and  sometimes  by  various  beau- 
tiful images  and  figurative  modes  of  speech,  bor- 
rowed from  everything  which  we  know  to  be  at- 
tractive and  desirable. 

The  greater  part  of  these  images  were  already 
common  among  the  Jewish  contemporaries  of 
Christ,  but  Christ  and  his  apostles  employed 
them  in  a  purer  sense  than  the  great  multiludu 
of  the  Jews.  The  Orientalists  are  rich  in  such 
figures.  They  were  employed  by  I\Iohammed, 
who  carried  them,  as  his  manner  was,  to  an  ex- 
tra.vagant  excess,  but  at  the  same  time  said  ex- 
pressly that  they  were  mere  figures,  although 
many  of  his  followers  afterwards  understood 
them  literally,  as  has  been  often  done  in  a  similar 
way  by  many  Ciiristians.  If  all  which  is  figura- 
tive is  taken  away,  the  main  idea  which  is  left  is 
that  of  u;rmt  ft'icihj,  which,  as  it  is  expressly 
said,  will  transcend  all  our  expectations  and  con- 
ceptions. Vide  1  John,  iii.  2;  Col.  iii.  3,  ^w^ 
riixCjv  xtzprrtTat.  The  passage  1  Cor.  ii.  9,  eyt 
hath  not  seen,  ear  hath  not  heard,  &c.,  (which  is 
taken  from  Isa.  Ixiv.  4,)  does  not  properly  relate 
to  this  subject.  Judging  from  ver.  7,  8,  the 
subject  liere  treated  of  is  the  Christian  doctrine, 
which  was  before  unknown,  and  which  is  not 
the  product  of  human  invention.  Still  the  whole 
passage  leads  to  this,  that  God  made  these  ex- 
traordinary provisions  through  Christ,  in  order 
to  bring  us  to  the  enjoyment  of  an  unspeakable 
bliss.     Cf.  also  1  Cor.  xiii.  2. 

The  following  are  among  the  principal  names 
of  future  happiness,  both  literal  and  figura- 
tive : — 

(1)  The  literal  oppel/atious.  Zw^,  ^w>j  aiioi-toj. 
which,  according  to  Hebrew  usage,  signifies,  a 
happy  life,  vita  vcre  viialis,  eternal  well-bung. 
Hence  the  term  opyjj  ©foO  is  opposed  to  it — 
3.  g.,  John,  iii.  IG,  3(1;  also  xaraxptaij,  xoxarjtj. 
K.  T.  7..  Ao|tt,  605a  ©sou,  reward,  Rom.  ii.  7 ; 
V.  3.  'A(}>^apai.tt,  h6%(x,  •rt.ujj  xai  a.^'^a^aia,  Roin. 
ii.  7;  and  fiprvr^,  ver.  10.  Aiioiioc  f3apoj  6o|>y?. 
an  eternal  reward  of  full  weight,  2  Cor.  iv.  17. 
2wTv;p;a,  (jcjtTjpt'a  aiufco;,  Heb.  Y.  9,  &c. 

(2)  Fii^urativc  represenlalions.  Among  these 
is  the  name  heaven.  The  abode  of  the  departed 
saints  is  a^ilace  which,  to  us  who  live  upon  the 
earth,  and  while  we  remain  here,  is  invisible 
and  inaccessible,  beyond  the  bound  of  the  visi- 
ble world,  and  entirely  st'parated  from  it;  there 
they  live  in  the  highest  well-beinir.  and  in  a 
nearer  connexion  with  God  and  Christ  than 
here  below.  This  place  and  state  cannot  be 
designated  by  any  more  fit  and  hri^f  expression 
than  that  which  is  found  in  almost  every  lan- 


guage— v\z., heaven,-  this,  therefore,  is  frequent- 
ly employed  by  the  sacred  writers.  It  is  there 
that  the  highest  sanctuary  or  temple  of  God  is 
situated — i.  e.,  it  is  there  where  the  omnipre- 
sent God  reveals  himself  moet  gloriously.  That, 
too,  is  the  abode  of  the  hii;her  spiritual  creation 
of  God.  Thither  was  Christ  translated;  he 
calls  k  the  house  of  his  Father,  and  says  that  he 
lias  there  prepared  an  abode  for  his  followers, 
John,  xiv.  2,  coll.  s.  23,  II.,  and  s.  97,  II. 

This  |>lace  was  never  conceived  of  in  ancient 
limes,  as  it  has  been  by  some  modern  writers, 
as  a  particular /j/anc/,  or  world,  but  as  the  wide 
expanse  of  heaven,  high  above  the  atmosphere, 
or  starry  heaven  ;  hence  it  is  sometimes  called 
the  third  heaven,  as  being  neither  the  atmo- 
sphere nor  starry  heaven.  Vide  2  Cor.  xii.  2. 
The  remark  of  Morus  is  good,  p.  297,  note  4, 
"  iUud  in  ca.lo  esse,  magis  indicat  statum  condi- 
tionenique  hominis,  quam  locum  cerium." 

Another  figurative  name  is  paradise,  taken 
from  the  abode  of  the  first  man  in  his  innocence. 
Vide  vol.  i.  s.  52,  ad  finem.  From  this  it  is 
transferred  to  the  abode  of  the  blessed.  Luke, 
xxiii.  43;  2  Cor.  xii.  4;  Rev.  ii.  7;  xxii.  2. 

Again  :  this  place  is  called  the  heavenly  Jeru- 
salem (f rtorpaitoj,  xair^,  7;  dito)  ;  because  the 
earthly  Jerusalem  was  the  capital  city  of  the 
Jews,  the  place  of  the  royal  residence,  and  the 
seat  of  the  divine  worship,  Gal.  iv.  2o ;  Hob. 
xii.  22  ;  Rev.  iii.  12.  Ra-nXfia  orpai-w)',  or  Qeov, 
Matt.  XXV.  34  ;  James,  ii.  5  ;  ^aiiXiia  inwpdvioi 
and  atffli'ioj,  2  Tim.  iv.  18;  2  Pet.  i.  11 ;  ovaf3a- 
otXfvfii'  re,  Xptoro,  2  Tim.  ii.  12— i.  e.,  to  be 
distinguished,  honoured,  and  happy,  as  he  is, — 
to  enjoy  roy-al  felicity.  Cicero  says,  turn  nos 
rcgnare  videbamur.  The  stoics  say,  onincm  sapi- 
entem  regnnre.  Kxr^povofila  and  xX^poj,  (accord- 
iniT  to  the  Heb.  v-y  and  -ri:,  possidere,  to  attain 
lo  possession,)  the  possessing  and  fully  enjoying 
happiness,  as  theancientlsraelitesdid  Palestine. 
Hence  xXt^^iovouia  rtrirpr^i^ivr,  iv  ovparotj,  1  Pet. 
i.  4;  Heb.  ix.  15.  To  sit  down  at  table  with 
.Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob — i.  e.,  to  share  with 
the  pious  of  antiquity  in  the  joys  of  salvation; 
lo  bo  in  Jlbrahani's  bosom — i.  e.,  to  sit  next  to 
Abraham,  Luke,  xvi.  22;  Matt.  viii.  1  1.  Vide 
Wetslein,  ad  h.  \.  2a3.3artTu6{,  or  diH'rtav5(j, 
aifii{,  Heb.  iv.  10,  11,  where  it  denotes  the 
happiness  of  pious  Christians,  both  in  this  life 
and  that  to  come.  STt'^aroj  fixaioon'r;;?,  the  re- 
ward of  piety,  2  Tim.  iv.  8  ;   Phil.  iii.  14. 

(3)  As  to  the  abode  of  perfrcted  and  happy 
men  after  the  judgineni,  when  their  souls  will 
beao-ain  united  with  their  bodies,  the  opinions  of 
men  nave  been  very  different.  It  is  of  chief  im- 
portance to  notice  that  it  is  always  described  in 
the  New  Testament  as  a  very  ddiirhtful  and 
happy  place.  Moreover,  the  apostles  teach  dis- 
tinctly that  this  earth,  after  the  prest-iit  state  of 
things  isended,  will  be  renewed, and  fitted  forthe 
3  a2 


55P 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


ordinary  residence  of  those  whose  souls  will  be 
a^din  united  with  their  bodies,  in  short,  of  the 
saints  who  will  be  raised.  Vide  2  Pel.  iii.  13, 
where  lie  speaks  of  a  new  heavens  and  a  new 
earth.  Hence  it  is  said  in  the  Apocalypse,  that 
the  New  Jerusalem  in  heaven  (i.  e.,  the  abode 
of  the  departed  souls  of  the  pious)  will,  after 
the  resurrection,  (when  their  souls  will  be  again 
united  with  the  body,)  be  letdown  (xaralaivtii) 
to  the  earth,  (now  renewed  and  beautified.)  Rev. 
xxi.  1,  seq.,  coll.  Rom.  viii.  IS,  sei[. 

SECTION  CLX. 

WHAT  DO  REASON  AND  SCRIPTURE  TEACH  AND 
LEAD  LS  TO  EXPECT,  IN  A  GENERAL  VIEW,  AS 
TO  THE  REAL  NATURE  OF  FUTURE  BLESSED- 
NESS ? 

The  sum  of  what  we  are  taught  by  reason  and 
scripture  on  this  point  may  be  comprehended 
under  the  three  following  particulars  : — («)  We 
shall  hereafter  be  entirely  freed  from  the  suffer- 
ings of  this  life;  (i)  Our  future  blessedness  will 
be  a  continuation  of  the  happiness  of  this  life  ; 
(c)  But  it  will  also  be  increased  by  the  addition 
of  miny  new  joys,  which  stand  in  no  natural  or 
necessary  connexion  with  our  preceding  condi- 
tion ill  this  life. 

I.  Entire  Freedom  f rum  the  Sufferings  and  Adver- 
iilics  (if  this  Present  Earthly  Life. 

This  is  often  expressed  in  the  Bible  by  words 
which  denote  rent,  repose,  refreshment,  after  per- 
forming labour  and  suffering  affliction — e.  g., 
avfitj,  oi-artavatf,  CTa(3,3ar£auoj,  (not  inactivity, 
entire  freedom  from  employment,  or  indolence; 
vide  8.  150;)  vide  2  Thess.  i.  7,  "  God  will  give 
to  you,  who  are  troubled,  drf5t»'.  Heb.  iv.  9, 
1 1  ;  Rev.  xiv.  13,  •'  they  rest  from  their  labours," 
where  xonot,  like  Inbores,  signifies  moleslix  af- 
Jliclions,  and  not  emphiyments.  Cf.  Morus,  p. 
2')9,  n.  1.  Cf.  also  Rev.  vii.  17,  "God  shall 
wipe  away  all  tears  from  their  eyes." 

Tills  exemption  from  the  evils  of  the  pre- 
sent life  includes,  according  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 

(1)  Deliverance  from  the  earthly  body,  the 
seat  of  the  lower  principles  of  our  nature  and  of 
our  sinful  corruption,  and  the  cause  of  so  many 
evils  and  sulferings,  2  Cor.  v.  1,  2  ;  1  Cor.  xv. 
Vide  s.  IM. 

(2)  Entire  separation  from  the  society  of 
wieked  and  evil-disposed  persons,  who  in  vari- 
ous ways  injure  the  righteous  man,  and  embitter 
his  life  <m  earth  ;  2  'I'im.  iv.  18,  ,jvi«rou'  fii  tino 
rtavroj  ?|)you  T(ovr;^)')v ,  (i.  e.,  men  who  do  evil.) 
It  is  hence  accounted  as  making  a  part  of  the 
felicity  of  ('brist  in  heaven  that  he  is  there  sepa- 
rated from  sinners,  (xfj^wptjuiioj.)  Heb.  vii.  2G. 

(3)  Everything  here  upon  the  earth  is  incon- 
stant, and  subject  to  perpetual  change ;  and  in- 


capable of  satisfying  our  expectations  and  de- 
sires. Everything  is  vanii^.  Even  the  pleasures 
and  joys  of  this  life  are  of  such  a  nati're  that 
they  lead  to  satiety  and  disgust  when  they  are 
long  continued.  Vide  s.  1 5U.  But  in  the  world 
to  come  it  will  be  different.  The  bliss  of  the 
saints  will  continue  without  interruption  or 
change,  without  fear  of  termination,  and  without 
satiety  ; — grt'^oj'oj  a<})J>cif  roj,  cutiafro{,  ajxufiafrof, 
a  crown  ever  new  and  beautiful,  in  opposition  to 
the  fading  crowns  of  earthly  victors;  1  Pet.  i. 
4;  v.  10;  2  Cor.  iv.  Ifi,  18;  Luke,  xx.  3C; 
1  John,  iii.  2,  et  passim.  From  hence  it  is  also 
manifest  that  the  joys  of  the  pious  in  the  future 
world  will  be  capable  of  a  constant  increase,  an 
ever-progressive  enlargement.  For  everything 
uniform  and  stationary  produces  satiety  and  dis- 
gust. In  the  heavenly  world,  then,  there  will 
be  no  sameness  and  stagnant  unitVjrmiiy  of  joy. 
Xote. — The  question  is  here  asked,  whether 
the  pious,  in  the  future  world,  will  be  entirely 
delivered  from  natural  depravity,  or  the  prepon- 
derance of  sense  over  reason'!  Whether  their 
obedience  to  God,  and  their  virtue,  will  be  so 
entirely  confirmed  that  they  will  be  for  ever  free 
from  all  danger  of  sinning  1  If  we  would  agree 
with  the  holy  scriptures  we  must  answer  this 
(juestion  in  the  affirmative.  The  whole  ana- 
fogy  of  Christian  doctrine  implies  that  this  will 
be  so;  and  so  clearly  that  it  does  not  r.eed  any 
further  proof.  That  the  state  of  the  saint  in  the 
future  world  will  be  one  of  secure  and  confirmed 
holiness  may  also  be  deduced  incontrovertibly 
from  the  doctrine  of  the  perfcctionment  and  en- 
nobling of  the  body.  The  seat  of  carnal  appe- 
tite and  of  sin  is  in  the  earthly  and  mortal  body ; 
and  from  this  we  shall  then  be  freed,  and  shall 
possess,  like  Christ,  a  heavenly  body,  s.  77, 
and  8.  153.  According  to  1  Cor.  xv.,  our  body 
will  no  more  then  be  oZua  -^vx^xov,  but  jtvfvua- 
rixov.  There  is  no  need  therefore  of  resorting 
to  purgatory  to  explain  how  man  may  be  here- 
after purged  from  hereditary  depravity.  The 
possibility  of  sinning  will,  however,  still  re- 
main, as  it  was  with  man  in  his  original  inno- 
cence, and  as  it  is  with  the  holy  angels.  Bui. 
the  blessed  saints  in  heaven  will  not  wish  to  sin; 
for  the  preponderance  of  sense  will  then  be  en- 
tirely removed  ;  nor  will  they  any  longer  meet 
with  those  external  hindrances,  those  allure- 
ments to  sin,  which  obstructed  their  piety  here 
upon  the  earth.  On  the  contrary,  they  will 
there  have  the  strongest  attractions  and  motives 
to  piety,  more  enlarged  views,  good  examples, 
&c.  And  these  means  are  siifTicient  lo  confirm 
the  saints  in  goodness. 

II.  Contintiance  of  the  Happiness  of  '\e  Present 
Life. 

When  the  soul  leaves  the  body  it  will  retain 
tbe  consciousness  of  whatever  passed  within  it 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.      559 


while  here  upon  the  earth.  It  carries  along  with 
it,  into  the  future  world,  the  ideas,  the  know- 
ledge, the  liabits,  which  it  possessed  here.  And 
80  it  takes  also  good  and  evil  from  this  life  into 
tli«  next,  as  its  .'\vn  property,  and  there  rofpives 
the  fruit  df  it.  It  is  therefore  certain  that  a  part 
of  the  heavenly  blessedness  will  consist  in  the 
consciousness  and  recollection  of  the  good  en- 
joyed and  performed  in  the  foregoing  life,  and 
in  that  cheerfulness  and  peace  of  mind  which 
will  proceed  from  the  thought  of  this.  As  to 
the  wicked,  the  case  will  be  reversed.  This, 
now,  is  one  of  the  n«/Hr«/ good  consequences  or 
rewards  of  virtue  and  piety;  and  the  opposite  is 
one  of  the  natural  evil  consequences  or  punish- 
ments of  sin.     Vide  s.  15G,  157. 

From  what  has  now  been  said,  it  follows  of 
course  that  there  will  be  a  difference  of  decree 
(diversitas  graduuni)  in  the  happiness  of  saints 
in  heaven.  The  happiness  of  all  will  be  equally 
eternal,  but  not  equally  intense.  The  more  good 
actions,  such  as  are  acceptable  in  the  sight  of 
God,  one  has  performed,  the  nobler  his  virtues 
were,  the  greater  the  difficulties  and  hindrances 
which  he  had  to  overcome,  the  greater  will  be 
his  reward.  That  this  should  be  otherwise  nei- 
ther the  goodness  nor  justice  of  God  permit  us 
to  believe.  Thus,  for  example,  two  men,  one 
of  whom  had  devoted  his  whole  life  to  virtue 
and  piety,  vviiile  the  other  had  put  olF  reflection 
to  a  late  period,  and  then  first  renounced  his 
former  sins,  could  not  possibly  be  equal  to  each 
other  in  reward.  Vide  s.  127,  II.  In  short, 
the  happiness  of  each  individual  will  be  exactly 
apportioned  to  his  susceptibility  of  happiness. 
Great  and  various  as  may  be  his  capacity  or 
susceptibility  for  the  enjoyment  of  happiness, 
just  so  great  and  various  will  his  happiness 
certainly  be  hereafter.  The  very  different  ta- 
lents, powers,  and  knowledge  of  men,  and  the 
use  they  have  made  of  them,  also  make  a  great 
difference  as  to  the  capacity  for  happiness. 

All  this  is  perfectly  accordant  with  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine.  Cf.  the  parables.  Matt.  xxv.  14, 
seq.,  and  Luke,  xix.  16 — 19;  also  2  Cor.  ix.  f>, 
"he  who  soweth  sparingly  shall  reap  also  spar- 
ingly ;  and  he  who  soweth  bountifully  shall  reap 
also  bountifully;"  coll.  Gal.  vi.  7;  1  Cor.  iii. 
8,  "every  man  shall  receive  his  own  reward, 
according  to  his  own  labour,  (xara  tbv  Ihiov 
xdrtov;)  Rom.  ii.  10,  "to  him  who  worketh 
good,  glory,  honour,  and  peace,  will  be  given, 
•Iov6ai9  7ii;>i^tov,  (since  from  his  greater  know- 
ledge he  could  do  more  good,)  xoi  "Exxjjvi,"  in 
opposition  to  the  punishment  spoken  of  ver.  9. 

This  sentiment  is  not  contrary  to  the  de- 
claration of  Christ,  the  last  shall  he  first,  &c., 
Matt.  xix.  30;  xx.  1 — 16,  the  parable  of  the 
labourers  in  the  vineyard.  For  all  which  Christ 
there  says  has  respect  to  the  mercenary  question 
of  Peter.  What  shall  wc  receive  in  rtturn?     In 


opposition  to  this,  Christ  teaches  that  men  must 
not  undertake  to  prescribe  to  God  wheri  and 
how  he  shall  bestow  rewards;  in  their  dealings 
with  him  they  must  not  insist  upon  recompence; 
for  men  have  deserved  no  reward  at  the  hand 
of  God  which  they  can  claim  as  a  right.  They 
ought  rather,  conscious  of  ihpir  own  unwor- 
thiness,  to  expect  this  reward,  with  humility 
and  submission,  only  because  God,  of  his  mere 
good  mercy,  has  promised  it.  Cf.  Cotta,  De 
Diversis  Gradibus  Gloriae  Beatorum;  Tub. 
1773. 

jS'ote  1. — The  Christian  doctrine  requires  of 
every  one  who  desires  to  partake  of  eternal  hap- 
piness that  he  should  possess  a  humble  and  un- 
pretending spirit,  and  should  be  deeply  con- 
vinced that  he  deserves  notiiing  by  his  good 
deeds,  and  has  not  so  merited  the  rewards  of 
the  world  to  come  that  he  can  claim  tiiem  as  his 
right.  This  disposition  is  finely  represented  in 
Matt.  xxv.  37,  seq.,  where  Christ  says,  that  the 
pious  will  be  hereafter  surprised  to  find  them- 
selves so  rewarded,  as  they  will  not  he  conscious 
of  having  done  any  thing  to  deserve  such  re- 
wards. On  the  contrary,  the  wicked,  ver.  44, 
suppose  they  have  done  much  good,  hut  are  not- 
withstanding sent  away  into  the  place  of  torment. 
Vide  especially  Luke,  xiii.  26.  seq. 

Note  2. — According  to  the  Christian  doctrine, 
such  actions  only  as  flow  from  grateful  love  to 
God  and  Christ  can  he  consistently  rewarded, 
for  these  virtues  only  are  recognised  by  scrip- 
ture as  having  any  good  desert.  Hence  in 
Matt.  xxv.  35,  36,  Christ  himself  specifies  such 
deeds  as  are  active  proofs  of  faith  in  him,  and 
of  grateful  love  to  him.  Vide  s.  124,  125,  re- 
specting good  works.  One  who  does  good  from 
impure  motives  has,  as  Christ  says,  already  re- 
ceived his  reward. 

III.  Positive  Rewards  in  the  Future  World. 

Besides  being  exempt  from  all  earthly  trials, 
and  having  a  continuance  of  that  happiness 
which  we  had  begun  to  enjoy  even  here,  we 
have  good  reason  to  expect  hereafter  other* re- 
wards and  joys,  which  stand  in  no  natural  or 
necessary  connexion  with  the  present  life.  For 
our  entire  felicity  would  bo  extremely  defective 
and  scanty,  should  it  be  confined  merely  to  that 
which  we  carry  with  us  from  the  prpsent  world, 
to  that  peace  and  joy  of  soul  which  result  from 
reflecting  on  what  we  may  have  done  which  is 
good  and  pleasing  in  the  sight  of  God;  since 
even  the  best  man  will  always  discover  great 
imperfections  in  all  that  he  has  done.  Our  feli- 
city would  also  be  incomplete  were  we  com- 
pelled to  stop  short  with  that  meagre  and  ele- 
mentary knowledge  which  we  take  with  us 
from  this  world, — that  knowledge  so  broken  up 
into  fragments,  and  yielding  sc  little  fruit,  and 
which,  poor  as  it  is,  many  good  men,  from  lacW 


5G0 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


of  opporfunity  and  without  any  fault  on  their 
part,  never  here  acquire.  Besides  the  natural 
rewards  of  goodness,  there  must,  therefore,  be 
others  which  zxe  positive  and  depending  on  the 
will  of  the  Supreme  Legislator. 

On  this  point  almost  all  philosophers  are  for 
the  above  reasons  agreed,  even  those  who  will 
admit  of  no  positive  punishmenls  in  the  world  to 
come.  But  for  want  of  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  state  of  things  in  the  future  world,  we 
can  say  nothing  definite  and  certain  as  to  the 
nature  of  these  positive  rewards.  Vide  s.  150, 
I.  In  the  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament,  how- 
ever, positive  rewards  are  considered  most  ob- 
viously as  belonging  to  our  future  felicity,  and 
as  constituting  a  principal  part  of  it.  For  it 
always  represents  the  joys  of  heaven  as  result- 
ing strictly  from  ihefavour  of  God,  and  as  being 
undeatrved  by  those  to  whom  they  are  given. 
Hence  there  must  be  something  more  added  to 
the  natunil  good  consequences  of  our  actions, 
something  which  cannot  be  considered  as  the 
necessary  and  natural  consequences  of  the  good 
actions  we  may  have  before  performed.  But 
on  this  subject,  we  know  nothing  more  in  gene- 
ral than  this,  that  God  will  so  appoint  and  order 
our  circumstances,  and  make  such  arrange- 
ments, that  the  principal  faculties  of  our  souls — 
reason  and  affection,  will  be  heightened  and  de- 
veloped, so  that  we  shall  continually  obtain 
more  pure  and  distinct  knowledge  of  the  truth, 
and  make  continual  advances  in  holiness. 

The  following  particular  remarks  may  be  of 
Home  use  in  illustrating  this  subject: — 

(I)  In  this  life  God  has  very  wisely  allotted 
various  capacities,  powers,  and  talents,  in  dif- 
ferent ways  and  degrees,  to  difi'erent  men,  ac- 
cording to  the  various  ends  for  which  he  designs 
them,  and  the  business  in  which  he  employs 
them.  Now  there  is  not  the  least  reason  to 
suppose  that  God  will  abolish  this  variety  in 
the  future  world  ;  it  will  rather  continue  there 
in  all  its  extent.  We  must  suppose,  then,  that 
there  will  be,  even  in  the  heavenly  world,  a  di- 
versity of  tastes,  of  labours,  and  employments, 
and  that  to  one  person  this,  to  another  that,  field 
in  the  boundless  kingdom  of  truth  and  of  useful 
occupation  will  be  assigned  for  his  cultivation 
according  to  his  jieculiar  powers,  qualifications, 
ami  tastes. 

A  presentiment  of  this  truth  is  contained  in 
the  idea,  which  was  widely  dilTused  throughout 
the  ancient  world — viz.,  that  the  Manes  will 
still  prosecute,  in  the  future  life,  the  employ- 
ments  to  which  they  had  been  here  accustomed. 
At  least,  such  arrangements  will  doubtless  be 
made  by  God  in  the  future  life,  that  eacli  indivi- 
dual will  there  develop  more  and  more  the 
Ifenns  implanted  within  him  by  the  hand  of  the 
Creator;  and  will  be  able,  more  fully  than  he 
eren  could   here,  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  his 


intellectual  nature,  and  thus  to  make  continual 
progress  in  the  knowledge  of  every  tiling  worthy 
of  being  known,  of  which  he  could  learn  only 
the  simplest  elements  in  this  world ;  and  he 
will  be  able  to  do  this  in  such  a  way  that  the 
increase  of  knowledge  will  not  be  detrimental 
to  piety,  as  it  often  proves  on  earth,  but  ratlier 
promotive  of  it.  To  the  sincere  and  ardent 
searcher  after  truth  it  is  a  rejoicing  and  consol- 
ing thought  that  he  will  be  able  hereafter  to  per- 
fect that  knowledge  which  here  has  so  many 
deficiencies.     V^ide  1  Cor.  xiii.  9,  seq. 

But  there  is  danger  here  of  going  too  far,  and 
of  falling  into  tiiose  strange  conceptions  of 
which  we  find  so  many  examples  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Lavater.  Various  as  the  tastes  and 
wants  of  men  in  the  future  world  will  doubtless 
be,  they  will  still  be  in  many  respects  dilferent 
from  what  they  are  here;  because  the  whole 
sphere  of  action,  ami  the  objects  by  which  we 
shall  there  be  surrounded,  will  he  ditiVrent. 
VVe  shall  there  have  a  changed  and  more  per- 
fect body,  and  by  this  single  circumstance  shall 
be  freed  at  once  from  many  of  the  wants  and  in- 
clinations which  have  their  seat  in  the  earthly 
body.  And  this  will  also  contribute  much  to 
rectify,  enlarge,  and  perfect  our  knowledge. 
Many  things  which  seem  to  us  very  important 
and  essential  during  this  our  state  of  infancy 
upon  earth,  will  hereafter  doubtless  appear  in  a 
different  light;  we  shall  look  upon  them  as  tri- 
fles and  children's  play,  and  employ  ourselves 
in  more  important  occupations,  the  utility  and 
interest  of  which  we  may  have  never  before 
thought  of. 

Some  theologians  have  supposed  that  the 
saints  in  heaven  may  be  taught  by  immtdiate  di- 
vine revelntiotix  (^hiinen  i^luri^c)  ,•  especially  those 
who  may  enter  the  abodes  of  the  olessed  without 
knowledge,  or  with  only  a  small  measure  of  it, 
— e.  g,,  children,  and  others  who  have  died  in 
an  ignorance  for  which  they  themselves  were 
not  to  blame.  On  this  subject  nothing  is  defi- 
nitely taught  in  the  scriptures;  but  both  scrip- 
ture and  reason  warrant  us  in  bflieving  that 
provision  will  be  made  for  all  such  persons  in 
the  future  world.     Vide  s.  l"2t>,  IL 

Note. — In  the  popular  exhibition  of  the  whole 
doctrine  of  future  blessedness  much  prudence 
and  caution  are  requisite;  and  the  teacher  must 
pay  careful  attention  to  the  difTerence  of  educa- 
tion and  intellectual  culture  among  his  hearers. 
This  is  partieularly  necessary  with  regard  to  the 
point  introduced  in  the  foregoin'j  paragraph, 
'i'he  importance  which  the  learned  and  educated 
man  attaches  to  the  cultiVe  of  his  inlellcettta. 
powers,  and  to  the  increase  of  knowledge,  may 
easily  lead  him  into  the  mistake  of  insisting, 
even  in  his  reliijious  discourses,  too  much  on 
the  imi)ortance  of  this/(<r  fvrrt/  one,  and  of  repre- 
senting it  as  constituting  a  chief  part  of  the 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       561 


employments  and  joys  of  the  future  life.  But  the 
great  mass  of  mankind  have  but  little  taste  for 
tnis  intellectual  culture.  They  even  associate 
with  it  the  idea  of  severe  labour  and  toil,  be- 
cause thinking  and  learning  are  so  difficult  to 
them.  It  is  the  same  as  to  the  expectation  of 
increased  activity  hereafter.  This  has  no  charm 
for  the  great  mass  of  mankind,  because  their  bo- 
dily labours  are  so  oppressive.  They  find  more 
satisfaction  in  the  idea  of  rest  and  rcfresfiment, 
with  regard  to  which,  however,  they  should  be 
taught  that  the  rest  of  heaven  is  not  a  state  of 
entire  inactivity.  Vide  s.  159.  They  prefer  to 
hear  of  the  cessation  of  all  their  pains,  and  the 
drying  of  all  their  tears.  Cf.  Rev.  vii.  17,  &c. 
It  is  therefore  very  necessary,  in  presenting  this 
subject  before  popular  assemblies,  to  have  re- 
gard to  the  different  wants,  conceptions,  and 
dispositions  of  men,  and  thus  to  imitate  the  ex- 
ample of  Christ  and  the  apostles. 

(2)  A  principal  part  of  our  future  happiness 
will  consist,  according  to  the  Christian  doctrine, 
in  the  enlargement  and  correcting  of  our  know- 
ledge respecting  God,  his  nature,  attributes,  and 
works,  and  in  the  salutary  application  of  this 
knowledge  to  our  own  moral  benefit,  to  the  in- 
crease of  our  faith,  love,  and  obedience.  There 
has  been  some  controversy  among  theologians 
with  regard  to  the  vision  of  God,  {^visio  Dei  in- 
iuitiva,  or  sensitiva,  or  heat-ifica,  or  compreheU' 
siva.)  The  question  is,  whether  the  saints  will 
hereafter  behold  God  with  the  eyes  of  the  glo- 
rified body,  or  only  with  the  eyes  of  the  mind — 
i.  e.,  merely  know  him  with  the  understanding. 
On  this  point  there  was  dispute  even  in  the  an- 
cient Oriental  church  among  the  Nestorians, 
some  of  whom  advocated  the  bodily  vision  of 
God,  and  were  on  this  account  blamed  by  others. 
Even  in  the  Latin  church,  too,  there  was  con- 
troversy on  this  point  among  the  schoolmen, 
and  the  different  theological  schools  of  the  Rom- 
ish church.  And  this  was  transmitted  to  the 
protestant  church  of  the  seventeenth  century ; 
since  Musaeus,  and  other  theologians  of  Jena, 
rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  bodily  vision  of  God, 
which  was,  on  the  other  hand,  advocated  by  the 
theologians  of  Wittemberg. 

But  in  the  scriptures  God  is  always  repre- 
sented as  a  Being  invisible  by  the  bodily  eye 
(dopatov),  as  indeed  every  spirit  is.  Vide  s.  19. 
The  texts  of  scripture  which  speak  of  seeing 
God  have  been  misunderstood;  they  signify, 
sometimes,  the  more  distinct  knowjedge  of  God, 
as  we  speak  of  knowing  by  seeing,  of  seeing 
with  the  eyes  of  the  mind  ;  so  John,  i.  18;  iii.  2; 
iv.  12,  coll.  V.  20;  I  Tim.  vi.  16;  and  Paul 
uses  (Bxtrttiv  and  yivuiaxnv  as  synonymous, 
1  Cor.  xiii.  12,  13,  coll.  v.  10.— Again,  they 
express  the  idea  of /e/icj/y,  the  enjoyment  of 
God's  favour,  the  being  thought  worthy  of  his 
71 


friendship,  &c.  Still  more  frequently  are  both 
of  these  meanings  comprehended  under  the 
phrase  to  see  God.  The  image  is  taken  from 
oriental  princes,  to  see  whose  faces,  and  to  be 
in  whose  presence,  was  esteemed  a  great  favour. 
Cf.  Matt.  V.  8;  Heb.  xii.  14,  "Without  holi- 
ness ovSfij  o^itai  rbv  Kvptov."  The  oppcisite 
of  this  is,  to  be  lemoved  from  God  and  from  his 
face. 

But  Christ  is  always  represented  as  one  who 
will  he  personally  visible  by  us,  and  whose  per- 
sonal, familiar  intercourse  and  guidance  we 
shall  enjoy.  And  herein  Christ  himself  places 
a  chief  part  of  the  joy  of  the  saints,  John,  xi  v., 
xvii.,  fic.  And  so  the  apostles  often  describe 
the  blessedness  of  the  pious,  by  the  phrase  being 
with  Christ.  To  his  guidance  has  God  entrust- 
ed the  human  ra»*e,  in  heaven  and  on  earth. 
And  Paul  says,  2  Cor.  iv.  6,  we  see  "  the  hrisht- 
ness  of  the  divine  glory  in  the  face  of  Christ," 
— he  is  "the  visible  representative  of  the  invi- 
sible God,"  Col,  i.  15.  Vide  s.  120,  respecting 
the  office  of  Christ. 

(3)  According  to  the  representation  contained 
in  the  holy  scriptures,  the  saints  will  dwell  to- 
gether in  the  future  world,  and  form,  as  it  were, 
a  kingdom  or  state  of  God.  Cf.  Luke,  xvi. ;  xx. 
38;  Rom.  viii.  10;  Rev.  vii.  9 ;  Heb.  xii.  23. 
They  will  there  partake  of  a  common  felicity. 
Their  enjoyment  will  doubtless  be  very  much 
heightened  by  friendship,  and  by  their  confiding 
intercourse  with  each  other.  We  must,  how- 
ever, separate  all  earthly  imperfection  from  our 
conceptions  of  this  heavenly  society.  But  that 
we  shall  there  recognise  our  former  friends,  and 
shall  be  asrain  associated  with  them,  was  uni- 
formly believed  by  all  antiquity.  Vide  s.  150, 
II.  2.  This  idea  was  admitted  as  altogether 
rational,  and  as  a  consoling  thought,  by  the 
most  distinguished  ancient  philosophers.  Cf. 
the  speech  of  the  dying  Socrates,  recorded  by 
Plato,  and  translated  by  Cicero  in  his  Tusculan 
Questions,  i.  41.  This  too  was  the  opinion  of 
Cicero,  as  may  be  seen  from  his  treatise,  De  Se- 
nectute,  c.  23,  and  De  Amicitia,  c.  3,  4. 

And  yet  there  have  been  Christians,  and  even 
teachers,  calling  themselves  Christian  teachers, 
who  have  blamed,  and  even  ridiculed,  other 
Christians  for  comforting  themselves  under  the 
loss  of  those  who  were  dear  to  them,  by  che- 
rishing the  joyful  hope  of  seeing  them  again, 
and  renewing  after  death  the  friendship  here 
formed.  Even  reason  regards  this  as  in  a  high 
degree  probable;  but  to  one  who  believes  the 
holy  scriptures  it  cannot  be  a  matter  of  doubt  oi 
conjecture.     For, 

(a)  The  scriptures  assure  us  that  we  shall 
hereafter  see  Christ,  and  shall  enjoy  his  personal 
intercourse  and  friendship.  So  John,  xiv.  3, 
"I  will  take  you  to  myself;  where  I  am,  iheie 


562 


CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 


shall  ye  be  also."  Cf.  1  Pet.  i.  8.  According 
to  Jdlin,  xvii.  21,  we  shall  be  high  witnesses 
anil  participators  of  his  glory. 

(i)  Paul  says  expressly,  1  Thess.  iv.  17,  that 
we  shall  be  with  Christ,  in  company  with  our 
frientU  who  died  before  us  (aua  aiiv  avroij)  ;  and 
this  presupposes  that  we  shall  recognise  them, 
and  have  iniercourse  with  them,  as  with  Christ 
himself.  Paul  advises  that  Christians  should 
comftrt  themselves,  under  the  loss  of  their 
friends,  by  considering  that  they  are  at  home 
with  the  Lord,  and  that  they  shall  be  again 
united  together. 

Tlie  objections  made  against  this  opinion  are 
of  no  weight.  It  is  said,  for  example,  that  the 
body  of  the  saints  will  be  entirely  changed,  and 
cannot  therefore  be  recognised.  But  it  would 
need  to  be  proved  that  this  change  is  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  recognise  a 
person  to  be  the  same  whom  we  before  knew. 
And  even  were  this  allowed,  it  is  not  merely 
through  the  body  that  we  can  recognise  each 
other.  f]ven  friends  here  upon  the  earth,  who 
have  never  seen  eac^h  other's  faces,  disclose 
themselves  by  conversation  and  agreement  of 
soul.  Indeed,  we  can,  even  upon  earth,  through 
the  instrumentality  of  others,  become  again  ac- 
quainted with  old  friends  whom  we  had  forgot- 
ten. And  why  may  not  this  be  the  case  in  the 
world  to  come  1 

Again  :  it  is  objected  that  Christ  himself  says. 
Matt.  xxii.  30,  that  the  relation  of  persons  con- 
nected by  marriage  will  cease  in  the  heavenly 
world.  It  is  said,  moreover,  that  the  love  which 
exists  between  husband  and  wife,  and  also  be- 
tween parent  and  child,  is  rather  of  a  bodily 
than  a  spiritual  nature,  and  therefore  will  wholly 
cease  when  this  gross  earthly  body  is  thrown 
off. 

Answer. — It  is  true,  indeed,  that  this  con- 
nexion and  love,  so  far  as  it  is  founded  in  the 
distinction  of  sexes  and  in  blood-relationship, 
will  cease;  there  will  be  no  wedlock,  no  sexual 
propensities,  and  no  gross  material  bodies  in 
the  heavenly  world.  But  friendship,  in  virtuous 
and  pious  minds,  docs  not  depend  upon  these 
circumstances,  but  rather  upon  conformity  of 
intellectual  tastes  and  dispositions.  Whatever, 
therefore,  is  merely  sensual  and  corporeal  in 
love  and  friendship  here  upon  the  earth,  will 
there  fall  away  ;  but  whatever  is  spiritual,  which 
is  the  essential  and  nohler  part  of  friendship, 
will  remain,  and  constitute  a  great  part  of  the 
bliss  of  heaven.  Cf.  Less,  De  beatorum  in 
ecelis  Consorlio,  in  his  Opusc.  Theol.  p.  ii.,  p. 
3'2'J,  seq. ;  also  Rihheck's  Sermons  on  this  sub- 
ject; and  Engel's  little  work,  ♦»  Wir  werden 
uns  wiedersehen."  Villaume,  in  his  Inquiries 
i»n  some  Psychological  Questions,  denies,  in 
his  second  essay,  (whether,  in  the  futiire  life, 
we  shall  remember  the  present,)  that  wc  shall 


hereafter  have  any  recollection  of  our  lives  ob 
earth,  because  he  regards  memory  as  a  bodily 
faculty,  affected  and  often  destroyed  by  bodily 
injuries.  But  here  he  mistakes  the  exercise  of 
a  power  for  the  existence  of  the  power  itself. 
He  also  denies  that  friends  will  recognise  each 
other  in  the  life  to  come. 

Note, — The  question  is  asked,  whether  the 
pleasures  pertaining  to  the  body,  and  bodily 
employments,  will  continue  in  the  life  to  cornel 
There  can  be  no  hesitation,  if  we  follow  the 
scriptures,  in  answering  both  these  questions  in 
the  atTirmative.  For  what  purpose  will  saints 
in  the  life  to  come  have  a  body  again,  if  it  is 
not  to  be  still  the  organ  through  which  they  will 
feel  and  act]  It  is  therefore  justly  concluded 
that  the  pleasures  and  employments  of  heaven 
are  not  merely  spiritual,  but  also  bodily.  Paul 
too  says,  according  to  the  most  natural  interpre 
tation  of  the  passage,  Rom.  viii.  18,  seq.,  that 
all  nature  will  be  ennobled  and  beautified  for 
the  residence  of  the  friends  of  God  ;  and  that 
they  will  dwell  in  a  world  which  will  minister 
pleasure  to  the  refined  senses  of  the  spiritual 
body. 

But  in  what  these  corporeal  pleasures  and 
employments  will  consist  cannot  now  be  under- 
stood by  us,  because  we  know  nothing  of  the 
nature  of  the  future  body,  of  its  organs,  or  of  the 
objects  by  which  we  shall  then  be  surrounded. 
So  much  is  certain,  however,  that  these  will  be 
different  from  corporeal  pleasures  and  employ- 
ments here  upon  the  earth.  This  is  clearly 
taught  in  the  New  Testament.  E.  g.,  Christ 
says.  Matt.  xxii.  20,  that  the  saints,  at  the  re- 
surrection, will  be  like  the  angels  of  God,  (as  we 
justly  conceive  of  them;)  "they  will  not  mar- 
ry, nor  be  given  in  marriage,"  because  the  end 
of  marriage,  the  propagation  of  the  race,  will  no 
longer  exist.  Nor  will  the  glorified  body  be 
nourished  and  sustained  by  eating  and  drinking. 
Vide  1  Cor.  xvi.  13;  cf.  s.  153.  Hence  it  is 
obvious  that  Christ  employed  the  phrase,  to  sit 
down  (at  t^ble)  with  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacb, 
which  was  common  among  his  contemporaries, 
in  a  figurative  sense. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important 
or  most  celebrated  works  on  the  life  eternal,  and 
the  joys  of  the  blessed  above — viz.,  On  the  His- 
tory of  this  Doctrine,  Burnet;  also  Cotta,  in  his 
"Historia  dogmatis  de  vita  aeterna."  Vide  s. 
119,  ad  finem.  This  subject  is  treated  doc- 
trinally  and  philosophically  in  Cotta's  "Theses 
Theol.  de  vita  Beterna."  Tubing.  175S.  A 
poeiical  delineation  of  this  doctrine  may  be  seen 
in  Lavater's  "  Aussichten  in  die  Ewigkeit."  In 
this  work,  while  we  find  many  very  beautiful 
and  happy  thougtits  and  fine  observations,  we 
feel  the  want  of  just  interpretation  of  scripture,, 
and  calm  and  unimpnssioned  investigation.  He 
gives  himself  entirely  to  the  wir.g  of  his  bold 


STATE  INTO  WHICH  MAN  IS  BROUGHT  BY  THE  REDEMPTION.       56S 


imagination,  and  treats  the  subject  rather  as  a 
poet  than  a  philosopher.  A  more  strictly  philo- 
sophical and  theological  investigation  of  this 
subject  is  found  in  the  work  of  C.  L.  de  Villette, 
Unterredungen  iiber  die  Gluckseligkeit  des  zu- 
kunftigen  Lebens,  translated  from  the  French 
into  the  German,  and  accompanied  with  a  Pre- 
face, by  Spalding.  Berlin,  176G,  8to.   Cf.  also 


Carl  Wilhelm  Goldhammer's  Betrachtungea 
iiber  das  zukunftige  Leben,  u.  s.  w.,  2  thl. ;  Leip. 
zig,  1791 ;  a  work  written  with  warmth  of  feel- 
ing and  in  a  popular  manner.  The  scriptural 
grounds  of  this  doctrine  are  briefly  and  tho- 
roughly investigated  by  Storr,  in  his  Comment, 
de  beata  Vita  post  Mortem,  p.  75,  torn.  ii.  of  his 
Opusc.  Academica. 


INDEX. 


PART  I.— SUBJECTS  DISCUSSED. 


Page 

Actual  sins,  true  idea  of 297 

Adam,  original  state  of 187 

Age,  notion  of  the  golden 19B 

Angels,  creation  of 203 

-,  divisions  of 209 

,  importance  of  the  doctrine  of     .  203 

■I,  proofs  of  their  existence    .     .     .  208 

,  their  appellations 207 

■  .,  their  nature 207 

,  fallen,  apostasy  of 219 

,  existence  of .     .     .     .  ^.  215 

,  names  of 221 

,  nature  of 219 

. ,  number  and  classes  of     .  221 

',  objections  to  the  common 

theory  of  the  employments  of     .     .     .  222 

— ■,  present  and  future  state  of  220 

,  holy,  classes  of 212 

■,  employments  of     .     .     .  211 

,  names  of 213 

,  present  state  of .     .     .     .  209 

. ,  worship  of 214 

Arius,  his  view  of  the  Trinity    .     .      153,  ICO 

—^,  origin  of  his  errors 12 

Athanasius,  his  view  of  the  Trinity    .     .  154 

Atheism,  nature  of 89 

Atonement,  perfection  of 393 

,  various  theories  on     .     .     .  400 

Augustine,  his  view  of  the  soul      .     .     .  158 

,  opinions  of,  on  grace     .     .     .  459 

.,  theory  of,  on  original  sin     275,  290 

Bacon,  principles  of,  applied  to  theology  13 

Baptism,  by  whom  to  be  administered     .  487 

,  eiTects  of  infant 495 

-,  extej-nal  advantages   of.     .     .  488 

-,  formulas  used  in 486 

. ,  institution  of 483 


Baptism,  internal  advantages  of     .     . 

.,  John's  the  same  as  Christ's 

,  knowledge  requisite  for     . 

.,  lawfulness  of  infant .     .     . 

— — ,  mode  of 

,  names  of 

,  necessity  of 

,  not  to  be  repeated     .     .     . 

•,  origin  of 

,  usages  incidental  to  .     .     . 


Bible,  see  Scriptures. 

Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost    .    . 
Blessedness  eternal,  continuance  of  pre- 
sent happiness     

,  exemption  from  suf- 


ferings 


-,  nature  and  names  of 
-,  to  be  expected  .  . 
-,  rewards  of .     .     .    . 


Body,  human,  origin  of 

,  original  excellence  of 


Children,  salvation  of .  .  .  . 
Christ,  active  obedience  of  .  . 
,  ascension  of   ...     . 

■,  deity  and  humanity  of  . 

,  descent  of,  into  hell 

,  divine  attributes  ascribed  to 

— — — ,  divine  honour  claimed  for 

■,  divine  names  given  to  .     . 

,  doctrine  of  his  person   .     . 

,  doctrines  of,  their  truth 

,  glory  of,  in  heaven  .     .     . 

,  happiness  derived  from,  on  earth 

. ;  in  future 


-,  influence  of  his  example 
-,  kingdom  of  .  •  •  • 
-,  last  appearance  of   .     . 


PaK* 

48tJ 
485 
487 
494 
485 
483 
491 
493 
484 
487 

305 

558 

558 
556 
555 
559 
200 
195 

421 
405 
348 
357 
343 
138 
139 
136 
355 
57 
350 
415 
418 
411 
350 
538 


3B 


5oi 


566 


INDh.^  OF  S\.iJJECTS  DISCUSSED. 


Christ,  millennial  kingdom  of  ...     . 

,  mission  of 

,  names  of 

• ,  offices  of 

,  redemption  eflecleJ  by      .      .     . 

,  resurrection  of 

,  seat  of,  at  God's  ri<;^lit  hand   .     . 

.  subjects  of  his  teaciiing     .     .     . 

,  sutT(  rings  and  death  of 

Christianity,  names  and  blessings  of.     . 
Christians,  views  of  the  primitive,  on  the 

Trinity 

Church,  catholic  and  apostolic  .... 

,  divisions  of 

,  head  of 

,  perpetuity  of 

,  sanctity  of 

,  scriptural  character  of  ...     . 

,  Christ  teaching  in  the  .... 

,  unity  of 

Confession,  auricular,  its  futility    .     .     . 
Conversion,  meaning  of  the  term   .     .     . 

Creation,  end  of  God  in 

,  how  from  nothing     .... 

,  Mosaic  account  of    ...     . 

,  six  days  of 

,  time  of  year  of 

,  work  of,  twofold 

Creatures,  difi'erent  classes  of   ...     . 
,  preservation  of 


Page 
538 
373 
372 
377 
374 
34G 
355 
340 
390 
412 

148 
474 
470 
475 
475 
473 
4G9 
476 
472 
448 
439 
171 
167 
171 
177 
177 
169 
169 
241 


Dead,  resurrection  of  see  licstirreelion. 

Death,  names  and  dei  tiriplions  of  .     .     .  514 

,  senses  in  whi  u  used    .     .     .     .  515 

,  state  after 516,  518 

,  universality  of 515 

,  whether  or  not     punishment      .  516 

Decrees,  divine 109 

Depravity,  natural,  eccleEicJtical  phrase- 

olittry  on 289 

.  283 

.  287 


of 


,  how  proved     . 

,  imputation  of. 

,  manner  in  which  pro- 

286 

,  names  of,  in  scripture  278 

.  nature  of     .      .     277,  285 

,  results  of  discussion 

293 

,  teaching  of  doctrine  295 

Divinity,  its  character 26 

Doctrines,  Christian,  fundamental      .     .  34 

Rden,  its  character 188 

Kd  wards,  President,  views  of,  on  original 

sin 282 

Eve,  the  creation  of 188 

Faith,  analogy  of 35 

- — ,  attrib  ites  of 434. 


Pag« 

Faith,  different  degrees  of 433 

,  division  of  doctrines  of     ....       33 

,  objects  of 427 

,  relation  of  one  part  of,  to  another   .     431 

,  significations  of  the  term       .     .     .     423 

,  signs  by  which  discovered    .       432,  434 

,  theological  divisions  of    ....     425 

Father,  deity  of 135 

Fathers,  terminology  of 366 

Forgiveness  of  sin,  to  what  owing      .     .     390 
Franke,  account  of  his  lectures       ...       13 

Germany,  school  of  biblical  theology  in     10,  14 

God,  decrees  of 109,  124 

,  division  of  the  attributes  of  .     .     .  97 

,  doctrine  of  his  government   .     .     .  245 

,  eternity  and  immutability  of     .      .  99 

,  government  of,  in  relation  to  evil    .  249 

,  government  of,  relative  to  human 

freedom 247 

,  holiness  of 116 

,  justice  of .117 

,  knowledge  of,  whether  innate        .  32 

,  nature  and  attributes  of    ...     .  94 

God,  notion  of 85 

,  omnipotence  of 101 

,  omnipresence  of 105 

,  omniscience  of 102 

,  proofs  of  the  existence  of      .     .     .  86 

,  scriptural  names  of 93 

,  source  of  the  knowledge  of  ...  95 

,  spirituality  of 97 

,  unity  of !'0 

,  veracity  and  goodness  of       .     .     .  114 

,  will  of 109,  113 

,  wisdom  of 108 

Golden  age,  notion  of 198 

Grace,  different  theories  of 458 

,  divine  origin  of 454 

,  explanation  of  the  term     .     .     .  449 

,  later  opinions  on 4t)l 

,  opefcMons  of       ....       451,  462 

,  opinic^s  of  Latin  fathers  on  .     .  458 

,  scriptv  -al  phraseology  of  .     .     .  455 

,  various  •sames  of 450 


Guilt  of  sin,  removal  of 386 

Heathen,  salvation  of  the     .     .  .  321 

Hell,  history  of  doctrines  of       .     .  554 

,  names  of 545 

,  punishments  of 515 

Holy  Ghost,  blaspiiemy  against     .     .     .  305 

■   '         ,  scriptural  representation  of.  306 


Holiness,  its  nature 443 

Image  of  God,  how  to  be  understood  .     .  iSV 

Immortality,  ideas  of  Jews  of    ....  519 

,  ideas  of  rude  nations  of  .     .  519 

,  philosophical  arguments  on  521 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS  DISCUSSED. 


567 


Page 

Imm«rtalily,  scriptural  proofs  of     .     .     .  517 
Inclinations,  evil,  origin  and  punishable- 

ne6s  of 2SS 

Indulgences,  futility  of 419 

Inspiration,  Idea  of  universal     ....  6G 

,  national  views  of  ...     .  67 

,  various  theories  of      .     .     .  68 

,  views  of  great  men  of     .     .  GO 

Involuntary  sins 301 


Jesus,  ascension  of 

,  character  of,  as  a  teacher  .... 

,  deity  and  humanity  of      .... 

— — ,  descent  into  hell  of 

——,  different  conditions  of 

,  doctrine  of 

,  doctrine  of  the  person  of  ...     . 

— — ,  early  history  of 

——,  g^ory  of,  in  heaven 

,  history  of  opinions  concerning  .     . 

,  kingdom  of 

— — ,  method  of  his  ministry  .... 
— — ,  miraculous  conception  of  .  .  . 
— — ,  mission  of 

,  names  of 

— — ,  offices  of 

——,  predictions  respecting 

,  redemption  effected  by     .... 

— — ,  resurrection  of 

— — ,  seat  of,  at  God's  right  hand  .  .  . 
——,  subjects  of  his  ministry    .... 

,  sufferings  and  death  of     .     .      341, 

— — ,  true  humanity  of 

Jews,  views  of,  on  original  sin  .  .  .  . 
Jews  and  Gentiles,  future  conversion  of  . 

Judgment,  the  general 

Justification,  an  unmerited  favour  .     .     . 
)  effect  of  Christ's  exaltation 


-,  only  of  Christ  . 
-,  universality  of. 


348 
337 
357 
343 
331 
337 
355 
337 
350 
3!;i 
350 
338 
331 
373 
373 
377 
325 
374 
346 
355 
340 
390 
335 
273 
5-10 
541 
399 

395 

388 
397 


Keckermann,  B.,  his  view  of  the  Trinity      159 

Keys,  import  of  the  term 478 

Knapp,  Dr.,  memoir  of 16 


Language,  original,  of  man 

Law,  connexion  of  sin  with 

Law  and  gospel,  meaning  of     ...     . 
Life,  connexion  of  the  present  and  future 

,  the  tree  of 

Lord's  Supper,  by  whom  and  how  to  be 

observed     

-,  by  whom  to  be  adminis- 


tered 


-,  chief  object  of  .... 
-,  external  uses  and  efficacy 


ot 


-,  history  of  opinions  of 


196 

299 
429 
518 

187 

502 

503 
499 

505 
508 


P«g« 

Lord's  Supper,  institution  of     ...     .  497 

,  internal  uses  and  efficacy 

of      .' 505 

,  names  of 496 

,  remarks  on  hypotheses  of  512 

,  texts  relating  to      .     .     .  497 

,  unessential  rites  in      .     .  504 
,  use  of  bread  and  wine  in  50 1 


Magic,  historical  observations  on  .     .     . 

Man,  destination  of 

,  means  of  subsistence  of   .     .     .     . 

,  moral  inability  of 

,  Mosaic  account  of  the  origin  of 

,  nature  of 

,  original  external  advantages  of 

,  original  language  of 

,  preservation  of 

-,  primitive  state  of 

Matter,  on  the  eternity  of 

Men,  great,  belief  of,  in  inspiration     .     . 
Messiah,  degrees  of  revelation  of  .     .     . 

,  gradual  development  of      .     . 

,  interpretation  of  the  predictions 


2ni 

1^3 

1S7 
28 
184 
ISO 
197 
196 
243 
192 
166 
66 
328 
321 


respecting 

,  Jesus  of  Nazareth  the  true 

,  views  of  the  Jews  of     .     . 


Millennial  kingdom,  the  .  .  . 
Miracles,  Christianity  proved  by 
,  their  possibility 


Monarchians,  their  views  of  God    .     .     . 

Monothelites,  sect  of 

Morals,  importance  of  the  Christian  sys- 
tem     

Mosaic  institute,  abolition  of     ...     . 
Mysteries,  religious 


325 
324 
323 
538 
59 
254 
151 
366 

31 

413 

36 


Nations,  agreement  of,  in  ideas  of  inspi- 
ration               66 

Nature,  revelation  of  God  in      ....  28 

New-Testament  writers,  their  views  of 

original  sin 274 

Nicene  Council,  the 154 

Ordination,  nature  and  importance  of.     .  477 
Origen,  his  views  of  the  Trinity     .      153,362 


Paradise,  its  character       .... 

Pardon,  nature  of 

Participation,  how  shown  in  sin  . 
Pelagius,  errors  of,  on  grace  .  . 
,  views  of,  on  original  sin 


Penance,  futility  of     ...     . 
-,  self-inflicted,  folly  of 


Plato,  his  views  of  God 
Possession,  satanic,  history  of  . 
,  meaning  of 
.,  records  of,  in  the  New 


188 
385 
304 
45S 
282 
447 
392 
145 
22? 
226 


Testament 229 


M8 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS  DISCUSSED. 


Prai-«-,  -^  mean  of  grace 

Predi:ion9,  Messianic,  accommodations 
of  

— — — ,  d  entrees  of 

• ,  how  interpreted 

— ^— — — ,  principles  of,  act 

ed  ijii  ov  Christ  and  his  apostles 
Pr  'jihecies  of  Christ  proofs  "^f  Christian 

ity 

Pr  'vidpnce,  definition  of  .     .     . 

-,  history  of  opinions  of 

.  its  benevolence 

its  universality 

.  its  unsearchableness 

,  proipfs  of      .     .     . 

— ,  scholastic  views  of 

l'.::ii-;iiii>i  I,  its  nature  and  object 

,  positive  divine 

.  removal  of    . 

,  scriptural  names  of 

I'linisinnents,  division  of 
Piirg.itory,  opinions  on      .     .     . 


Rili  n.ilism,  character  and  design  of 

R'lson,  deliaition  of 

,  use  of     .         


!{►■«■. inciliation,  nature  of  ...     . 
Rtii'very  of  man,  divine  institutions  for 
,  purpose  of  God  respect 


re(iuisiies  for 


42, 


Rngen  T.ilion,  meaning  of  the  term 
Religion,  tiarmony  of  natural  and  reveal 

eu 

.  its  distinction  from  theology 

.  mysteries  of 

,  of  Christ,  beneficial  tendency 

nl 

Repentance,  character  of .     .     .     . 

,  danger  of  delaying     .     . 

,  mistakes  respecting   .     . 

,  not  the  procuring  cause  o 

salvation 

R»'Velali()n,  dejjrees  of 

■.  principal  periods  of   .     . 

,  (>bji;ct  of 

,  one  maile  by  God  to  man 

Rt>tifreciii)n,  biblical  representation  of 

..  Christian  doctrine  of 

—  ,  diflVrence  of  the  future  body 


fr  im  the  present 

—  ,  doctrine  of  the  Jews  respect 


,  identity  of  the  present  and 

t'liiiirt-  body 

,  wliat  is  understood  by     . 


Sabbath,  its  origin  .     . 
Sacrament,  nature  of  a 


Page 
4(37 

3-25 
328 
325 

326 

CI 

235 
236 
253 
252 
253 
23S 
239 
311 
314 
387 
312 
312 
529 

14 

38 

3S 

501 

317 

320 
317 
440 


29 


,  30 
26 
35 

58 
441 
442 
447 

382 

40 
41 
40 
2^ 
532 
531 

534 

528 


536 


Tag* 
Sacraments,  object  of  Ciirist  in  instituting  482 
Sacrifice,  universality  and  design  of  .     .     389 

Salvation,  conditions  of 420 

of  children  and  the  heathen      .     421 


Sanctification,  its  nature 443 

Satan,  power  of,  over  men 226 

Scriptures,  books  of 47 

,  external  proofs 47 

,  how  adapted  for  common  use  .  80 

,  inspiration  of C2 

,  integrity  of 56 

,  internal  proofs  of 47 

,  reading  of 7S 

,  the  use  of 37,  74 

Servetus,  his  view  of  the  Trinity    .     .     .  159 

Sin,  actual  idea  of 297 

,  against  the  Holy  Ghost    ....  305 

,  Christ's  instructions  on    ...     .  410 

,  definition  of 259 

,  diflferent  degrees  of 298 

,  inquiry   as  to  whether  God  could 

have  prevented 265 

,  forgiveness  of,  its  cause   ....  380 

,  its  necessity    .     .     .  335 

,  how  connected  with  knowledge      .  300 

,  imputation  of  Adam's 273 

,  involunt.iry 301 

,  its  results  on  the  sinner   ....  308 

,  manner  of 40& 

,  Mosaic  account  of  original    .     .     .  266 

,  opinions  of  heathen  philosophers  on  261 

,  participation  of  others'     ....  304 

,  redemption  from 408 

,  results   of  reason  and   observation 

on 263 

,  scriptural  terms  for 260 

,  sorrow  for 443 

,  viewed  in  connexion  with  the  law  299 

Socinians,  their  views  of  the  Trinity  .     .  160 

Soul,  its  origin 

Souls,  departed,  opinions  of  their  state 
.,  place  of  their  abode 


200 
525 
523 
233 
9 


Spectres,  question  as  to  existence  of  . 
Spener,  proceedings  of,  at  Halle 

Spirit,  Holy,  divinity  of 142 

,  meaning  of  the  term  .     .     .  1  JO 

,  names  given  to      ....  113 

,  i)ersonalily  of 141 


17.'! 
479 


Teachers,  Christian,  rights  of   ...     • 

'IVstament,  New,  collection  of  books  of  . 

.  external  proofs  of    .     . 

.  ins|)ir;\tii>n  of      .     .     . 

,  Old,  authenticity  of   .     .     . 

,  cautions  in  reading 

.  completion  of  canon  of 

,  external  proofs  of    .     . 

.  inspiration  of      .     ,     . 

,  orijjin  of  canon  of    .     . 


478 
53 
47 
62 
48 
77 
51 
41 
64 
50 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS  DISCUSSED. 


Page 

5-2 

271 

44 

2(J 

43 

39 

155 

130 

144 

133 

131 

• ,  terms  employed  respecting       151,  154 

• .  views  of  primitive  Christians  re- 

sp<^cting 143 

Unoerstanding,    original    excellence    of 
man's jpo 


Tesininent,  Old,  reception  of  canon  of 
Theo.ogians'  iiypotheses  on  sin  .  . 
Tiieoiogy,  course  of  study  of     .     .     . 

• ,  liovv  distinct  from  religion 

■ ,  scientific  treatment  of    .     . 

'IVadiiion,  the  use  of 

Trinity,  distinction  of  persons  in    .     . 

,  doctrine  of 

,  history  of  doctrine  of   .     .     . 

,  how  tauglit  in  New  Testament 

■ — — — — ^—  Old  Testament 


569 

Page 
Urlsperger,  Dr.,  his  views  of  the  Trinity      u;i 

Will,  original  excellence  o/ man's      .     .     194 
Works,  good,  connexion  of,  with  salva- 
tion   43'* 

— ,  history  of  opinions  respect- 

'"? 437 

-,  not  to  be  depended  on  for 


saivation sgg 

— — ,  true  nature  of    .     .     .     .  435 

W  orks  of  Ood,  knowledge  of  ....  I7(j 
World,  ancient,  views  of,  on  divine  influ- 

P"ce 66 

,  creation  of 163 

»  end  of 543 

,  material  from  which  formed     1T6,  163 

,  nieaning  of  the  term      ....  Itfl 


7i 


Sb9 


PART  II.— SCRIPTURES  ILLUSTRATED. 


CHAF.    VERSE  PAGE 

1.     1,2      ....  176 

1.  26 169 

2.  4—24  ,     .       185,  271 

3.  14,  15  .     .      272,  329 

3.     19 271 

6.     7 113 

17.  1 93 

49.     10 329 

Exodus. 

3.  13 93 

Sa.     32 243 

Numbers. 

6.    24 133 

Deuteronomy. 

4.  7,  8      .     .     .  29 
6.     4 91 

18.  18 329 

2  Samuel. 

16.     14 227 

Job. 

14.     4 283 

19.  25,  &c.      ...  528 
33.     7 207 

Psalms. 

2.     7 132 

14.     1 89 

16.     10 314 

19.     1—6     ....  28 

32.  2 444 

33.  6, 9       .     .       102,  133 

51.     7 283 

90.       '. 101 

119.     89—91      .     .     .  114 

139.     15,  16  .     .     .     .  200 


Proverbs. 

VERSE 

22—30  .     . 

ECCLESIASTES. 


8. 
12. 


23. 


Jeremiah. 
23,  24  .     .     . 


PAGE 

108 


99 
99 


Isaiah. 

6.     3 133 

28.     23—29      .     .     .  122 

44.     6 100 

48.     U 94 

48.     16 133 

53 330 


107 


Matthew. 

1.     20 335 

3.  16,  17  ...     .  134 

5.     17 77 

16.     18 476 

16.     19 478 

20.  1—16  .     .       127,  559 

23.     35 52 

24 538 

25.  41 — 16      ...  300 

26.  41 301 

26.     03 57 

28.  18—20      ...  133 


John. 


Mark. 
28—30      . 


306 


Luke. 

1.     37 102 

11.     51 52 

15 443 

16.     8 251 

18.     9—14   ....  443 


chap. 

1. 

3. 


10. 
10. 
13. 
14. 
14. 
14. 
15. 
15. 
17. 
20. 
20. 
20. 


VERSE 

1,  2       , 
3,5      . 
23    .     , 
39    . 
39—47 
15—17 
44    . 
28    . 
34—36 
19    . 
6      . 
16,  17 
26    . 
22—24 
26    . 
5      . 
23    . 
25    . 
28    . 


Act 
3.     20,  21  . 
13.     48    .     . 
17.     27—31 


PAS* 

.     131* 

441,  4^3 
140 

76 
324 

59 
224 
137 

93 

62 
373 
111 
I,  141 
3U0 
141 
133 
478 
234 
137 


349 

128 
28 


13 


Romans. 

1.     3,  4       ....  138 

1.  19,  20  .     .     .     28,  33 

2.  14,  15  .     .     .     .  32 
3 399 

3.  21—28      ...  3^9 

4.  4 116 

5.  6 301 

5.  11 3S6 

6.  3,  4       ....  490 

8.     15 77 

8.     29,  30  ...     .  125 

8.  34    .     .     .          .  396 

9.  5 1:^7 

9.     18 310 

10.     14 337 

671 


572 


INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURES  ILLUSTRATED. 


CHAP. 
II. 

12. 


1. 

3. 
10. 
11. 
12. 


3. 
6. 

13. 


TERSE 

33—36 
6      .     . 


FAOE 
541 

35 


1  Corinthians. 

30 373 

U 33 

6—11  ....     121 
27—31      .       121,507 


4—11   .     .     .     . 

2  Corinthians. 

11 

21 

9,  10    ...     . 
14 

Ephesians. 

4—14  .     .     .     . 
3      .     .     .     .     . 

Philippians. 

6 

8,  9       .... 
10 


142 


42 
392 
443 
134 


112 

235 


137 
333 
140 


COLOSSIANS. 


1  Thessaloxians. 


I.    94 


391 


CHAP. 
1. 

VERSE 

8—10  .  . 

PAGE 
.   .    34 

4. 

17  .  .  . 

.  .  5G2 

1  TlMOTHT. 

5.     22 301 

2  Timothy. 

3.     14—17      ...       64 

Titos. 

2.     11 410 

2.  13 133 

3.  5 489 


Hebrews. 


1..    1 
2. 


....  40 

9—11  ....  332 
2.     14    .     .     .       225,373 

4.     12 114 

6.  1 34 

G.     13 115 

7.  9, 10     ...     .  274 

7.     25 396 

9.     24 396 

11.     3 167 

11.     13 41 


CHAP. 

VERSE 

PAGB 

12. 

1,2   .  . 

.  .  412 

12. 

5—11  .  . 

.  .  122 

12. 

27  .  .  . 

.  .   42 

James. 


1.     17 


1  Peter. 


101 


1 

2   .  .  . 

114 

3 

19  .  .  . 

114 

3 

21  .  .  . 

489 

2  Peter. 

1. 
1. 

9. 

3,4   .  . 
19,  20  .  . 
4   .  .  . 

•  • 

410 

65 

019 

3. 

7—13  .  . 
1  John. 

101 

514 

2. 
5. 

1   .  .  . 

7,8   .  . 

•  • 

396 
134 

JUDE. 


219 


Revelation. 

SO. 

1—8  .  .  . 

538 

33. 

18. 

74 

INDEX  OF  TEXTS 


REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


Genesis. 

CElf    TTRSE  PjIGE 

1.  1 283 

1 86,  13G,  1G2,  166 

168,  174, 181 
1,  2,  sq 174,  175 

1,  27 169 

2 99,  166,  168,  176 

2,  9 544 

2,  17 287 

3 166 

3,  sq 102,  177 

3-31 178 

11 176 

14 172 

22,  28 169 

26 132,  189,  190 

26,  sq 169,  182,  190 

197,  198 

26—30 185 

27 168 

28 200 

29,  30 193 

31 171 

■  2 184,283 

1 162,  163,  175 

2,  sq 169 

2,  3 172 

4,sq 185 

4—24 186 

4 — chap.  iii.  24 185 

5 195 

5,15 183 

7 177,  514 

8—15 189 

9 195 

9,17 268 

15,  sq 189 

15—17 266 

16 186 

16,  17 193 

17 195,  271,  515 

18,  sq 184 

19 196 

19,  20 193,  197 

8.    ...184,  187  bis,  197 

218,  224,  283,  515 

1,  sq 266 

1—6 268 

2,  8 194 

8 187 

8,19 195 


CBAP.   YBRSB  PAGB 

3.  5 219 

6 288 

15 272,  329 

16 188 

17,19 195 

19...186,  271,  614,  521 

19,  21,22,  24 271 

20 188 

21 186 

22 187 

22,  24 195 

24 213 

4.  ...197,380,381,382 

4 186 

7 287 

10 304 

20—22 135 

25 272 

5.  1—3 189 

1,  3 186 

3 277 

22 200 

22,  24 520 

24 515 

6.  2 211 

6 185,284 

7 113 

12 278 

8 381,382 

1 105 

'   20,  21 380 

22 278,284 

9.  2 197 

3 186 

6 189 

11.  1,2,5,9 211 

6,  7 185 

7 132 

7,  8 247 

12.  3 322,329 

15.  6 388,424,428 

15 520 

16.  2 168 

•  7—12 204 

17 482 

1 93 

21 482 

18.  1 271 

14 102 

20 804 

19.  24 132,247 


CHAP.  TBRSH  P.ir.1 

22.  2,8q 115 

8 329 

18 822 

24.  60 179 

25.  8 520 

28.  12 204 

16 91 

29.  3 93 

35.  2 484 

29 520 

37.  35 520 

39 248 

40.  13,19 331 

41.  26,27 500 

46.  26 200 

47.  9 520 

48.  10 309 

49.  1 642 

10 329 

25 177 

50.  20 246,248 

Exodus. 

1.  7 179 

3.  2,  sq 96 

6 520 

7 304 

13 91,93 

4.  11 :..244 

12,  15,  16 65 

21 310 

22,  23 415 

6.  3 93 

7.  1 93 

3 309 

13 309 

10.  23 120 

12,  2 176 

3,  sq 499 

11,  27 500 

13,  23 205 

26,27 498 

1.3.  9 498 

14.  17,  sq 810 

31 424 

16.  2,8 144 

23 173 

19.  6 353 

20.  4 98  bis,  172 

7 304 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


CHAP.   VniSK  PACK 

20.  8—1] ITli 

11 174,  176,  177 

U 247 

17 2S8 

21.  4,  y !'3 

22 2:J2 

2o.     7 'ibl 

24.     8 4U8,4'.J'J 

20.     26,27,35,811 188 

28 ;>'j6 

80.      12 37G 

31.     3 10'.» 

10 i>V.i 

17 174,  177 

32 172 

32 243 

83.  1"J...- 112 

84.  0,  7.T 116 

7 380 

Leviticus. 
4.      2,13 301 

10.  3 121 

11.  43,  44 117 

44 182 

10.      21,22 392 

17 3110 

I'.i.     2 117,  182,  442 

20 232 

7,  2u,  20 117 

19 302 

27 232 

24.  15 302 

25.  25,30,48,40 370 

26 124 

80 200 

Numbers. 
,6.     24 133 

20 235 

10.     85,  3(i 04 

14.     17,18 110 

16.      22 200 

30,  8q 108 

30,  33 344 

20.      14.10 207 

24 520 

21 428 

22.  22-34 2(18 

23.  5 fl.S 

10 113 

26.  13 5t'.t 

28.      0.  2!) 120 

82.      25,27 03 

Deutkkonomy. 

1.  27 312 

2.  30 310 

4.     7.8 2'J 

15-17 172 

35,  39 !tl 

57 410 

6.      6 374 

6      4 01 

13 130 

9.      26,8(1 •'•^- 

10       16 410 

13       13 222 

18 232 

9—12 520 

10 232 


CIUP.   VEttSR  rAGK 

15 374,  370 

is 65,329 

21.  23 342 

28 124 

15 312 

30 540 

31 40 

11,  12 78 

32 211 

6 135 

8,9 211 

11 177 

31 319 

39 91,102 

33.  2 212 

84    49 

Joshua. 

G.  17 -..207 

8.  31 49 

10.  13 50 

11.  20 310 

24.  20 49 

JUDGKS. 

5.  20 163 

ECTH. 

4.  22 273 

1  Samuel. 

3.  13 304 

0.   0 ..309 

10.  5.  sq 08 

10 227 

25 49 

12.  8—12 40 

15.  23 270 

20 113 

16.  14—2;] 227 

18    224 

10 08 

20.  25 365 

23.  6—14 103 

28 232,520 

7,  sq 234 

2  Sasiuel. 

7 "353 

12,  sq 330 

14 137 

11.  4 117 

12       3'.»8 

lb,  11,  14 123 

23 234 

14.  17,20 200 

16.   21 304 

23.  1,2 O'.t 

24.  1,16 205 

1  Klngs. 

2.   10,  sq 355 

8.  27 107 

12.  9 132 

18.  28 -.'.x-l 

21,  24 04 

19.  12 '.til 

22.  19 204 

20,  8q 132 


CHAP.  TERSli  PAOB 

2  Klnob. 

1.  2 222 

0 60 

2.  11 515 

12 135 

3.  15 08 

6.  10.  17 205 

21 135 

7.  0,  Bq 200 

8.  10 .....260 

17.   27,  8q 322 

19.  35 204 

22.  6 337 

1  ClIKOXICLEa. 

16.  1,  sq 408 

21.     1 205 

14,  10 204 

29.      12 247 

2  Chronicles. 

10.  9 132 

23.  18 49 

24.  21   22 52 

25.  rj!...............309 

Ezra. 

4.  18 132 

Jon. 

1         210,213 

6 207,222 

21 200 

2 210,213,222 

4.  18 210 

21 514 

5.  10,12 124 

24 200 

7.     6 528 

7—10 .520 

0 344 

9,  10 234 

9.  24 200 

25 528 

10.      8 109 

8,  11,  12 243 

9  186.  200 

20—22 520 

21 514 

12.      10 200 

14.     4 283,  284,  his 

5 243 

7—12 620,528 

12 544 

1.-).      22 520 

16         250 

10 107 

22,  pq 528 

17.  11—10 528 

10.      25,  sq 628 

24.      1.  sq 523 

20.  16 135 

81.     18 283,285 

33.     4 100 

6 1 86.  200 

23 211,  214 

28 37« 

36 169,253 

37.'      87,  96,  bib,  253 

88 268 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


CHAV    VSRSG  PACK 

3«.     7 207,209 

14 530 

2^ 135 

St*.      IG 112,  310 

40.     41 101 

41 87,  hV.) 

42.      10 37tJ 

li-3 528 

Psalms. 

1.      5 531 

2 324,830,806 

2.  0,8 323 

7....  132,  137,10(3,348 

6.     5 117,200 

7.  8 117 

6.  6 520,  529 

7.  12 312 

8.  87, 109, 182,  239,  332 

1 102 

3 302 

4 108 

5 235.  312,  332 

C 207 

6-9 190, 1'.8 

9.  6.  sq 1-1 

6-9 5il 

12.     6 81 

14.      1 89 

3.  sq 283 

10 3i6 


17. 
18. 

19.- 


24. 


29. 
SO. 
31. 


l,sq. 


117 

330 

lu 181,3341.i.s. 

10.  11 330 

14 103 

1^ 5-1 

5 222 

6.  G 515 

2(J.  s(i 117 

31 117 

..38,  87,  96,  108,  239 

1 94 

1-6 28,  162 

1-11 :,0 

7-14 30 

8 72,81,  114 

8-12 118 

l-> 260,  433 

14 308 

322.  324,  330,  389, 390 

1 343 

5 247 

7-14 3;'.0 

25 3:;0 

28 540 

S2 169 

7,  8 350 

7,  9 549 

7 105 

9 302 

247 

10 520,529 

15 243 

443 

1 386 

1.  2 386 

2 273,  444 

3-5 883,  444 

S-6 445 

4 114 

6 133,  168 


CDAP. 

33 


34. 
36. 
37. 

38. 

39. 

40. 
45. 

49. 

50. 
61. 


53. 
65. 

56. 

58. 

59. 
65. 
68. 


69. 


VKRSE  rJGB 

6,  9 102,133,  107 

9 126 

10,  11....  101,  113,126 

1^ 2;J5 

1« 117 

7 204,210 

^ ^05 

ly 443 

6 252 


6,  7 


16- 

37 
18 


-40. 


•126 
.116 

•2.30 
.120 
•l20 
•108 
.2,-,0 
.014 

•243 

•l86 


4 

4,  5 

7 

...322,  330,  389,  3qo 
7,bq.  200,  321,328,4o(j 

^ ^30 

7 1..2,  3-,2 

17 354 

250,  bis 

2 l03 

8-12 515 

9,  10 lyi 

15 529 

15,  16 5-'l 

41,440 

8 3,sl 

1<^ 117 

16,  sq i21 

381,385,388,440,443 

2-19 433 

4 386 

7 283,293 

8,  12,  17 383 

12 169,440 

I'J 443 

6,  sq 121 

7 514 

7 376 

14 417 

16  344 

8 103 

4 283,285 

5,  6 231 

5 200 

8 350 

330 

1 94 

6 135 

17 205,  209,  212 

330 

2,3 483 

6 200 

28 243 

11 343 

132,  330,  354 

2 1.37 

250,  bis. 

2,  sq 316 

2,23 301 

13 387 

16 2C3 

24 521 

24,  sq 1-JO 

26,  28 521 


76. 


28 
7 


.417 
.514 


CR.IP.  VER.SE  P.1GK 

5 549 

49 

22,  32 424 

25 209 

49 204,205,209 

69 351 

2.  sq 350 

12,13 249 

6 93,  190 

10 «J1 

5 440 

10 529 

11 520 

49 205 

330,  353 

27 132,137 

27,  31—3^ 327 

49 515,  bis 

86,  96,  100,  101,  239 
243,  247 

2 166 

3 243 

4 101,539 

8 386 

11 385 

239,243,  247 

3 .515 

11 210 

11  12 204 

15 107 

1 172 

8-11 165 

9 97 

11 103 

7 140.  207 

1 213 

90,  101 

10 272 

10—12 544 

19 169 

24—28 101 

25—28 96 

26 139,  166,  1H8 

26—28 86 

28 101 

103 109,250 

3 380,  397 

8,  sq 116 

8—18 304 

9 105 

11.12 398 

11—13 116 

13 135 

14 284 

20,  21 203 

21  94.  163 

104.    87,  96,  108,  169,  239 
4-54 

1,  sq 169 

4 203.  207 

5 108 

5—9 177 

6—9 175 

8—16,  27—29 242 

19 179 

24 253 

25,  26 179 

29  186,514 

29.  30 186,  .')29 

30 168,  169,  177 

32 247 

105 464 


78. 


80. 
81. 
82. 
86. 
87. 


89. 


90. 


91. 


92. 
94. 


97. 

99. 

102. 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AXD  ILLUSTRATED. 


CH.P,   VK'!.«K  p^lCK 

lU.j,  lUO 4y 

lUo.     'J 177 

y-i 4J4 

«1 :J73,  388 

109.     G :i2J,  bis. 

IIU.       3li2,  324,  3li6,  3;jU,  o80 

1 132,  So'   36-5 

1,  2 8G1 

li 351 

4 37U 

113.  5,  G ".:•> 

114.  2 353 

116.     8....102,  107,  lOy,  IGG 

IJ 1G2 

17 520 

110.     13 4!t8 

lly-  -^ 404 

21,51 3U2 

8'J 122 

67,  71 121 

75,  1.J8 114 

8!J,  'Jl 113,  114 

105 72 

128 247 

3,  4 17!) 

130 385 

3 385 

131.     2,  s(i 180 

ly^.     8 <J4 

13G.     3 <,3 

138.     6 •)^> 

I3y      ..96,103,165,239,243 

6 <JG 

7-10 .....lOG 

13— IG IGO,  243 

I'j,  IG 200 

I'j 105,  243 

14^ 1G9 

'•* IIG 

17 12G 

14G-     G 8G,  1G2 

147 lot) 

i> 102 

19,  20 -I 

20 11!, 

148 nyj^  252 

1-G 204 

^ 1G9 

7-13 204 

8 204 

13 .,4 

I'llOVEKUS. 
8.       2.    gq ]OQ 

18 187 

„      1'-^.  «1 108 

8 1G8 

22-26 114 

22-30 108 

10-     2 2G0 

IG.     1,  8(1 "4<j 

,    1.33 ;:247 

17.  15.  sii 387 

24.  16,17 266 

28.  18 44.5 

80.  3 OG 

EOCLESIASTKS. 
1-      18.. 109 

2.     6 188 

24 183 


CHAV. 
3. 


11.... 

12.  sq. . 
19,  8q.. 
17 


29. 
8.. 


10,  11,  14. 

17 


PACE 

...249 
...2.J3 
...183 
...520 
..183 
..249 
...194 
...99 


10. 
11. 
12. 


1—3. 

9 

11... 

11... 

5.... 


623 

253 

249 

623 

.183,641 

249 

234 

i53 


/,99,  180,  181,186,200 

bis.  514,  521 

13,14 541 


Isaiah. 

9 440 

2 381 

...319,  322,  330,  540 

3 117 

1 96,  211 

1-5 327 


2... 
2,  6. 
3..., 


.204 
.213 


.1; 


8. 
10. 


11 


12. 
13. 

14. 


19. 
22. 
26] 


28. 

29. 
30. 
81. 
34. 


37. 
38. 


40. 
40. 
40. 


» 132 

9 117 

10 309,  310 

8-10 144 

19 'o-v* 


3.. 
21. 


540 

322,324 

l.sq 330 

6 198 

(5—9 186,   187 

640 

644 

10 544 

...234,  524,  425,  l)is. 

9 344,  620 

1^ 344 

11 109 

14 304 

*J 121,  180 

!•• 621,  528 

19,  20.... 615,  528,  529 

16 424 

23—29. . . .  i->» 

4 oZo 


'" 441 

3 W.) 

644 

n 176 

13,14....  004 

36 ■.'.m 

1.  sq 113 

9 628 

10,  gq •);>4 

11 :.'.[uui 

12 .514 

18 620 

18,  20 .529 

88.  96 

■66 3.30,  640 

6 278 


CH.*P.    VEIISK 

40.     13,  sq. 
21- 


^6. 


41. 


43. 


44. 


45. 


25. 

28. 


PA  cm 
.108 
..87 
..96 
..98 
.102 


46. 

48. 


49. 


50. 
61. 
63. 


64. 
65. 
67. 
68. 

59. 


60. 
Gl. 
03. 


64. 
66. 


66 


4 100,  167 

26 lOo 

^ 86,  166,200 

1 117 

8 94,  bis,  139 

3,4 3.,2 

' 168 

Jl 94 

12 247 

21 .J4 

25 386 

6 100 

7 1G7 

8 lOo 

8 140 

6,  21,  22 91 

6,  sq. 86 

9.   10 112 

18 l.;8 

21 114 

23 332 

3 139 

6 96.  bis,  98 

4-8 105 

7 109 

11 94,  139 

12 4.52 

16 133 

440.541 

14 343 


2 376 

440 

260,  322,  324. 330.  386 
389,  390,  892 

4 .392 

4,  6 S28 

4—6 392 

6,  sq 3Itl 

9 .343 

10 109 

12 393 

440 

8 12o.  126 

19 443 

41,  382 

10 lO'J 

1.  sti 102 

8 336 

20 540 

41 

1 65.443 

4 312 

10 141 

16 135 

17 310 

4 657 

0 443 

17 544 

20 244 

26 198 

319.  .3.30 

1 107 

22 .'')44 

24 546,  649 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  EEFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


6 


1IAP.   VERSE  PAGE 

Jeremiah. 
1.     6,  sq 65 

3.  12,13 439,443 

13 200 

4.  28 441 

6.     20 381 

10.  7 94 

10—16 86 

12 102 

11.  18-20 103 

23.     5,  G 323 

23,  24 107,  bis. 

31.  1,  sq 540 

19 443 

29,  30 275 

31—36 41 

32.  17 102 

38.     17—20 103 

51.     39 514 


6. 

7. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
14. 
16. 
17. 
18. 


Lamentations. 


6.     7. 


.392 


EZEKIEI.. 


96 

5,  sq 213 

22,  23,  26 179 

7 309,  515 

19 439 

1] 179 

11 260 

1 179 

19,  20 440 

14 .....188 

6 439 

51,  52 387 

19 288 

4,  20 275 

20 392 


21, 
21, 
22 
26 
32 
25. 

6 

sq 

22 

.443 
.397 
398 

434 

51 5 

?0 

310 

7:1 

544 

'?t^ 

179 

'?.! 

3  " 

51>1 

•>.) 

179 

3'? 

? 

179 

83. 

86. 
87 

11. 
16. 

26- 

18, 
10. 
13, 
-12. 
4 

-28.'.'.'.".*.* 

..398,  615 

398 

440 

..528.529 

2. 
7. 

8- 

Daniel. 
30 

'14; ;;!'.'. 

.".'264 

.480 
209 

.353 
"14 

8 

167 

9. 

2 

49 

10. 

11. 

12. 


4.. 
17. 

18. 
24,  sq. 


.445 
.132 
.443 
.330 


13 211,  213 

13,  20 211 

3,  16 167 

1 213 

2 521,  629,  633 


CHAP. 
1 

VERSE 

7 

HOSEA. 

FAGI 

132 

9. 

21 

109 

3. 
6. 

5... 
7... 

.  .439,  640 
276 

Joel. 


2.     12,  13. 


.439 


Amos. 

3.     6 310 

7 65 

6.     8 86 

Jonah. 

3.  4 115 

4,  9,  10 115 

9 113 

4.  2,9—11 115 

Micah. 

5.  1 330 

Nahum. 
3.    4 232 


Habakkuk. 


2.     1. 


.424 


Haggai. 
2.     7-9 330 

Zechariah. 

1.  11 213 

2.  10,11 417 

3.  1 211 

7 213 

7.     11 309 

9.     4,  sq 323 

10 540 

10.     12 132 

12.     12,13 330 

14.     6 540 

9,16 540 

Malachi. 

3.  1 330 

2 527 

6 101 

4.  6,6 330 

6 552 

Matthew. 

1.  1,  sq 334 

16—20,  25 286 

18 334 

20 334,  335 

21 373,  377 

23 335 

24 211 

2.  -1 371 

13 211 

3.  2.11 441 

6 484 

7 484,545 

7,  10 445 

9 382 

11 141,  485 

13—17 337 


CHAP.  VERSE  PAOB 

3.  16 306 

4.  1 224 

1,  sq 336 

9 219 

10 139 

11 209 

5 340,429 

3 470 

8 98,  561 

10 251 

10,  sq 125 

16 434 

17 340 

17,  sq 77 

17—19 414 

18 544 

19,  23... r 326 

21,  sq ....410 

22 298.  303,  545 

24 385 

28 288,  298,  303 

29,  30 304 

33—36 143 

45,  48 97 

48 117 

6 243,308 

2,5,  16 252 

12 386 

12,  14 260 

19,  20 250 

25 169 

25,  sq 87,  24& 

25—32 239 

26 96,  103,  243 

31 247 

32 103 

7.  1,  sq 299 

1—5 299 

3—5 298 

13,  14 648 

16 432,  439 

16—24 43^ 

19 30a' 

21 429,  471 

21—23 546 

23 260 

28,  29 69 

8.  11 557 

12 353 

17 328 

20 341 

28—32 229 

28—34 208 

29 220 

9.  2,6,6 386' 

4 302 

6 478 

14—17 483 

10 243 

5 133 

8 399' 

14 494 

15 543,  549 

16 269 

18 62 

19,  20, 63 

23 538 

26.  27 217,  338 

28...  180,  302,  617,  545 
547 

29 103.  239 

29,  30 262. 


6 


INDEX  OP  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


CHAP     TKRSK  PACK 

10.  2'J— 31 239 

42 120 

11.  2—0,20-24 60 

8.  Rii 00 

G 305,  300 

11 70,  212,  272 

12 3'.1 

21—23 103 

22—24 208,  5.J3 

23,  24 543 

25 80 

27 139,  bis. 

27,  84 352 

2'J 338 

30 411 

12.  20 81 

22—31 217 

24... 221,  222,  bis.  232 

20 221 

27 227 

28 230,  300 

28,  2'J 229 

31 143 

81,  32 305 

84,  35 303 

40 320 

43,  45 217 

13.  3,  s<i 474 

11,  sq 338 

12 194 

15 309,  439 

24—30 121,  471 

24— 31,  47— 50....  474 

29 249 

32 542 

30—40 121 

39 217,  bis.  220 

30,  41 211 

62 340 

64 337 

65 337 

57 305 

15.     18-20 303 

19 223 

22,  sq 471 

16 538 

13,  10 371 

10 137,  138 

18.... 42,  352,475,  476 

18.  B-i 409 

19 478 

21,  sq 02 

21—24 343 

i>:^ 222  ' 

25  251 

27..'.127V2ii,'642,'643 

27,  28 638 

28 515 

17 227 

l,»q 341 

19,  21 229 

20 424 

27 304 

18.     6 304,805,  423 

7,  8 288 

8 645 

10,...98,  204,  210,  bis. 
211 

11 652 

18 478,  bis. 

20 107 

21,  22 398 

26,  27 402 


CRAP.   TERSS                                                 PAGR 
19  188 

2 424 

6 188 

14 423 

21 439 

26 447 

28 440 

30 559 

20.  1,  sq 339 

1-10 559 

14 452 

16 127,  648 

18,  19 323 

20,  21 323 

21 355 

22,  23 483 

28... 377,  392,  393,  401 

21.  8,  9 323 

11 338 

25,  sq 353,  484 

25,  32 424 

43 353 

22 530,531 

2—13 127 

3,  sq 452 

13 540 

14 548 

10^0 338 

20 562 

23 520,  632 

24,  sq 430 

29 340 

30... 207,  208,  530,  535 
662 

31 530 

43 326 

43—46 143 

44,  sq 73,  355 

23 808 

4 482 

8 475 

9 135 

12 531 

15 649 

35 52 

24 62,534,638 

3 638 

4—25,  80 638 

13 434 

24 416 

29,  sq 544 

38 309 

25.    ...351,525,543,645 

14 559 

20—29 437 

81 211,  641 

31,  sq 538 

81— 46... 439,  538,  643 

82,  sq 420 

84 350,  854,  657 

84,  41 649 

85,  86 559 

37,  sq 659 

41... 209,  220,  518,  543 

545,  546,  547,  548 

41,  46.... 220,  221,  300 

649 

44 559 

46 221,  645 

26 375,889,398 

24... 41 9,  514,  649,  650 

26 498 

26—28 497 


CHAP.  VKRRK  rAOl 

26.  2ri... 340,  342.  375.  .391 

bib.  ciUu,  413 

37—44 342 

39 247 

89—44 342 

41 27b,  301 

43 309 

53 20'J,  210 

54 323 

62,  63 324 

63 57 

27.  4.sq 61 

40 137 

43 • 109 

46 343 

28 34.  486,  49i,4'J4 

11—13,  15 347 

18...  139,  350,  351,  362 

18— 20.... 33,  351,  872 

476,  483 

19...  130, 142,  144,  486 

494 

20...  107,  351,  352,  409 

417,  475,  500 

JIark. 

1 485 

4.  sq 489 

15 441 

3.  4 300 

28 306 

28—30 305 

29 386 

29,  30 306 

4.  10,11,34 340 

20 420,  404 

28 464 

84 65 

6.  8 337 

49 234 

49,  60 234 

62 309 

7.  3,  4 483 

21 303 

22 306 

9.  12 323 

88—40 471 

44 545 

44,  46 549 

10.  14,  16 494 

16 353 

29,  80 120 

12.  88 109 

13.  11 63,  68 

82...  138,  210,  358,866 

14.  3 436 

22—24 497 

15.  15 400 

16.  14 61 

16 42 

15,  16 483 

15,  16,  20 255 

16.. .110.  Ill,  127,  420 

422,  bis.,  42:i.  420 
4'JO,  4'Jl,  648 

17 64 

17,  18 255 

19 355 

20 60 

LUKl. 

1 210 

1 66 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


OUT.   VKRSE  PAGE 

1.  11,20 211 

i:j,  28 204 

15 68 

19 204 

19,  2(5 214 

80—88 324 

31 373 

33 352 

34 286 

35....  94,  138,334,366 
371 

80—40 337 

37 102 

46,  47 180 

47 374 

54 332,  358 

08,  78 312 

70 168 

75 442 

77 451 

2 210 

1 334 

9 211 

11 374 

21 373 

26 515 

30 323 

49 135 

52 335,  336,  358 

3 485 

3,sq 445 

8 441 

10—14 443 

23 337 

23,  sq 334.  335 

38 334 

4.  1.14 337 

13,  14 121 

18 .386 

5.  11 230 

21 388 

6.  9 300 

46—49 429 

7.  21 221 

30 484 

47 408,  445 

8.  6-15 247 

11,  sq 454 

12 223 

13 426,433,434 

14 245 

15 405 

17 338- 

30 221 

30,  31 220 

9.  16 504 

20 137 

56 372 

58 341 

10.  1,  10 338 

12 518 

17—20 230 

17—21 229 

21 341 

24 394 

11.  2 109 

20 306 

24 221,  224 

37—54 308 

38 483 

60 33 

61 52 


CHAP 

.  VERgE 

PACK 

1'^ 

10 

305 

11,  12.. 

63 

36 

514 

40 

538 

46 

549 

47 

300 

47,  48.. 

298 

48 

653 

48,  80... 

422 

13. 

2-6^:.. 

299 

2,  4.... 

124 

6—9.... 

247 

7,  33... 

337 

11,  16.. 

222 

16 

226,  230 

23,  sq» . . 

548 

26,  sq. . . 

659 

28-30. . 

548 

16, 

.122,443,  445 

7,  io... 

443 

10 

207,  210 

18,  21.. 

94 

16. 

652,661 

8 

251 

16 

47 

19,  sq. . . 

622 

19,  22,  23,  sq 517 

19—31.. 

340 

22... 204, 

211,  212,  617 
657 

22,  sq. . . 

618 

22,  23.. 

234 

22—25.. 

618 

23—26. . 

524 

24,  25... 

545 

25 

....261,  618 

27 

619 

27,  28,  30 

631 

27,  30... 

234 

27—31... 

626 

31 

....347,  631 

17 

4 

441 

9 

339 

10 

125,  382,  399 

20 

....361,  363 

20,  21... 

323 

18. 

9 

....339,  439 

9—14... 

443 

10 

251 

13 

....383,  443 

31 

343 

31-33... 

62,  323 

33 

348 

19 

10 

373 

16— 19... 

659 

'^0 

630 

25 

479 

27 

617 

36 

210,  518,  658 

38 

....617,  661 

39 

630 

46 

109 

21. 

62,625 

14 

63 

22 

312 

28 

376 

33 

654 

22, 

17 

498 

19 

498 

19,  20... 

.497 

20—22, . . 

603 

24 

476 

CHAP.  VER.<IE  p.-,- 

22.  31 217,2l5 

32 433 

37 323,  343 

41-44 342 

42,  44 335 

43 211 

„,   44 376 

23.  14,  16 343 

34 300,  306 

36 1.07 

40,  sq 439 

40-43 446 

43...323,  617,  518,  657 
46 335 

24.  11,  22—24 347 

19 338 

20,  21 348 

21 323,  376 

26 332 

27 323 

32 59 

37 234,  bis. 

89 234 

44 47 

47 441 

61 348 

John. 
1 138,354,350,376 

485 
1....138,  176,  356,  358 

1,  2 136 

1—3 138,  168 

3,  18, 357 

4 , 451 

7 320 

7,  9 377 

10 168 

12 428 

12,  13 410,  440 

14... 332,  333,  335,  357 

358 

14,  18.... 356 

16 320,  412 

17...340,  373,  412,  429 

18 96,561 

19—41 324 

25 323,  484 

29... 363,  389,392,  bis. 

33 484 

45 329 

61 212 

2.  11 337 

19 346 

24,  25 139 

25 308 

3.  60,  338,  339,  353,  377 

404,  484,  549 

1,  sq 340 

1—21 446 

2 60,  501 

3 470 

3,  5 440 

8,  6,  7 491 

3—21 280 

5.... 483,  484,  485,486 
489,  495 

5,  sq 143,  467 

6,  14—21 446 

6.... 279,  281,284,  285 

280,  338 
6-« 491 


8 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFEERED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


OHAP.  VKRSK  PACK 

a.  8 226,464,465 

13 3u7,  372 

13,  14 331 

13-16 31(4 

13—17 457 

14.... 81,  326,  374,  38'J 

428 

14—16 408 

15,  16 388 

16...  116,  361.  373,  375 

377,  385.  388,  420 
445,  l.is.  506 

16,  17 157,  321 

16.  36 557 

17 139 

18 422,  548 

18-21 422 

22 483 

25 483 

27,  32.  34 353 

28,  36 376 

29 350 

31 356 

31—33 337,  373 

34 306.  337,  374 

35 139 

36..  412,  422,  548,  549 

4 339,375 

1.  2 483 

2 487,  561 

7,  aq 340 

14,  34,  sq 338 

20-24 107 

21 -24.... 98,  413,415 

23,  24 482 

24 98,  136 

25,  sq 323 

25,  26 324 

25,  42,  sq 322 

34 373,  406 

34,  sq 338 

42 374 

6.   ..60,135,339,357,531 

533,  541 

4  212 

8,  10,  17 137 

10 356,  357 

17 357 

17,  8C1 138,  333 

18 137,  226,  357 

18,  sq 137,138 

20 5G1 

21 532,533 

2i,8q 419 

21,  23,27 351 

21,  25—29 419 

21,  28 628 

21,  29 532 

22.  25 542 

23 13;),  332 

24 517 

26 139,  359 

27 361,  542 

28,  29 533,  537 

34,  34,  sq.. 324 

38 343 

39 73,  76.  78 

39,  46 323 

39—47 324 

43 57 

44 465 

46 326,329,424  I 


Cn.\P.  VER.X1!  PAGB 

6.    60,  338,  bis,  388,  408 

4 497 

14 338 

15 323,  347 

31,  31,  sq 356 

37 471 

39,  40 532,  533 

39,40,44 542 

44 453,  456 

45,  65 455 

46 139 

47,50,51,  56 497 

61 408,  420 

61,  sq 101,  374 

61,  63 497 

62... 348,  356,  bis.  357 
372 

63 336,  464 

7.  11 340 

15 327 

15-17 59 

16,  17 432 

16—18 338 

17 31,58,432,  463 

20 227 

28 418 

29,  34,  36 357 

31 323 

42 323 

8 60,205,338,339 

531 

3,  7,  10,11 251 

12 451 

21,  24 303 

23 356 

26 1.39 

28 331 

29 406 

31,  32 4.34 

32 353 

32-36 377,  408 

32,  36 459 

34,  sq 308 

36 309 

38,  44 217 

38—47 217 

40,  57,  58 357 

43,  sq 465 

44,.. 218,  220,  223,  224 

bis.  225,  bis.  226 
267,  409 

46 260 

46,  sq 68 

47 59 

51 517,  545 

56 329,  394,  617 

68 136,  138,  357 

9.  2,  3 275 

3 124 

35—38 60 

10 333,338,339,357 

I,  sq 361 

11 412 

II,  17,  18 343 

12 350,  371,  475 

16.... 42,  319,  354,  41.5 

414.  472 

17 348 

17,  18 515 

18 336,  846,  373 

20,  21 227 

28,  29 420 


CHAP.  TKRSK  PAOl 

28—30 137 

30 135 

30,  33 138 

31.  sq 357 

34,  35 143 

34—36 93 

11 341,517,531 

13 514 

24 530,  533 

25 418,  419,  532 

25,  26 516,  517 

26 545 

47 61 

12 60 

24 408,  5.34 

24—26 517 

27 342,375.  bis. 

31,  sq 225,  409 

32 414 

32,  34 .331 

34 ...323 

40 309,  810 

41 327 

43 296 

47,  48 422,  bis. 

49 139,  338,  373 

49,  50 374 

13 357 

1,21—33 343 

2,  27 225 

3 350,  356 

5 481 

12,  sq 481 

17 25 

19 62 

27 226 

34 472 

37 391 

14 60,357,358,661 

14.— 16 63,  bis. 

14.  1 361 

1—4 519 

2 557 

2,  3.. 348,  bis.  411,  517 

3 561 

6 31.  373 

6,  9,13,  14 357 

9 332,  333 

10 338 

11 60 

11—14 255 

12 376 

13 469 

15 435 

15,  21 436 

16 141,  142 

16,  17,26 141 

16,  26 142 

17 143 

23,  24 107 

26 64,  73,  134,  157 

340 

29 62 

31 375 

15.  1 417,  500 

1,  sq 409,  472 

13 343 

14 429,  435 

16 456 

22—24 300,  305 

26....141,bU.  156.  157 

16 60,411 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


9 


ClUP.  VERSB  PAGE 

10.   1 304 

7—11 03 

7—15 450 

8,  9 260 

11 225,  230 

12 375,  538 

12,  13 225 

12-14 340 

12—15 04 

12—15,  25 340 

13 64,  143,  157 

13,  sq 142 

14 142 

15 157 

28,  24 409 

27,  28 57 

28... 142,  356,  357,  371 
30 308 

17.  ...327,337,356,359 

374,  561 
1—3 135 

1,  4,  5 332 

2 133,  351,  420 

2,  6, 471 

3...  .91,  114,  331,420 

3,  4 374 

4 338,  373 

4,  6 332 

5.... 138,  350,  352,  357 

369,  870 

6,  22,  24 358,  859 

5,  24 136,  168 

11 117,  185 

12 328 

17 114,  375 

17,  20 454 

19 375 

20 472 

21 417 

24...  101,  352,  418,  502 

18.  1—8 343 

9  828 

14 304 

20 388,  840,  472 

36—38 328 

37... 388,  351,  374,  379 

19.  11 298 

30 843,  bis. 

80 828,  482 

20.  9.  24,  25 347 

19,  26 349 

21 847 

22 67 

22,23 478 

25 234,  847 

28 187,  656 

29 427 

31 54,  68,  138,427 

21 284,847 

15,  sq 445 

Acts. 

1 348 

2,  3 347 

6 483 

5,  8 834 

6 323,  376 

7 542 

7,  sq 340 

9—11 848 

11 349,  bis.  851 


CBAP.  VERSB  PAGE 

1.  22 348 

24 140 

2.  ...346,476,485,493 
14—37 69 

16,  25 323 

22 60,  61,  840 

22,  28 871 

22—38 325 

23 126,  bis. 

24—31 344,  346 

24,  82 346,  347 

27 344 

80 380 

31 884 

31—36 352,  355 

82,  sq 356 

33—86 350 

36 248,  850 

87 464 

88... 889,  468,  486,  486 

490 
41 485,  487,  492 

41,  44 488 

42,  46 496 

i 847 

6,  sq 140 

15 846,  871 

15,  26 320 

17 800 

19 386,  439 

19,  26 441 

20,  21 349,  551 

21 549 

22.. .329,  338,  374,  379 

4.  2 419,532,534 

8—18 347 

12 389 

28 126,  247 

6.  3 225 

8,  4 143 

5,  9 123 

21 140 

C.  2,3,5 477 

5,  8 424 

16 209 

7.  35 376 

87 329,  374 

38 47 

61 141,  305,  463 

68 208,  212 

59 140 

8.  1 469 

12,  3G,sq 487 

18 492 

14—17 256 

18 323 

22 441,  468 

26—35 826 

27—38 464 

28 78 

9.  16 416 

17,  18 487 

35 489 

10.    ...319,347,436,476 

'4 105 

4,  34,  35 436 

34 319,  323 

34-48 487 

35 415,  422 

38.... 60, 157,  226,  230 

aoo,  337 

40,  41 347 


CHAP.  VP.R.9B  PAr.B 

iO.  41 347 

42 494,  542 

43 326,  389 

47 483,  486 

48 486,  487 

11.  18 489,  441 

29 U6 

12.  7 211 

15 211 

23 204 

13 347 

2,  4 133,  142 

8 477 

23,  32 828 

29 348 

30—34 [82 

32 430 

83,  84 348 

34 330 

37,  S'^ 895 

38... 384,  889,  892,  393 
46,  48 126 

14.  3 320 

15 489 

15,  sq 87 

16 249 

16,  17 28,  30 

15.  3 439 

10 482 

15 73 

16 470 

23,  sq 04 

16.  14 456,  467 

16,  33 492,  494 

30 489 

17.  18 221 

24 28,  86,  107,  102 

160 

24,  25 101 

24—28 87,  239 

25,  sq 109 

25,  26 247 

25,  27 243 

26 182,  184,  333 

26,  sq 28 

26,  28 243 

27 30,  87,  289 

819 

27—31 88 

28 97,  197,  239 

29 98 

30,  31 820 

81... 348,  349,  851,  423 

542 
82 681 

18.  3 337 

25 485 

27,  sq 320 

19 485,493 

1,  sq 486 

1—5 486 

4 184 

5 486,  487 

32,  39 469 

20.  21 439,  441 

24 430 

27 78,  109 

28... 138,  142,  871,  477 

478 

21.  11,  sq 142 

22.  10 484,  489 

23.  6—8 630 


10 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


CHAP.   VTRSE  PA«B 

'ZW.    8 181   203,  206,  208 

631 
1!) 358 

24.  14,   15 532 

14-lG 41'J 

15 530,  533 

25.  24 396 

2<>.    0-8 6;n 

18... 225,  389,  439.  451 

22    23 323 

23*. 532 

23.  24 531 

28 418 

27.      23   211 

2S       26.  27 144,  309 

Romans. 

1         465 

3 371 

3,  4 132,  138,  332 

4 348 

5 139,  168,  320 

7 452 

16 42,  464 

i<;,  H(| 42 

16.  17 430 

17 420 

17.  18 387 

18...  120,  121,  260,  275 

18.  u\ 319,394 

19  28,  86,  87 

19.  sii 30 

19.  20 465 

19,  20,  32 88 

19,  32  30 

20. .  .28.  30.  33,  38,  89 

95.  98,  101,  139,  162 

20,  21 96 

21 30 

21,  sq 421 

23 98,  bis. 

24 249,  310 

25 137 

26 310 

28-31 302 

32 385,  515 

2 434,465 

1-8 385 

2 313 

3 312,  313 

4 116,  441,  403 

4.  5 116 

4-6 121 

6 309 

6—12 121,  518 

6.... 276,  407,434,439 

550 

6,  sq 548 

6,  7 351 

6-10 120 

6—11 127,  436 

6,  16 543 

7...  434,  436,  556,  557 

7—10 435 

8 120 

10 557,  559 

10,   11 120 

12 U8,  260 

12-16 88 

13-16 543 

14 42 


CBAI*.    VER8K  PAGB 

2.  14,15 32,466 

14,  26,27 436 

16 89,618,  542 

27 33 

3.  ...387,425,429,430 

434 

2 30,  47.119 

3 114,  442,  Lis. 

6 382 

8 437 

9,  sq 283 

9,  19 284 

9,  22,  29 393 

9,  23,  24 259 

10 283 

13,  sq 302 

14 303 

15 428 

19,  sq 387 

19,  23 314 

20,  sq 435 

20,  21,  28 399 

21 328,  430 

21,  22 420 

21—28 389 

23 284,  397 

24 371,  385,  399 

24,  25 435 

25... 385,  391,392,  394 

26 384 

28 399 

4.  ...387,425,429,434 

3 114.  273 

4....  116,  bis.  320,  bis. 

388,  399 

4.  16 4^8 

5 439 

6-7 387 

11 490 

13 329 

15 259,  200,298 

16 424,  428 

17 102,  167 

18 424 

19 433 

20 424,  428 

21 426 

22 273 

24 428 

25 391,  395 

5 387 

1 309,  388,  389 

1,  2 418 

1,  3—10 314 

1,  18,  21 388 

2 418 

3 251,  418,  557 

6 424,  453,  455 

6 391,  bis. 

6—8 343 

6—12 116 

8 885 

9 312,  420 

9,  10 377 

9,   11 387 

10 371,  389 

11 386,  418 

12...  195,  275,  287,  515 

510 

12,  aq 286 

12— 14...  185,  2- J,  274 

287 


CHAP.  VERSK  ?AOa 

5.  12,  18 893 

12-19 393 

12,  19 225 

12—21 284 

13 298 

14 286 

14—19 419 

15 294,  320,  397 

15—17 423 

16 393 

16,  18 387 

17 350 

18... 207,  319,  389,  407 

18,  19 394 

19... 270,  374,  391,  393 

405,  407 
6 399,  431 

1,  2,6,  12, 16,  20..  308 

2,  6,  sq 516 

3 486,  487 

3,  4 484,  490 

4 95,  409 

6 429 

0,  16 279 

7 328 

9 535 

9,  10 350 

12 285,  287,  288 

12,  sq 278,285 

13 260,  275 

14 399,  414 

14—23 278 

15 437 

18 309,  442 

18,  19 442 

19 260 

20 308 

21 287 

22 4.35.  442 

23 195,  287.  336 

7.    ...278,308,406,429 
431 

6 287 

6,  8,  sq 323 

6,  18,  24 518 

6,  23 278 

6,  7,  18 429 

7 288 

7—23 296 

7—25 31,444 

8 285 

8,  9,23 279 

9 260 

10,  13 215 

14,  sq 284 

14,  24 308 

15 2'i2 

17,  23,  25 284 

17,  24 285 

18 293 

18,  23 279 

18—25 279 

21 3'.i'.< 

23 225,  45C 

25   .  ..28i.  297,  444 

8 125,  bis.  406,  429 

431 
1....304,  314.  39.1,  429 
1,8(1 -81,  444 

1,  6 279 

1-6 454 

1,  18 435 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


CHAP.  VERSB  PACK 

8.  2 429 

3,  4 411 

4,  sq 3'^*> 

7 302 

9.... 127,  141,  157,  429 

10 409,  528,  5G1 

10,  18—23 314 

12,  17 428 

l:- 285 

13,  14 455 

14,  16 432 

15 77,  416 

15,  16 135 

16 58,  397,432 

17  ...251,  350,  852 

17,  18,  24,  sq 418 

18,  sq 658,562 

18 — 22 557 

19,  sq 545 

o0_93   266 

23   .."..376,416,518 

28 251 

28,  29,  sq 126 

28,  32 418 

29 126,  354 

29.  30 125 

31—39 426 

32 385,  506 

33 387 

33,  34 407 

34 395,  396 

9.  ...111,112,125,126 

1  140,  143,  455 

4    30,  415 

5  137,332,334 

11 126,  275,  452 

17 310 

17.  22 552 

18  310,  bis. 

22    116 

24'  452 

10.  3 443 

3-15 430 

4 407,  413 

9 348 

9,  10 427 

12 :....310,415 

14... 426,  427,  452,  4-54 

15 78 

16 4.30 

17 426,  473 

17,  18 454 

11      550 

2  126,  396 

5 116 

7,  25 309 

8 309 

12  200 

17 470 

20,  23,  30 422 

21,  24 284 

O'l  .122 

25;.'." 139 

25—36 541 

29... 101,  113,  125,  398 

452 
33... 102,  109,  126,  bis. 

33,  sq 142 

33,  34  253 

3— 36....  101,  125,  319 

12.  2... 109,  118,  436,  440 

3 320 


CHAP.  7ER!»B  PAGE 

12.  5 470,  473 

13 473 

17,  sq 125 

19 121 

13.  1 477,  479 

18 287 

14   4    299 

7'   455 

9 419 

10 3.51 

11 HO 

17 453 

26—25 305 

21 305 

23  298,  423 

24  308 

15.  4 319 

5 455 

6 135 

14 476 

16.  25 549 

1    CORINTHIAXS. 

1       42,  457,  464,  494 
1.^3.  ;■.■.■. 361 

1  2    ...109,465,471 
4"  320 

S',!! 455 

9 139,  168 

12,  sq.' 492,  bis. 

12,  13 473 

13  376,  391 

13,  15 134 

16    487,  494 

oo"   109 

•    .^3 306 

25"". 108,  109 

27,  28 417 

30 373 

2  .  ..360,464 
■  8.'.'.'.'.*.' 350,  371 

g'sq 135,  557 

9-13 143 

10      125,142 

ii::::: ^^^ 

13 -64 

14...279,  281,  426,  4o7 

465 

16 125 

3      34, 360,  457 

I  ■      ...279,  433 

0 34 

4 ;; 281 

6"  7"". 83,  457 

8'  ' 120,438,559 

9'  476 

16,  11 33 

II     34,  bis. 

13 527 

16,  17 470 

17. 117 

4,  1     36,  481 

6.... 120,  139,  303,  543 

'  7   244,  256 

15 440 

5.  3,  4 106 

5 , 399 

6,  sq 476 

7 482,  498 

10 561 

13 479 


CHAP.  VER-IE  PAOB 

6.  3—5 123 

9 548 

9,  10 437 

11 397,  bis. 

13 635 

17.... 507 

7.  5 223,  226 

11 385 

14 494 

20—24 479 

23 377 

25 69 

8 298 

3 417 

4—6 91 

5 93 

5,  6 3.54 

6 135,  473 

10—13 305 

9 298 

6-14 478 

8,  sq 81 

9 235 

23 430 

10 498 

3 134 

4,  9 827 

6.  U 319,  328 

11 121 

15-21 498 

16.... 496,  499,  bis.  504 

505,  606 

16,  17 497 

16,  21 602 

16,  26 499 

17...500,  501,  602,  507 

20,  21 221 

21     496,  498 

33 393 

11     188,504,513 

7     190,  191 

6  7 189,  190 

8 184 

8.  9 188 

17_22 507 

18 469 

18  20  496,  508 

20' 496 

20—30 508 

20-34 503 

23,  24 499 

23—25 497 

04      601 

24,"26 498 

25,  sq 493.498 

26 499,  502,  60-5 

(27—29,  34) 507 

27  29  612,613 

28'. 513 

28,  31 507 

09      503 

32;;:;;.' 121 

12  ..143,  478,  494 

3,'sq'. 141 

4-11....142,  143,  456 

11..' 112 

12  27  488 

13" 488,  500,  507 

28  469,  476 

13.  1 210 

2  557 

8 255 


12 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


13.  9.  sq o'iO 

13,  12 S'll 

14.  12 141 

19,  28 409 

15         ....349,420,532,538 

541,  544,  551,  5o8 

1 ^y-i 

2,  8,  14 427 

3  391,  427 

»  3,4,  20,53 528 

5,  sq 347 

5-7 348 

10 454 

12,  sq 532 

12-14 534 

12—20  419 

14,  17 348 

17 395 

20 532 

20,  23 419 

21 419,  516 

21,  22...  195,  274,  419 
22... 280,  287,  418,  515 

533 

22,  sq 532 

22—28 533,  551 

24 42 

24,  27,  28 352 

25 351,  355,  475 

25,  26 351,  419 

26 516 

26,  27 351 

28 137 

30,  57,  58 419 

32  530 

86,  sq 634,  535 

85-38 537 

36—55 534 

39-41 535 

42—49 294,  535 

42—53 349 

42,  52,  53 537 

46,  47 28G 

47 184,  356,  371 

48,  49 286 

48-50 277 

49 349 

50 331,  354,  535 

51.... 36,  195,  515,  536 

62 533 

64 536 

56 419 

68 434 

16.      13  562 

2    roIirNTIIIANS. 

1.  18  20 114 

2.  6-10 479 

11 225 

15 374 

i.      1—4 59 

6 43,  429,  454 

11,  sq 41.42 

14 • 4G,  309 

15 309 

16 439 

17 144 

18 454 

4.   4 225,309,356 

6 429,  451,  561 

7 618 


CtlAP.   VERi'B  PAOR 

4.  J 1 442 

14 419,  542 

16,  18 558 

17 557 

17,  18 251,  557 

18 183,549 

5.  1 514 

1,  2 558 

2—4 515,530 

3,  4 514 

4 516,  536 

6—10 518 

8 518 

8,  9 514,  517 

8—11 149 

10... 275,  518,  bis.  543 

550 

14 391 

14,15 391,  bis.  393 

15 395,411,  436 

16 336 

19 127,  386,  389 

20 427 

21... 260,  336,  343,  389 

392 

6.  2 349 

15 222,  bis. 

7.  1....  182,  302,  386,  434 

1,4,  8,  sq 418 

8 441 

8-11 443 

9,  10 443 

11 439 

8.  9 332,333,341 

10 69 

19 477. 

9.  6 437,  559 

11 256 

11.  2 350 

3... .135,  189,  191,  194 

267,  269 

14,  15 225 

19 504 

12.  2 409,  557 

4 557 

8 140 

9 409 

13.  14 134,  142 

Gallatians. 

1.  4 135,377,409 

8 73 

2 434 

2 433 

15 284 

16 424 

16— 21.8q 399 

19 615 

20 411,  431 

21 391,  899 

3.  ...381,429,430,431 
434 

6 424 

8,  10 428 

11 329.  388 

13... 312,  842,  372,377 
392,  413,  bis. 

14 412 

17,  23 399 

19..  208,  212,374,  381 
19,  25 414 


CHAP.  TEFWB  PAOl 

3.   20 312 

20,  sq 40 

21,  sq 394 

23 424 

24 75,  445 

26 410 

26,  27 416 

27 . .  .484,  480,  488,  490 

493 

28 473 

4    381,430,431 

1-4 77 

1—5 41 

1-9 75 

3 77 

3,  9 41 

4 335,  357,  371 

4,  6 413,  416 

4—7 416 

8 548 

9 417 

19 440 

21,  sq 81 

24 43,326,  500 

26 557 

5.  6 416,  429,  bis. 

10 312 

13 437 

16 272 

16,  17 285 

16,  22,23 141 

17 279.  285 

19 302.  437 

19—22 281 

22 429,  436 

22,  25 436 

24 288 

25 436 

6.  1 301,  476 

2 430 

5 275 

7 437.  559 

7,  10 518 

8 141 

13 279 

Ephesians. 

1 125 

3 135,  412,  413 

4 125.  168 

4,  11 321 

4-14 112 

6 125,  126.  416 

5—11 112.  126 

7 385,  389,  391 

9 36 

10... 319,  351,  354.  367 

11 109,  126,  455 

13,  14 4.32 

16—20 457 

17.  18 455 

18 451 

19 102.  454 

19,  20 454.  52S 

20.  355.  bis.  412 

20,  sq 350.  bis.  359 

20.  21 350 

20—22 855 

21 -213 

22 139.  470,  475 

22,  23 350 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


13 


CRAP.  VKRSE  PACK 

1.  23 354,  457 

2.  1,2 217,  421 

1,  5 515 

2.... 220,  223,224,  409 

454 

2,  3 225 

3.... 275,  278,  279,  284 

285.  291 
5 397,413,  515 

5,  10 455 

6,  12 413 

8 399,  4:J5 

8—10 435 

9,  10 409 

10 435,  403 

10,  sq 415 

10,  15 169 

11,  18 42 

12 89 

12—19 415 

14,  15 413 

14,  18 319 

15 440 

16 413 

20 33,  474 

3.  3 36 

3,8q 04 

3,  9 480 

9 169 

10 109,  210 

11 321 

12 427 

15 207,  413 

16 455 

16—20 457 

19 139,  354 

20 102 

4-    194,478 

3,  6 472 

4 452 

4,  5 488 

5 139 

5,  6 319 

6 135 

9 344 

11,  sq 476 

11,  12 476 

11,  15,  16 351 

13 255,  472 

13,  14 433 

15.  16 475 

17—19 309 

18 465 

20 436 

22 278,  281,  429 

22,  24 440 

23 191,  440 

24... 117,  189,  191,  1)18. 

442 

80 141,  376,  455 

6 470 

2 392 

5 351,  353 

14 309,  515,528 

17 109 

18 68 

19 476 

23 350 

23,  24 470 

23—29 351 

25,  26 413 

26 851,483,  490 


CHAP.   VERSB  PACK 

5.  26,  27 473 

27 471 

32 480 

6.  2 120 

4 476 

11... 217,  220,223,225 

11—18 226 

12 .'.209,  221,  225 

13—17 454 

Philippians. 

1.  6 455 

9 426,  434 

11 ...436 

16—18 453 

21,  23 519 

23 514,  518 

2 356 

5,  sq 412 

5—8 342 

6 137 

6,  7 341 

6,  9,  11 140 

6—11 332 

7  333 

8!!.'.'343,  875*391,  406 

407 

8,9 331,333 

9 351,  359 

9,  10 350,  bis. 

9— 11.... 360,  358,  370 

10 140,  351 

11 94 

12,  13.... 455,  457,  464 

13 256 

3.  9 405 

12 433 

14 557 

14,  17,  20 413 

15 30 

20 183 

20,  21 354 

21...  139,  349,  bis.  532 

536,  537 

COLOSSIANS. 

1.  2,  3 434 

13 225,  351,353 

14  385 

15!!.  .98," 332,"  354,  356 

561 

15,  16 356 

15— 17...  138,  168,  350 
16.. .163,  169,  208,  213 

17 239,  350 

18... 138,  139,  854,  bis. 

419 
10 139 

21,  sq 415 

24 391 

2.  3 109 

.  6 428 

8 38 

8,  20 41,  77 

9 139 

10 475 

11,  12 482 

12,  13 490 

13 386,  515 

14 26,  413 


CHAP.  VERSB  PACK 

2.  15 225 

17 328,  bis. 

18 281 

18,  19 214 

3 194 

1 411 

1—4 183 

8 417,  471,  557 

3,  4 351 

4 351 

9,  10 440 

10 97,  189,  192 

17 .53 

4.  3,  4...  .507 

10 54,  78 

17 477 

6.  6,  sq 36 

1    TnESSALO.VIAXS. 

1.  8—10 34 

9 439 

10... 349,  388,  389,  394 

420 

2.  9 399 

]3 54,  432,  bis.  454 

15 415 

15—17 457' 

17 455 

3.  10,  11 247 

13 442,  453 

4.  3,7 117,182 

8 144,  305 

9 455 

13 532,  538 

13,  18... 419 

14 419,532.  533 

15... 515,  533,  536,  -542 

16 213,  351,  534 

16,  17 .541 

17 562 

5.  1,  sq 351 

2 542 

8—10 418 

9 398,  420 

9,  sq 408 

10 420 

14 476 

16—21 223 

19 141 

23 180,  453,  442 

2   TlIESSALONIA.NS. 

1.  3 432 

4—12 121 

5 354.  543 

5,  sq 543 

6,  7 121 

7 209,  21J,  558 

7—10 541 

9.... 545,  bis.  546,  549 
11 457 

2 349,  638 

1 542 

2 53 

3 351 

3-12 543 

11 310 

13 426 

13,  16 420 

14 452 


u 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


CHAP.    TKRSK  r*RE 

2.  j5 r,3 

10—17 457 

17 4r.3 

3.  10 422 

1  Timothy. 

1.  10 420 

18 300 

15... 298,  321,  373,  307 

lo,  16 426 

IC 397 

17 98,  bis.  101,  108 

18 434 

I'.t 433 

2.  4     110.  446 

5 333,  360,  374 

5.  sq 319.  542 

6   392,  393 

13 188 

14 269,  286 

3.  2-7 477 

6 219 

9 36 

11 222 

15,  16 332 

16...  138,  207,  848,  bis. 

357 

4.  5 504 

8   120,  418 

13 427 

14 477 

16 454 

5.  10 481 

21 210 

22  304 

24.  25 434 

6.  5 278 

If, 96,  101.  561 

18 434,  439 

18,  19 518 

20 38 

21 433 

2  Timothy. 

1.  9 125,  126,  399 

435 
10 321,  377,  419 

517 
13 73 

2.  2 477 

7 140 

12 350,  352,  557 

IS 532 

21,  sq 434 

21 477 

25 455 

26 433 

3.  1 512 

5 »...308 

12 125 

14-17 64,  76 

15 74,  78 

16 27,  67,  454 

4.  2 427 

6 514 

7 472 

8 120,  543,  557 

13,  sq 69 

17,  18 140 

18... 354,  420,  657,  558 


CUAP.  VERSE  I'.iGE 

Trrcs. 

1.  1 25 

6,  sq 477 

6—9 477 

9 27 

16 422 

2.  3 222 

10,  11 445 

11 320,  bi.s. 

11,  sq 340,410 

11— 14... 116,  321,  409 

13 138 

14 377,  470,473 

17 463 

3.  3—5 472 

3,  6 435 

4 116,  320,  bis. 

4—7 453 

6....  399,  440,  484,  489 


Philemon. 

10 440 

18 273 

Hebrews. 

1.    •    354,359 

1.  2 1.38,327 

1.      1 40,206,319,542 

2 354,  367 

2,  3 139,  168 

3....  102,  239,332,  356 

372,  .389 

3,  4 332,  355 

4 332 

4—14 350 

6 528 

6....  139,  207,  350,  354 

356 

8 352 

9 .3.50 

10,  sq 86,  139 

10-12 544 

13,  14 355 

14... 204,  207,  210,  212 

2 168,354 

2 208,  212,  260 

5 212,  214,3.54 

7 207 

8 351 

9 332,  375,  515 

9,  10 351 

9-11 332 

10... 139,  168,  332,  375 

11—14 335 

14... 222,  225,373,  419 

615 

14-17 542 

14-18 .361 

15 419 

16 358 

3.  1 452 

6 427 

8.  Hq 463 

8,  1-5,  sq 309 

12,  13 385,  .389 

13 349 

14 434 

4.  1 428 

2 426 


CHAP.  TKKSK  fxat 

4.  8 373 

9,  11.  5.58 

10,  11 657 

12...  114,  ISO,  bis.  614 

12,  13 73,313,654 

13 103 

15 286,  336,  361 

16 418 

5.  1 374 

7 331 

7,  8 342 

7—9 .332 

8 336,352,  375 

8,  9 407 

9.... 320,  332,420,  657 
12 34,  434 

6.  1 34,434,441,487 

2 .545 

4,4,  sq...389,  4.33,451 

4*3,  496 

4—6 30.5,  307,  309 

447 

10 120,  bis. 

12 4.34 

13,  sq ...115 

17 125 

17,  18 101 

18 114 

20 372 

7.  5,  10,  sq 200 

9,  10 274 

16,  25 350 

18,  19 413 

25 396,  bis.  420 

26 558 

27 336,  395,406 

8 328 

6 328 

6 374,  413 

6.  sq 41,  506 

7,  sq 41 

10 .33,  491 

9 328,  392 

7 260,  301 

7,  11—28 392 

10 552 

10,  sq 349,  bis. 

10,  11,  24 348 

11 395 

12 377,  391,392 

13 381 

1.3,  14 392 

14 374,  406,411 

14,  15 413,  499 

14,24.  sq 349 

15....340,  373,  385,  .388 

389,  394,  418,  420 
557 

24 380.  396 

25—28 395,  500 

26 .389.  394 

27 515,  518,  bis. 

28 316,  392 

10 328 

1 381 

1—14 892 

6 406 

11 482 

13 251 

14 395 

22  886 

23 389 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


15 


CHAP.  VERSB  r.\C.R 

10.     2-3 470,  47t) 

20 260,  302,  SS'.t 

26.  27 38^3 

26,  3y 548 

29 305,  445 

30,  31 -,..313 

31 385 

36 434 

38,39,  sq 420 

11 78 

1 425,426,428 

2,  sq 427 

3.... 102,  165,  167,  bis. 

5 515 

6 114,  425 

13....41,  272,  325,  329 

13-16 520 

13-17 520 

31 429 

12.  1,  2 412 

2....341,  342,  355,  406 

411 

2,  3.  sq 332,  412 

6—11 122,  bis. 

6-13 251 

9 200 

10,  14 182 

14.... 98,  183,  442,  561 

17 441 

18—24 77 

22 207,  557 

22.  23 472 

23 332,  525,  561 

24... 304,  340,  374,  897 

25 313 

27 42 

2y 313 

13.  7,  17,  24 477 

20... 350,  413,475,  502 
20,  21 457 

James. 

1.      2 251 

6,18 457 

6 426 

9.  10 331 

13— 15... 223,  247,  256 

272 

13,  17 116,  249 

14 226,  bis.  270 

14,  15 288 

15 287,  302,  304 

17...  101,  244,  256,  356 

18 440,  454 

22 426 

22-27 25 

2 435,  439 

2 470 

6 354,  557 

10,  11 299 

11 435 

17,  20,  26 425 

19,  sq 91,  207.  220 

222,  426 

21 388 

25 207,  429 

26,  sq 437 

3 435 

2 303,  433,  558 

9 189,  190,  191 

13 434 


CHAP.  TErSB  PAGE 

3.  16 220 

17,  sq 457 

4.  4 302 

7 226 

12 299,  388 

13—16 249,  256 

17 300 

5.  4 304 

16 445 

20 516 

1  Peter. 

1.  2 126,  134 

3....348,  395,  418,  440 

4,  5 519,  557,  558 

8 502 

10 76,  374 

10,  11 394 

10— 12.... 65,  325,  327 
11... 323,  327,  332,  bis. 

12 109,  210,  bis. 

14—16 117,  442 

15 457 

18 377,  409,  411 

19... 336,  bis.  393,  406 

20 321,  642 

21...  143,  347,  395,419 
23 454 

2.  1,2 434,403 

9 94,  350,  416,  473 

11 279,  411 

12 312 

13—17 479 

21 406 

2]— 23 412 

22,  23 343 

24 392,  bis.  409 

3.  12 103 

18... 332,  343,  344,391 

406 
18— 20... 344,  345,  346 

19 344,  526 

21  . .  .484,  489,  bis.  490 

491 

22... 213,  348,  bis.  350 

355,  bis. 

4.  1—3 476 

1.  6 344 

2 332 

10 320 

12—14 251 

14 140,  305 

17,  sq 470 

5.  1—3 476 

2,  sq 477 

2,  3 478 

4 350,  475 

7 235 

8 217,  220,  226 

8,  9 225 

10 455,  558 

2  Peter. 

1.  3 452,454,455 

3,  4 409,  410 

5—7 410 

9 386,  483 

9.  10... 397 

11 364,  667 

13,  14 514 


CHAP.  VKRSE  PAGR 

1.  19 02,  76,  bis.  323 

327 

19,  20 65,  325 

20 67 

21 66,  68 

2.  1 351,  393,  .397 

1-3 648 

4.... 209,  219,  220,  bis. 

518,  524,  543,  545 
549 

6 175 

10,  11 306 

11 207,  2U'J 

19 278,  308 

20 434 

20,  21 298 

20—22 ,433 

3.  3 512 

6 175 

7,  10—13 351 

7—13 541,  644 

8,  9 101 

9 446 

10 542 

13 558 

16 64,  72 

19 645 

1  John. 

1.  l,sq Gl 

1—4 63 

1-6 117 

7 391,  392,  393 

8 285,  314,445 

9 304,  386 

2.  1.... 304,  325,  396,  469 

1,  2 389,  394,  396 

2 393 

3—6 429 

4 411,  489 

6 411,  436,  bis. 

12 389 

13,  14 222 

10 279 

24 434 

25 420,  556 

28 427 

29 432 

3.  1,  2 416 

2 98,  117,  518,  557 

2,  sq 183 

2,  3 117,  519 

3.... 386,  406,409,  411 

431,  480 

3,  5 330 

4   260 

6 392 

5,  8 373 

6 437 

7.... 397,  432,  436,  442 
8  ..217,224,225,230 

267,  272,  372 

8,  9 411 

9 440,  454 

12 218 

14 314,  515 

20 103 

20,  21 418 

24 417,  429.  432 

4.  1 73 

2 332 


INDEX  OP  TEXTS  REFERRED  TO  AND  ILLUSTRATED. 


CHAP.  TBRSK  ?A0K 

4.  3 335 

4 351 

8,  IG 115 

9 408 

9,  10 116 

10,  11 385 

10,  19 431 

17 418,  420 

18 404 

18,  19.  421 

19 507 

20 2G4 

(.  1 440 

3 408,  411 

4 454 

4,  5 351 

6 58 

6,  8 432 

7 56 

7,  « 134 

16 303 

18 226 

18,  20 397 

20 114,  138 

2  John. 
10 73 

JUDE. 

3,  20 424 

4 309 

6.... 219,  220,  221,542 
643,  545,  549 


CHAP.  VER8B  PAGB 

6,  7 219,  545 

7 518 

8 615 

14 209 

19 279,  281 

23 527 

25 140 

EZVELATION. 
1 96 

6 350 

8 100 

20 480,  500 

2.  5 266,  475 

7 187,  530,  557 

11 515 

22,  23 124 

3.  12 557 

14 139,  356 

20 417 

4.  6,  sq, 213 

11 102,  167 

5.  8—14 213 

9 377 

6 544 

1,  sq 213 

7 213 

9 548,  561 

17 558,  561 

8.  3,  4 214 

9.  11 222 

20 221 

12.  7 213,214,472 

7—9 221 


CHAP.  TER9E  PAa\ 

12.  9 209,224,267 

9,  13 .222 

18 539,  543 

14 213 

11 515,  549 

■13 558 

18 212 

15.  4 640 

16.  5 117.  212 

17.  7 480 

19 213 

10 l:j!t,  214 

13 136 

20.  1—8 538 

2 .588 

3,  4 542 

6 545 

6,  14 515 

10 539,  549 

10,  15 545 

11,  6q....633,  539,  541 

544 

13,  sq 537 

14 419 

21.  1,  sq 545,  tbS 

4 419 

8 515 

27 219 

22.  2 187,422,557 

2,  14 530 

5 539,  543 

9 214 

11,  sq :]S7 

15 219 

18,  19 74 


.  / 


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